BsEST PRACTICE

PRINCIPLES OF CONSERVATION PRACTICE

Engineering the past to meet the needs of the future

This paper is in a series of information guides aimed at providing easy to understand advice on the most appropriate conservation and installation principles for incorporating building services into historic or traditionally constructed buildings, many of which will be listed or scheduled.

SERVICES COVERED ARE: 1 Principles 2 Water 3 Electrical 4 Heating 5 Lighting 6 Fire Alarms

This guide presents the general principle of how to light the internal spaces of historic buildings sympathetically with due regard to their design, layout and any existing services from previous times that are being retained.
Front Cover image: A Corona Lucis gasolier (Located in St Saviours Church Tetbury, Gloucestershire) These were often converted to electricity becoming electroliers.

INTRODUCTION AND BRIEF HISTORY

Rush lights (made from rush pith) Tallow (animal fat) candle Gas mantle and glass shade

Where the properties of the very rich were concerned the existing light fittings were often important in their relevance to the building and it history, as well as their intrinsic value. If expensive mirrored wall sconces and silver chandeliers were to survive they had to be adapted to the new technology, but for most people new fittings were purchased to keep up to date with the latest artificial lighting. By the early twentieth century the cost of electricity had fallen enabling more of the expanding middle-classes to install it but usually only into the principal rooms of their properties.This still left cooking and heating primarily fuelled by gas and coal. In poorer dwellings the electric light fittings if used were normally much cheaper and poorly made. As a consequence they were often scrapped without a second thought and replacements found as and when needed.This has resulted in far fewer of these early, inexpensive luminaires enduring the passage of time. It was only when the National Grids first stage became operational in 1934 that electricity started to become affordable and by the time the grid was nationalised in 1948 the majority of homes were lit by electricity. It took a long time to convince manufacturers that electricity had a future so very little was done in the way of specific designs for electric lights.The often used approach was to adapt designs for gas lights.These were

Electric lighting is a relatively new component of most historic buildings interiors. Unless the structure dates from the early part of the twentieth century it is most likely that it would have previously employed a range of alternative forms of lighting from gas mantles to wax candles and rush lights, even acetylene gas lighting enjoyed some popularity with country-houses until around the 1900s. Until the 1920s it would have been unusual to live in a house that was exclusively lit by electricity as the costs involved ensured it was confined to the prosperous upper classes.

John Rylands Library, Manchester office area lighting consisting of a single pendant light with open glass bowl

John Rylands Library, Manchester surface mounted wiring distribution system

often unsuitable as with gas you dealt with a light source that was upward facing and not downwards as needed with electric lamps.The simplest, but not the best, solution was to take the design for a gasolier and turn the arms upside down or just convert an existing gas fitting.The alternative option was to start from scratch with the new electric light. As the new technology was a novelty in its own right, early designers would often deliberately design fittings where the lamps and flexes were on show see the St Alban the Martyr church example.This style was due, in part; to wanting to display the new technology, but more practically if the lamps were shaded it would further reduce their already poor light output. Early lighting systems, as previously stated, were expensive. In 1881 carbon filament lamps cost the then huge sum of 25 shillings each which could easily have bought a man a new Sunday suit, (decimal currency = 1.25).

The overall cost of installing the new electrical light was relatively high but could, and was, lowered in a number of ways. One such method employed was the way in which the dwelling was wired.The costly option was to try and conceal the cabling in the walls, which entailed the channelling of plasterwork and the cost of redecoration. Given the poor standard of insulation of early wiring this was also the hazardous option. It was much safer and cheaper to install the cabling on the surface and cover it with metal or wood casing, a feature that can still be seen in a number of buildings see John Rylands Library example.The casing was also often run under the floor to route the wiring from room to room. Examples of the wooden casing were found during the recent rewire of the National Trusts property Cragside. The trunking was usually grooved on the surface; the groves indicating the location of the cabling underneath and where it was unsafe to screw fix the lid.

St Alban the Martyr Church in Swaythling Southampton, (grade 2 dating from 1933), along with its hall, were designed and built in 1933 by architects Welch, Cachemaille-Day and Lander.The luminaires, as well as all the church furniture and candlesticks, were all designed by Cachemaille-Day. The chandelier-like luminaires consist of two wooden armatures glued together hiding the cable route through the fitting and down onto the bare lampholders below.The whole fixture was then gilded and the coat of arms of St Alban painted into the fitting

LIGHTING HISTORIC BUILDINGS CONSIDERATIONS

Lighting any space or surface requires skill, far more than most building professionals give credit for. When dealing with heritage building stock there is often the temptation, or misguided impression, that the luminaires used should have a period flavour about them.This is not the case unless there are clear antecedents for the style suggested. Most historic buildings have gone through many periods of change and have had sundry different types and styles of lighting. As outlined in the opening section, lighting has developed from very simple organic methods of prolonging the hours of daylight for example candles; to sophisticated semi-conductor devices which produce electroluminescence todays multi-functional Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs). With increasing pressure on todays historic building stock, it has to be flexible and accommodating to ensure its survival. In addition, with regard to the end use, the lighting has to respect and reflect this also. Unless the building was constructed, as John Rylands Library or NTs Cragside were, with electrical light from their inception, it is unlikely that any particular period style of light fitting would be considered right. If nothing remains of the building interiors, and its end use is to be radically altered from that for which it was built, then a major change of light fitting may be required to accommodate the needs of the buildings new purpose. Even when the style of luminaire is known, and in some cases still functioning, it is not always the most honest solution to copy the light fittings present, far better in some cases to emulate, without blindly imitating, the style. Users and developers should consider installing good 21st century, contemporary designs which are functional and elegant rather than to ape the past, although this may not be a suitable route for listed buildings and local conservation officer advice should be sort.There is no heritage rule that says you must used antique bronze this and period that. Finishes that complement and do not jar with their surroundings are just as suitable as attempting to match the new to the old or existing. When the Victorians installed gas lighting they used the cutting edge technology of their time and so should we. With the increasing problems of energy costs, and the push for ever greener technology, we should grasp the opportunity to marry the past with the future where it does not adversely impact or destroy the historic fabric.

Englishman Joseph Swan and American Thomas Edison are usually quoted as being the inventors of the incandescent lamp, but in fact there were 22 people that can be quoted prior to either man as having beaten him to the task. Joseph Wilson Swan began in 1850 working with carbonized paper filaments in an evacuated glass bulb. By 1860 he was able to demonstrate a working device but the lack of a good vacuum and an adequate supply of electricity resulted in a short lifetime an inefficient bulb and a poor source of light. In 1878, with the assistance of Charles Stearn, an expert in vacuum pumps, this was improved with the resulting avoidance of lamp blackening that had plagued earlier attempts. In 1880 this received a British patent. Edison however had begun serious research into developing a practical incandescent lamp in 1878 and had filed his first patent in October that year. His first successful test was in October 1879 after experimenting with other materials before returning to carbon as the filament. Although the patent described several ways of creating the filament including cotton and linen thread, wood splints and a paper coiled in various ways it was not until several months after that Edison discovered that a carbonized bamboo filament could last over 1200 hours.

TYPES OF LAMPS
One of the most commonly found early luminaires, other than decorative wall sconces, is the multi-armed candelabra or chandelier.These can come in an enormous variety of sizes and configurations.The fittings are often converted from gasoliers or from even earlier candle lights. Either way, in the interim, we have become used to them being fitted with incandescent tungsten candle lamps and in turn have become accustomed to the particular quality of light they bring to a space. In a recent European Commission directive it has been decided to prohibit the sale of these particularly high energy lamps, for household use, in stages up to 2016. At John Rylands Library a dimly lit circulation corridor was to be used as an exhibition space, this meant that the space had to have supplementary luminaires.The new fittings were positioned in a similar pattern to the existing. In the pictures below the right hand fittings are the existing ornate wall sconce, the left are modern twin fitting spotlights. The resulting lighting affect is very different, as these pictures demonstrate, but as the function of the corridor was changing as part of the library refit, and the space was to be used for exhibitions, the spotlights performed a function that the original fittings could not and although they are completely different in design they replicate the basic size and form of their Victorian counterparts. As part of the EU Directive all incandescent lamps over 7 watts will have been phased out by September 2012, starting with the most inefficient lamps. In 2013 there will be a raising of quality requirements and by 2016 lamps with energy class C will be no longer available. The aim by government is to save up to 5 million tonnes of carbon dioxide a year by 2012 from UK electrical generation.This directive is seen as a strong signal that government and the EU are serious about climate change and that the future of the lighting belongs to the energy-saving lamps and LEDs This does not mean that incandescent lamps cannot be used in a building; this only regulates the retail sales. Anyone still using these lamps is not obliged to replace them from 1st September 2009 even if this is the most worthwhile and cost effective approach to take, mindful of recent increases in energy prices. Ironically at the roughly same time as this directive, a voluntary UK phase out of these types of lamps was already underway the timing being confusingly slightly different to that of the EU. An example would be the avoidance of using recessed light fittings where the ceiling is either original or forms a fire barrier. Precautions, even if the installation of such a luminaire is possible, should always be taken to ensure the minimal fire risk to the building. Care should be taken that there is no excessive heat build up due to the fitting being installed incorrectly or too close to fabric or some other combustible material. Lighting designers also need to take cognisance of the Building Regulations part L and any implications there may be for their building especially if it is part of a greater development. Lamp efficacies are quoted that need to be either adhered to or at least considered if a historic building exemption, of this requirement, applies.

The WEEE (The Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment) Directive calls for controls to be in place of the disposal and recycling of waste electrical and electronic equipment and came into effect 1 July 2006). Its partner legalisation is the RoHS (Restriction of Hazardous Substances) European directive that restricts the use of certain hazardous chemicals in the manufacture of new electrical and electronic equipment (EEE).The restrictions apply to six hazardous substances including mercury, lead and cadmium. Local council refuse collection centres provide collection points for fluorescent lamps that contain mercury and broken lamps of this type should never be thrown away in normal household rubbish which will usually end up in landfill.

Apsley House No. 1 London

Whatever the situation, it means that chandeliers will need a suitable replacement light source. Compact fluorescent lamps (CFLs) have been available for many years and initially appear to be an obvious candidate, but even when they have been designed to resemble the incandescent lamps they hope to replace there has been resistance to using them.This apathy is a mixture of a dislike of their aesthetic appearance, the weight increase due to their need for control gear and the fact that the lamps contain small amounts of mercury, (although there are disposals systems and legislation in place to deal with this see the WEEE directive panel). They are also more expensive to buy; however in most cases they will pay for themselves after about one year due to their substantially lower energy costs. Also the additional advantages of any energy saving lamp are the reduced degradation of the electrical installation and the lowered fire risk because of cooler running temperatures. There is also another major reason; although the CFL is a far more energy efficient lamp the light characteristics are different. As a light source they are not as bright and sparkly as the inefficient tungsten GLS. Also they have poor colour rendering properties, a run-up time to full light output in the region of up to 2 minutes and are generally incompatible with dimmer switches without appropriate control gear which can increase the overall cost of the unit. There are now alternatives to both. One is a tungsten halogen lamp with an infra-red conserving (IRC) coating which offers the same sort of light quality as the GLS but with much improved lamp life of 2000 hours and a 30 per cent increase in efficacy, so a traditional lamp of 60 watts can be replaced with a tungsten halogen lamp rated at 42 watts; a 25 watt with a 18 watt and so on.

Another candidate which will ultimately be the future of all lighting is the light emitting diode (LED) version of the candle and A-shaped lamps, available in a variety of colours.This type of lamp has a working life of up to 30,000 50,000 hours (depending upon manufacturers data), using about 10 percent of the power of a traditional GLS lamp. Compare the two lamps below; the one the left is a clear tungsten halogen IRC coated lamp rated at 28 watts, the one on the right is LED rated at 1watt, they both nominally replace a 40 watt incandescent candle lamp. The Tungsten Halogen lamp can save 75 in energy per year. It produces a sparkly light, slightly whiter light than incandescent lamps with technology which runs the lamp at a cooler temperature thereby enabling a longer operating life. Although it will not save you as much energy, the appearance is very similar to that which they are replacing.They are ideally suited to fittings where the lamp is exposed, such as crystal chandeliers.

Alternatives to GLS Candle Lamps

The LED lamp produces less sparkle and gives a cooler whiter light with different characteristics to incandescent lamps but of course much longer lamp life and considerably greater energy savings.There are however issues regarding LEDs.They require a cool environment where they will not over heat, and a mock-up of any proposed installation is always advised. It should also be remembered they require control gear or drivers to operate so a location for this equipment will also have to be accommodated within the space, without embedding it into the fabric with the consequential fire risk that might bring. The other considerations that have to be made, especially when considering alternative lamp use in a museum / gallery environment, are the undesired by-products.These can be problems such as infra red radiation and unsuitable or high operating temperatures, (although LEDs do not emit any UV or IR). It is important to consider the effect all of this could have on delicate paintings and fabrics. It is wise to consult with manufacturers before installing such low energy replacements especially where such by-products may harm the artefacts they are supposed to be illuminating. Whatever light source is decided upon, be assured, this is a very swiftly moving area of technical development and it will not be long before CFL and the LED lamps have moved on from their present restrictions and problems into new and more effective and efficient areas.The present, much loved GLS lamps, took many decades to reach their present level of maturity but it will not take more than another for the descendants of these electric lamps to find theirs. The future is looking like it will be Organic LEDs (OLEDs).They are also known as Light Emitting Polymers (LEPs) and are composed of a film of emissive electroluminescent organic compounds.This means they can be deposited onto a flat surface by a simple printing method.The resulting matrix will then emit light of differing colours. In other words eventually you will be able to make any object or surface your light source!

St Botolphs Church Hardham, West Sussex medieval wall paintings lit with LED spotlights and discharge lighting

The information in this publication is based on our current knowledge. Whilst every effort has been made to ensure the accuracy of the advice given, English Heritage does not accept liability for loss or damage arising from the use of this information.This publication is intended as a general guide and should not be used as a substitute fro professional advice. The inclusion in this publication of any company, group or individual, or any product or service, should not be regarded as either a recommendation or an endorsement by English Heritage or its agents.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS English Heritage would like to acknowledge the help of the following in the production of this guide: The CIBSE Heritage Group John Rylands Library, Manchester St Alban the Martyr Church, Southampton St Botolphs Church, Hardham Text by Geraldine OFarrell BsEST, Conservation Department EH; front cover image courtesy of CIBSE Heritage Group; image on top right of page 3 courtesy of Andrew More, English Heritage; image on top left of page 3 courtesy of Andrew More English Heritage; image on bottom of page 3 courtesy of Geraldine OFarrell English Heritage; image on page 5 courtesy of Andrew More English Heritage; image on top of page 6 courtesy of Caroline Churchill English Heritage. Images on page 7 courtesy of Alan Weaver, Crescent Lighting Limited

COMPARISON OF 60W GLS LAMP WITH POTENTIAL RETRO-FITS

Lamp type GLS
Incandescent (General Lighting Service)

CFL
(Compact Fluorescent Lamps)

Halogen in-GLS

IRC Halogen
(Infra-Red conserving Coating)

LED
(Lighting-emitting Diode)

Efficacy in lumens per watt

12

50-60

13

22

Differences and questionable data from manufacturers figures range from 28 to 55 Up to 50,000

Life in hours

1,000

8,000

2,000

3,000+

Colour rendering index (ability to see

colours accurately 100 = best)

100

~80-85

100

100

95 98

Dimmable

yes

yes with special control gear

yes

yes

yes

Instant full light output

yes

no

yes

yes

yes

Price

low

medium

medium

high

high

BsEST Building services Engineering and Safety Team English Heritage Isambard House Kemble Drive Swindon SN2 2GZ

(EVO02/10)

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