CHAPTER 23

Revolutionary Changes in the Atlantic World, 17501850

I0. Prelude to Revolution: The Eighteenth-Century Crisis A0. Colonial Wars and Fiscal Crises 10. Rivalry a ong the Euro!ean !o"ers intensi#ied in the early 1$00s as the %utch attac&ed '!anish and Portuguese !ossessions in the A ericas and in Asia. In the 1$00s and 1(00s the )ritish then chec&ed %utch co ercial and colonial a *itions and "ent on to de#eat France in the 'even +ears War ,1(-$.1($/0 and ta&e over French colonial !ossessions in the A ericas and in India. 10. The un!recedented costs o# the "ars o# the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries drove Euro!ean govern ents to see& ne" sources o# revenue at a ti e "hen the intellectual environ ent o# the Enlighten ent ins!ired !eo!le to 2uestion and to !rotest the state3s atte !ts to introduce ne" "ays o# collecting revenue. )0. The Enlighten ent and the 4ld 4rder 10. The Enlighten ent thin&ers sought to a!!ly the ethods and 2uestions o# the 'cienti#ic Revolution to the study o# hu an society. 4ne "ay o# doing so "as to classi#y and syste ati5e &no"ledge6 another "ay "as to search #or natural la"s that "ere thought to underlie hu an a##airs and to devise scienti#ic techni2ues o# govern ent and social regulation. 10. 7ohn 8oc&e argued that govern ents "ere created to !rotect the !eo!le6 he e !hasi5ed the i !ortance o# individual rights. 7ean 7ac2ues Rousseau asserted that the "ill o# the !eo!le "as sacred6 he *elieved that !eo!le "ould act collectively on the *asis o# their shared historical e9!erience. /0. :ot all Enlighten ent thin&ers "ere radicals or atheists. ;any< li&e =oltaire< *elieved that onarchs could *e agents o# change. >0. 'o e e *ers o# the Euro!ean no*ility ,e.g. Catherine the ?reat o# Russia< Frederic& the ?reat o# Prussia0 !atroni5ed Enlighten ent thin&ers and used Enlighten ent ideas as they re#or ed their *ureaucracies< legal syste s< ta9 syste s< and econo ies. At the sa e ti e< these onarchs su!!ressed or *anned radical ideas that !ro oted re!u*licanis or attac&ed religion. -0. ;any o# the a@or intellectuals o# the Enlighten ent co unicated "ith each other and "ith !olitical leaders. Wo en "ere instru ental in the disse ination o# their ideas< !urchasing and discussing the "ritings o# the Enlighten ent thin&ers and< in the case o# "ealthy Parisian "o en< a&ing their ho es availa*le #or salons at "hich Enlighten ent thin&ers gathered. $0. The ne" ideas o# the Enlighten ent "ere !articularly attractive to the e9!anding iddle class in Euro!e and in the Western Ae is!here. ;any Euro!ean intellectuals sa" the A ericas as a ne"< uncorru!ted !lace in "hich aterial and social !rogress "ould co e ore 2uic&ly than in Euro!e. (0. )en@a in Fran&lin ca e to sy *oli5e the natural genius and the vast !otential o# A erica. Fran&lin3s success in *usiness< his intellectual and scienti#ic acco !lish ents< and his !olitical career o##ered !roo# that in A erica< "here society "as #ree o# the chains o# inherited !rivilege< genius could thrive.

C0. Fol& Cultures and Po!ular Protest 10. ;ost !eo!le in Western society did not share in the ideas o# the Enlighten ent6 co on !eo!le re ained loyal to cultural values grounded in the !reindustrial !ast. These cultural values !rescri*ed a set o# traditionally acce!ted utual rights and o*ligations that connected the !eo!le to their rulers. 10. When eighteenth century onarchs tried to increase their authority and to centrali5e !o"er *y introducing ore e##icient syste s o# ta9 collection and !u*lic ad inistration< the !eo!le regarded these changes as violations o# sacred custo s and so eti es e9!ressed their outrage in violent !rotests. 'uch !rotests ai ed to restore custo and !recedent< not to achieve revolutionary change. Rationalist Enlighten ent re#or ers also s!ar&ed !o!ular o!!osition "hen they sought to re!lace !o!ular #estivals "ith rational civic rituals. /0. '!ontaneous !o!ular u!risings had revolutionary !otential only "hen they coincided "ith con#licts "ithin the elite. II0. The A erican Revolution< 1((-.1B00 A0. Frontiers and Ta9es 10. A#ter 1($/< the )ritish govern ent #aced t"o !ro*le s in its :orth A erican colonies: the danger o# "ar "ith the A erindians as colonists !ushed "est across the A!!alachians< and the need to raise ore ta9es #ro the colonists in order to !ay the increasing costs o# colonial ad inistration and de#ense. )ritish atte !ts to i !ose ne" ta9es or to !revent #urther "est"ard settle ent !rovo&ed !rotests in the colonies. 10. In the ?reat 8a&es region< )ritish !olicies under ined the A erindian econo y and !rovo&ed a series o# A erindian raids on the settled areas o# Pennsylvania and =irginia. The A erindian alliance that carried out these raids "as de#eated "ithin a year. Fear o# ore violence led the )ritish to esta*lish a "estern li it #or settle ent in the Procla ation o# 1($/ and to slo" do"n settle ent o# the regions north o# the 4hio and east o# the ;ississi!!i in the Cue*ec Act o# 1((>. /0. The )ritish govern ent tried to raise ne" revenue #ro the A erican colonies through a series o# #iscal re#or s and ne" ta9es including a nu *er o# ne" co ercial regulations< including the 'ta ! Act o# 1($- and other ta9es and duties. In res!onse to these actions< the colonists organi5ed *oycotts o# )ritish goods< staged violent !rotests< and attac&ed )ritish o##icials. >0. Relations *et"een the A erican colonists and the )ritish authorities "ere #urther e9acer*ated *y the &illing o# #ive civilians in the D)oston ;assacreE ,1((00 and *y the action o# the )ritish govern ent in granting the East India Co !any a ono!oly on the i !ort o# tea to the colonies. When colonists in )oston res!onded to the ono!oly *y du !ing tea into )oston har*or< the )ritish closed the !ort o# )oston. )0. The Course o# Revolution< 1((-.1(B/ 10. Colonial governing *odies de!osed )ritish governors and esta*lished a Continental Congress that !rinted currency and organi5ed an ar y. Ideological su!!ort #or inde!endence "as given *y the rhetoric o# thousands o# street-corner s!ea&ers< *y Tho as Paine3s !a !hlet Common Sense, and in the %eclaration o# Inde!endence. 10. The )ritish sent a ilitary #orce to !aci#y the colonies. The )ritish #orce "on ost o# its *attles< *ut it "as una*le to control the countryside. The )ritish "ere also una*le to achieve a co !ro ise !olitical solution to the !ro*le s o# the colonies.

/0. A erindians served as allies to *oth sides. The ;oha"& leader 7ose!h )rant led one o# the ost e##ective A erindian #orces in su!!ort o# the )ritish6 "hen the "ar "as over< he and his #ollo"ers #led to Canada. >0. France entered the "ar as an ally o# the Fnited 'tates in 1((B and gave crucial assistance to the A erican #orces< including naval su!!ort that ena*led Washington to de#eat Corn"allis at +or&to"n< =irginia. Follo"ing this de#eat< the )ritish negotiators signed the Treaty o# Paris ,1(B/0< giving unconditional inde!endence to the #or er colonies. C0. The Construction o# Re!u*lican Institutions< to 1B00 10. A#ter inde!endence each o# the #or er colonies dra#ted "ritten constitutions that "ere su* itted to the voters #or a!!roval. The Articles o# Con#ederation served as a constitution #or the Fnited 'tates during and a#ter the revolutionary "ar. 10. In ;ay 1(B( a Constitutional Convention *egan to "rite a ne" constitution< "hich esta*lished a syste o# govern ent that "as de ocratic< *ut "hich gave the vote only to a inority o# the adult ale !o!ulation and "hich !rotected slavery. III0. The French Revolution< 1(BG.1B1A0. French 'ociety and Fiscal Crisis 10. French society "as divided into three grou!s: the First Estate ,clergy0< the 'econd Estate ,hereditary no*ility0< and the Third Estate ,everyone else0. The clergy and the no*ility controlled vast a ounts o# "ealth< and the clergy "as e9e !t #ro nearly all ta9es. 10. The Third Estate included the ra!idly gro"ing< "ealthy iddle class ,*ourgeoisie0. While the *ourgeoisie !ros!ered< France3s !easants ,B0 !ercent o# the !o!ulation0< its artisans< "or&ers< and s all sho!&ee!ers< "ere su##ering in the 1(B0s #ro econo ic de!ression caused *y !oor harvests. Fr*an !overty and rural su##ering o#ten led to violent !rotests< *ut these !rotests "ere not revolutionary. /0. %uring the 1(00s the e9!enses o# "ars drove France into de*t and ins!ired the French &ings to try to introduce ne" ta9es and #iscal re#or s in order to increase revenue. These atte !ts et "ith resistance in the Parle ents and on the !art o# the high no*ility. )0. Protest Turns to Revolution< 1(BG.1(G1 10. The &ing called a eeting o# the Estates ?eneral in order to get a!!roval o# ne" ta9es. The re!resentatives o# the Third Estate and so e e *ers o# the First Estate declared the selves to *e a :ational Asse *ly and !ledged to "rite a constitution that "ould incor!orate the idea o# !o!ular sovereignty. 10. As the &ing !re!ared to send troo!s to arrest the e *ers o# the :ational Asse *ly< the co on !eo!le o# Paris rose u! in ar s against the govern ent and !easant u!risings *ro&e out in the countryside. The :ational Asse *ly "as e *oldened to set #orth its !osition in the %eclaration o# the Rights o# ;an. /0. As the econo ic crisis gre" "orse< Parisian ar&et "o en arched on =ersailles and ca!tured the &ing and his #a ily. The :ational Asse *ly !assed a ne" constitution that li ited the !o"er o# the onarchy and restructured French !olitics and society. When Austria and Prussia threatened to intervene< the :ational Asse *ly declared "ar in 1(G1. C0. The Terror< 1(G/.1(G> 10. The &ing3s atte !t to #lee in 1(G1 led to his e9ecution and to the #or ation o# a ne" govern ent< the :ational Convention< "hich "as do inated *y the radical D;ountainE #action o# the 7aco*ins and *y their leader< Ro*es!ierre.

10. Fnder Ro*es!ierre< e9ecutive !o"er "as !laced in the hands o# the Co ittee o# Pu*lic 'a#ety< ilitant #e inist #orces "ere re!ressed< ne" actions against the clergy "ere a!!roved< and sus!ected ene ies o# the revolution "ere i !risoned and guillotined in the Reign o# Terror ,1(G/.1(G>0. In 7uly 1(G> conservatives in the :ational Convention voted #or the arrest and e9ecution o# Ro*es!ierre. %0. Reaction and %ictatorshi!< 1(G-.1B110. A#ter Ro*es!ierre3s e9ecution the Convention "or&ed to undo the radical re#or s o# the Ro*es!ierre years< rati#ied a ore conservative constitution< and created a ne" e9ecutive authority< the %irectory. The %irectory3s sus!ension o# the election results o# 1(G( signaled the end o# the re!u*lican !hase o# the Revolution< "hile :a!oleon3s sei5ure o# !o"er in 1(GG ar&ed the *eginning o# another #or o# govern ent: !o!ular authoritarianis . 10. :a!oleon !rovided greater internal sta*ility and !rotection o# !ersonal and !ro!erty rights *y negotiating an agree ent "ith the Catholic Church ,the Concordat o# 1B010< !ro ulgating the Civil Code o# 1B0>< and declaring hi sel# e !eror ,also in 1B0>0. At the sa e ti e< the :a!oleonic syste denied *asic !olitical and !ro!erty rights to "o en and restricted s!eech and e9!ression. /0. The sta*ility o# the :a!oleonic syste de!ended u!on the success o# the ilitary and u!on French di!lo acy. :o single Euro!ean state could de#eat :a!oleon< *ut his occu!ation o# the I*erian Peninsula turned into a costly "ar o# attrition "ith '!anish and Portuguese resistance #orces< "hile his 1B11 attac& on Russia ended in disaster. An alliance o# Russia< Austria< Prussia< and England de#eated :a!oleon in 1B1>. I=0. Revolution '!reads< Conservatives Res!ond< 1(BG.1B-0 A0. The Aaitian Revolution< 1(BG.1B0> 10. The French colony o# 'aint %o ingue "as one o# the richest Euro!ean colonies in the A ericas< *ut its econo ic success "as *ased on one o# the ost *rutal slave regi es in the Cari**ean. 10. The !olitical tur oil in France "ea&ened the a*ility o# colonial ad inistrators to aintain order and led to con#lict *et"een slaves and gens de couleur on the one hand and "hites on the other. A slave re*ellion under the leadershi! o# FranHois %o ini2ue Toussaint 834uverture too& over the colony in 1(G>. /0. :a!oleon3s 1B01 atte !t to reesta*lish French authority led to the ca!ture o# 834uverture< *ut #ailed to reta&e the colony< "hich *eca e the inde!endent re!u*lic o# Aaiti in 1B0>. Tens o# thousands o# !eo!le died in the Aaitian revolution< the econo y "as destroyed< and !u*lic ad inistration "as corru!ted *y ore than a decade o# violence. )0. The Congress o# =ienna and Conservative Retrench ent< 1B1-.1B10 10. Fro 1B1> to 1B1- re!resentatives o# )ritain< Russia< Prussia< and Austria et in =ienna to create a co !rehensive !eace settle ent that "ould reesta*lish and sa#eguard the conservative order in Euro!e. 10. The Congress o# =ienna restored the French onarchy< redre" the *orders o# France and other Euro!ean states< and esta*lished a DAoly AllianceE o# Austria< Russia< and Prussia. The Aoly Alliance de#eated li*eral revolutions in '!ain and Italy in 1B10 and tried< "ithout success< to re!ress li*eral and nationalist ideas. C0. :ationalis < Re#or < and Revolution< 1B11.1B-0 10. Po!ular su!!ort #or national sel#-deter ination and de ocratic re#or gre" throughout Euro!e. ?reece gained its inde!endence #ro the 4tto an E !ire in 1B/0< "hile in France< the !eo!le o# Paris #orced the onarchy to acce!t constitutional rule and to e9tend voting !rivileges.

10. %e ocratic re#or ove ents e erged in *oth )ritain and in the Fnited 'tates. In the Fnited 'tates the #ranchise "as e9tended a#ter the War o# 1B11< "hile in )ritain res!onse to the un!o!ular Corn 8a"s resulted in a nearly -0 !ercent increase in the nu *er o# voters. /0. In Euro!e< the desire #or national sel#-deter ination and de ocratic re#or led to a series o# revolutions in 1B>B. In France< the onarchy "as overthro"n and re!laced *y an elected !resident ,8ouis :a!oleon06 else"here in Euro!e the revolutions o# 1B>B #ailed to gain either their nationalist or re!u*lican o*@ectives.