Friedrich Engels

Condition of the Working Class in England

Written: September 1844 to March 1845; Source: Panther Edition, 1969, from text pro ided b! the "n#titute of Marxi#m$%enini#m, Mo#co&; 'ir#t Pub(i#hed: %eip)i* in 1845; +he En*(i#h edition ,authori#ed b! En*e(#- &a# pub(i#hed in 188. in /e& 0or1 and in %ondon in 1891; +ran#cription2Mar1up: 3odiac +im 4e(ane! in 1998; Proofed and corrected b! Mar1 5arri#, 67178

Table of Contents
Preface to the 9merican Edition88888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888886 +he %abor Mo ement in 9merica888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888886 Preface to the En*(i#h Edition888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888 Preface to the Second :erman Edition ,1896-8888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888864 +o +he Wor1in*$;(a##e# of :reat$<ritain8888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888846 Preface8888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888844 "ntroduction88888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888846 +he "ndu#tria( Pro(etariat888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888855 +he :reat +o&n#88888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888885. ;ompetition88888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888894 "ri#h "mmi*ration88888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888176 =e#u(t#888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888176 Sin*(e <ranche# of "ndu#tr!88888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888881>7 'actor!$5and#8888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888881>7 +he =emainin* <ranche# of "ndu#tr!8888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888816. %abour Mo ement#88888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888185 +he Minin* Pro(etariat888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888677 / ? + " ; E@ Pentrich ;o((ier!888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888676 +he 9*ricu(tura( Pro(etariat8888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888617 +he 9ttitude of the <our*eoi#ie +o&ard# the Pro(etariat88888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888667 9n En*(i#h +urnout88888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888886>6 1886 9ppendix to the 9merican Edition888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888647

Preface to the American Edition The Labor Movement in America

+en month# ha e e(ap#ed #ince, at the tran#(atorA# &i#h, " &rote the 9ppendix 1 to thi# boo1; and durin* the#e ten month#, a re o(ution ha# been accomp(i#hed in 9merican #ociet! #uch a#, in an! other countr!, &ou(d ha e ta1en at (ea#t ten !ear#8 "n 'ebruar! 1885, 9merican pub(ic opinion &a# a(mo#t unanimou# on thi# one point; that there &a# no &or1in* c(a##, in the European #en#e of the &ord, in 9merica; that con#eBuent(! no c(a## #tru**(e bet&een &or1men and capita(i#t#, #uch a# tore European #ociet! to piece#, &a# po##ib(e in the 9merican =epub(ic; and that, therefore, Socia(i#m &a# a thin* of forei*n importation &hich cou(d ne er ta1e root on 9merican #oi(86 9nd !et, at that moment, the comin* c(a## #tru**(e &a# ca#tin* it# *i*antic #hado& before it in the #tri1e# of the Penn#!( ania coa($miner#, and of man! other trade#, and e#pecia((! in the preparation#, a(( o er the countr!, for the *reat Ei*ht 5our#A mo ement &hich &a# to come off, and did come off, in the Ma! fo((o&in*8 +hat " then du(! appreciated the#e #!mptom#, that " anticipated a &or1in*$c(a## mo ement on a nationa( #ca(e, m!C9ppendixC #ho&#; but no one cou(d then fore#ee that in #uch a #hort time the mo ement &ou(d bur#t out &ith #uch irre#i#tib(e force, &ou(d #pread &ith the rapidit! of a prairie$fire, &ou(d #ha1e 9merican #ociet! to it# er! foundation#8 +he fact i# there, #tubborn and indi#putab(e8 +o &hat an extent it had #truc1 &ith terror the 9merican ru(in* c(a##e#, &a# re ea(ed to me, in an amu#in* &a!, b! 9merican Dourna(i#t# &ho did me the honor of ca((in* on me (a#t #ummer; theCne& departureC had put them into a #tate of he(p(e## fri*ht and perp(exit!8 <ut at that time the mo ement &a# on(! Du#t on the #tart; there &a# but a #erie# of confu#ed and apparent(! di#connected uphea a(# of that c(a## &hich, b! the #uppre##ion of ne*ro #(a er! and the rapid de e(opment of manufacture#, had become the (o&e#t #tratum of 9merican #ociet!8 <efore the !ear c(o#ed, the#e be&i(derin* #ocia( con u(#ion# be*an to ta1e a definite direction8 +he #pontaneou#, in#tincti e mo ement# of the#e a#t ma##e# of &or1in* peop(e, o er a a#t extent of countr!, the #imu(taneou# outbur#t of their common di#content &ith a mi#erab(e #ocia( condition, the #ame e er!&here and due 8to the #ame cau#e#, made them con#ciou# of the fact, that the! formed a ne& and di#tinct c(a## of 9merican #ociet!; a c(a## of E practica((! #pea1in* E more or (e## hereditar! &a*e$&or1er#, pro(etarian#8 9nd &ith true 9merican in#tinct thi# con#ciou#ne## (ed them at once to ta1e the next #tep to&ard# their de(i erance: the formation of a po(itica( &or1in*$menA# part!, &ith a p(atform of it# o&n, and &ith the conBue#t of the ;apito( and the White 5ou#e for it# *oa(8 "n Ma! the #tru**(e for the Ei*ht 5our#A &or1in*$da!, the troub(e# in ;hica*o, Mi(&au1ee, etc8, the attempt# of the ru(in* c(a## to cru#h the na#cent upri#in* of %abor b! brute force and bruta( c(a##$Du#tice; in /o ember the ne& %abor Part! or*ani)ed in a(( *reat centre#, and the /e& 0or1, ;hica*o and Mi(&au1ee e(ection#8 Ma! and /o ember ha e hitherto reminded the 9merican bour*eoi#ie on(! of the pa!ment of coupon# of F8S8 bond#; henceforth Ma! and /o ember &i(( remind them, too, of the date# on &hich the 9merican &or1in*$c(a## pre#ented their coupon# for pa!ment8 "n European countrie#, it too1 the &or1in* c(a## !ear# and !ear# before the! fu((! rea(i)ed the fact that the! formed a di#tinct and, under the exi#tin* #ocia( condition#, a permanent c(a## of modern #ociet!; and it too1 !ear# a*ain unti( thi# c(a## con#ciou#ne## (ed them to form them#e( e# into a di#tinct po(itica( part!, independent of, and oppo#ed to, a(( the o(d po(itica( partie# formed b! the ariou# #ection# of the ru(in* c(a##e#8 ?n the more fa ored #oi( of 9merica, &here no mediG a(

ruin# bar the &a!, &here hi#tor! be*in# &ith the e(ement# of modern bour*eoi# #ociet! a# e o( ed in the #e enteenth centur!, the &or1in* c(a## pa##ed throu*h the#e t&o #ta*e# of it# de e(opment &ithin ten month#8, Sti((, a(( thi# i# but a be*innin*8 +hat the (aborin* ma##e# #hou(d fee( their communit! of *rie ance# and of intere#t#, their #o(idarit! a# a c(a## in oppo#ition to a(( other c(a##e#; that in order to *i e expre##ion and effect to thi# fee(in*, the! #hou(d #et in motion the po(itica( machiner! pro ided for that purpo#e in e er! free countr! E that i# the fir#t #tep on(!8 +he next #tep i# to find the common remed! for the#e common *rie ance#, and to embod! it in the p(atform of the ne& %abor Part!8 9nd thi# E the mo#t important and the mo#t difficu(t #tep in the mo ement E ha# !et to be ta1en in 9merica8 9 ne& part! mu#t ha e a di#tinct po#iti e p(atform; a p(atform &hich ma! ar! in detai(# a# circum#tance# ar! and a# the part! it#e(f de e(op#, but #ti(( one upon &hich the part!, for the time bein*, i# a*reed8 So (on* a# #uch a p(atform ha# not been &or1ed out, or exi#t# but in a rudimentar! form, #o (on* the ne& part!, too, &i(( ha e but a rudimentar! exi#tence; it ma! exi#t (oca((! but not8 !et nationa((!, it &i(( be a part! potentia((! but not actua((!8 +hat p(atform, &hate er ma! be it# fir#t #hape, mu#t de e(op in a direction &hich ma! be determined beforehand8 +he cau#e# that brou*ht into exi#tence the ab!## bet&een the &or1in* c(a## and the capita(i#t c(a## are the #ame in 9merica a# in Europe; the mean# of fi((in* up that ab!## are eBua((! the #ame e er!&here8 ;on#eBuent(!, the p(atform of the 9merican pro(etariat &i(( in the (on* run coincide, a# to the u(timate end to be attained, &ith the one &hich, after #ixt! !ear# of di##en#ion# and di#cu##ion#, ha# become the adopted p(atform of the *reat ma## of the European mi(itant pro(etariat8 "t &i(( proc(aim, a# the u(timate end, the conBue#t of po(itica( #upremac! b! the &or1in* c(a##, in order to effect the direct appropriation of a(( mean# of production E (and, rai(&a!#, mine#, machiner!, etc8 E b! #ociet! at (ar*e, to be &or1ed in common b! a(( for the account and benefit of a((8 <ut if the ne& 9merican part!, (i1e a(( po(itica( partie# e er!&here, b! the er! fact of it# formation a#pire# to the conBue#t of po(itica( po&er, it i# a# !et far from a*reed upon &hat to do &ith that po&er &hen once attained8 "n /e& 0or1 and the other *reat citie# of the Ea#t, the or*ani)ation of the &or1in* c(a## ha# proceeded upon the (ine# of +rade#A Societie#, formin* in each cit! a po&erfu( ;entra( %abor Fnion8 "n /e& 0or1 the ;entra( %abor Fnion, (a#t /o ember, cho#e for it# #tandard$bearer 5enr! :eor*e, and con#eBuent(! it# temporar! e(ectora( p(atform ha# been (ar*e(! imbued &ith hi# princip(e#8 "n the *reat citie# of the /orth$We#t the e(ectora( batt(e &a# fou*ht upon a rather indefinite (abor p(atform, and the inf(uence of 5enr! :eor*eA# theorie# &a# #carce(!, if at a((, i#ib(e8 9nd &hi(e in the#e *reat centre# of popu(ation and of indu#tr! the ne& c(a## mo ement came to a po(itica( head, &e find a(( o er the countr! t&o &ide$ #pread (abor or*ani)ation#: theCHni*ht# of %aborC and theCSocia(i#t %abor Part!,C of &hich on(! the (atter ha# a p(atform in harmon! &ith the modern European #tandpoint a# #ummari)ed abo e8 ?f the three more or (e## definite form# under &hich the 9merican (abor mo ement thu# pre#ent# it#e(f, the fir#t, the 5enr! :eor*e mo ement in /e& 0or1, i# for the moment of a chief(! (oca( #i*nificance8 /o doubt /e& 0or1 i# b! far the mo#t important cit! of the State#; but /e& 0or1 i# not Pari# and the Fnited State# are not 'rance8 9nd it #eem# to me that the 5enr! :eor*e p(atform, in it# pre#ent #hape, i# too narro& to form the ba#i# for an!thin* but a (oca( mo ement, or at be#t for a #hort$(i ed pha#e of the *enera( mo ement8 +o 5enr! :eor*e, the expropriation of the ma## of the peop(e from the (and i# the *reat and uni er#a( cau#e of the #p(ittin* up of the peop(e into =ich and Poor8 /o& thi# i# not Buite correct hi#torica((!8 "n 9#iatic and c(a##ica( antiBuit!, the predominant form of c(a## oppre##ion &a# #(a er!, that i# to #a!, not #o much the expropriation of the ma##e# from the (and a# the appropriation of their per#on#8 When, in the dec(ine of the =oman =epub(ic, the free "ta(ian pea#ant# &ere expropriated from their farm#, the!

formed a c(a## ofCpoor &hite#C #imi(ar to that of the Southern S(a e State# before 1861; and bet&een #(a e# and poor &hite#, t&o c(a##e# eBua((! unfit for #e(f$emancipation, the o(d &or(d &ent to piece#8 "n the midd(e a*e#, it &a# not the expropriation of the peop(e from, but on the contrar!, their appropriation to the (and &hich became the #ource of feuda( oppre##ion8 +he pea#ant retained hi# (and, but &a# attached to it a# a #erf or i((ein, and made (iab(e to tribute to the (ord in (abor and in produce8 "t &a# on(! at the da&n of modern time#, to&ard# the end of the fifteenth centur!, that the expropriation of the pea#antr! on a (ar*e #ca(e (aid the foundation 8for the modern c(a## of &a*e$&or1er# &ho po##e## nothin* but their (abor$po&er and can (i e on(! b! the #e((in* of that (abor$po&er to other#8 <ut if the expropriation from the (and brou*ht thi# c(a## into exi#tence, it &a# the de e(opment of capita(i#t production, of modern indu#tr! and a*ricu(ture on a (ar*e #ca(e &hich perpetuated it, increa#ed it, and #haped it into a di#tinct c(a## &ith di#tinct intere#t# and a di#tinct hi#torica( mi##ion8 9(( thi# ha# been fu((! expounded b! Marx ,I;apita(,C Part J""":C+he So$;a((ed Primiti e 9ccumu(ationC-8 9ccordin* to Marx, the cau#e of the pre#ent anta*oni#m of the c(a##e# and of the #ocia( de*radation of the &or1in* c(a## i# their expropriation from a(( mean# of production, in &hich the (and i# of cour#e inc(uded8 "f 5enr! :eor*e dec(are# (and$monopo(i)ation to be the #o(e cau#e of po ert! and mi#er!, he natura((! find# the remed! in the re#umption of the (and b! #ociet! at (ar*e8 /o&, the Socia(i#t# of the #choo( of Marx, too, demand the re#umption, b! #ociet!, of the (and, and not on(! of the (and but of a(( other mean# of production (i1e&i#e8 <ut e en if &e (ea e the#e out of the Bue#tion, there i# another difference8 What i# to be done &ith the (andK Modern Socia(i#t#, a# repre#ented b! Marx, demand that it #hou(d be he(d and &or1ed in common and for common account, and the #ame &ith a(( other mean# of #ocia( production, mine#, rai(&a!#, factorie#, etc8; 5enr! :eor*e &ou(d confine him#e(f to (ettin* it out to indi idua(# a# at pre#ent, mere(! re*u(atin* it# di#tribution and app(!in* the rent# for pub(ic, in#tead of, a# at pre#ent, for pri ate purpo#e#8 What the Socia(i#t# demand, imp(ie# a tota( re o(ution of the &ho(e #!#tem of #ocia( production; &hat 5enr! :eor*e demand#, (ea e# the pre#ent mode of #ocia( production untouched, and ha#, in fact, been anticipated b! the extreme #ection of =icardian bour*eoi# economi#t# &ho, too, demanded the confi#cation of the rent of (and b! the State8 "t &ou(d of cour#e be unfair to #uppo#e that 5enr! :eor*e ha# #aid hi# (a#t &ord once for a((8 <ut " am bound to ta1e hi# theor! a# " find it8 +he #econd *reat #ection of the 9merican mo ement i# formed b! the Hni*ht# of %abor8 > 9nd that #eem# to be the #ection mo#t t!pica( of the pre#ent #tate of the mo ement, a# it i# undoubted(! b! far the #tron*e#t8 9n immen#e a##ociation #pread o er an immen#e extent of countr! in innumerab(eCa##emb(ie#,C repre#entin* a(( #hade# of indi idua( and (oca( opinion &ithin the &or1in* c(a##; the &ho(e of them #he(tered under a p(atform of corre#pondin* indi#tinctne## and he(d to*ether much (e## b! their impracticab(e con#titution than b! the in#tincti e fee(in* that the er! fact of their c(ubbin* to*ether for their common a#piration ma1e# them a *reat po&er in the countr!; a tru(! 9merican paradox c(othin* the mo#t modern tendencie# in the mo#t mediae a( mummerie#, and hidin* the mo#t democratic and e en rebe((iou# #pirit behind an apparent, but rea((! po&er(e## de#poti#m E #uch i# the picture the Hni*ht# of %abor offer to a European ob#er er8 <ut if &e are not arre#ted b! mere out#ide &him#ica(itie#, &e cannot he(p #eein* in thi# a#t a**(omeration an immen#e amount of potentia( ener*! e o( in* #(o&(! but #ure(! into actua( force8 +he Hni*ht# of %abor are the fir#t nationa( or*ani)ation created b! the 9merican &or1in* c(a## a# a &ho(e; &hate er be their ori*in and hi#tor!, &hate er their #hortcomin*# and (itt(e ab#urditie#, &hate er their p(atform and their con#titution, here the! are, the &or1 of practica((! the &ho(e c(a## of 9merican &a*e$&or1er#, the on(! nationa( bond that ho(d# them to*ether, that ma1e# their #tren*th fe(t to them#e( e# not (e## than to their enemie#, and that fi((# them &ith the proud hope of future ictorie#8 'or it &ou(d not be exact to #a!, that the Hni*ht# of %abor are (iab(e to de e(opment8 +he! are con#tant(! in fu(( proce## of de e(opment and re o(ution; a

hea in*, fermentin* ma## of p(a#tic materia( #ee1in* the #hape and form appropriate to it# inherent nature8 +hat form &i(( be attained a# #ure(! a# hi#torica( e o(ution ha#, (i1e natura( e o(ution, it# o&n immanent (a&#8 Whether the Hni*ht# of %abor &i(( then retain their pre#ent name or not, ma1e# no difference, but to an out#ider it appear# e ident that here i# the ra& materia( out of &hich the future of the 9merican &or1in*$c(a## mo ement, and a(on* &ith it, the future of 9merican #ociet! at (ar*e, ha# to be #haped8 +he third #ection con#i#t# of the Socia(i#t %abor Part!8 4 +hi# #ection i# a part! but in name, for no&here in 9merica ha# it, up to no&, been ab(e actua((! to ta1e it# #tand a# a po(itica( part!8 "t i#, moreo er, to a certain extent forei*n to 9merica, ha in* unti( (ate(! been made up a(mo#t exc(u#i e(! b! :erman immi*rant#, u#in* their o&n (an*ua*e and for the mo#t part, con er#ant &ith the common (an*ua*e of the countr!8 <ut if it came from a forei*n #toc1, it came, at the #ame time, armed &ith the experience earned durin* (on* !ear# of c(a## #tru**(e in Europe, and &ith an in#i*ht into the *enera( condition# of &or1in*$c(a## emancipation, far #uperior to that hitherto *ained b! 9merican &or1in*$men8 +hi# i# a fortunate circum#tance for the 9merican pro(etarian# &ho thu# are enab(ed to appropriate, and to ta1e ad anta*e of, the inte((ectua( and mora( fruit# of the fort! !ear#A #tru**(e of their European c(a##mate#, and thu# to ha#ten on the time of their o&n ictor!8 'or, a# " #aid before, there cannot be an! doubt that the u(timate p(atform of the 9merican &or1in* c(a## mu#t and &i(( be e##entia((! the #ame a# that no& adopted b! the &ho(e mi(itant &or1in* c(a## of Europe, the #ame a# that of the :erman$9merican Socia(i#t %abor Part!8 "n #o far thi# part! i# ca((ed upon to p(a! a er! important part in the mo ement8 <ut in order to do #o the! &i(( ha e to doff e er! remnant of their forei*n *arb8 +he! &i(( ha e to become out and out 9merican8 +he! cannot expect the 9merican# to come to them; the!, the minorit! and the immi*rant#, mu#t *o to the 9merican#, &ho are the a#t maDorit! and the nati e#8 9nd to do that, the! mu#t abo e a(( thin*# (earn En*(i#h8 +he proce## of fu#in* to*ether the#e ariou# e(ement# of the a#t mo in* ma## E e(ement# not rea((! di#cordant, but indeed mutua((! i#o(ated b! their ariou# #tartin*$point# E &i(( ta1e #ome time and &i(( not come off &ithout a dea( of friction, #uch a# i# i#ib(e at different point# e en no&8 +he Hni*ht# of %abor, for in#tance, are here and there, in the Ea#tern citie#, (oca((! at &ar &ith the or*ani)ed +rade# Fnion#8 <ut then thi# #ame friction exi#t# &ithin the Hni*ht# of %abor them#e( e#, &here there i# an!thin* but peace and harmon!8 +he#e are not #!mptom# of deca!, for capita(i#t# to cro& o er8 +he! are mere(! #i*n# that the innumerab(e ho#t# of &or1er#, for the fir#t time #et in motion in a common direction, ha e a# !et found out neither the adeBuate expre##ion for their common intere#t#, nor the form of or*ani)ation be#t adapted to the #tru**(e, nor the di#cip(ine reBuired to in#ure ictor!8 +he! are a# !et the fir#t (e ie# en masse of the *reat re o(utionar! &ar, rai#ed and eBuipped (oca((! and independent(!, a(( con er*in* to form one common arm!, but a# !et &ithout re*u(ar or*ani)ation and common p(an of campai*n8 +he con er*in* co(umn# cro## each other here and there: confu#ion, an*r! di#pute#, e en threat# of conf(ict ari#e8 <ut the communit! of u(timate purpo#e in the end o ercome# a(( minor troub(e#; ere (on* the #tra**(in* and #Buabb(in* batta(ion# &i(( be formed in a (on* (ine of batt(e arra!, pre#entin* to the enem! a &e(($ordered front, ominou#(! #i(ent under their *(itterin* arm#, #upported b! bo(d #1irmi#her# in front and b! un#ha1eab(e re#er e# in the rear8 +o brin* about thi# re#u(t, the unification of the ariou# independent bodie# into one nationa( %abor 9rm!, &ith no matter ho& inadeBuate a pro i#iona( p(atform, pro ided it be a tru(! &or1in*$c(a## p(atform E that i# the next *reat #tep to be accomp(i#hed in 9merica8 +o effect thi#, and to ma1e that p(atform &orth! of the cau#e, the Socia(i#t %abor Part! can contribute a *reat dea(, if the! &i(( on(! act in the #ame &a! a# the European Socia(i#t# ha e acted at the time &hen the! &ere but a #ma(( minorit! of the &or1in* c(a##8 +hat (ine of action &a# fir#t (aid do&n in theC;ommuni#t Manife#toC of 184. in the fo((o&in* &ord#:

I+he ;ommuni#t#C E that &a# the name &e too1 at the time and &hich e en no& &e are far from repudiatin* ECthe ;ommuni#t# do not form a #eparate part! oppo#ed to other &or1in*$c(a## partie#8 I+he! ha e no intere#t# #eparate and apart from the intere#t# of the &ho(e &or1in* c(a##8 I+he! do not #et up an! #ectarian princip(e# of their o&n, b! &hich to #hape and mode( the pro(etarian mo ement8 I+he ;ommuni#t# are di#tin*ui#hed from the other &or1in*$c(a## partie# b! thi# on(!: 18 "n the nationa( #tru**(e# of the pro(etarian# of the different countrie# the! point out, and brin* to the front, the common intere#t# of the &ho(e pro(etariat, intere#t# independent of a(( nationa(it!; 68 "n the ariou# #ta*e# of de e(opment &hich the #tru**(e of the &or1in* c(a## a*ain#t the capita(i#t c(a## ha# to pa## throu*h, the! a(&a!# and e er!&here repre#ent the intere#t# of the mo ement a# a &ho(e8 I+he ;ommuni#t#, therefore, are on the one hand, practica((! the mo#t ad anced and re#o(ute #ection of the &or1in*$c(a## partie# of a(( countrie#, that #ection &hich e er pu#he# for&ard a(( other#; on the other hand, theoretica((!, the! ha e, o er the *reat ma## of the pro(etarian#, the ad anta*e of c(ear(! under#tandin*

the (ine of march, the condition#, and the u(timate *enera( re#u(t# of the pro(etarian mo ement8 I+hu# the! fi*ht for the attainment of the immediate end#, for the enforcement of the momentar! intere#t# of the &or1in* c(a##; but in the mo ement of the pre#ent, the! repre#ent and ta1e care of the future of the mo ement8C +hat i# the (ine of action &hich the *reat founder of Modern Socia(i#m, Har( Marx, and &ith him, " and the Socia(i#t# of a(( nation# &ho &or1ed a(on* &ith u#, ha e fo((o&ed for more than fort! !ear#, &ith the re#u(t that it ha# (ed to ictor! e er!&here, and that at thi# moment the ma## of European Socia(i#t#, in :erman! and in 'rance, in <e(*ium, 5o((and and S&it)er(and, in 4enmar1 and S&eden a# &e(( a# in Spain and Portu*a(, are fi*htin* a# one common arm! under one and the #ame f(a*8

Preface to the English Edition

+he boo1, an En*(i#h tran#(ation of &hich i# here repub(i#hed, &a# fir#t i##ued in :erman! in 18458 +he author, at that time, &a# !oun*, t&ent!$four !ear# of a*e, and hi# production bear# the #tamp of hi# !outh &ith it# *ood and it# fau(t! feature#, of neither of &hich he fee(# a#hamed8 "t &a# tran#(ated into En*(i#h, in 1885, b! an 9merican (ad!, Mr#8 '8 He((e! Wi#chne&et)1!, and pub(i#hed in the fo((o&in* !ear in /e& 0or18 +he 9merican edition bein* a# *ood a# exhau#ted, and ha in* ne er been exten#i e(! circu(ated on thi# #ide of the 9t(antic, the pre#ent En*(i#h cop!ri*ht edition i# brou*ht out &ith the fu(( con#ent of a(( partie# intere#ted8 'or the 9merican edition, a ne& Preface and an 9ppendix &ere &ritten in En*(i#h b! the author8 +he fir#t had (itt(e to do &ith the boo1 it#e(f; it di#cu##ed the 9merican Wor1in*$;(a## Mo ement of the da!, and i#, therefore, here omitted a# irre(e ant; the #econd E the ori*ina( preface E i# (ar*e(! made u#e of in the pre#ent introductor! remar1#8 +he #tate of thin*# de#cribed in thi# boo1 be(on*# to$da!, in man! re#pect#, to the pa#t, a# far a# En*(and i# concerned8 +hou*h not expre##(! #tated in our reco*ni#ed treati#e#, it i# #ti(( a (a& of modern Po(itica( Econom! that the (ar*er the #ca(e on &hich capita(i#tic production i# carried on, the (e## can it #upport the pett! de ice# of #&ind(in* and pi(ferin* &hich characteri#e it# ear(! #ta*e#8 +he pettifo**in* bu#ine## tric1# of the Po(i#h Le&, the repre#entati e in Europe of commerce in it# (o&e#t #ta*e, tho#e tric1# that #er e him #o &e(( in hi# o&n countr!, and are *enera((! practi#ed there, he find# to be out of date and out of p(ace &hen he come# to 5ambur* or <er(in; and, a*ain, the commi##ion a*ent &ho hai(# from <er(in or 5ambur*, Le& or ;hri#tian, after freBuentin* the Manche#ter Exchan*e for a fe& month#, find# out that in order to bu! cotton !arn or c(oth cheap, he, too, had better drop tho#e #(i*ht(! more refined but #ti(( mi#erab(e &i(e# and #ubterfu*e# &hich are con#idered the acme of c(e erne## in hi# nati e countr!8 +he fact i#, tho#e tric1# do not pa! an! (on*er in a (ar*e mar1et, &here time i# mone!, and &here a certain #tandard of commercia( mora(it! i# una oidab(! de e(oped, pure(! a# a mean# of #a in* time and troub(e8 9nd it i# the #ame &ith the re(ation bet&een the manufacturer and hi#Chand#8C +he re i a( of trade, after the cri#i# of 184., &a# the da&n of a ne& indu#tria( epoch8 +he repea( of the ;orn %a&#5 and the financia( reform# #ub#eBuent thereon *a e to En*(i#h indu#tr! and commerce a(( the e(bo&$room the! had a#1ed for8 +he di#co er! of the ;a(ifornian and 9u#tra(ian *o(d$fie(d# fo((o&ed in rapid #ucce##ion8 +he co(onia( mar1et# de e(oped at an increa#in* rate their capacit! for ab#orbin* En*(i#h manufactured *ood#8 "n "ndia mi((ion# of hand$&ea er# &ere fina((! cru#hed out b! the %anca#hire po&er$(oom8 ;hina &a# more and more bein* opened up8 9bo e a((, the Fnited State# E then, commercia((! #pea1in*, a mere co(onia( mar1et, but b! far the bi**e#t of them a(( E under&ent an economic de e(opment a#toundin* e en for that rapid(! pro*re##i e countr!8 9nd, fina((!, the ne& mean# of communication introduced at the c(o#e of the precedin* period E rai(&a!# and ocean #teamer# E &ere no& &or1ed out on an internationa( #ca(e; the! rea(i#ed actua((! &hat had hitherto exi#ted on(! potentia((!, a &or(d$ mar1et8 +hi# &or(d$mar1et, at fir#t, &a# compo#ed of a number of chief(! or entire(! a*ricu(tura( countrie# *rouped around one manufacturin* centre E En*(and &hich con#umed the *reater part of their #urp(u# ra& produce, and #upp(ied them in return &ith the *reater part of their reBuirement# in manufactured artic(e#8 /o &onder En*(andA# indu#tria( pro*re## &a# co(o##a( and unpara((e(ed, and #uch that the #tatu# of 1844 no& appear# to u# a# comparati e(! primiti e and in#i*nificant8 9nd in proportion a# thi# increa#e too1 p(ace, in the #ame proportion did manufacturin* indu#tr! become apparent(! mora(i#ed8 +he competition of manufacturer a*ain#t manufacturer b! mean# of pett! theft# upon the &or1peop(e did no (on*er pa!8 +rade had

out*ro&n #uch (o& mean# of ma1in* mone!; the! &ere not &orth &hi(e practi#in* for the manufacturin* mi((ionaire, and #er ed mere(! to 1eep a(i e the competition of #ma((er trader#, than1fu( to pic1 up a penn! &here er e! cou(d8 +hu# the truc1 #!#tem &a# #uppre##ed, the +en 5our#A <i(( 6 &a# enacted, and a number of other #econdar! reform# introduced E much a*ain#t the #pirit of 'ree +rade and unbrid(ed competition, but Buite a# much in fa our of the *iant$ capita(i#t in hi# competition &ith hi# (e## fa oured brother8 Moreo er, the (ar*er the concern, and &ith it the number of hand#, the *reater the (o## and incon enience cau#ed b! e er! conf(ict bet&een ma#ter and men; and thu# a ne& #pirit came o er the ma#ter#, e#pecia((! the (ar*e one#, &hich tau*ht them to a oid unnece##ar! #Buabb(e#, to acBuie#ce in the exi#tence and po&er of +rade#A Fnion#, and fina((! e en to di#co er in #tri1e# E at opportune time# E a po&erfu( mean# to #er e their o&n end#8 +he (ar*e#t manufacturer#, former(! the (eader# of the &ar a*ain#t the &or1in*$c(a##, &ere no& the foremo#t to preach peace and harmon!8 9nd for a er! *ood rea#on8 +he fact i# that a(( the#e conce##ion# to Du#tice and phi(anthrop! &ere nothin* e(#e but mean# to acce(erate the concentration of capita( in the hand# of the fe&, for &hom the ni**ard(! extra extortion# of former !ear# had (o#t a(( importance and had become actua( nui#ance#; and to cru#h a(( the Buic1er and a(( the #afer their #ma((er competitor#, &ho cou(d not ma1e both end# meet &ithout #uch perBui#ite#8 +hu# the de e(opment of production on the ba#i# of the capita(i#tic #!#tem ha# of it#e(f #ufficed E at (ea#t in the (eadin* indu#trie#, for in the more unimportant branche# thi# i# far from bein* the ca#e E to do a&a! &ith a(( tho#e minor *rie ance# &hich a**ra ated the &or1manA# fate durin* it# ear(ier #ta*e#8 9nd thu# it render# more and more e ident the *reat centra( fact that the cau#e of the mi#erab(e condition of the &or1in*$c(a## i# to be #ou*ht, not in the#e minor *rie ance#, but in the capitalistic system itself. +he &a*e$&or1er #e((# to the capita(i#t hi# (abour$force for a certain dai(! #um8 9fter a fe& hour#A &or1 he ha# reproduced the a(ue of that #um; but the #ub#tance of hi# contract i#, that he ha# to &or1 another #erie# of hour# to comp(ete hi# &or1in*$da!; and the a(ue he produce# durin* the#e additiona( hour# of #urp(u# (abour i# #urp(u# a(ue, &hich co#t# the capita(i#t nothin*, but !et *oe# into hi# poc1et8 +hat i# the ba#i# of the #!#tem &hich tend# more and more to #p(it up ci i(i#ed #ociet! into a fe& =oth#chi(d# and Janderbi(t#, the o&ner# of a(( the mean# of production and #ub#i#tence, on the one hand, and an immen#e number of &a*e$&or1er#, the o&ner# of nothin* but their (abour$force, on the other8 9nd that thi# re#u(t i# cau#ed, not b! thi# or that #econdar! *rie ance, but b! the #!#tem it#e(f E thi# fact ha# been brou*ht out in bo(d re(ief b! the de e(opment of ;apita(i#m in En*(and #ince 184.8 9*ain, the repeated i#itation# of cho(era, t!phu#, #ma(($pox, and other epidemic# ha e #ho&n the <riti#h bour*eoi# the ur*ent nece##it! of #anitation in hi# to&n# and citie#, if he &i#he# to #a e him#e(f and fami(! from fa((in* ictim# to #uch di#ea#e#8 9ccordin*(!, the mo#t cr!in* abu#e# de#cribed in thi# boo1 ha e either di#appeared or ha e been made (e## con#picuou#8 4raina*e ha# been introduced or impro ed, &ide a enue# ha e been opened out ath&art man! of the &or#tC#(um#C " had to de#cribe8C%itt(e "re(andC . had di#appeared, and theCSe en 4ia(#C 8 are next on the (i#t for #&eepin* a&a!8 <ut &hat of thatK Who(e di#trict# &hich in 1844 " cou(d de#cribe a# a(mo#t id!((ic ha e no&, &ith the *ro&th of the to&n#, fa((en into the #ame #tate of di(apidation, di#comfort, and mi#er!8 ?n(! the pi*# and the heap# of refu#e are no (on*er to(erated8 +he bour*eoi#ie ha e made further pro*re## in the art of hidin* the di#tre## of the &or1in*$c(a##8 <ut that, in re*ard to their d&e((in*#, no #ub#tantia( impro ement ha# ta1en p(ace i# amp(! pro ed b! the =eport of the =o!a( ;ommi##ionCon the 5ou#in* of the Poor,C 18858 9nd thi# i# the ca#e, too, in other re#pect#8 Po(ice re*u(ation# ha e been p(entifu( a# b(ac1berrie#; but the! can on(! hed*e in the di#tre## of the &or1er#, the! cannot remo e it8 <ut &hi(e En*(and ha# thu# out*ro&n the Du eni(e #tate of capita(i#t exp(oitation de#cribed b! me, other countrie# ha e on(! Du#t attained it8 'rance, :erman!, and e#pecia((! 9merica, are the formidab(e competitor# &ho, at thi# moment E a# fore#een b! me in 1844 E are more and more

brea1in* up En*(andA# indu#tria( monopo(!8 +heir manufacture# are !oun* a# compared &ith tho#e of En*(and, but increa#in* at a far more rapid rate than the (atter; and, curiou# enou*h, the! ha e at thi# moment arri ed at about the #ame pha#e of de e(opment a# En*(i#h manufacture in 18448 With re*ard to 9merica, the para((e( i# indeed mo#t #tri1in*8 +rue, the externa( #urroundin*# in &hich the &or1in*$c(a## i# p(aced in 9merica are er! different, but the #ame economica( (a&# are at &or1, and the re#u(t#, if not identica( in e er! re#pect, mu#t #ti(( be of the #ame order8 5ence &e find in 9merica the #ame #tru**(e# for a #horter &or1in*$da!, for a (e*a( (imitation of the &or1in*$time, e#pecia((! of &omen and chi(dren in factorie#; &e find the truc1$ #!#tem in fu(( b(o##om, and the cotta*e$#!#tem, in rura( di#trict#, made u#e of b! theCbo##e#C a# a mean# of domination o er the &or1er#8 When " recei ed, in 1886, the 9merican paper# &ith account# of the *reat #tri1e of 16,777 Penn#!( anian coa($miner# in the ;onne((# i((e di#trict, " #eemed but to read m! o&n de#cription of the /orth of En*(and co((ier#A #tri1e of 18448 +he #ame cheatin* of the &or1peop(e b! fa(#e mea#ure; the #ame truc1$#!#tem the #ame attempt to brea1 the miner#A re#i#tance b! the capita(i#t#A (a#t, but cru#hin*, re#ource, E the e iction of the men out of their d&e((in*#, the cotta*e# o&ned b! the companie#8 " ha e not attempted, in thi# tran#(ation, to brin* the boo1 up to date, or to point out in detai( a(( the chan*e# that ha e ta1en p(ace #ince 18448 9nd for t&o rea#on#: 'ir#t(!, to do thi# proper(!, the #i)e of the boo1 mu#t be about doub(ed; and, #econd(!, the fir#t o(ume ofC4a# Hapita(,C b! Har( Marx, an En*(i#h tran#(ation of &hich i# before the pub(ic, contain# a er! amp(e de#cription of the #tate of the <riti#h &or1in*$c(a##, a# it &a# about 1865, that i# to #a!, at the time &hen <riti#h indu#tria( pro#perit! reached it# cu(minatin* point8 " #hou(d, then, ha e been ob(i*ed a*ain to *o o er the *round a(read! co ered b! MarxA# ce(ebrated &or18 "t &i(( be hard(! nece##ar! to point out that the *enera( theoretica( #tandpoint of thi# boo1 E phi(o#ophica(, economica(, po(itica( E doe# not exact(! coincide &ith m! #tandpoint of to$da!8 Modern internationa( Socia(i#m, #ince fu((! de e(oped a# a #cience, chief(! and a(mo#t exc(u#i e(! throu*h the effort# of Marx, did not a# !et exi#t in 18448 M!, boo1 repre#ent# one of the pha#e# of it# embr!onic de e(opment; and a# the human embr!o, in it# ear(! #ta*e#, #ti(( reproduce# the *i(($arche# of our fi#h$ance#tor#, #o thi# boo1 exhibit# e er!&here the trace# of the de#cent of Modern Socia(i#m from one of it# ance#tor#, :erman phi(o#oph!8 +hu# *reat #tre## i# (aid on the dictum that ;ommuni#m i# not a mere part! doctrine of the &or1in*$c(a##, but a theor! compa##in* the emancipation of #ociet! at (ar*e, inc(udin* the capita(i#t c(a##, from it# pre#ent narro& condition#8 +hi# i# true enou*h in the ab#tract, but ab#o(ute(! u#e(e##, and #ometime# &or#e, in practice8 So (on* a# the &ea(th! c(a##e# not on(! do not fee( the &ant of an! emancipation, but #trenuou#(! oppo#e the #e(f$emancipation of the &or1in*$c(a##, #o (on* the #ocia( re o(ution &i(( ha e to be prepared and fou*ht out b! the &or1in*$c(a## a(one8 +he 'rench bour*eoi# of 1.89, too, dec(ared the emancipation of the bour*eoi#ie to be the emancipation of the &ho(e human race; but the nobi(it! and c(er*! &ou(d not #ee it; the propo#ition E thou*h for the time bein*, &ith re#pect to feuda(i#m, an ab#tract hi#torica( truth E #oon became a mere #entimenta(i#m, and di#appeared from ie& a(to*ether in the fire of the re o(utionar! #tru**(e8 9nd to$da!, the er! peop(e &ho, from theCimpartia(it!C of their #uperior #tandpoint, preach to the &or1er# a Socia(i#m #oarin* hi*h abo e their c(a## intere#t# and c(a## #tru**(e#, and tendin* to reconci(e in a hi*her humanit! the intere#t# of both the contendin* c(a##e# E the#e peop(e are either neoph!te#, &ho ha e #ti(( to (earn a *reat dea(, or the! are the &or#t enemie# of the &or1er# E &o( e# in #heepA# c(othin*8 +he recurrin* period of the *reat indu#tria( cri#i# i# #tated in the text a# fi e !ear#8 +hi# &a# the period apparent(! indicated b! the cour#e of e ent# from 1865 to 18468 <ut the indu#tria( hi#tor! from 1846 to 1868 ha# #ho&n that the rea( period i# one of ten !ear#; that the intermediate re u(#ion# &ere #econdar!, and tended more and more to di#appear8 Since 1868 the #tate of thin*# ha# chan*ed a*ain, of &hich more anon8

" ha e ta1en care not to #tri1e out of the text the man! prophecie#, amon*#t other# that of an imminent #ocia( re o(ution in En*(and, &hich m! !outhfu( ardour induced me to enture upon8 +he &onder i#, not that a *ood man! of them pro ed &ron*, but that #o man! of them ha e pro ed ri*ht, and that the critica( #tate of En*(i#h trade, to be brou*ht on b! ;ontinenta( and e#pecia((! 9merican competition, &hich " then fore#a& E thou*h in too #hort a period E ha# no& actua((! come to pa##8 "n thi# re#pect " can, and am bound to, brin* the boo1 up to date, b! p(acin* here an artic(e &hich " pub(i#hed in the %ondon Commonweal of March 1, 1885, under the headin*:CEn*(and in 1845 and in 1885C "t *i e# at the #ame time a #hort out(ine of the hi#tor! of the En*(i#h &or1in*$c(a## durin* the#e fort! !ear#, and i# a# fo((o&#: I'ort! !ear# a*o En*(and #tood face to face &ith a cri#i#, #o( ab(e to a(( appearance# b! force on(!8 +he immen#e and rapid de e(opment of manufacture# had out#tripped the exten#ion of forei*n mar1et# and the increa#e of demand8 E er! ten !ear# the march of indu#tr! &a# io(ent(! interrupted b! a *enera( commercia( cra#h, fo((o&ed, after a (on* period of chronic depre##ion, b! a fe& #hort !ear# of pro#perit!, and a(&a!# endin* in fe eri#h o er$production and con#eBuent rene&ed co((ap#e8 +he capita(i#t c(a## c(amoured for 'ree +rade in corn, and threatened to enforce it b! #endin* the #tar in* popu(ation of the to&n# bac1 to the countr! di#trict# &hence the! came, to in ade them, a# Lohn <ri*ht #aid, not a# pauper# be**in* for bread, but a# an arm! Buartered upon the enem!8 +he &or1in* ma##e# of the to&n# demanded their #hare of po(itica( po&er E the Peop(eA# ;harter; the! &ere #upported b! the maDorit! of the #ma(( tradin* c(a##, and the on(! difference bet&een the t&o &a# &hether the ;harter #hou(d be carried b! ph!#ica( or b! mora( force8 +hen came the

commercia( cra#h of 184. and the "ri#h famine, and &ith both the pro#pect of re o(ution8 I+he 'rench =e o(ution of 1848 #a ed the En*(i#h midd(e$c(a##8 +he Socia(i#tic pronunciamento# midd(e$c(a## of of the ictoriou# and 'rench &or1men fri*htened the #ma(( En*(and di#or*ani#ed the narro&er, but more matter$of$fact mo ement of the En*(i#h &or1in*$c(a##8 9t the er! moment &hen ;harti#m &a# bound to a##ert it#e(f in it# fu(( #tren*th, it co((ap#ed interna((! before e en it co((ap#ed externa((! on the 17th of 9pri(, 18489 8 +he action of the &or1in*$c(a## bac1*round8 &a# +he thru#t into the c(a## capita(i#t

triumphed a(on* the &ho(e (ine8 I+he =eform <i(( of 18>117 had been the ictor! of the &ho(e capita(i#t c(a## o er the (anded ari#tocrac!8 +he repea( of the ;orn %a&# &a# the ictor! of the manufacturin* capita(i#t not ,on(! o er the (anded ari#tocrac!, but o er tho#e #ection# of capita(i#t#, too, &ho#e intere#t# &ere more or (e## bound up &ith the (anded intere#t E ban1er#, #toc1$ Dobber#, fund$ho(der#, etc8 'ree +rade meant the re$adDu#tment of the &ho(e home and forei*n, commercia( and financia( po(ic! of En*(and in accordance &ith the intere#t# of the manufacturin* capita(i#t# E the c(a## &hich no& repre#ented the nation8 9nd

the! #et about thi# ta#1 &ith a &i((8 E er! ob#tac(e to indu#tria( production &a# merci(e##(! remo ed8 +he tariff and the &ho(e #!#tem of taxation &ere re o(utioni#ed8 E er!thin* &a# made #ubordinate to one end, but that end of the utmo#t importance to the manufacturin* capita(i#t: the cheapenin* of a(( ra& produce, and e#pecia((! of the mean# of (i in* of the &or1in*$c(a##; the reduction of the co#t of ra& materia(, and the 1eepin* do&n E if not a# !et thebrin*in* do&n of &a*e#8 En*(and &a# to become the M&or1#hop of the &or(dN; a(( other countrie# &ere to become a(read! for &a# En*(and E &hat "re(and for her mar1et#

manufactured *ood#, #upp(!in* her in return &ith ra& materia(# and food8 En*(and, the *reat manufacturin* centre of an a*ricu(tura( &or(d, &ith an e er$ increa#in* number of corn and cotton$ *ro&in* "re(and# re o( in* around her, the indu#tria( #un8 What a *(oriou# pro#pect@ I+he manufacturin* capita(i#t# #et about the rea(i#ation of thi# their *reat obDect &ith that #tron* common #en#e and that contempt for traditiona( princip(e# &hich ha# e er di#tin*ui#hed them from their more narro&$minded compeer# on the ;ontinent88 ;harti#m &a# d!in* out8 +he re i a( of commercia( pro#perit!, natura( after the re u(#ion of 184. had #pent

it#e(f, &a# put do&n a(to*ether to the credit of 'ree +rade8 <oth the#e circum#tance# had turned the En*(i#h &or1in*$c(a##, po(itica((!, into the tai( of the M*reat %ibera( Part!,A the part! (ed b! the manufacturer#8 +hi# ad anta*e, once *ained, had to be perpetuated8 9nd the manufacturin* capita(i#t#, from the ;harti#t oppo#ition, not to 'ree +rade, but to the tran#formation of 'ree +rade into the one ita( nationa( Bue#tion, had (earnt, and &ere (earnin* more and more, that the midd(e$c(a## can ne er obtain fu(( #ocia( and po(itica( po&er o er the nation except b! the he(p of the &or1in*$c(a##8 +hu# a *radua( chan*e came o er the re(ation# bet&een both c(a##e#8 +he 'actor! 9ct#, once the bu*bear of a(( manufacturer#, &ere not on(! &i((in*(! #ubmitted to, but their expan#ion into act# re*u(atin* a(mo#t a(( trade# &a# to(erated8 +rade#A Fnion#, hitherto con#idered in ention# of the de i( him#e(f, &ere no& petted and patroni#ed a# perfect(! (e*itimate in#titution#, and a# u#efu( mean# of #preadin* #ound economica( doctrine# amon*#t the &or1er#8 E en #tri1e#, than &hich nothin* had been more nefariou# up to 1848, &ere no& *radua((! found out to be occa#iona((! er! u#efu(, e#pecia((! &hen pro o1ed b! the ma#ter# them#e( e#, at their o&n time8 ?f the (e*a( enactment#, p(acin* the &or1man at a (o&er (e e( or at a di#ad anta*e &ith

re*ard to the ma#ter, at (ea#t the mo#t re o(tin* practica((!, &ere that repea(ed8 horrid 9nd, MPeop(eA#

;harterA actua((! became the po(itica( pro*ramme of the er! manufacturer# &ho had oppo#ed it to the (a#t8 M+he 9bo(ition of the Propert! Oua(ificationA and MJote b! <a((otA are no& the (a& of the (and8 +he =eform 9ct# of 186. and 188411 no& ma1e exi#t# a in <i(( near approach to the before e(ectora( :erman!; Muni er#a( #uffra*e,A at (ea#t #uch a# it :erman!; no& MeBua( of =edi#tribution Par(iament uneBua(

create# than tho#e

di#trict#A E on the &ho(e not more Mpa!ment of member#,A and #horter, if not actua((! Mannua( Par(iament#,A are i#ib(! (oomin* in the di#tance E and !et there are peop(e &ho #a! that ;harti#m i# dead8 I+he =e o(ution of 1848, not (e## than man! of it# predece##or#, ha# had #tran*e bedfe((o&# and #ucce##or#8 +he er! peop(e &ho put it do&n ha e become, a# Har( Marx u#ed to #a!, it# te#tamentar! executor#8 %oui# /apo(eon had to create an independent and united "ta(!, <i#marc1 had to re o(utioni#e :erman! and to re#tore 5un*arian independence, ;harter8 and the En*(i#h manufacturer# had to enact the Peop(eA#

I'or En*(and, the effect# of thi# domination of the manufacturin* capita(i#t# &ere at fir#t #tart(in*8 +rade re i ed and extended to a de*ree unheard of e en in thi# crad(e of modern indu#tr!; creation# the of pre iou# #team and a#toundin* machiner!

d&ind(ed into nothin* compared &ith the immen#e ma## of production# of the t&ent! !ear# from 1857 to 18.7, &ith the o er&he(min* fi*ure# of export# and import#, of &ea(th accumu(ated in the hand# of capita(i#t# and of human &or1in* po&er concentrated in the (ar*e to&n#8 +he pro*re## &a# indeed interrupted, a# before, b! a cri#i# e er! ten !ear#, in 185. a# &e(( a# in 1866; but the#e re u(#ion# &ere no& con#idered a# natura(, ine itab(e e ent#, &hich mu#t be fata(i#tica((! #ubmitted to, and &hich a(&a!# #et them#e( e# ri*ht in the end8 I9nd the condition of the &or1in*$c(a## durin* thi# periodK +here &a# temporar! impro ement e en for the *reat ma##8 <ut thi# impro ement a(&a!# &a# reduced to the o(d (e e( b! the inf(ux of the *reat bod! of the unemp(o!ed re#er e, b! the con#tant #uper#edin* of hand# b! ne& machiner!, b! the immi*ration of the a*ricu(tura( popu(ation, no&, too, more and more #uper#eded b! machine#8 I9 permanent impro ement can be reco*ni#ed for t&o MprotectedA #ection#

on(! of the &or1in*$c(a##8 'ir#t(!, the factor! hand#8 +he fixin* b! 9ct of Par(iament of their &or1in*$da! &ithin re(ati e(! rationa( (imit# ha# re#tored their ph!#ica( con#titution and endo&ed them &ith a mora( #uperiorit!, enhanced b! their (oca( concentration8 +he! are undoubted(! better off than before 18488 +he be#t proof i# that, out of ten #tri1e# the! ma1e, nine are pro o1ed b! the manufacturer# in their o&n intere#t#, a# the on(! mean# of #ecurin* a reduced production8 0ou can ne er *et the ma#ter# to a*ree to &or1 M#hort time,A (et manufactured *ood# be e er #o un#a(eab(e; but *et the &or1$peop(e to #tri1e, and the ma#ter# #hut their factorie# to a man8 ISecond(!, the *reat +rade#A Fnion#8 +he! are the or*ani#ation# of tho#e trade# in &hich the (abour of *ro&n$up men predominate#, or i# a(one app(icab(e8 5ere the competition neither of &omen and chi(dren nor of machiner! ha# #o far &ea1ened their or*ani#ed #tren*th8 +he en*ineer#, the carpenter# and Doiner#, the bric1(a!er#, are each of them a po&er, to that extent that, a# in the ca#e of the bric1(a!er# and bric1(a!er#A (abourer#, the! can e en #ucce##fu((! re#i#t the introduction of machiner!8 +hat their condition ha# remar1ab(! impro ed #ince 1848 there can be no doubt, and the be#t proof of

thi# i# in the fact that for more than fifteen !ear# not on(! ha e their emp(o!er# been &ith them, but the! &ith their emp(o!er#, upon exceedin*(! *ood term#8 +he! form an ari#tocrac! amon* the &or1in*$c(a##; the! ha e #ucceeded in enforcin* for them#e( e# a re(ati e(! comfortab(e po#ition, and the! accept it a# fina(8 +he! are the mode( &or1in*$ men of Me##r#8 %eone %e i P :iffen, and the! are er! nice peop(e indeed no&ada!# to dea( &ith, for an! #en#ib(e capita(i#t in particu(ar and for the &ho(e capita(i#t c(a## in *enera(8 I<ut a# to the *reat ma## of &or1in*$ peop(e, the #tate of mi#er! and in#ecurit! in &hich the! (i e no& i# a# (o& a# e er, if not (o&er8 +he Ea#t End of %ondon i# an e er$#preadin* poo( of #ta*nant mi#er! and de#o(ation, of #tar ation &hen out of &or1, and de*radation, ph!#ica( and mora(, &hen in &or18 9nd #o in a(( other (ar*e to&n# E ab#traction made of the pri i(e*ed minorit! of the &or1er#; and #o in the #ma((er to&n# and in the a*ricu(tura( di#trict#8 +he (a& &hich reduce# the a(ue of (abour$po&er to the a(ue of the nece##ar! mean# of #ub#i#tence, and the other (a& &hich reduce# it# a era*e price, a# a ru(e, to the minimum of tho#e mean# of #ub#i#tence, the#e (a&# act upon them &ith the irre#i#tib(e force of an automatic en*ine &hich cru#he# them bet&een it# &hee(#8

I+hi#, then, &a# the po#ition created b! the 'ree +rade po(ic! of 184., and b! t&ent! !ear# of the ru(e of the manufacturin* capita(i#t#8 <ut then a chan*e came8 +he cra#h of 1866 &a#, indeed, fo((o&ed b! a #(i*ht and #hort re i a( about 18.>; but that did not (a#t8 We did not, indeed, pa## throu*h the fu(( cri#i# at the time it &a# due, in 18.. or 18.8; but &e ha e had, e er #ince 18.6, a chronic #tate of #ta*nation in a(( dominant branche# of indu#tr!8 /either &i(( the fu(( cra#h come; nor &i(( the period of (on*ed$for pro#perit! to &hich &e u#ed to be entit(ed before and after it8 9 du(( depre##ion, a chronic *(ut of a(( mar1et# for a(( trade#, that i# &hat &e ha e been (i in* Min for near(! ten !ear#8 5o& i# thi#K I+he 'ree +rade theor! &a# ba#ed upon one a##umption: that En*(and &a# to be the one *reat manufacturin* centre of an a*ricu(tura( &or(d8 9nd the actua( fact i# that thi# a##umption ha# turned out to be a pure de(u#ion8 +he condition# of modern indu#tr!, #team$po&er and machiner!, can be e#tab(i#hed &here er there i# fue(, e#pecia((! coa(#8 9nd other countrie# be#ide# En*(and E 'rance, <e(*ium, :erman!, 9merica, e en =u##ia E ha e coa(#8 9nd the peop(e o er there did not #ee the ad anta*e of bein* turned into "ri#h pauper farmer# mere(! for the *reater &ea(th and *(or! of

En*(i#h capita(i#t#8 +he! #et re#o(ute(! about manufacturin*, not on(! for them#e( e#, but for the re#t of the &or(d; and the con#eBuence for near(! a i# that centur! the i# manufacturin* monopo(! enDo!ed b! En*(and irretrie ab(! bro1en up8 I<ut the manufacturin* monopo(! of En*(and i# the pi ot of the pre#ent #ocia( #!#tem of En*(and8 E en &hi(e that monopo(! (a#ted, the mar1et# cou(d not 1eep the pace decennia( &ith the increa#in* &ere the producti it! of En*(i#h manufacturer#; cri#e# con#eBuence8 9nd ne& mar1et# are *ettin* #carcer e er! da!, #o much #o that e en the /e*roe# of the ;on*o are no& to be forced into the ci i(i#ation attendant hard&are8 *ood# #hare, upon 5o& in Manche#ter &i(( in he(d it be ca(ico#, &hen Stafford#hire potter!, and <irmin*ham ;ontinenta(, and e#pecia((! 9merican, f(o& #ti(( e er$increa#in* b! <riti#h Buantitie# E &hen the predominatin* manufacturer#, &i(( become reduced from !ear to !earK 9n#&er, 'ree +rade, thou uni er#a( panacea8 I" am not the fir#t to point thi# out8 9(read! in 188>, at the Southport meetin* of the <riti#h 9##ociation,16 Mr8 "n*(i# Pa(*ra e, the Pre#ident of the Economic #ection, #tated p(ain(! that Mthe da!# of *reat trade profit# in

En*(and &ere o er, and there &a# a pau#e in the pro*re## of #e era( *reat branche# of indu#tria( (abour8 +he countr! mi*ht a(mo#t be #aid to be enterin* the non$pro*re##i e #tate8A I<ut &hat i# to be the con#eBuenceK ;apita(i#t production cannot #top8 "t mu#t *o on increa#in* and expandin*, or it mu#t die8 E en no& the mere reduction of En*(andA# (ionA# #hare in the #upp(! of the &or(dA# mar1et# mean# #ta*nation, di#tre##, exce## of capita( here, exce## of unemp(o!ed &or1peop(e there8 What &i(( it be &hen the increa#e of !ear(! production i# brou*ht to a comp(ete #topK I5ere i# the u(nerab(e p(ace, the hee( of 9chi((e#, for capita(i#tic production8 "t# er! ba#i# i# the nece##it! of con#tant expan#ion, and thi# con#tant expan#ion no& become# impo##ib(e8 "t end# in a dead(oc18 E er! !ear En*(and i# brou*ht nearer face to face &ith the Bue#tion: either the countr! mu#t *o to piece#, or capita(i#t production mu#t8 Which i# it to beK I9nd the &or1in*$c(a##K "f e en under the unpara((e(ed commercia( and indu#tria( expan#ion, from 1848 to 1868, the! ha e had to under*o #uch mi#er!; if e en then the *reat bu(1 of them experienced at be#t but a temporar! impro ement of their condition, &hi(e on(! a #ma((, pri i(e*ed, MprotectedA

minorit! &a# permanent(! benefited, &hat &i(( it be &hen thi# da))(in* period i# brou*ht fina((! to a c(o#e; &hen the pre#ent drear! #ta*nation #ha(( not on(! become inten#ified, but thi#, it# inten#ified condition, #ha(( become the permanent and norma( #tate of En*(i#h tradeK I+he truth i# thi#: durin* the period of En*(andA# indu#tria( monopo(! the En*(i#h &or1in*$c(a## ha e, to a certain extent, #hared in the benefit# of the monopo(!8 +he#e benefit# &ere er! uneBua((! parce((ed out amon*#t them; the pri i(e*ed minorit! poc1eted mo#t, but e en the *reat ma## had, at (ea#t, a temporar! #hare no& and then8 9nd that i# the rea#on &h!, #ince the d!in*$out of ?&eni#m, there ha# been no Socia(i#m in En*(and8 With the brea1do&n of that monopo(!, the En*(i#h &or1in*$c(a## &i(( (o#e that pri i(e*ed po#ition; it &i(( find it#e(f *enera((! E the pri i(e*ed and (eadin* minorit! not excepted on a (e e( &ith it# fe((o&$&or1er# abroad8 9nd that i# the rea#on &h! there &i(( be Socia(i#m a*ain in En*(and8C +o thi# #tatement of the ca#e, a# that ca#e appeared to me "n 1885, " ha e but (itt(e to add8 /eed(e## to #a! that to$da! there i# indeedCSocia(i#m a*ain in En*(and,C and p(ent! of it E Socia(i#m E Socia(i#m of a(( #hade#: Socia(i#m con#ciou# and uncon#ciou#, Socia(i#m pro#aic and poetic, Socia(i#m of the &or1in*$c(a## and of the midd(e$c(a##, for, eri(!, that abomination of ,abomination#, Socia(i#m, ha# not on(! become re#pectab(e, but 8ha# actua((! donned e enin* dre## and (oun*e# (a)i(! on dra&in*$room causeuses. +hat #ho&# the incurab(e fic1(ene## of that terrib(e de#pot ofC#ociet!,C midd(e$c(a## pub(ic opinion, and once more Du#tifie# the contempt in &hich &e Socia(i#t# of a pa#t *eneration a(&a!# he(d that pub(ic opinion8 9t the #ame time &e ha e no rea#on to *rumb(e at the #!mptom it#e(f8

What " con#ider far more important than thi# momentar! fa#hion amon* bour*eoi# circ(e# of affectin* a mi(d di(ution of Socia(i#m, and e en more than the actua( pro*re## Socia(i#m ha# made in En*(and *enera((!, that i# the re i a( of the Ea#t End of %ondon8 +hat immen#e haunt of mi#er! i# no (on*er the #ta*nant poo( it &a# #ix !ear# a*o8 "t ha# #ha1en off it# torpid de#pair, ha# returned to (ife, and ha# become the home of &hat i# ca((ed theC/e& Fnioni#m,C that i# to #a!, of the or*ani#ation of the *reat ma## ofCun#1i((edC &or1er#8 +hi# or*ani#ation ma! to a *reat extent adopt the form of the o(d Fnion# ofC#1i((edC &or1er# but it i# e##entia((! different in character8 +he o(d Fnion# pre#er e the tradition# of the time &hen the! &ere, founded, and (oo1 upon the &a*e# #!#tem a# a once$for$a(( e#tab(i#hed, fina( fact, &hich the! at be#t can modif! in the intere#t of their member#8 +he ne& Fnion# &ere founded at a time &hen the faith in the eternit! of the &a*e# #!#tem &a# #e ere(! #ha1en; their founder# and promoter# &ere Socia(i#t# either con#ciou#(! or b! fee(in*; the ma##e#, &ho#e adhe#ion *a e them #tren*th, &ere rou*h, ne*(ected, (oo1ed do&n upon b! the &or1in*$c(a## ari#tocrac!; but the! had thi# immen#e ad anta*e, that their minds were virgin #oi(, entire(! free from the inheritedCre#pectab(eC bour*eoi# preDudice# &hich hampered the brain# of the better #ituatedCo(dC Fnioni#t#8 9nd thu# &e #ee no& the#e ne& Fnion# ta1in* the (ead of the &or1in*$c(a## mo ement *enera((!, and more and more ta1in* in to& the rich and proudCo(dC Fnion#8 Fndoubted(!, the Ea#t Ender# ha e committed co(o##a( b(under#; #o ha e their predece##or#, and #o do the doctrinaire Socia(i#t# &ho pooh$pooh them8 9 (ar*e c(a##, (i1e a *reat nation, ne er (earn# better or Buic1er than b! under*oin* the con#eBuence# of it# o&n mi#ta1e#8 9nd for a(( the fau(t# committed in pa#t, pre#ent and future, the re i a( of the Ea#t End of %ondon remain# one of the *reate#t and mo#t fruitfu( fact# of thi# fin de sicle, and *(ad and proud " am to ha e (i ed to #ee it81>

Preface to the Second German Edition (1892

+he boo1 here&ith a*ain made a ai(ab(e to the :erman pub(ic fir#t appeared in the #ummer of 18458 <oth in it# #tren*th# and in it# &ea1ne##e# it bear# the #tamp of the authorA# !outh8 9t the time, " &a# t&ent!$four; toda!, " am thrice a# o(d, and a# " re$read thi# ear(! &or1 " find " need not be a#hamed of it on an! count8 So " ha e no intention of #omeho& ob(iteratin* thi# #tamp of !outhfu(ne##8 " am pre#entin* m! &or1 to the reader a*ain, unchan*ed8 " ha e on(! &orded more preci#e(! a fe& not entire(! c(ear pa##a*e# and added, here and there, a brief footnote, mar1ed &ith the pre#ent date ,1896-8 9# for the fate of thi# boo1, " &i(( on(! mention that an En*(i#h tran#(ation of it ,b! Mr#8 '(orence He((e!$Wi#chne&et)1!- came out in /e& 0or1 in 188. and &a# a(#o pub(i#hed b! S&an Sonnen#chein P ;o8 in %ondon in 18968 +he preface to the 9merican edition under(ie# that to the En*(i#h one, and the (atter in it# turn under(ie# the pre#ent :erman preface8 Modern (ar*e$#ca(e indu#tr! ma1e# the economic condition# in a(( the countrie# affected uniform to #uch an enormou# extent that " hard(! need te(( the :erman reader an!thin* different from &hat " te(( the 9merican or En*(i#h8 +he #tate of thin*# de#cribed in thi# boo1 be(on*# toda! in man! re#pect#, to the pa#t, a# far a# En*(and i# concerned8 +hou*h not expre##(! #tated in our reco*ni#ed treati#e#, it i# #ti(( a (a& of modern po(itica( econom! that the (ar*er the #ca(e on &hich capita(i#tic production i# carried on, the (e## can it #upport the pett! de ice# of #&ind(in* and pi(ferin* &hich characteri#e it# ear(! #ta*e#8 +he pettifo**in* bu#ine## tric1# of the Po(i#h Le&, the repre#entati e in Europe of commerce in it# (o&e#t #ta*e, tho#e tric1# that #er e him #o &e(( in hi# o&n countr!, and are *enera((! practi#ed there, fai( him once he come# to 5ambur* or <er(in; and, a*ain, the commi##ion a*ent &ho hai(# from <er(in or 5ambur*, Le& or ;hri#tian, after freBuentin* the Manche#ter Exchan*e, find# out that in order to bu! cotton !arn or c(oth cheap, he, too, had better drop tho#e #(i*ht(! more refined but #ti(( mi#erab(e &i(e# and #ubterfu*e# &hich are con#idered the acme of c(e erne## in hi# nati e countr!8 ?f cour#e, &ith the pro*re## of (ar*e$#ca(e indu#tr! a *reat dea( ha# #uppo#ed(! chan*ed in :erman! too, and a bad odour no& attache#, particu(ar(! #ince the indu#tria( Lena of Phi(ade(phia, 68> e en to the time$honoured :erman princip(e: Peop(e &i(( be nothin* but p(ea#ed if &e fir#t #end them *ood #amp(e# and then bad *ood#8 +he fact i#, tho#e tric1# do not pa! an! (on*er in a (ar*e mar1et, &here time i# mone!, and &here a certain #tandard of commercia( mora(it! i# una oidab(! de e(oped not becau#e of an! con#ideration# of irtue, but pure(! a# a mean# of #a in* time and troub(e8 9nd exact(! the #ame ha# ta1en p(ace in En*(and &ith the re(ation bet&een the manufacturer and hi#Chand#C8 +he re i a( of trade, after the cri#i# of 184., &a# the da&n of a ne& indu#tria( epoch8 +he repea( of the ;orn %a&# 184 and the financia( reform# #ub#eBuent thereon *a e to En*(i#h indu#tr! and commerce a(( the e(bo&$room the! had a#1ed for8 +he di#co er! of the ;a(ifornian and 9u#tra(ian *o(dfie(d# fo((o&ed in rapid #ucce##ion8 +he co(onia( mar1et# de e(oped at an increa#in* rate their capacit! for ab#orbin* En*(i#h manufactured *ood#8 "n "ndia mi((ion# of hand&ea er# &ere fina((! cru#hed out b! the %anca#hire po&er$(oom8 ;hina &a# more and more bein* opened up8 <ut mo#t important of a((, 9merica &a# de e(opin* at a rate unprecedented e en for that countr! of tremendou# pro*re##; and 9merica, it &i(( be reca((ed, &a# then mere(! a co(onia( mar1et, indeed the (ar*e#t of a((, i8e8, a countr! #upp(!in* ra& materia(# and importin* indu#tria( product#, notab(! from En*(and8 9nd, fina((!, the ne& mean# of communication introduced at the c(o#e of the precedin* period$ rai(&a!# and ocean #teamer#&ere no& &or1ed out on an internationa( #ca(e; the! rea(i#ed actua((!

&hat had hitherto exi#ted on(! potentia((!, a &or(d$mar1et8 +hi# &or(d$mar1et, at the time, &a# #ti(( compo#ed of a number of chief(! or entire(! a*ricu(tura( countrie# *rouped around one manufacturin* centre E En*(and E &hich con#umed the *reater part of their #urp(u# ra& produce, and #upp(ied them in return &ith the *reater part of their reBuirement# in manufactured artic(e#8 /o &onder, therefore, that En*(andA# indu#tria( pro*re## &a# co(o##a( and unpara((e((ed, and #uch that the #tatu# of 1844 no& appear# to u# a# comparati e(! in#i*nificant, a(mo#t primiti e8 9nd in proportion a# thi# increa#e too1 p(ace, in the #ame proportion did manufacturin* indu#tr! become apparent(! mora(i#ed8 +he competition of manufacturer a*ain#t manufacturer b! mean# of pett! theft# upon the &or1peop(e did no (on*er pa!8 +rade had out*ro&n #uch (o& mean# of ma1in* mone!; the manufacturin* mi((ionaire had to 1no& better than &a#te hi# time on pett! tric1# of thi# 1ind8 Such practice# &ere *ood enou*h, at be#t, for #ma(( fr! in need of mone!, &ho had to #nap up e er! penn! in order not to #uccumb to competition8 +hu# the truck system &a# #uppre##ed, the +en$5our#A <i(( &a# enacted, and a number of other #econdar! reform# introduced$much a*ain#t the #pirit of 'ree +rade and unbrid(ed competition, but Buite a# much in fa our of the *iant$capita(i#t in hi# competition &ith hi# (e## fa oured brother8 Moreo er, the (ar*er the concern, and &ith it the number of &or1er#, the *reater the (o## and incon enience cau#ed b! e er! conf(ict &ith the &or1er# and thu# a ne& #pirit came o er the manufacturer#, e#pecia((! the (ar*e#t one#, &hich tau*ht them to a oid unnece##ar! #Buabb(e#, to acBuie#ce in the exi#tence and po&er of trades unions, and fina((! e en to di#co er in #tri1e#$at opportune time# E a po&erfu( mean# to #er e their o&n end#8 +he (ar*e#t manufacturer#, former(! the (eader# of the &ar a*ain#t the &or1in* c(a##, &ere no& the foremo#t to preach peace and harmon!8 9nd for a er! *ood rea#on8 9(( the#e conce##ion# to Du#tice and phi(anthrop! &ere nothin* e(#e but mean# to acce(erate the concentration of capita( in the hand# of the fe& and cru#hin* the #ma((er competitor#, &ho cou(d not #ur i e &ithout extra receipt# of thi# #ort8 +o the#e fe&, the pett! acce##or! extortion# of ear(ier !ear# had not on(! (o#t a(( #i*nificance but had turned, a# it &ere, into hindrance# to (ar*e$ #ca(e bu#ine##8 +hu# the de e(opment of production on the ba#i# of the capita(i#tic #!#tem ha# of it#e(f #ufficed E at (ea#t in the (eadin* indu#trie#, for in the more unimportant branche# thi# i# far from bein* the ca#e E to do a&a! &ith a(( tho#e minor *rie ance# &hich a**ra ated the &or1manA# fate durin* it# ear(ier !ear#8 9nd thu# it render# more and more e ident the *reat centra( fact that the cau#e of the mi#erab(e condition of the &or1in* c(a## i# to be #ou*ht, not in the#e minor *rie ance#, but in the capitalistic system itself. +he &or1er #e((# to the capita(i#t hi# (abour$force for a certain dai(! #um8 9fter a fe& hour#A &or1 he ha# reproduced the a(ue of that #um; but the #ub#tance of hi# contract i#, that he ha# to &or1 another #erie# of hour# to comp(ete hi# &or1in*$da!; and the a(ue he produce# durin* the#e additiona( hour# of #urp(u# (abour i# #urp(u# a(ue, &hich co#t# the capita(i#t nothin*, but !et *oe# into hi# poc1et8 +hat i# the ba#i# of the #!#tem &hich tend# more and more to #p(it up ci i(i#ed #ociet! into a fe& =oth#chi(d# and Janderbi(t#, the o&ner# of a(( the mean# of production and #ub#i#tence, on the one hand, and an immen#e number of &a*e$&or1er#, the o&ner# of nothin* but their (abour$force, on the other8 9nd that thi# re#u(t i# cau#ed, not b! thi# or that #econdar! *rie ance, but b! the #!#tem it#e(f E thi# fact ha# been brou*ht out in bo(d re(ief b! the de e(opment of capita(i#m in En*(and8 9*ain, the repeated i#itation# of cho(era, t!phu#, #ma((pox, and other epidemic# ha e #ho&n the <riti#h bour*eoi# the ur*ent nece##it! of #anitation in hi# to&n# and citie#, if he &i#he# to #a e him#e(f and fami(! from fa((in* ictim# to #uch di#ea#e#8 9ccordin*(!, the mo#t cr!in* abu#e# de#cribed in thi# boo1 ha e either di#appeared or ha e been made (e## con#picuou#8 4raina*e ha# been introduced or impro ed, &ide a enue# ha e been opened out ath&art man! of the &or#tC#(um#C8C%itt(e "re(andC had di#appeared, and theC#e en dia(#C 686 are next on the (i#t for

#&eepin* a&a!8 <ut &hat of thatK Who(e di#trict# &hich in 1844 " cou(d de#cribe a# a(mo#t id!((ic ha e no&, &ith the *ro&th of the to&n#, fa((en into the #ame #tate of di(apidation, di#comfort, and mi#er!8 ?n(! the pi*# and the heap# of refu#e are no (on*ei8 to(erated8 +he bour*eoi#ie ha e made further pro*re## in the art of hidin* the di#tre## of the &or1in* c(a##8 <ut that, in re*ard to their d&e((in*#, no #ub#tantia( impro ement ha# ta1en p(ace i# amp(! pro ed b! the =eport of the =o!a( ;ommi##ionC?n the 5ou#in* of the PoorC, 18858 9nd thi# i# the ca#e, too( in other8 re#pect#8 Po(ice re*u(ation# ha e been p(entifu( a# b(ac1berrie#; but the! can on(! hed*e in the di#tre## of the &or1er#, the! cannot remo e it8 <ut &hi(e En*(and ha# thu# out*ro&n the Du eni(e #tate of capita(i#t exp(oitation de#cribed b! me, other countrie# ha e on(! Du#t attained it8 'rance, :erman!, and e#pecia((! 9merica, are the formidab(e competitor# &ho, at thi# moment E a# fore#een b! me QSee Report of the Royal Commission on the Housing of the Working Classes. England and Wales , 18858$Ed8R "n 1844 $ are more and more brea1in* up En*(andA# indu#tria( monopo(!8 +heir manufacture# are !oun* a# compared &ith tho#e of En*(and, but increa#in* at a far more rapid rate than the (atter; and the! ha e at thi# moment arri ed at about the #ame pha#e of de e(opment a# En*(i#h manufacture in 18448 With re*ard to 9merica, the para((e( i# indeed mo#t #tri1in*8 +rue, the externa( #urroundin*# in &hich the &or1in* c(a## i# p(aced in 9merica are er! different, but the #ame economica( (a&# are at &or1, and the re#u(t#, if not identica( in e er! re#pect, mu#t #ti(( be of the #ame order8 5ence &e find in 9merica the #ame #tru**(e# for a #horter &or1in*$da!, for a (e*a( (imitation of the &or1in*$time, e#pecia((! of &omen and chi(dren in factorie#; &e find the truc1 #!#tem in fu(( b(o##om, and the cotta*e #!#tem, in rura( di#trict#, made u#e of b! theC<?SSESC, the capita(i#t# and their a*ent#, a# a mean# of domination o er the &or1er#8 When " recei ed, in 1886, the 9merican paper# &ith account# of the *reat #tri1e of 16,777 Penn#!( anian coa($miner# in the ;onne((# i((e di#trict, " #eemed but to read m! o&n de#cription of the /orth of En*(and co((ier#N #tri1e of 18448 +he #ame cheatin* of the &or1peop(e b! fa(#e mea#ure; the #ame truc1 #!#tem; the #ame attempt to brea1 the miner#A re#i#tance b! the capita(i#t#A (a#t, but cru#hin*, re#ource E the e iction of the men out of their d&e((in*#, the cotta*e# o&ned b! the companie#8 /either here nor in the En*(i#h edition# did " tr! to update the boo1, i8e8 to (i#t one b! one the chan*e# that ha e ta1en p(ace #ince 18448 " did not do it for t&o rea#on#8 'ir#t(!, " &ou(d ha e had to doub(e the o(ume of the boo18 9nd #econd(!, Jo(ume ?ne of MarxA# Capital *i e# a detai(ed de#cription of the condition of the <riti#h &or1in* c(a## for about 1865, i8e8 the time &hen <ritainA# indu#tria( pro#perit! had reached it# pea18 " &ou(d therefore ha e had to repeat &hat Marx #a!#8 "t &i(( be hard(! nece##ar! to point out that the *enera( theoretica( #tandpoint of thi# boo1 E phi(o#ophica(, economica(, po(itica( E doe# not exact(! coincide &ith m! #tandpoint of to$da!8 Modern internationa( #ocia(i#m, #ince fu((! de e(oped a# a #cience, chief(! and a(mo#t exc(u#i e(! throu*h the effort# of Marx, did not a# !et exi#t in 18448 M! boo1 repre#ent# one of the pha#e# of it# embr!onic de e(opment; and a# the human embr!o, in it# ear(! #ta*e#, #ti(( reproduce# the *i(($ arche# of our fi#h$ance#tor#, #o thi# boo1 exhibit# e er!&here the trace# of the de#cent of modern QSee pre#ent edition, Jo(8 4, pp8 547$4.8$Ed8R #ocia(i#m from one of it# ance#tor#, :erman c(a##ica( phi(o#oph!8 +hu# *reat #tre## i# (aid on the dictum that communi#m i# not a mere part! doctrine of the &or1in* c(a##, but a theor! compa##in* the emancipation of #ociet! at (ar*e, inc(udin* the capita(i#t c(a##, from it# pre#ent narro& condition#8 +hi# i# true enou*h in the ab#tract, but ab#o(ute(! u#e(e##, and #ometime# &or#e, in practice8 So (on* a# the &ea(th! c(a##e# not on(! do not fee( the &ant of an! emancipation, but #trenuou#(! oppo#e the #e(f$emancipation of the &or1in* c(a##, #o (on* the #ocia( re o(ution &i(( ha e to be prepared and fou*ht out b! the &or1in* c(a## a(one8 +he 'rench bour*eoi# of 1.89, too, dec(ared the emancipation of the bour*eoi#ie to be the emancipation of the &ho(e human race; but the nobi(it! and c(er*! &ou(d not #ee it; the propo#ition E thou*h for the time bein*, &ith re#pect to feuda(i#m, an ab#tract

hi#torica( truth E #oon became a mere #entimenta(i#m, and di#appeared from ie& a(to*ether in the fire of the re o(utionar! #tru**(e8 9nd to$da!, the er! peop(e &ho, from theCimpartia(it!C of their #uperior #tandpoint, preach to the &or1er# a #ocia(i#m #oarin* hi*h abo e their c(a## intere#t# and c(a## #tru**(e#$the#e peop(e are either neoph!te#, &ho ha e #ti(( to (earn a *reat dea(, or the! are the &or#t enemie# of the &or1er#$&o( e# in #heepA# c(othin*8 +he recurrin* period of the *reat indu#tria( cri#i# i# #tated in the text a# fi e !ear#8 +hi# &a# the period apparent(! indicated b! the cour#e of e ent# from 1865 to 18468 <ut the indu#tria( hi#tor! from 1846 to 1868 ha# #ho&n that the rea( period i# one of ten !ear#; that the intermediate re u(#ion# &ere #econdar!, and had been increa#in*(! di#appearin* from 1846 on&ard#8 Since 1868 the #tate of thin*# ha# chan*ed a*ain, of &hich more anon8 " ha e ta1en care not to #tri1e out of the text the man! prophecie#, amon*#t other# that of an imminent #ocia( re o(ution in En*(and, &hich m! !outhfu( ardour induced me to enture upon8 +he &onder i#, not that a *ood man! of the#e prophecie# pro ed &ron*, but that #o man! of them ha e pro ed ri*ht, and that the critica( #tate of En*(i#h trade, to be brou*ht on b! ;ontinenta( and e#pecia((! 9merican competition, &hich " then fore#a& E thou*h in too #hort a period E ha# no& actua((! come to pa##8 "n thi# re#pect " am bound to brin* the boo1 up to date, b! p(acin* here an artic(e &hich appeared in the %ondon ;ommon&ea( of March 1, 1885 in En*(i#h and in Neue eit in Lune of the #ame !ear ,"##ue 6- in :erman8 I'ort! !ear# a*o En*(and #tood face to face &ith a cri#i#, #o( ab(e to a(( appearance# b! force on(!8 +he immen#e and rapid de e(opment of manufacture# had out#tripped the exten#ion of forei*n mar1et# and the increa#e of demand8 E er! ten !ear# the march of indu#tr! &a# io(ent(! interrupted b! a *enera( commercia( cra#h, fo((o&ed, after a (on* period ofA chronic depre##ion, b! a fe& #hort !ear# of pro#perit!, and a(&a!# endin* in fe eri#h o er$production and con#eBuent rene&ed co((ap#e8 +he capita(i#t c(a## c(amoured for 'ree +rade in corn, and threatened to enforce it b! #endin* the #tar in* popu(ation of the to&n# bac1 to the countr! di#trict# &hence the! came, to in ade them, a# Lohn <ri*ht #aid, not a# pauper# be**in* for bread, but a# an arm! Buartered upon the enem!8 +he &or1in* ma##e# of the to&n# demanded their #hare of po(itica( po&er E the Peop(eA# ;harter; the! &ere #upported b! the maDorit! of the #ma(( tradin* c(a##, and the on(! difference bet&een the t&o &a# &hether the ;harter #hou(d be carried b! ph!#ica( or b! mora( force8 +hen came the commercia( cra#h of 184. and the "ri#h famine, and &ith both the pro#pect of re o(ution8 I+he 'rench =e o(ution of 1848 #a ed the En*(i#h midd(e c(a##8 +he Socia(i#tic pronunciamento# midd(e c(a## of of the ictoriou# and 'rench &or1men fri*htened the #ma(( En*(and di#or*ani#ed the narro&er, but more matter$of$fact mo ement of the En*(i#h &or1in* c(a##8 9t the er! moment &hen ;harti#m &a# bound to a##ert it#e(f in it# fu(( #tren*th, it co((ap#ed interna((! before e en it co((ap#ed externa((!, on the 17th of 9pri(, 18488 +he action of the

&or1in* c(a## &a# thru#t into the bac1*round8 +he capita(i#t c(a## triumphed a(on* the &ho(e (ine8 I+he =eform <i(( of 18>1 had been the ictor! of the &ho(e capita(i#t c(a## o er the (anded ari#tocrac!8 +he repea( of the ;orn %a&# &a# the ictor! of the manufacturin* capita(i#t not on(! o er the (anded ari#tocrac!, but o er tho#e #ection# &ith of capita(i#t#, (anded too, &ho#e intere#t# &ere more or (e## bound up the intere#t$ban1er#, #toc1Dobber#, fundho(der#, etc8 'ree +rade meant the readDu#tment of the &ho(e home and forei*n, commercia( and financia( po(ic! of En*(and in accordance &ith the intere#t# of the manufacturin* capita(i#t# E the c(a## &hich no& Q+he#e &ord# be(on* apparent(! not to <ri*ht but to hi# adherent#8 See !he "uarterly Review, Jo(8 .1, /o8 141, p8 6.>8$ Ed8Rrepre#ented the nation8 9nd the! #et about thi# ta#1 &ith a &i((8 E er! ob#tac(e to indu#tria( production &a# merci(e##(! remo ed8 +he tariff and the &ho(e #!#tem of taxation &ere re o(utioni#ed8 E er!thin* &a# made #ubordinate to one end, but that end of the utmo#t importance to the manufacturin* capita(i#t: the cheapenin* of a(( ra& produce, and e#pecia((! of the mean# of (i in* of the &or1in* c(a##; the reduction of the co#t of ra& materia(, and

the 1eepin* do&n E if not a# !et the brin*in* do&n $ of &a*e#8 En*(and &a# to become the M&or1#hop of the &or(dA; a(( other countrie# &ere to become for En*(and &hat "re(and a(read! &a#$ mar1et# for her manufactured *ood#, #upp(!in* her in return &ith ra& materia(# and food8 En*(and, the *reat manufacturin* centre of an a*ricu(tura( &or(d, &ith an e er$increa#in* number of corn and cotton$*ro&in* "re(and# re o( in* around her, the indu#tria( #un8 What a *(oriou# pro#pect@ I+he manufacturin* capita(i#t# #et about the rea(i#ation of thi# their *reat obDect &ith that #tron* common #en#e and that contempt for traditiona( princip(e# &hich ha# e er di#tin*ui#hed them from their more narro&$minded compeer# on the ;ontinent8 ;harti#m &a# d!in* out8 +he re i a( of commercia( pro#perit!, natura( after the re u(#ion of 184. had #pent it#e(f, &a# put do&n a(to*ether to the credit of 'ree +rade8 <oth the#e circum#tance# had turned the En*(i#h &or1in* c(a##, po(itica((!, into the tai( of the M*reat %ibera( Part!A, the part! (ed b! the manufacturer#8 +hi# ad anta*e, once *ained, had to be perpetuated8 9nd the manufacturin* capita(i#t#, from the ;harti#t oppo#ition, not to 'ree +rade, but to the tran#formation of 'ree +rade into the one ita( nationa( Bue#tion, had (earnt, and &ere (earnin* more and more,

that the midd(e c(a## can ne er obtain fu(( #ocia( and po(itica( po&er o er the nation except b! the he(p of the &or1in* c(a##8 +hu# a *radua( chan*e came o er the re(ation# bet&een both c(a##e#8 +he 'actor! 9ct#, once the bu*bear of a(( manufacturer#, &ere not on(! &i((in*(! #ubmitted to, but their expan#ion into act# re*u(atin* a(mo#t a(( trade# &a# to(erated8 +rade# Fnion#, hitherto con#idered in ention# of the de i( him#e(f, &ere no& petted and patroni#ed a# perfect(! (e*itimate in#titution#, and a# u#efu( mean# of #preadin* #ound economica( doctrine# amon*#t the &or1er#8 E en #tri1e#, than &hich nothin* had been more nefariou# up to 1848, &ere no& *radua((! found out to be occa#iona((! &hen pro o1ed er! u#efu(, e#pecia((! b! the ma#ter#

them#e( e#, at their o&n time8 ?f the (e*a( enactment#, p(acin* the &or1man at a (o&er (e e( or at a di#ad anta*e &ith re*ard to the ma#ter, at (ea#t the mo#t re o(tin* &ere repea(ed8 9nd, practica((!, that horrid Peop(eA# ;harter actua((! became the po(itica( pro*ramme of the er! manufacturer# &ho had oppo#ed it to the (a#t8 +he 9bo(ition of the Propert! Oua(ification and Jote b! <a((ot are no& the (a& of the (and8 +he =eform 9ct# of 186. and 1884 ma1e a near approach to uni er#a( #uffra*e, at (ea#t #uch a# it no& exi#t# in :erman!; the =edi#tribution <i(( no& before

Par(iament

create#

eBua(

e(ectora(

di#trict#$on the &ho(e not more uneBua( than tho#e of 'rance or :erman!; pa!ment of member#, and #horter, if not actua((! annua( Par(iament#, are i#ib(! (oomin* in the di#tanceand !et there are peop(e &ho #a! that ;harti#m i# dead8 I+he =e o(ution of 1848, not (e## than man! of it# predece##or#, ha# had #tran*e bedfe((o&# and #ucce##or#8 +he er! peop(e &ho put it do&n ha e become, a# Har( Marx u#ed to #a!, it# te#tamentar! executor#8 %oui# /apo(eon had to create an independent and united "ta(!, <i#marc1 had to re o(utioni#e :erman! and to re#tore 5un*arian independence, ;harter8 I'or En*(and, the effect# of thi# domination of the manufacturin* capita(i#t# &ere at fir#t #tart(in*8 +rade re i ed and extended to a de*ree unheard of e en in thi# crad(e of modern indu#tr!; creation# the of pre iou# #team and a#toundin* machiner! and the En*(i#h manufacturer# had to enact the Peop(eA#

d&ind(ed into nothin* compared &ith the immen#e ma## of production# of the t&ent! !ear# from 1857 to 18.7, &ith the o er&he(min* fi*ure# of export# and import#, of &ea(th accumu(ated in the hand# of capita(i#t# and of human &or1in* po&er concentrated in the (ar*e to&n#8 +he pro*re## &a# indeed

interrupted, a# before, b! a cri#i# e er! ten !ear#, in 185. a# &e(( a# in 1866; but the#e re u(#ion# &ere no& con#idered a# natura(, ine itab(e e ent#, &hich mu#t be fata(i#tica((! #ubmitted to, and &hich a(&a!# #et them#e( e# ri*ht in the end8 I9nd the condition of the &or1in*$c(a## durin* thi# periodK +here &a# temporar! impro ement e en for the *reat ma##8 <ut thi# impro ement a(&a!# &a# reduced to the o(d (e e( b! the inf(ux of the *reat bod! of the unemp(o!ed re#er e, b! the con#tant #uper#edin* of hand# b! ne& machiner!, b! the immi*ration of the a*ricu(tura( popu(ation, no&, too, more and more #uper#eded b! machine#8 I9 permanent impro ement can be reco*ni#ed for t&o MprotectedA #ection# on(! of the &or1in* c(a##8 'ir#t(!, the factor! hand#8 +he fixin* b! 9ct of Par(iament of their &or1in*$da! &ithin re(ati e(! rationa( (imit# ha# re#tored their ph!#ica( con#titution and endo&ed them &ith a mora( #uperiorit!, enhanced b! their (oca( concentration8 +he! are undoubted(! better off than before 18488 +he be#t proof i# that, out of ten #tri1e# the! ma1e, nine are pro o1ed b! the manufacturer# in their o&n intere#t#, a# the on(! mean# of #ecurin* a reduced production8 0ou can ne er *et the ma#ter# to a*ree to &or1 M#hort timeA, (et manufactured *ood# be e er #o

un#a(eab(e; but *et the &or1peop(e to #tri1e, and the ma#ter# #hut their factorie# to a man8 ISecond(!, the *reat +rade# Fnion#8 +he! are the or*ani#ation# of tho#e trade# in &hich the (abour of :ro&n$up men predominate#, or i# a(one app(icab(e8 5ere the competition neither of &omen and chi(dren nor of machiner! ha# #o far &ea1ened their or*ani#ed #tren*th8 +he en*ineer#, the carpenter# and Doiner#, the bric1(a!er#, are each of them a po&er, to that extent that, a# in the ca#e of the bric1(a!er# and bric1(a!er#A (abourer#, the! can e en #ucce##fu((! re#i#t the introduction of machiner!8 +hat their condition ha# remar1ab(! impro ed #ince 1848 there can be no doubt, and the be#t proof of thi# i# in the fact that for more than fifteen !ear# not on(! ha e their emp(o!er# been &ith them, but the! &ith their emp(o!er#, upon exceedin*(! *ood term#8 +he! form an ari#tocrac! amon* the &or1in* c(a##; the! ha e #ucceeded in enforcin* for them#e( e# a re(ati e(! comfortab(e po#ition, and the! accept it a# fina(8 +he! are the mode( &or1in* men of Me##r#8 %eone %e i P :iffen ,and a(#o the &orth! %uDo <rentano-, and the! are er! nice peop(e indeed no&ada!# to dea( &ith, for an! #en#ib(e capita(i#t in particu(ar and for the &ho(e capita(i#t c(a## in *enera(8

I<ut a# to the *reat ma## of &or1in* peop(e, the #tate of mi#er! and in#ecurit! in &hich the! (i e no& i# a# (o& a# e er, if not (o&er8 +he Ea#t End of %ondon i# an e er#preadin* poo( of #ta*nant mi#er! and de#o(ation, of #tar ation &hen out of &or1, and de*radation, ph!#ica( and mora(, &hen in &or18 9nd #o in a(( other (ar*e to&n#$ab#traction made of the pri i(e*ed minorit! of the &or1er#; and #o in the #ma((er to&n# and in the a*ricu(tura( di#trict#8 +he (a& &hich reduce# the a(ue of (abour$po&er to the a(ue of the nece##ar! mean# of #ub#i#tence, and the other (a& &hich reduce# it# a era*e price, a# a ru(e, to the minimum of tho#e mean# of #ub#i#tence, the#e (a&# act upon them &ith the irre#i#tib(e force of an automatic en*ine &hich cru#he# them bet&een it# &hee(#8 I+hi#, then &a# the po#ition created b! the 'ree +rade po(ic! of 184., and b! t&ent! !ear# of the ru(e of the manufacturin* capita(i#t#8 <ut then a chan*e came8 +he cra#h of 1866 &a#, indeed, fo((o&ed b! a #(i*ht and #hort re i a( about 18.>; but that did not (a#t8 We did not, indeed, pa## throu*h the fu(( cri#i# at the time it &a# due, in 18.. or 18.8; but &e ha e had, e er #ince 18.6, a chronic #tate of #ta*nation in a(( dominant branche# of indu#tr!8 /either &i(( the fu(( cra#h come; nor &i(( the period of (on*ed$for pro#perit! to &hich

&e u#ed to be entit(ed before and after it8 9 du(( depre##ion, a chronic *(ut of a(( mar1et# for a(( trade#, that i# &hat &e ha e been (i in* in for near(! ten !ear#8 5o& i# thi#K I+he 'ree +rade theor! &a# ba#ed upon one a##umption: that En*(and &a# to be the one *reat manufacturin* centre of an a*ricu(tura( &or(d8 9nd the actua( fact i# that thi# a##umption ha# turned out to be a pure de(u#ion8 +he condition# of modern indu#tr!, #team$po&er and machiner!, can be e#tab(i#hed &here er there i# fue(, e#pecia((! coa(#8 9nd other countrie# <e(*ium, be#ide# :erman!, En*(and$'rance, 9merica, e en

=u##iaha e coa(#8 9nd the peop(e o er there did not #ee the ad anta*e of bein* turned into "ri#h pauper farmer# mere(! for the *reater &ea(th and *(or! of En*(i#h capita(i#t#8 +he! #et re#o(ute(! about manufacturin*, not on(! for them#e( e#, but for the re#t of the &or(d; and the con#eBuence for near(! a i# that centur! the i# manufacturin* monopo(! enDo!ed b! En*(and irretrie ab(! bro1en up8 I<ut the manufacturin* monopo(! of En*(and i# the pi ot of the pre#ent #ocia( #!#tem of En*(and8 E en &hi(e that monopo(! (a#ted, the mar1et# cou(d not 1eep the pace decennia( &ith the increa#in* &ere the producti it! of En*(i#h manufacturer#; cri#e#

con#eBuence8 9nd ne& mar1et# are *ettin* #carcer e er! da!, #o much #o that e en the /e*roe# of the ;on*o are no& to be forced into the ci i(i#ation attendant hard&are8 *ood# #hare, upon 5o& in Manche#ter &i(( in he(d it be ca(ico#, &hen Stafford#hire potter!, and <irmin*ham ;ontinenta(, and e#pecia((! 9merican, f(o& #ti(( e er$increa#in* b! <riti#h Buantitie# E &hen the predominatin* manufacturer#, &i(( become reduced from !ear to !earK 9n#&er, 'ree +rade, thou uni er#a( panacea8 I" am not the fir#t to point thi# out8 9(read! in 188>, at the Southport meetin* of the <riti#h 9##ociation, Mr8 "n*(i# Pa(*ra e, the Pre#ident of the Economic #ection, #tated p(ain(! that IMthe da!# of *reat trade profit# in En*(and &ere o er, and there &a# a pau#e in the pro*re## of #e era( *reat branche# of indu#tria( (abour8 +he countr! mi*ht a(mo#t be #aid to be enterin* the non$pro*re##i e #tateA8 I<ut &hat i# to be the con#eBuenceK ;apita(i#t production cannot #top8 "t mu#t *o on increa#in* and expandin*, or it mu#t die8 E en a =eport of the 'ift!$ +hird Meetin* of the <riti#h 9##ociation for the 9d ancement of Science; he(d at Southport in September 188>, no& the mere reduction of En*(andA# (ionA# #hare in the #upp(! of the &or(dA# mar1et#

mean# #ta*nation, di#tre##, exce## of capita( here, exce## of unemp(o!ed &or1peop(e there8 What &i(( it be &hen the increa#e of !ear(! production i# brou*ht to a comp(ete #topK I5ere i# the u(nerab(e p(ace, the hee( of 9chi((e#, for capita(i#tic production8 "t# er! ba#i# i# the nece##it! of con#tant expan#ion, and thi# con#tant expan#ion no& become# impo##ib(e8 "t end# in a dead(oc18 E er! !ear En*(and i# brou*ht nearer face to face &ith the Bue#tion: either the countr! mu#t *o to piece#, or capita(i#t production mu#t8 Which i# it to beK I9nd the &or1in* c(a##K "f e en under the unpara((e(ed commercia( and indu#tria( expan#ion, from 1848 to 1868, the! ha e had to under*o #uch mi#er!; if e en then the *reat bu(1 of them experienced at be#t but a temporar! impro ement of their condition, &hi(e on(! a #ma((, pri i(e*ed, MprotectedA minorit! &a# permanent(! benefited, &hat &i(( it be &hen thi# da))(in* period i# brou*ht fina((! to a c(o#e; &hen the pre#ent drear! #ta*nation #ha(( not on(! become inten#ified, but thi#, it# inten#ified condition, #ha(( become the permanent and norma( #tate of En*(i#h tradeK I+he truth i# thi#: durin* the period of En*(andA# indu#tria( monopo(! the En*(i#h &or1in* c(a## ha e, to a certain

extent, #hared in the benefit# of the monopo(!8 +he#e benefit# &ere er! uneBua((! parce((ed out amon*#t them; the pri i(e*ed minorit! poc1eted mo#t, but e en the *reat ma## had, at (ea#t, a temporar! #hare no& and then8 9nd that i# the rea#on &h!, #ince the d!in*$out of ?&eni#m, there ha# been no Socia(i#m in En*(and8 With the brea1do&n of that monopo(!, the En*(i#h &or1in* c(a## &i(( (o#e that pri i(e*ed po#ition; it &i(( find it#e(f *enera((! E the pri i(e*ed and (eadin* minorit! not excepted$on a (e e( &ith it# fe((o&$&or1er# abroad8 9nd that i# the rea#on &h! there &i(( be Socia(i#m a*ain in En*(and8C

So " &rote in 18858 "n the Preface to the En*(i#h edition &ritten on Lanuar! 11, 1896 " continued:
I+o thi# #tatement of the ca#e, a# that ca#e appeared to me in 1885, " ha e but (itt(e to add8 /eed(e## to #a! that to$da! there i# indeed MSocia(i#m a*ain in En*(andA, and p(ent! of it$Socia(i#m of a(( #hade#: Socia(i#m con#ciou# and uncon#ciou#, Socia(i#m pro#aic and poetic, Socia(i#m of the &or1in* c(a## and of the midd(e c(a##, for, eri(!, that abomination of abomination#, Socia(i#m, ha# not on(! become re#pectab(e, but ha# actua((! donned e enin* dre## and (oun*e# (a)i(! on dra&in*$room cau#eu#e#8 +hat #ho&# the incurab(e fic1(ene## of that terrib(e de#pot of

M#ociet!A, midd(e$c(a## pub(ic opinion, and once more Du#tifie# the contempt in &hich &e Socia(i#t# of a pa#t *eneration a(&a!# he(d that pub(ic opinion8 9t the #ame time &e ha e no rea#on to *rumb(e at the #!mptom it#e(f8 IWhat " con#ider far more important than thi# momentar! fa#hion amon* bour*eoi# circ(e# of affectin* a mi(d di(ution of Socia(i#m, and e en more than the actua( pro*re## Socia(i#m ha# made in En*(and *enera((!, that i# the re i a( of the Ea#t End of %ondon8 +hat immen#e haunt of mi#er! i# no (on*er the #ta*nant poo( it &a# #ix !ear# a*o8 "t ha# #ha1en off it# torpid de#pair, ha# returned to (ife, and ha# become the home of &hat i# ca((ed the M/e& Fnioni#mA, that i# to #a!, of the or*ani#ation of the *reat ma## of Mun#1i((edA &or1er#8 +hi# or*ani#ation ma! to a *reat extent adopt the form of the o(d Fnion# of M#1i((edA &or1er# but it i# e##entia((! different in character8 +he o(d Fnion# pre#er e the tradition# of the time &hen the! &ere founded, and (oo1 upon the &a*e# #!#tem a# a once$for$a(( e#tab(i#hed, fina( fact, &hich the! at be#t can modif! in the intere#t of their member#8 +he ne& Fnion# &ere founded at a time &hen the faith in the eternit! of the &a*e# #!#tem &a# #e ere(! #ha1en; their founder# and promoter# &ere Socia(i#t# either con#ciou#(! or b!

fee(in*; the ma##e#, &ho#e adhe#ion *a e them #tren*th, &ere rou*h, ne*(ected, (oo1ed do&n upon b! the &or1in*$c(a## ari#tocrac!; but the! had thi# immen#e ad anta*e, that their mind# &ere ir*in #oi(, entire(! free from the inherited Mre#pectab(eA bour*eoi# preDudice# &hich hampered the brain# of the better #ituated Mo(dA Fnioni#t#8 9nd thu# &e #ee no& the#e ne& Fnion# ta1in* the (ead of the &or1in*$c(a## mo ement *enera((!, and more and more ta1in* in to& the rich and proud, o(d Fnion#8 IFndoubted(!, the Ea#t Ender# ha e committed co(o##a( b(under#; #o ha e their predece##or#, and #o do the doctrinaire Socia(i#t# &ho pooh$pooh them8 9 (ar*e c(a##, (i1e a *reat nation, ne er (earn# better or Buic1er than b! under*oin* the con#eBuence# of it# o&n mi#ta1e#8 9nd for a(( the fau(t# committed in pa#t, pre#ent and future, the re i a( of the Ea#t End of %ondon remain# one of the *reate#t and mo#t fruitfu( fact# of thi# fin de #iSc(e, and *(ad and proud " am to ha e (i ed to #ee it8C Since " &rote the abo e, #ix month# a*o, the En*(i#h &or1in*$c(a## mo ement ha# a*ain made a *ood #tep for&ard8 +he par(iamentar! e(ection# &hich too1 p(ace a fe& da!# a*o *a e both the officia( partie#, ;on#er ati e a# &e(( a# %ibera(, notice in due form that from no& on one and the other &i(( ha e to rec1on &ith a third part!, the &or1er#A part!8 +hi# &or1er#A part! i# no& on(! in the proce## of formation; it# e(ement# are #ti(( en*a*ed in #ha1in* off traditiona( preDudice# of a(( 1ind#$bour*eoi#, o(d trade$unioni#t, indeed, e en doctrinaire$#ocia(i#t$in order to be ab(e to *et to*ether at (a#t on *round common to a(( of them8 9nd !et the in#tinct to unite &hich the! fo((o&ed &a# a(read! #o #tron* that it produced e(ection re#u(t# hitherto unheard$of in En*(and8 "n %ondon t&o &or1er#A ha e #tood for e(ection, and open(! a# Socia(i#t# at that; the %ibera(# did not

dare to put up one of their# a*ain#t them, and the t&o Socia(i#t# ha e &on b! an o er&he(min* and unexpected maDorit! QLame# Heir 5ardie and Lohn <urn#8 EEd8R8 "n Midd(e#brou*h a &or1er#A candidate QLohn 5a e(oc1 Wi(#on8EEd8R ha# #tood a*ain#t a %ibera( and a ;on#er ati e and been e(ected in the teeth of both; on the other hand, the ne& &or1er#A candidate# &ho a((ied them#e( e# &ith the %ibera(# ha e been hope(e##(! defeated, &ith the exception of a #in*(e one8 9mon* tho#e &ho #o far ha e been ca((ed &or1er#A repre#entati e#, that i#, tho#e &ho are for*i en their Bua(it! of &or1er# becau#e the! them#e( e# &ou(d &i((in*(! dro&n it in the ocean of their (ibera(i#m, the mo#t #i*nificant repre#entati e of the o(d Fnioni#m, 5enr! <roadhur#t, ha# #uffered a #tri1in* defeat becau#e he dec(ared him#e(f a*ain#t the ei*ht$hour da!8 "n t&o :(a#*o&, one Sa(ford, and #e era( other con#tituencie#, independent &or1er#A candidate# #tood a*ain#t candidate# of the t&o o(d partie#; the! &ere beaten, but #o &ere the %ibera( candidate#8 <rief(!, in a number of (ar*e$to&n and indu#tria( con#tituencie# the &or1er# ha e re#o(ute(! #e ered a(( connection# &ith the t&o o(d partie# and thu# achie ed direct or indirect #ucce##e# #uch a# the! had ne er #cored in an! e(ection #o far8 9nd the Do! on thi# account amon* the &or1er# i# bound(e##8 'or the fir#t time the! ha e #een and fe(t &hat the! can do &hen the! ma1e u#e of their e(ectora( ri*ht# in the intere#t of their c(a##8 +he #uper#titiou# be(ief in theC*reat %ibera( Part!C &hich had 1ept a ho(d on the En*(i#h &or1er# for near(! fort! !ear# ha# been de#tro!ed8 +he! ha e #een b! #tri1in* examp(e# that the!, the &or1er#, are the deci#i e force in En*(and if on(! the! ha e the &i(( and 1no& their o&n &i((; and the 1896 e(ection# ha e been the be*innin* of that 1no&(ed*e and that &i((8 +he &or1er#A mo ement on the ;ontinent &i(( #ee to the re#t: the :erman# and the 'rench, &ho are a(read! #o #tron*(! repre#ented in par(iament# and (oca( counci(#, &i(( 1eep the #pirit of emu(ation of the En*(i#h #ufficient(! hi*h b! further #ucce##e#8 9nd if in the not er! di#tant future it turn# out that thi# ne& par(iament can *et no&here &ith Mr8 :(ad#tone, nor Mr8 :(ad#tone &ith thi# par(iament, the En*(i#h &or1er#A part! &i(( #ure(! be #ufficient(! con#tituted to put an ear(! end to the #ee#a& *ame of the t&o o(d partie# &hich ha e been #ucceedin* each other in po&er and thereb! perpetuatin* bour*eoi# ru(e8

#. Engels $ondon, %uly &', '()&

To The !or"ing#$lasses of Great#%ritain

Wor1in* Men@ +o !ou " dedicate a &or1, in &hich " ha e tried to (a! before m! :erman ;ountr!men a faithfu( picture of !our condition, of !our #ufferin*# and #tru**(e#, of !our hope# and pro#pect#8 " ha e (i ed (on* enou*h amid#t !ou to 1no& #omethin* about !our circum#tance#; " ha e de oted to their 1no&(ed*e m! mo#t #eriou# attention, " ha e #tudied the ariou# officia( and non$officia( document# a# far a# " &a# ab(e to *et ho(d of them $$ " ha e not been #ati#fied &ith thi#, " &anted more than a mere ab#tract 1no&(ed*e of m! #ubDect, " &anted to #ee !ou in !our o&n home#, to ob#er e !ou in !our e er!da! (ife, to chat &ith !ou on !our condition and *rie ance#, to &itne## !our #tru**(e# a*ain#t the #ocia( and po(itica( po&er of !our oppre##or#8 " ha e done #o: " for#oo1 the compan! and the dinner$partie#, the port$&ine and champa*ne of the midd(e$c(a##e#, and de oted m! (ei#ure$hour# a(mo#t exc(u#i e(! to the intercour#e &ith p(ain Wor1in*$Men; " am both *(ad and proud of ha in* done #o8 :(ad, becau#e thu# " &a# induced to #pend man! a happ! hour in obtainin* a 1no&(ed*e of the rea(itie# of (ife $$ man! an hour, &hich e(#e &ou(d ha e been &a#ted in fa#hionab(e ta(1 and tire#ome etiBuette; proud, becau#e thu# " *ot an opportunit! of doin* Du#tice to an oppre##ed and ca(umniated c(a## of men &ho &ith a(( their fau(t# and under a(( the di#ad anta*e# of their #ituation, !et command the re#pect of e er! one but an En*(i#h mone!$mon*er; proud, too, becau#e thu# " &a# p(aced in a po#ition to #a e the En*(i#h peop(e from the *ro&in* contempt &hich on the ;ontinent ha# been the nece##ar! con#eBuence of the bruta((! #e(fi#h po(ic! and *enera( beha iour of !our ru(in* midd(e$c(a##8 5a in*, at the #ame time, amp(e opportunit! to &atch the midd(e$c(a##e#, !our opponent#, " #oon came to the conc(u#ion that !ou are ri*ht, perfect(! ri*ht in expectin* no #upport &hate er from them8 +heir intere#t i# diametrica((! oppo#ed to !our#, thou*h the! a(&a!# &i(( tr! to maintain the contrar! and to ma1e !ou be(ie e in their mo#t heart! #!mpath! &ith !our fate#8 +heir doin*# *i e them the (ie8 " hope to ha e co((ected more than #ufficient e idence of the fact, that $$ be their &ord# &hat the! p(ea#e $$ the midd(e$c(a##e# intend in rea(it! nothin* e(#e but to enrich them#e( e# b! !our (abour &hi(e the! can #e(( it# produce, and to abandon !ou to #tar ation a# #oon a# the! cannot ma1e a profit b! thi# indirect trade in human f(e#h8 What ha e the! done to pro e their profe##ed *ood&i(( to&ard# !ouK 5a e the! e er paid an! #eriou# attention to !our *rie ance#K 5a e the! done more than pa!in* the expen#e# of ha(f$a$do)en commi##ion# of inBuir!, &ho#e o(uminou# report# are damned to e er(a#tin* #(umber amon* heap# of &a#te paper on the #he( e# of the 5ome ?fficeK 5a e the! e en done a# much a# to compi(e from tho#e rottin* b(ue$boo1# a #in*(e readab(e boo1 from &hich e er!bod! mi*ht ea#i(! *et #ome information on the condition of the *reat maDorit! ofCfree$born <riton#TK /ot the! indeed, tho#e are thin*# the! do not (i1e to #pea1 of $$ the! ha e (eft it to a forei*ner to inform the ci i(i#ed &or(d of the de*radin* #ituation !ou ha e to (i e in8 9 forei*ner to them, not to you, " hope8 +hou*h m! En*(i#h ma! not be pure, !et, " hope, !ou &i(( find it plain En*(i#h8 /o &or1in*man in En*(and $$ nor in 'rance either, b!$the$b! $$ e er treated me a# a forei*ner8 With the *reate#t p(ea#ure " ob#er ed !ou to be free from that b(a#tin* cur#e, nationa( preDudice and nationa( pride, &hich after a(( mean# nothin* but wholesale selfishness $$ " ob#er ed !ou to #!mpathi#e &ith e er! one &ho earne#t(! app(ie# hi# po&er# to human pro*re## $$ ma! he be an En*(i#hman or not $$ to admire e er! thin* *reat and *ood, &hether nur#ed on !our nati e #oi( or not $$ " found !ou to be more than mere Englishmen, member# of a #in*(e, i#o(ated nation, " found !ou to be Men, member# of the *reat and uni er#a( fami(! of Man1ind, &ho 1no& their intere#t and that of a(( the human race to be the #ame8 9nd a# #uch, a# member#

of thi# 'ami(! ofC?ne and "ndi i#ib(eT Man1ind, a# 5uman <ein*# in the mo#t emphatica( meanin* of the &ord, a# #uch ", and man! other# on the ;ontinent, hai( !our pro*re## in e er! direction and &i#h !ou #peed! #ucce##8 :o on then, a# !ou ha e done hitherto8 Much remain# to be under*one; be firm, be undaunted $$ !our #ucce## i# certain, and no #tep !ou &i(( ha e to ta1e in !our on&ard march &i(( be (o#t to our common cau#e, the cau#e of 5umanit!@ <armen ,=henan Pru##iaMarch 15th, 1845

Preface
+he boo1 prefaced b! the fo((o&in* pa*e# treat# of a #ubDect &hich " ori*ina((! intended to dea( &ith in a #in*(e chapter of a more comprehen#i e &or1 on the #ocia( hi#tor! of En*(and8 5o&e er, the importance of that #ubDect #oon made it nece##ar! for me to in e#ti*ate it #eparate(!8 +he condition of the &or1in*$c(a## i# the rea( ba#i# and point of departure of a(( #ocia( mo ement# of the pre#ent becau#e it i# the hi*he#t and mo#t unconcea(ed pinnac(e of the #ocia( mi#er! exi#tin* in our da!8 'rench and :erman &or1in*$c(a## ;ommuni#m are it# direct, 'ourieri#m and En*(i#h Socia(i#m, a# &e(( a# the ;ommuni#m of the :erman educated bour*eoi#ie, are it# indirect product#8 9 1no&(ed*e of pro(etarian condition# i# ab#o(ute(! nece##ar! to be ab(e to pro ide #o(id *round for #ocia(i#t theorie#, on the one hand, and for Dud*ment# about their ri*ht to exi#t, on the other; and to put an end to a(( #entimenta( dream# and fancie# pro and con8 <ut pro(etarian condition# exi#t in their classical form, in their perfection, on(! in the <riti#h Empire, particu(ar(! in En*(and proper8 <e#ide#, on(! in En*(and ha# the nece##ar! materia( been #o comp(ete(! co((ected and put on record b! officia( enBuirie# a# i# e##entia( for an! in the (ea#t exhau#ti e pre#entation of the #ubDect8 +&ent!$one month# " had the opportunit! to become acBuainted &ith the En*(i#h pro(etariat, it# #tri in*#, it# #orro&# and it# Do!#, to #ee them from near, from per#ona( ob#er ation and per#ona( intercour#e, and at the #ame time to #upp(ement m! ob#er ation# b! recour#e to the reBui#ite authentic #ource#8 What 1 ha e #een, heard and read ha# been &or1ed up in the pre#ent boo18 " am prepared to #ee not on(! m! #tandpoint attac1ed in man! Buarter# but a(#o the fact# " ha e cited, particu(ar(! &hen the boo1 *et# into the hand# of the En*(i#h8 " 1no& eBua((! &e(( that here and there " ma! be pro ed &ron* in #ome particu(ar of no importance, #omethin* that in ie& of the comprehen#i e nature of the #ubDect and it# far$reachin* a##umption# e en an En*(i#hman mi*ht be unab(e to a oid; #o much the more #o #ince e en in En*(and there exi#t# a# !et not a #in*(e piece of &ritin* &hich, (i1e mine, ta1e# up a(( the &or1er#8 <ut &ithout a momentN# he#itation " cha((en*e the En*(i#h bour*eoi#ie to pro e that e en in a #in*(e in#tance of an! con#eBuence for the expo#ition of m! point of ie& a# a &ho(e " ha e been *ui(t! of an! inaccurac!, and to pro e it b! data a# authentic a# mine8 9 de#cription of the c(a##ica( form &hich the condition# of exi#tence of the pro(etariat ha e a##umed in <ritain i# er! important, particu(ar(! for :erman! and preci#e(! at the pre#ent moment8 :erman Socia(i#m and ;ommuni#m ha e proceeded, more than an! other, from theoretica( premi#e#; &e :erman theoretician# #ti(( 1ne& much too (itt(e of the rea( &or(d to be dri en direct(! b! the rea( re(ation# to reform# of thi#Cbad rea(it!T8 9t an! rate a(mo#t none of the a o&ed champion# of #uch reform# arri ed at ;ommuni#m other&i#e than b! &a! of the 'euerbachian di##o(ution of 5e*e(ian #pecu(ation8 +he rea( condition# of the (ife of the pro(etariat are #o (itt(e 1no&n amon* u# that e en the &e(($meanin*C#ocietie# for the up(ift of the &or1in*$ c(a##e#T, in &hich our bour*eoi#ie i# no& mi#treatin* the #ocia( Bue#tion, con#tant(! #tart out from the mo#t ridicu(ou# and prepo#terou# Dud*ment# concernin* the condition of the &or1er#8 We :erman# more than an!bod! e(#e #tand in need of a 1no&(ed*e of the fact# concernin* thi# Bue#tion8 9nd &hi(e the condition# of exi#tence of :erman!N# pro(etariat ha e not a##umed the c(a##ica( form that the! ha e in En*(and, &e ne erthe(e## ha e, at bottom, the #ame #ocia( order, &hich #ooner or (ater mu#t nece##ari(! reach the #ame de*ree of acutene## a# it ha# a(read! attained acro## the /orth Sea, un(e## the inte((i*ence of the nation brin*# about in time the adoption of mea#ure# that &i(( pro ide a ne& ba#i# for the &ho(e #ocia( #!#tem8 +he root$cau#e#

&ho#e effect in En*(and ha# been the mi#er! and oppre##ion of the pro(etariat exi#t a(#o in :erman! and in the (on* run mu#t en*ender the #ame re#u(t#8 "n the meantime, ho&e er, the e#tab(i#hed fact of &retched condition# in England &i(( impe( u# to e#tab(i#h a(#o the fact of &retched condition# in *ermany and &i(( pro ide u# &ith a !ard#tic1 &here&ith to mea#ure their extent and the ma*nitude of the dan*er $$ brou*ht to (i*ht b! the Si(e#ian and <ohemian di#turbance# $$ &hich direct(! threaten# the tranBui((it! of :erman! from that Buarter8 'ina((!, there are #ti(( t&o remar1# " &i#h to ma1e8 'ir#t(!, that " ha e u#ed the &ord +ittelklasse a(( a(on* in the #en#e of the En*(i#h &ord midd(e$c(a## ,or midd(e$c(a##e#, a# i# #aid a(mo#t a(&a!#-8 %i1e the 'rench &ord ,ourgeoisie it mean# the po##e##in* c(a##, #pecifica((! that po##e##in* c(a## &hich i# differentiated from the #o$ca((ed ari#tocrac! $$ the c(a## &hich in 'rance and En*(and i# direct(! and in :erman!, fi*urin* a#Cpub(ic opinionT, indirect(! in po##e##ion of po(itica( po&er8 Simi(ar(!, " ha e continua((! u#ed the expre##ion# &or1in*men , -r,eiter- and pro(etarian#, &or1in*$c(a##, propert!(e## c(a## and pro(etariat a# eBui a(ent#8 Second(!, that in the ca#e of mo#t of the Buotation# " ha e indicated the part! to &hich the re#pecti e author# be(on*, becau#e in near(! e er! in#tance the %ibera(# tr! to empha#i#e the di#tre## in the rura( area# and to ar*ue a&a! that &hich exi#t# in the factor! di#trict#, &hi(e the ;on#er ati e#, con er#e(!, ac1no&(ed*e the mi#er! in the factor! di#trict# but di#c(aim an! 1no&(ed*e of it in the a*ricu(tura( area#8 'or the #ame rea#on, &hene er " (ac1ed officia( document# for de#cribin* the condition of the indu#tria( &or1er#, " a(&a!# preferred to pre#ent proof from $i,eral#ource# in order to defeat the (ibera( bour*eoi#ie b! ca#tin* their o&n &ord# in their teeth8 " cited +orie# or ;harti#t# in m! #upport on(! &hen " cou(d confirm their correctne## from per#ona( ob#er ation or &a# con inced of the truthfu(ne## of the fact# Buoted becau#e of the per#ona( or (iterar! reputation of the authoritie# " referred to8 <armen, March 15, 1845

&ntrod'ction
+he hi#tor! of the pro(etariat in En*(and be*in# &ith the #econd ha(f of the (a#t centur!, &ith the in ention of the #team$en*ine and of machiner! for &or1in* cotton8 +he#e in ention# *a e ri#e, a# i# &e(( 1no&n, to an indu#tria( re o(ution, a re o(ution &hich a(tered the &ho(e ci i( #ociet!; one, the hi#torica( importance of &hich i# on(! no& be*innin* to be reco*ni#ed8 En*(and i# the c(a##ic #oi( of thi# tran#formation, &hich &a# a(( the mi*htier, the more #i(ent(! it proceeded; and En*(and i#, therefore, the c(a##ic (and of it# chief product a(#o, the pro(etariat8 ?n(! in En*(and can the pro(etariat be #tudied in a(( it# re(ation# and from a(( #ide#8 We ha e not, here and no&, to dea( &ith the hi#tor! of thi# re o(ution, nor &ith it# a#t importance for the pre#ent and the future8 Such a de(ineation mu#t be re#er ed for a future, more comprehen#i e &or18 'or the moment, &e mu#t (imit our#e( e# to the (itt(e that i# nece##ar! for under#tandin* the fact# that fo((o&, for comprehendin* the pre#ent #tate of the En*(i#h pro(etariat8 <efore the introduction of machiner!, the #pinnin* and &ea in* of ra& materia(# &a# carried on in the &or1in*manN# home8 Wife and dau*hter #pun the !arn that the father &o e or that the! #o(d, if he did not &or1 it up him#e(f8 +he#e &ea er fami(ie# (i ed in the countr! in the nei*hbourhood of the to&n#, and cou(d *et on fair(! &e(( &ith their &a*e#, becau#e the home mar1et &a# a(mo#t the on(! one and the cru#hin* po&er of competition that came (ater, &ith the conBue#t of forei*n mar1et# and the exten#ion of trade, did not !et pre## upon &a*e#8 +here &a#, further, a con#tant increa#e in the demand for the home mar1et, 1eepin* pace &ith the #(o& increa#e in popu(ation and emp(o!in* a(( the &or1er#; and there &a# a(#o the impo##ibi(it! of i*orou# competition of the &or1er# amon* them#e( e#, con#eBuent upon the rura( di#per#ion of their home#8 So it &a# that the &ea er &a# u#ua((! in a po#ition to (a! b! #omethin*, and rent a (itt(e piece of (and, that he cu(ti ated in hi# (ei#ure hour#, of &hich he had a# man! a# he cho#e to ta1e, #ince he cou(d &ea e &hene er and a# (on* a# he p(ea#ed8 +rue, he &a# a bad farmer and mana*ed hi# (and inefficient(!, often obtainin* but poor crop#; ne erthe(e##, he &a# no pro(etarian, he had a #ta1e in the countr!, he &a# permanent(! #ett(ed, and #tood one #tep hi*her in #ociet! than the En*(i#h &or1man of toda!8 So the &or1er# e*etated throu*hout a pa##ab(! comfortab(e exi#tence, (eadin* a ri*hteou# and peacefu( (ife in a(( piet! and probit!; and their materia( po#ition &a# far better than that of their #ucce##or#8 +he! did not need to o er&or1; the! did no more than the! cho#e to do, and !et earned &hat the! needed8 +he! had (ei#ure for hea(thfu( &or1 in *arden or fie(d, &or1 &hich, in it#e(f, &a# recreation for them, and the! cou(d ta1e part be#ide# in the recreation# and *ame# of their nei*hbour#, and a(( the#e *ame# $$ bo&(in*, cric1et, footba((, etc8, contributed to their ph!#ica( hea(th and i*our8 +he! &ere, for the mo#t part, #tron*, &e(($bui(t peop(e, in &ho#e ph!#iBue (itt(e or no difference from that of their pea#ant nei*hbour# &a# di#co erab(e8 +heir chi(dren *re& up in the fre#h countr! air, and, if the! cou(d he(p their parent# at &or1, it &a# on(! occa#iona((!; &hi(e of ei*ht or t&e( e hour# &or1 for them there &a# no Bue#tion8 What the mora( and inte((ectua( character of thi# c(a## &a# ma! be *ue##ed8 Shut off from the to&n#, &hich the! ne er entered, their !arn and &o en #tuff bein* de(i ered to tra e((in* a*ent# for pa!ment of &a*e# $$ #o #hut off that o(d peop(e &ho (i ed Buite in the nei*hborhood of the to&n ne er &ent thither unti( the! &ere robbed of their trade b! the introduction of machiner! and ob(i*ed to (oo1 about them in the to&n# for &or1 $$ the &ea er# #tood upon the mora( and inte((ectua( p(ane of the !eomen &ith &hom the! &ere u#ua((! immediate(! connected throu*h their (itt(e ho(din*#8 +he! re*arded their #Buire, the *reate#t (andho(der of the re*ion, a# their natura( #uperior; the! a#1ed ad ice of him, (aid their #ma(( di#pute# before him for #ett(ement, and

*a e him a(( honour, a# thi# patriarcha( re(ation in o( ed8 +he! &ereCre#pectab(eT peop(e, *ood hu#band# and father#, (ed mora( (i e# becau#e the! had no temptation to be immora(, there bein* no *ro**erie# or (o& hou#e# in their icinit!, and becau#e the ho#t, at &ho#e inn the! no& and then Buenched their thir#t, &a# a(#o a re#pectab(e man, u#ua((! a (ar*e tenant$farmer &ho too1 pride in hi# *ood order, *ood beer, and ear(! hour#8 +he! had their chi(dren the &ho(e da! at home, and brou*ht them up in obedience and the fear of :od; the patriarcha( re(ation#hip remained undi#turbed #o (on* a# the chi(dren &ere unmarried8 +he !oun* peop(e *re& up in id!((ic #imp(icit! and intimac! &ith their p(a!mate# unti( the! married; and e en thou*h #exua( intercour#e before marria*e a(mo#t unfai(in*(! too1 p(ace, thi# happened on(! &hen the mora( ob(i*ation of marria*e &a# reco*ni#ed on both #ide#, and a #ub#eBuent &eddin* made e er!thin* *ood8 "n #hort, the En*(i#h indu#tria( &or1er# of tho#e da!# (i ed and thou*ht after the fa#hion #ti(( to be found here and there in :erman!, in retirement and #ec(u#ion, &ithout menta( acti it! and &ithout io(ent f(uctuation# in their po#ition in (ife8 +he! cou(d rare(! read and far more rare(! &rite; &ent re*u(ar(! to church, ne er ta(1ed po(itic#, ne er con#pired, ne er thou*ht, de(i*hted in ph!#ica( exerci#e#, (i#tened &ith inherited re erence &hen the <ib(e &a# read, and &ere, in their unBue#tionin* humi(it!, exceedin*(! &e(($di#po#ed to&ard# theC#uperiorT c(a##e#8 <ut inte((ectua((!, the! &ere dead; (i ed on(! for their pett!, pri ate intere#t, for their (oom# and *arden#, and 1ne& nothin* of the mi*ht! mo ement &hich, be!ond their hori)on, &a# #&eepin* throu*h man1ind8 +he! &ere comfortab(e in their #i(ent e*etation, and but for the indu#tria( re o(ution the! &ou(d ne er ha e emer*ed from thi# exi#tence, &hich, co#i(! romantic a# it &a#, &a# ne erthe(e## not &orth! of human bein*#8 "n truth, the! &ere not human bein*#; the! &ere mere(! toi(in* machine# in the #er ice of the fe& ari#tocrat# &ho had *uided hi#tor! do&n to that time8 +he indu#tria( re o(ution ha# #imp(! carried thi# out to it# (o*ica( end b! ma1in* the &or1er# machine# pure and #imp(e, ta1in* from them the (a#t trace of independent acti it!, and #o forcin* them to thin1 and demand a po#ition &orth! of men8 9# in 'rance po(itic#, #o in En*(and manufacture and the mo ement of ci i( #ociet! in *enera( dre& into the &hir( of hi#tor! the (a#t c(a##e# &hich had remained #un1 in apathetic indifference to the uni er#a( intere#t# of man1ind8 +he fir#t in ention &hich *a e ri#e to a radica( chan*e in the #tate of the En*(i#h &or1er# &a# the Denn!, in ented in the !ear 1.64 b! a &ea er, Lame# 5ar*rea e#, of Stanhi((, near <(ac1burn, in /orth %anca#hire8 +hi# machine &a# the rou*h be*innin* of the (ater in ented mu(e, and &a# mo ed b! hand8 "n#tead of one #pind(e (i1e the ordinar! #pinnin*$&hee(, it carried #ixteen or ei*hteen manipu(ated b! a #in*(e &or1man8 +hi# in ention made it po##ib(e to de(i er more !arn than heretofore8 Wherea#, thou*h one &ea er had emp(o!ed three #pinner#, there had ne er been enou*h !arn, and the &ea er had often been ob(i*ed to &ait for it, there &a# no& more !arn to be had than cou(d be &o en b! the a ai(ab(e &or1er#8 +he demand for &o en *ood#, a(read! increa#in*, ro#e !et more in con#eBuence of the cheapne## of the#e *ood#, &hich cheapne##, in turn, &a# the outcome of the dimini#hed co#t of producin* the !arn8 More &ea er# &ere needed, and &ea er#N &a*e# ro#e8 /o& that the &ea er cou(d earn more at hi# (oom, he *radua((! abandoned hi# farmin*, and *a e hi# &ho(e time to &ea in*8 9t that time a fami(! of four *ro&n per#on# and t&o chi(dren ,&ho &ere #et to #poo(in*- cou(d earn, &ith ei*ht hour#N dai(! &or1, four pound# #ter(in* in a &ee1, and often more if trade &a# *ood and &or1 pre##ed8 "t happened often enou*h that a #in*(e &ea er earned t&o pound# a &ee1 at hi# (oom8 <! de*ree# the c(a## of farmin* &ea er# &ho((! di#appeared, and &a# mer*ed in the ne&(! ari#in* c(a## of &ea er# &ho (i ed &ho((! upon &a*e#, had no propert! &hate er, not e en the pretended propert! of a ho(din*, and #o became &or1in*men, pro(etarian#8 Moreo er, the o(d re(ation bet&een #pinner and &ea er &a# de#tro!ed8 5itherto, #o far a# thi# had been po##ib(e, !arn had been #pun and &o en under one roof8 /o& that the Denn! a# &e(( a# the (oom reBuired a #tron* hand, men be*an to #pin, and &ho(e fami(ie# (i ed b! #pinnin*, &hi(e other# (aid the antiBuated, #uper#eded #pinnin*$&hee( a#ide; and, if the! had not mean# of purcha#in* a Denn!, &ere forced to (i e upon

the &a*e# of the father a(one8 +hu# be*an &ith #pinnin* and &ea in* that di i#ion of (abour &hich ha# #ince been #o infinite(! perfected8 Whi(e the indu#tria( pro(etariat &a# thu# de e(opin* &ith the fir#t #ti(( er! imperfect machine, the #ame machine *a e ri#e to the a*ricu(tura( pro(etariat8 +here had, hitherto, been a a#t number of #ma(( (ando&ner#, !eomen, &ho had e*etated in the #ame unthin1in* Buiet a# their nei*hbour#, the farmin* &ea er#8 +he! cu(ti ated their #crap# of (and Buite after the ancient and inefficient fa#hion of their ance#tor#, and oppo#ed e er! chan*e &ith the ob#tinac! pecu(iar to #uch creature# of habit, after remainin* #tationar! from *eneration to *eneration8 9mon* them &ere man! #ma(( ho(der# a(#o, not tenant# in the pre#ent #en#e of the &ord, but peop(e &ho had their (and handed do&n from their father#, either b! hereditar! (ea#e, or b! force of ancient cu#tom, and had hitherto he(d it a# #ecure(! a# if it had actua((! been their o&n propert!8 When the indu#tria( &or1er# &ithdre& from a*ricu(ture, a *reat number of #ma(( ho(din*# fe(( id(e, and upon the#e the ne& c(a## of (ar*e tenant# e#tab(i#hed them#e( e#, tenant#$at$&i((, ho(din* fift!, one hundred, t&o hundred or more acre#, (iab(e to be turned out at the end of the !ear, but ab(e b! impro ed ti((a*e and (ar*er farmin* to increa#e the !ie(d of the (and8 +he! cou(d #e(( their produce more cheap(! than the !eoman, for &hom nothin* remained &hen hi# farm no (on*er #upported him but to #e(( it, procure a Denn! or a (oom, or ta1e #er ice a# an a*ricu(tura( (abourer in the emp(o! of a (ar*e farmer8 5i# inherited #(o&ne## and the inefficient method# of cu(ti ation beBueathed b! hi# ance#tor#, and abo e &hich he cou(d not ri#e, (eft him no a(ternati e &hen forced to compete &ith men &ho mana*ed their ho(din*# on #ounder princip(e# and &ith a(( the ad anta*e# be#to&ed b! farmin* on a (ar*e #ca(e and the in e#tment of capita( for the impro ement of the #oi(8 Mean&hi(e, the indu#tria( mo ement did not #top here8 Sin*(e capita(i#t# be*an to #et up #pinnin* Dennie# in *reat bui(din*# and to u#e &ater$po&er for dri in* them, #o p(acin* them#e( e# in a po#ition to dimini#h the number of &or1er#, and #e(( their !arn more cheap(! than #in*(e #pinner# cou(d do &ho mo ed their o&n machine# b! hand8 +here &ere con#tant impro ement# in the Denn!, #o that machine# continua((! became antiBuated, and mu#t be a(tered or e en (aid a#ide; and thou*h the capita(i#t# cou(d ho(d out b! the app(ication of &ater$po&er e en &ith the o(d machiner!, for the #in*(e #pinner thi# &a# impo##ib(e8 9nd the factor! #!#tem, the be*innin* of &hich &a# thu# made, recei ed a fre#h exten#ion in 1.6., throu*h the #pinnin* thro#t(e in ented b! =ichard 9r1&ri*ht, a barber, in Pre#ton, in /orth %anca#hire8 9fter the #team$en*ine, thi# i# the mo#t important mechanica( in ention of the 18th centur!8 "t &a# ca(cu(ated from the be*innin* for mechanica( moti e po&er, and &a# ba#ed upon &ho((! ne& princip(e#8 <! the combination of the pecu(iaritie# of the Denn! and thro#t(e, Samue( ;rompton, of 'ir&ood, %anca#hire, contri ed the mu(e in 1.85, and a# 9r1&ri*ht in ented the cardin* en*ine, and preparator! ,T#(ubbin* and ro in*T- frame# about the #ame time, the factor! #!#tem became the pre ai(in* one for the #pinnin* of cotton8 <! mean# of trif(in* modification# the#e machine# &ere *radua((! adapted to the #pinnin* of f(ax, and #o to the #uper#edin* of hand&or1 here, too8 <ut e en then, the end &a# not !et8 "n the c(o#in* !ear# of the (a#t centur!, 4r8 ;art&ri*ht, a countr! par#on, had in ented the po&er$(oom, and about 1874 had #o far perfected it, that it cou(d #ucce##fu((! compete &ith the hand$&ea er; and a(( thi# machiner! &a# made doub(! important b! Lame# WattN# #team$en*ine, in ented in 1.64 and u#ed for #upp(!in* moti e po&er for #pinnin* #ince 1.858 With the#e in ention#, #ince impro ed from !ear to !ear, the ictor! of machine$&or1 o er hand$ &or1 in the chief branche# of En*(i#h indu#tr! &a# &on; and the hi#tor! of the (atter from that time for&ard #imp(! re(ate# ho& the hand$&or1er# ha e been dri en b! machiner! from one po#ition after another8 +he con#eBuence# of thi# &ere, on the one hand, a rapid fa(( in price of a(( manufactured commoditie#, pro#perit! of commerce and manufacture, the conBue#t of near(! a(( the unprotected forei*n mar1et#, the #udden mu(tip(ication of capita( and nationa( &ea(th; on the

other hand, a #ti(( more rapid mu(tip(ication of the pro(etariat, the de#truction of a(( propert!$ ho(din* and of a(( #ecurit! of emp(o!ment for the &or1in*$c(a##, demora(i#ation, po(itica( excitement, and a(( tho#e fact# #o hi*h(! repu*nant to En*(i#hmen in comfortab(e circum#tance#, &hich &e #ha(( ha e to con#ider in the fo((o&in* pa*e#8 5a in* a(read! #een &hat a tran#formation in the #ocia( condition of the (o&er c(a##e# a #in*(e #uch c(um#! machine a# the Denn! had &rou*ht, there i# no cau#e for #urpri#e a# to that &hich a comp(ete and interdependent #!#tem of fine(! adDu#ted machiner! ha# brou*ht about, machiner! &hich recei e# ra& materia( and turn# out &o en *ood#8 Mean&hi(e, (et u# trace the de e(opment of En*(i#h manufacturer# 14 #ome&hat more minute(!, be*innin* &ith the cotton indu#tr!8 "n the !ear# 1..1$1..5, there &ere annua((! imported into En*(and rather (e## than 5,777,777 pound# of ra& cotton; in the !ear 1841 there &ere imported 568,777,777 pound#, and the import for 1844 &i(( reach at (ea#t 677,777,777 pound#8 "n 1854 En*(and exported 556,777,777 !ard# of &o en cotton *ood#, .6,577,777 pound# of cotton !arn, and cotton ho#ier! to the a(ue of U1,677,7778 "n the #ame !ear o er 8,777,777 mu(e #pind(e# &ere at &or1, 117,777 po&er and 657,777 hand$(oom#, thro#t(e #pind(e# not inc(uded, in the #er ice of the cotton indu#tr!; and, accordin* to Mc;u((ochN# rec1onin* near(! a mi((ion and a ha(f human bein*# &ere #upported b! thi# branch, of &hom but 667,777 &or1ed in the mi((#; the po&er u#ed in the#e mi((# &a# #team, eBui a(ent to 5>,777 hor#epo&er, and &ater, eBui a(ent to 11,777 hor#epo&er8 9t pre#ent the#e fi*ure# are far from adeBuate, and it ma! be #afe(! a##umed that, in the !ear 1845, the po&er and number of the machine# and the number of the &or1er# i# *reater b! one$ha(f than it &a# in 18>48 +he chief centre of thi# indu#tr! i# %anca#hire, &here it ori*inated; it ha# thorou*h(! re o(utioni#ed thi# count!, con ertin* it from an ob#cure, i(($ cu(ti ated #&amp into a bu#!, (i e(! re*ion, mu(tip(!in* it# popu(ation tenfo(d in ei*ht! !ear#, and cau#in* *iant citie# #uch a# %i erpoo( and Manche#ter, containin* to*ether .77,777 inhabitant#, and their nei*hbourin* to&n#, <o(ton &ith 67,777, =ochda(e &ith .5,777, ?(dham &ith 57,777, Pre#ton &ith 67,777, 9#hton and Sta(!brid*e &ith 47,777, and a &ho(e (i#t of other manufacturin* to&n# to #prin* up a# if b! a ma*ic touch8 +he hi#tor! of South %anca#hire contain# #ome of the *reate#t mar e(# of modern time#, !et no one e er mention# them and a(( the#e mirac(e# are the product of the cotton indu#tr!8 :(a#*o&, too, the centre for the cotton di#trict of Scot(and, for %anar1#hire and =enfre&#hire, ha# increa#ed in popu(ation from >7,777 to >77,777 #ince the introduction of the indu#tr!8 +he ho#ier! manufacture of /ottin*ham and 4erb! a(#o recei ed one fre#h impu(#e from the (o&er price of !arn, and a #econd one from an impro ement of the #toc1in* (oom, b! mean# of &hich t&o #toc1in*# cou(d be &o en at once8 +he manufacture of (ace, too, became an important branch of indu#tr! after the in ention of the (ace machine in 1...; #oon after that date %ind(e! in ented the point$net machine, and in 1879 5eathcoat in ented the bobbinnet machine, in con#eBuence of &hich the production of (ace &a# *reat(! #imp(ified, and the demand increa#ed proportionate(! in con#eBuence of the dimini#hed co#t, #o that no&, at (ea#t 677,777 per#on# are #upported b! thi# indu#tr!8 "t# chief centre# are /ottin*ham, %eice#ter, and the We#t of En*(and, Wi(t#hire, 4e on#hire, etc8 9 corre#pondin* exten#ion ha# ta1en p(ace in the branche# dependent upon the cotton indu#tr!, in d!ein*, b(eachin*, and printin*8 <(eachin* b! the app(ication of ch(orine in p(ace of the ox!*en of the atmo#phere, d!ein* and printin* b! the rapid de e(opment of chemi#tr!, and printin* b! a #erie# of mo#t bri((iant mechanica( in ention#, recei ed a !et *reater ad ance &hich, &ith the exten#ion of the#e branche# cau#ed b! the *ro&th of the cotton indu#tr!, rai#ed them to a pre iou#(! un1no&n de*ree of pro#perit!8 +he #ame acti it! manife#ted it#e(f in the manufacture of &oo(8 +hi# had hitherto been the (eadin* department of En*(i#h indu#tr!, but the Buantitie# former(! produced are a# nothin* in compari#on &ith that &hich i# no& manufactured8 "n 1.86 the &ho(e &oo( crop of the precedin* three !ear# (a! unu#ed for &ant of &or1er#, and &ou(d ha e continued #o to (ie if the ne&(!

in ented machiner! had not come to it# a##i#tance and #pun it8 +he adaptation of thi# machiner! to the #pinnin* of &oo( &a# mo#t #ucce##fu((! accomp(i#hed8 +hen be*an the #ame #udden de e(opment in the &oo( di#trict# &hich &e ha e a(read! #een in the cotton di#trict#8 "n 1.>8 there &ere .5,777 piece# of &oo((en c(oth produced in the We#t =idin* of 0or1#hire; in 181. there &ere 497,777 piece#, and #o rapid &a# the exten#ion of the indu#tr! that in 1854, 457,777 more piece# &ere produced than in 18658 "n 1871, 171,777,777 pound# of &oo( ,.,777,777 pound# of8 it imported- &ere &or1ed up; in 1855, 187,777,777 pound# &ere &or1ed up, of &hich 46,777,777 pound# &ere imported8 +he principa( centre of thi# indu#tr! i# the We#t =idin* of 0or1#hire, &here, e#pecia((! at <radford, (on* En*(i#h &oo( i# con erted into &or#ted !arn#, etc8, &hi(e in the other citie#, %eed#, 5a(ifax, 5udder#fie(d, etc8, #hort &oo( i# con erted into hard$ #pun !arn and c(oth8 +hen come the adDacent part of %anca#hire, the re*ion of =ochda(e, &here in addition to the cotton indu#tr! much f(anne( i# produced, and the We#t of En*(and, &hich #upp(ie# the fine#t c(oth#8 5ere a(#o the *ro&th of popu(ation i# &orth! of ob#er ation: in 1871 and in 18>1 <radford 5a(ifax 5udder#fie(d %eed# 9nd the &ho(e We#t =idin* contained 69,777 T T T T 6>,777 15,777 5>,777 T T T T ..,777 inhabitant#

117,777 T >4,777 T

16>,777 T 987,777 T

564,777 T

9 popu(ation &hich, #ince 18>1, mu#t ha e increa#ed at (ea#t 67 to 65 per cent further8 "n 18>5 the #pinnin* of &oo( emp(o!ed in the Fnited Hin*dom 1,>1> mi((#, &ith .1,>77 &or1er#, the#e (a#t bein* but a #ma(( portion of the mu(titude &ho are #upported direct(! or indirect(! b! the manufacture of &oo(, and exc(udin* near(! a(( &ea er#8 Pro*re## in the (inen trade de e(oped (ater, becau#e the nature of the ra& materia( made the app(ication of #pinnin* machiner! er! difficu(t8 9ttempt# had been made in the (a#t !ear# of the (a#t centur! in Scot(and, but the 'renchman :irard, &ho introduced f(ax #pinnin* in 1817, &a# the fir#t &ho #ucceeded practica((!, and e en :irardN# machine# fir#t attained on <riti#h #oi( the importance the! de#er ed b! mean# of impro ement# &hich the! under&ent in En*(and, and of their uni er#a( app(ication in %eed#, 4undee, and <e(fa#t8 'rom thi# time the <riti#h (inen trade rapid(! extended8 "n 1814, >,777 ton# of f(ax &ere imported, in 18>>, near(! 19,777 ton# of f(ax and >,477 ton# of hemp8 +he export of "ri#h (inen to :reat <ritain ro#e from 56,777,777 !ard# in 1877 to 55,777,777 in 1865, of &hich a (ar*e part &a# re$exported8 +he export of En*(i#h and Scotch &o en (inen *ood# ro#e from 64,777,777 !ard# in 1867 to 51,777,777 !ard# in 18>>8 +he number of f(ax #pinnin* e#tab(i#hment# in 18>5 &a# >4., emp(o!in* >>,777 &or1er#, of &hich one$ha(f &ere in the South of Scot(and, more than 67 in the We#t =idin* of 0or1#hire, %eed#, and it# en iron#, 65 in <e(fa#t, "re(and, and the re#t in 4or#et and %anca#hire8 Wea in* i# carried on in the South of Scot(and, here and there in En*(and, but principa((! in "re(and8 With (i1e #ucce## did the En*(i#h turn their attention to the manufacture of #i(18 =a& materia( &a# imported from Southern Europe and 9#ia read! #pun, and the chief (abour (a! in the t&i#tin* of fine thread#8 Fnti( 1864 the hea ! import dut!, four #hi((in*# per pound on ra& materia(, *reat(! retarded the de e(opment of the En*(i#h #i(1 indu#tr!, &hi(e on(! the mar1et# of En*(and and the ;o(onie# &ere protected for it8 "n that !ear the dut! &a# reduced to one penn!, and the number of mi((# at once (ar*e(! increa#ed8 "n a #in*(e !ear the number of thro&in* #pind(e# ro#e from .87,777 to 1,187,777; and, a(thou*h the commercia( cri#i# of 1865 cripp(ed thi# branch of indu#tr! for the moment, !et in 186. more &a# produced than e er, the mechanica( #1i(( and

experience of the En*(i#h ha in* #ecured their t&i#tin* machiner! the #upremac! o er the a&1&ard de ice# of their competitor#8 "n 18>5 the <riti#h Empire po##e##ed 66> t&i#tin* mi((#, emp(o!in* >7,777 &or1er#, (ocated chief(! in ;he#hire, in Macc(e#fie(d, ;on*(eton, and the #urroundin* di#trict#, and in Manche#ter and Somer#et#hire8 <e#ide# the#e, there are numerou# mi((# for &or1in* up &a#te, from &hich a pecu(iar artic(e 1no&n a# #pun #i(1 i# manufactured, &ith &hich the En*(i#h #upp(! e en the Pari# and %!on# &ea er#8 +he &ea in* of the #i(1 #o t&i#ted and #pun i# carried on in Pai#(e! and e(#e&here in Scot(and, and in Spita(fie(d#, %ondon, but a(#o in Manche#ter and e(#e&here8 /or i# the *i*antic ad ance achie ed in En*(i#h manufacture #ince 1.67 re#tricted to the production of c(othin* materia(#8 +he impu(#e, once *i en, &a# communicated to a(( branche# of indu#tria( acti it!, and a mu(titude of in ention# &ho((! unre(ated to tho#e here cited recei ed doub(e importance from the fact that the! &ere made in the mid#t of the uni er#a( mo ement8 <ut a# #oon a# the immea#urab(e importance of mechanica( po&er &a# practica((! demon#trated, e er! ener*! &a# concentrated in the effort to exp(oit thi# po&er in a(( direction#, and to exp(oit it in the intere#t of indi idua( in entor# and manufacturer#; and the demand for machiner!, fue(, and materia(# ca((ed a ma## of &or1er# and a number of trade# into redoub(ed acti it!8 +he #team$ en*ine fir#t *a e importance to the broad coa($fie(d# of En*(and; the production of machiner! be*an no& for the fir#t time, and &ith it aro#e a ne& intere#t in the iron mine# &hich #upp(ied ra& materia( for it8 +he increa#ed con#umption of &oo( #timu(ated En*(i#h #heep breedin*, and the *ro&in* importation of &oo(, f(ax, and #i(1 ca((ed forth an exten#ion of the <riti#h ocean carr!in* trade8 :reate#t of a(( &a# the *ro&th of production of iron8 +he rich iron depo#it# of the En*(i#h hi((# had hitherto been (itt(e de e(oped; iron had a(&a!# been #me(ted b! mean# of charcoa(, &hich became *radua((! more expen#i e a# a*ricu(ture impro ed and fore#t# &ere cut a&a!8 +he be*innin* of the u#e of co1e in iron #me(tin* had been made in the (a#t centur!, and in 1.87 a ne& method &a# in ented of con ertin* into a ai(ab(e &rou*ht$iron co1e$#me(ted iron, &hich up to that time had been con ertib(e into ca#t$iron on(!8 +hi# proce##, 1no&n a#Cpudd(in*T, con#i#ted in &ithdra&in* the carbon &hich had mixed &ith the iron durin* the proce## of #me(tin*, and opened a &ho((! ne& fie(d for the production of En*(i#h iron8 Sme(tin* furnace# &ere bui(t fift! time# (ar*er than before, the proce## of #me(tin* &a# #imp(ified b! the introduction of hot b(a#t#, and iron cou(d thu# be produced #o cheap(! that a mu(titude of obDect# &hich had before been made of #tone or &ood &ere no& made of iron8 "n 1.88, +homa# Paine, the famou# democrat, bui(t in 0or1#hire the fir#t iron brid*e, &hich &a# fo((o&ed b! a *reat number of other#, #o that no& near(! a(( brid*e#, e#pecia((! for rai(road traffic, are bui(t of ca#t$iron, &hi(e in %ondon it#e(f a brid*e acro## the +hame#, the South&ar1 brid*e, ha# been bui(t of thi# materia(8 "ron pi((ar#, #upport# for machiner!, etc8, are uni er#a((! u#ed, and #ince the introduction of *a#$(i*htin* and rai(road#, ne& out(et# for En*(i#h iron product# are opened8 /ai(# and #cre&# *radua((! came to be made b! machiner!8 5unt#man, a Sheffie(der, di#co ered in 1.47 a method for ca#tin* #tee(, b! &hich much (abour &a# #a ed, and the production of &ho((! ne& cheap *ood# rendered practicab(e; and throu*h the *reater purit! of the materia( p(aced at it# di#po#a(, and the more perfect too(#, ne& machiner! and minute di i#ion of (abour, the meta( trade of En*(and no& fir#t attained importance8 +he popu(ation of <irmin*ham *re& from .>,777 in 1871 to 677,777 in 1844; that of Sheffie(d from 46,777 in 1871 to 117,777 in 1844, and the con#umption of coa( in the (atter cit! a(one reached in 18>6, 515,777 ton#8 "n 1875 there &ere exported 4,>77 ton# of iron product# and 4,677 ton# of pi*$iron; in 18>4, 16,677 ton# of iron product# and 17.,777 ton# of pi*$iron, &hi(e the &ho(e iron product, reachin* in 1.47 but 1.,777 ton#, had ri#en in 18>4 to near(! .77,777 ton#8 +he #me(tin* of pi*$iron a(one con#ume# !ear(! more than 5,777,777 ton# of coa(, and the importance &hich coa($minin* ha# attained in the cour#e of the (a#t 67 !ear# can #carce(! be concei ed8 9(( the En*(i#h and Scotch depo#it# are no& &or1ed, and the mine# of /orthumber(and and 4urham a(one !ie(d annua((!

more than 5,777,777 ton# for #hippin*, and emp(o! from 47 to 57,777 men8 9ccordin* to the .urham Chronicle, there &ere &or1ed in the#e t&o countie#:
"n 1.55, 14 mine#; in 1877, 47 mine#; in 18>6, .6 mine#; in 184>, 1>7 mine#8

Moreo er, a(( mine# are no& much more ener*etica((! &or1ed than former(!8 9 #imi(ar(! increa#ed acti it! &a# app(ied to the &or1in* of tin, copper, and (ead, and a(on*#ide of the exten#ion of *(a## manufacture aro#e a ne& branch of indu#tr! in the production of potter!, rendered important b! the effort# of Lo#iah Wed*&ood, about 1.658 +hi# in entor p(aced the &ho(e manufacture of #tone&are on a #cientific ba#i#, introduced better ta#te, and founded the potterie# of /orth Stafford#hire, a di#trict of ei*ht En*(i#h mi(e# #Buare, &hich, former(! a de#ert &a#te, i# no& #o&n &ith &or1# and d&e((in*#, and #upport# more than 67,777 peop(e8 "nto thi# uni er#a( &hir( of acti it! e er!thin* &a# dra&n8 9*ricu(ture made a corre#pondin* ad ance8 /ot on(! did (anded propert! pa##, a# &e ha e a(read! #een, into the hand# of ne& o&ner# and cu(ti ator#, a*ricu(ture &a# affected in #ti(( another &a!8 +he *reat ho(der# app(ied capita( to the impro ement of the #oi(, tore do&n need(e## fence#, drained, manured, emp(o!ed better too(#, and app(ied a rotation of crop#8 +he pro*re## of #cience came to their a##i#tance a(#o; Sir 5umphr! 4a ! app(ied chemi#tr! to a*ricu(ture &ith #ucce##, and the de e(opment of mechanica( #cience be#to&ed a mu(titude of ad anta*e# upon the (ar*e farmer8 'urther, in con#eBuence of the increa#e of popu(ation, the demand for a*ricu(tura( product# increa#ed in #uch mea#ure that from 1.67 to 18>4, 6,847,547 acre# of &a#te (and &ere rec(aimed; and, in #pite of thi#, En*(and &a# tran#formed from a *rain exportin* to a *rain importin* countr!8 +he #ame acti it! &a# de e(oped in the e#tab(i#hment of communication8 'rom 1818 to 1869, there &ere bui(t in En*(and and Wa(e#, 1,777 En*(i#h mi(e# of road&a! of the &idth pre#cribed b! (a&, 67 feet, and near(! a(( the o(d road# &ere recon#tructed on the ne& #!#tem of Mc9dam8 "n Scot(and, the 4epartment of Pub(ic Wor1# bui(t #ince 1875 near(! 977 mi(e# of road&a! and more than 1,777 brid*e#, b! &hich the popu(ation of the 5i*h(and# &a# #udden(! p(aced &ithin reach of ci i(i#ation8 +he 5i*h(ander# had hitherto been chief(! poacher# and #mu**(er#; the! no& became farmer# and hand$&or1er#8 9nd, thou*h :ae(ic #choo(# &ere or*ani#ed for the purpo#e of maintainin* the :ae(ic (an*ua*e, !et :ae(ic$;e(tic cu#tom# and #peech are rapid(! ani#hin* before the approach of En*(i#h ci i(i#ation8 So, too, in "re(and; bet&een the countie# of ;or1, %imeric1, and Herr!, (a! hitherto a &i(derne## &ho((! &ithout pa##ab(e road#, and #er in*, b! rea#on of it# inacce##ibi(it!, a# the refu*e of a(( crimina(# and the chief protection of the ;e(tic "ri#h nationa(it! in the South of "re(and8 "t ha# no& been cut throu*h b! pub(ic road#, and ci i(i#ation ha# thu# *ained admi##ion e en to thi# #a a*e re*ion8 +he &ho(e <riti#h Empire, and e#pecia((! En*(and, &hich, #ixt! !ear# a*o, had a# bad road# a# :erman! or 'rance then had, i# no& co ered b! a net&or1 of the fine#t road&a!#; and the#e, too, (i1e a(mo#t e er!thin* e(#e in En*(and, are the &or1 of pri ate enterpri#e, the State ha in* done er! (itt(e in thi# direction8 <efore 1.55 En*(and po##e##ed a(mo#t no cana(#8 "n that !ear a cana( &a# bui(t in %anca#hire from San1e! <roo1 to St8 5e(enN#; and in 1.59, Lame# <rind(e! bui(t the fir#t important one, the 4u1e of <rid*e&aterN# ;ana( from Manche#ter and the coa($mine# of the di#trict to the mouth of the Mer#e! pa##in*, near <arton, b! aBueduct, o er the ri er "r&e((8 'rom thi# achie ement date# the cana( bui(din* of En*(and, to &hich <rind(e! fir#t *a e importance8 ;ana(# &ere no& bui(t, and ri er# made na i*ab(e in a(( direction#8 "n En*(and a(one, there are 6,677 mi(e# of cana(# and 1,877 mi(e# of na i*ab(e ri er8 "n Scot(and, the ;a(edonian ;ana( &a# cut direct(! acro## the countr!, and in "re(and #e era( cana(# &ere bui(t8 +he#e impro ement#, too, (i1e the rai(road# and road&a!#, are near(! a(( the &or1 of pri ate indi idua(# and companie#8 +he rai(road# ha e been on(! recent(! bui(t8 +he fir#t *reat one &a# opened from %i erpoo( to Manche#ter in 18>7, #ince &hich a(( the *reat citie# ha e been connected b! rai(8 %ondon &ith Southampton, <ri*hton, 4o er, ;o(che#ter, Exeter, and <irmin*ham; <irmin*ham &ith

:(ouce#ter, %i erpoo(, %anca#ter , ia /e&ton and Wi*an, and ia Manche#ter and <o(ton-; a(#o &ith %eed# , ia Manche#ter and 5a(ifax, and ia %eice#ter, 4erb!, and Sheffie(d-; %eed# &ith 5u(( and /e&ca#t(e , ia 0or1-8 +here are a(#o man! minor (ine# bui(din* or proDected, &hich &i(( #oon ma1e it po##ib(e to tra e( from Edinbur*h to %ondon in one da!8 9# it had tran#formed the mean# of communication b! (and, #o did the introduction of #team re o(utioni#e tra e( b! #ea8 +he fir#t #teamboat &a# (aunched in 187., in the 5ud#on, in /orth 9merica; the fir#t in the <riti#h Empire, in 1811, on the ;(!de8 Since then, more than 677 ha e been bui(t in En*(and; and in 18>6 more than 577 &ere p(!in* to and from <riti#h port#8 Such, in brief, i# the hi#tor! of En*(i#h indu#tria( de e(opment in the pa#t #ixt! !ear#, a hi#tor! &hich ha# no counterpart in the anna(# of humanit!8 Sixt!, ei*ht! !ear# a*o, En*(and &a# a countr! (i1e e er! other, &ith #ma(( to&n#, fe& and #imp(e indu#trie#, and a thin but proportionally (ar*e a*ricu(tura( popu(ation8 +oda! it i# a countr! (i1e no other, &ith a capita( of t&o and a ha(f mi((ion inhabitant#; &ith a#t manufacturin* citie#; &ith an indu#tr! that #upp(ie# the &or(d, and produce# a(mo#t e er!thin* b! mean# of the mo#t comp(ex machiner!; &ith an indu#triou#, inte((i*ent, den#e popu(ation, of &hich t&o$third# are emp(o!ed in trade and commerce, and compo#ed of c(a##e# &ho((! different; formin*, in fact, &ith other cu#tom# and other need#, a different nation from the En*(and of tho#e da!#8 +he indu#tria( re o(ution i# of the #ame importance for En*(and a# the po(itica( re o(ution for 'rance, and the phi(o#ophica( re o(ution for :erman!; and the difference bet&een En*(and in 1.67 and in 1844 i# at (ea#t a# *reat a# that bet&een 'rance under the ancien r/gime and durin* the re o(ution of Lu(!8 <ut the mi*htie#t re#u(t of thi# indu#tria( tran#formation i# the En*(i#h pro(etariat8 We ha e a(read! #een ho& the pro(etariat &a# ca((ed into exi#tence b! the introduction of machiner!8 +he rapid exten#ion of manufacture demanded hand#, &a*e# ro#e, and troop# of &or1men mi*rated from the a*ricu(tura( di#trict# to the to&n#8 Popu(ation mu(tip(ied enormou#(!, and near(! a(( the increa#e too1 p(ace in the pro(etariat8 'urther, "re(and had entered upon an order(! de e(opment on(! #ince the be*innin* of the ei*hteenth centur!8 +here, too, the popu(ation, more than decimated b! En*(i#h crue(t! in ear(ier di#turbance#, no& rapid(! mu(tip(ied, e#pecia((! after the ad ance in manufacture be*an to dra& ma##e# of "ri#hmen to&ard# En*(and8 +hu# aro#e the *reat manufacturin* and commercia( citie# of the <riti#h Empire, in &hich at (ea#t three$fourth# of the popu(ation be(on* to the &or1in*$c(a##, &hi(e the (o&er midd(e$c(a## con#i#t# on(! of #ma(( #hop$1eeper#, and er! er! fe& handicraft#men8 'or, thou*h the ri#in* manufacture fir#t attained importance b! tran#formin* too(# into machine#, &or1$room# into factorie#, and con#eBuent(!, the toi(in* (o&er midd(e$c(a## into the toi(in* pro(etariat, and the former (ar*e merchant# into manufacturer#, thou*h the (o&er midd(e$c(a## &a# thu# ear(! cru#hed out, and the popu(ation reduced to the t&o oppo#in* e(ement#, &or1er# and capita(i#t#, thi# happened out#ide of the domain of manufacture proper, in the pro ince of handicraft and retai( trade a# &e((8 "n the p(ace of the former ma#ter# and apprentice#, came *reat capita(i#t# and &or1in*$men &ho had no pro#pect of ri#in* abo e their c(a##8 5and$&or1 &a# carried on after the fa#hion of factor! &or1, the di i#ion of (abour &a# #trict(! app(ied, and #ma(( emp(o!er# &ho cou(d not compete &ith *reat e#tab(i#hment# &ere forced do&n into the pro(etariat8 9t the #ame time the de#truction of the former or*ani#ation of hand$&or1, and the di#appearance of the (o&er midd(e$c(a## depri ed the &or1in*man of a(( po##ibi(it! of ri#in* into the midd(e$c(a## him#e(f8 5itherto he had a(&a!# had the pro#pect of e#tab(i#hin* him#e(f #ome&here a# ma#ter artificer, perhap# emp(o!in* Dourne!men and apprentice#; but no&, &hen ma#ter artificer# &ere cro&ded out b! manufacturer#, &hen (ar*e capita( had become nece##ar! for carr!in* on &or1 independent(!, the &or1in*$c(a## became, for the fir#t time, an inte*ra(, permanent c(a## of the popu(ation, &herea# it had former(! often been mere(! a tran#ition (eadin* to the bour*eoi#ie8 /o&, he &ho &a# born to toi( had no other pro#pect than that of remainin* a

toi(er a(( hi# (ife8 /o&, for the fir#t time, therefore, the pro(etariat &a# in a po#ition to underta1e an independent mo ement8 "n thi# &a! &ere brou*ht to*ether tho#e a#t ma##e# of &or1in*$men &ho no& fi(( the &ho(e <riti#h Empire, &ho#e #ocia( condition force# it#e(f e er! da! more and more upon the attention of the ci i(i#ed &or(d8 +he condition of the &or1in*$c(a## i# the condition of the a#t maDorit! of the En*(i#h peop(e8 +he Bue#tion: What i# to become of tho#e de#titute mi((ion#, &ho con#ume toda! &hat the! earned !e#terda!; &ho ha e created the *reatne## of En*(and b! their in ention# and their toi(; &ho become &ith e er! pa##in* da! more con#ciou# of their mi*ht, and demand, &ith dai(! increa#in* ur*enc!, their #hare of the ad anta*e# of #ociet!K $$ +hi#, #ince the =eform <i((, ha# become the nationa( Bue#tion8 9(( Par(iamentar! debate#, of an! importance, ma! be reduced to thi#; and, thou*h the En*(i#h midd(e$c(a## &i(( not a# !et admit it, thou*h the! tr! to e ade thi# *reat Bue#tion, and to repre#ent their o&n particu(ar intere#t# a# the tru(! nationa( one#, their action i# utter(! u#e(e##8 With e er! #e##ion of Par(iament the &or1in*$c(a## *ain# *round, the intere#t# of the midd(e$c(a## dimini#h in importance; and, in #pite of the fact that the midd(e$c(a## i# the chief, in fact, the on(! po&er in Par(iament, the (a#t #e##ion of 1844 &a# a continuou# debate upon #ubDect# affectin* the &or1in*$c(a##, the Poor =e(ief <i((, the 'actor! 9ct, the Ma#ter#N and Ser ant#N 9ctN, and +homa# 4uncombe, the repre#entati e of the &or1in*$men in the 5ou#e of ;ommon#, &a# the *reat man of the #e##ion; &hi(e the %ibera( midd(e$c(a## &ith it# motion for repea(in* the ;orn %a&#, and the =adica( midd(e$c(a## &ith it# re#o(ution for refu#in* the taxe#, p(a!ed pitiab(e ro(e#8 E en the debate# about "re(and &ere at bottom debate# about the "ri#h pro(etariat, and the mean# of comin* to it# a##i#tance8 "t i# hi*h time, too, for the En*(i#h midd(e$c(a## to ma1e #ome conce##ion# to the &or1in*$men &ho no (on*er p(ead but threaten, for in a #hort time it ma! be too (ate8 "n #pite of a(( thi#, the En*(i#h midd(e$c(a##, e#pecia((! the manufacturin* c(a##, &hich i# enriched direct(! b! mean# of the po ert! of the &or1er#, per#i#t# in i*norin* thi# po ert!8 +hi# c(a##, fee(in* it#e(f the mi*ht! repre#entati e c(a## of the nation, i# a#hamed to (a! the #ore #pot of En*(and bare before the e!e# of the &or(d; &i(( not confe##, e en to it#e(f, that the &or1er# are in di#tre##, becau#e it, the propert!$ho(din*, manufacturin* c(a##, mu#t bear the mora( re#pon#ibi(it! for thi# di#tre##8 5ence the #cornfu( #mi(e &hich inte((i*ent En*(i#hmen ,and the!, the midd(e$ c(a##, a(one are 1no&n on the ;ontinent- a##ume &hen an! one be*in# to #pea1 of the condition of the &or1in*$c(a##; hence the utter i*norance on the part of the &ho(e midd(e$c(a## of e er!thin* &hich concern# the &or1er#; hence the ridicu(ou# b(under# &hich men of thi# c(a##, in and out of Par(iament, ma1e &hen the po#ition of the pro(etariat come# under di#cu##ion; hence the ab#urd freedom from anxiet!, &ith &hich the midd(e$c(a## d&e((# upon a #oi( that i# hone!combed, and ma! an! da! co((ap#e, the #peed! co((ap#e of &hich i# a# certain a# a mathematica( or mechanica( demon#tration; hence the mirac(e that the En*(i#h ha e a# !et no #in*(e boo1 upon the condition of their &or1er#, a(thou*h the! ha e been examinin* and mendin* the o(d #tate of thin*# no one 1no&# ho& man! !ear#8 5ence a(#o the deep &rath of the &ho(e &or1in*$c(a##, from :(a#*o& to %ondon, a*ain#t the rich, b! &hom the! are #!#tematica((! p(undered and merci(e##(! (eft to their fate, a &rath &hich before too (on* a time *oe# b!, a time a(mo#t &ithin the po&er of man to predict, mu#t brea1 out into a re o(ution in compari#on &ith &hich the 'rench =e o(ution, and the !ear 1.94, &i(( pro e to ha e been chi(dN# p(a!8

The &nd'strial Proletariat

+he order of our in e#ti*ation of the different #ection# of the pro(etariat fo((o&# natura((! from the fore*oin* hi#tor! of it# ri#e8 +he fir#t pro(etarian# &ere connected &ith manufacture, &ere en*endered b! it, and accordin*(!, tho#e emp(o!ed in manufacture, in the &or1in* up of ra& materia(#, &i(( fir#t c(aim our attention8 +he production of ra& materia(# and of fue( for manufacture attained importance on(! in con#eBuence of the indu#tria( chan*e, and en*endered a ne& pro(etariat, the coa( and meta( miner#8 +hen, in the third p(ace, manufacture inf(uenced a*ricu(ture, and in the fourth, the condition of "re(and; and the fraction# of the pro(etariat be(on*in* to each, &i(( find their p(ace accordin*(!8 We #ha(( find, too, that &ith the po##ib(e exception of the "ri#h, the de*ree of inte((i*ence of the ariou# &or1er# i# in direct proportion to their re(ation to manufacture; and that the factor!$hand# are mo#t en(i*htened a# to their o&n intere#t#, the miner# #ome&hat (e## #o, the a*ricu(tura( (abourer# #carce(! at a((8 We #ha(( find the #ame order a*ain amon* the indu#tria( &or1er#, and #ha(( #ee ho& the factor!$hand#, e(de#t chi(dren of the indu#tria( re o(ution, ha e from the be*innin* to the pre#ent da! formed the nuc(eu# of the %abour Mo ement, and ho& the other# ha e Doined thi# mo ement Du#t in proportion a# their handicraft ha# been in aded b! the pro*re## of machiner!8 We #ha(( thu# (earn from the examp(e &hich En*(and offer#, from the eBua( pace &hich the %abour Mo ement ha# 1ept &ith the mo ement of indu#tria( de e(opment, the hi#torica( #i*nificance of manufacture8 Since, ho&e er, at the pre#ent moment, prett! much the &ho(e indu#tria( pro(etariat i# in o( ed in the mo ement, and the condition of the #eparate #ection# ha# much in common, becau#e the! a(( are indu#tria(, &e #ha(( ha e fir#t to examine the condition of the indu#tria( pro(etariat a# a &ho(e, in order (ater to notice more particu(ar(! each #eparate di i#ion &ith it# o&n pecu(iaritie#8 "t ha# been a(read! #u**e#ted that manufacture centra(i#e# propert! in the hand# of the fe&8 "t reBuire# (ar*e capita( &ith &hich to erect the co(o##a( e#tab(i#hment# that ruin the pett! tradin* bour*eoi#ie and &ith &hich to pre## into it# #er ice the force# of /ature, #o dri in* the hand$ (abour of the independent &or1man out of the mar1et8 +he di i#ion of (abour, the app(ication of &ater and e#pecia((! #team, and the app(ication of machiner!, are the three *reat (e er# &ith &hich manufacture, #ince the midd(e of the (a#t centur!, ha# been bu#! puttin* the &or(d out of Doint8 Manufacture, on a #ma(( #ca(e, created the midd(e$c(a##; on a (ar*e #ca(e, it created the &or1in*$c(a##, and rai#ed the e(ect of the midd(e$c(a## to the throne, but on(! to o erthro& them the more #ure(! &hen the time come#8 Mean&hi(e, it i# an undenied and ea#i(! exp(ained fact that the numerou# pett! midd(e$c(a## of theC*ood o(d time#T ha# been annihi(ated b! manufacture, and re#o( ed into rich capita(i#t# on the one hand and poor &or1er# on the other8 15 +he centra(i#in* tendenc! of manufacture doe# not, ho&e er, #top here8 Popu(ation become# centra(i#ed Du#t a# capita( doe#; and, er! natura((!, #ince the human bein*, the &or1er, i# re*arded in manufacture #imp(! a# a piece of capita( for the u#e of &hich the manufacturer pa!# intere#t under the name of &a*e#8 9 manufacturin* e#tab(i#hment reBuire# man! &or1er# emp(o!ed to*ether in a #in*(e bui(din*, (i in* near each other and formin* a i((a*e of them#e( e# in the ca#e of a *ood$#i)ed factor!8 +he! ha e need# for #ati#f!in* &hich other peop(e are nece##ar!; handicraft#men, #hoema1er#, tai(or#, ba1er#, carpenter#, #tonema#on#, #ett(e at hand8 +he inhabitant# of the i((a*e, e#pecia((! the !oun*er *eneration, accu#tom them#e( e# to factor! &or1, *ro& #1i(fu( in it, and &hen the fir#t mi(( can no (on*er emp(o! them a((, &a*e# fa((, and the immi*ration of fre#h manufacturer# i# the con#eBuence8 So the i((a*e *ro&# into a #ma(( to&n, and the #ma(( to&n into a (ar*e one8 +he *reater the to&n, the *reater it# ad anta*e#8 "t offer# road#, rai(road#, cana(#; the choice of #1i((ed (abour increa#e# con#tant(!, ne& e#tab(i#hment# can

be bui(t more cheap(!, becau#e of the competition amon* bui(der# and machini#t# &ho are at hand, than in remote countr! di#trict#, &hither timber, machiner!, bui(der#, and operati e# mu#t be brou*ht; it offer# a mar1et to &hich bu!er# cro&d, and direct communication &ith the mar1et# #upp(!in* ra& materia( or demandin* fini#hed *ood#8 5ence the mar e((ou#(! rapid *ro&th of the *reat manufacturin* to&n#8 +he countr!, on the other hand, had the ad anta*e that &a*e# are u#ua((! (o&er than in to&n, and #o to&n and countr! are in con#tant competition; and, if the ad anta*e i# on the #ide of the to&n toda!, &a*e# #in1 #o (o& in the countr! tomorro& that ne& in e#tment# are mo#t profitab(! made there8 <ut the centra(i#in* tendenc! of manufacture continue# in fu(( force, and e er! ne& factor! bui(t in the countr! bear# in it the *erm of a manufacturin* to&n8 "f it &ere po##ib(e for thi# mad ru#h of manufacture to *o on at thi# rate for another centur!, e er! manufacturin* di#trict of En*(and &ou(d be one *reat manufacturin* to&n, and Manche#ter and %i erpoo( &ou(d meet at Warrin*ton or /e&ton; for in commerce, too, thi# centra(i#ation of the popu(ation &or1# in preci#e(! the #ame &a!, and hence it i# that one or t&o *reat harbour#, #uch a# 5u(( and %i erpoo(, <ri#to( and %ondon, monopo(i#e a(mo#t the &ho(e maritime commerce of :reat <ritain8 Since commerce and manufacture attain their mo#t comp(ete de e(opment in the#e *reat to&n#, their inf(uence upon the pro(etariat i# a(#o mo#t c(ear(! ob#er ab(e here8 5ere the centra(i#ation of propert! ha# reached the hi*he#t point; here the mora(# and cu#tom# of the *ood o(d time# are mo#t comp(ete(! ob(iterateded; here it ha# *one #o far that the name Merr! ?(d En*(and con e!# no meanin*, for ?(d En*(and it#e(f i# un1no&n to memor! and to the ta(e# of our *randfather#8 5ence, too, there exi#t here on(! a rich and a poor c(a##, for the (o&er midd(e$c(a## ani#he# more comp(ete(! &ith e er! pa##in* da!8 +hu# the c(a## former(! mo#t #tab(e ha# become the mo#t re#t(e## one8 "t con#i#t# toda! of a fe& remnant# of a pa#t time, and a number of peop(e ea*er to ma1e fortune#, indu#tria( Mica&ber# and #pecu(ator# of &hom one ma! ama## a fortune, &hi(e ninet!$nine become in#o( ent, and more than ha(f of the ninet!$nine (i e b! perpetua((! repeated fai(ure8 <ut in the#e to&n# the pro(etarian# are the infinite maDorit!, and ho& the! fare, &hat inf(uence the *reat to&n exerci#e# upon them, &e ha e no& to in e#ti*ate8

The Great To(ns

9 to&n, #uch a# %ondon, &here a man ma! &ander for hour# to*ether &ithout reachin* the be*innin* of the end, &ithout meetin* the #(i*hte#t hint &hich cou(d (ead to the inference that there i# open countr! &ithin reach, i# a #tran*e thin*8 +hi# co(o##a( centra(i#ation, thi# heapin* to*ether of t&o and a ha(f mi((ion# of human bein*# at one point, ha# mu(tip(ied the po&er of thi# t&o and a ha(f mi((ion# a hundredfo(d; ha# rai#ed %ondon to the commercia( capita( of the &or(d, created the *iant doc1# and a##emb(ed the thou#and e##e(# that continua((! co er the +hame#8 " 1no& nothin* more impo#in* than the ie& &hich the +hame# offer# durin* the a#cent from the #ea to %ondon <rid*e8 +he ma##e# of bui(din*#, the &har e# on both #ide#, e#pecia((! from Woo(&ich up&ard#, the count(e## #hip# a(on* both #hore#, cro&din* e er c(o#er and c(o#er to*ether, unti(, at (a#t, on(! a narro& pa##a*e remain# in the midd(e of the ri er, a pa##a*e throu*h &hich hundred# of #teamer# #hoot b! one another; a(( thi# i# #o a#t, #o impre##i e, that a man cannot co((ect him#e(f, but i# (o#t in the mar e( of En*(andN# *reatne## before he #et# foot upon En*(i#h #oi(816 <ut the #acrifice# &hich a(( thi# ha# co#t become apparent (ater8 9fter roamin* the #treet# of the capita( a da! or t&o, ma1in* head&a! &ith difficu(t! throu*h the human turmoi( and the end(e## (ine# of ehic(e#, after i#itin* the #(um# of the metropo(i#, one rea(i#e# for the fir#t time that the#e %ondoner# ha e been forced to #acrifice the be#t Bua(itie# of their human nature, to brin* to pa## a(( the mar e(# of ci i(i#ation &hich cro&d their cit!; that a hundred po&er# &hich #(umbered &ithin them ha e remained inacti e, ha e been #uppre##ed in order that a fe& mi*ht be de e(oped more fu((! and mu(tip(! throu*h union &ith tho#e of other#8 +he er! turmoi( of the #treet# ha# #omethin* repu(#i e, #omethin* a*ain#t &hich human nature rebe(#8 +he hundred# of thou#and# of a(( c(a##e# and ran1# cro&din* pa#t each other, are the! not a(( human bein*# &ith the #ame Bua(itie# and po&er#, and &ith the #ame intere#t in bein* happ!K 9nd ha e the! not, in the end, to #ee1 happine## in the #ame &a!, b! the #ame mean#K 9nd #ti(( the! cro&d b! one another a# thou*h the! had nothin* in common, nothin* to do &ith one another, and their on(! a*reement i# the tacit one, that each 1eep to hi# o&n #ide of the pa ement, #o a# not to de(a! the oppo#in* #tream# of the cro&d, &hi(e it occur# to no man to honour another &ith #o much a# a *(ance8 +he bruta( indifference, the unfee(in* i#o(ation of each in hi# pri ate intere#t, become# the more repe((ent and offen#i e, the more the#e indi idua(# are cro&ded to*ether, &ithin a (imited #pace8 9nd, ho&e er much one ma! be a&are that thi# i#o(ation of the indi idua(, thi# narro& #e(f$ #ee1in*, i# the fundamenta( princip(e of our #ociet! e er!&here, it i# no&here #o #hame(e##(! barefaced, #o #e(f$con#ciou# a# Du#t here in the cro&din* of the *reat cit!8 +he di##o(ution of man1ind into monad#, of &hich each one ha# a #eparate princip(e, the &or(d of atom#, i# here carried out to it# utmo#t extreme8 5ence it come#, too, that the #ocia( &ar, the &ar of each a*ain#t a((, i# here open(! dec(ared8 Lu#t a# in StirnerN# recent boo1 Q+he E*o and "t# ?&nR, peop(e re*ard each other on(! a# u#efu( obDect#; each exp(oit# the other, and the end of it a(( i# that the #tron*er tread# the &ea1er under foot; and that the po&erfu( fe&, the capita(i#t#, #ei)e e er!thin* for them#e( e#, &hi(e to the &ea1 man!, the poor, #carce(! a bare exi#tence remain#8 What i# true of %ondon, i# true of Manche#ter, <irmin*ham, %eed#, i# true of a(( *reat to&n#8 E er!&here barbarou# indifference, hard e*oti#m on one hand, and name(e## mi#er! on the other, e er!&here #ocia( &arfare, e er! manN# hou#e in a #tate of #ie*e, e er!&here reciproca( p(underin* under the protection of the (a&, and a(( #o #hame(e##, #o open(! a o&ed that one

#hrin1# before the con#eBuence# of our #ocia( #tate a# the! manife#t them#e( e# here undi#*ui#ed, and can on(! &onder that the &ho(e cra)! fabric #ti(( han*# to*ether8 Since capita(, the direct or indirect contro( of the mean# of #ub#i#tence and production, i# the &eapon &ith &hich thi# #ocia( &arfare i# carried on, it i# c(ear that a(( the di#ad anta*e# of #uch a #tate mu#t fa(( upon the poor8 'or him no man ha# the #(i*hte#t concern8 ;a#t into the &hir(poo(, he mu#t #tru**(e throu*h a# &e(( a# he can8 "f he i# #o happ! a# to find &or1, i8e8, if the bour*eoi#ie doe# him the fa our to enrich it#e(f b! mean# of him, &a*e# a&ait him &hich #carce(! #uffice to 1eep bod! and #ou( to*ether; if he can *et no &or1 he ma! #tea(, if he i# not afraid of the po(ice, or #tar e, in &hich ca#e the po(ice &i(( ta1e care that he doe# #o in a Buiet and inoffen#i e manner8 4urin* m! re#idence in En*(and, at (ea#t t&ent! or thirt! per#on# ha e died of #imp(e #tar ation under the mo#t re o(tin* circum#tance#, and a Dur! ha# rare(! been found po##e##ed of the coura*e to #pea1 the p(ain truth in the matter8 %et the te#timon! of the &itne##e# be ne er #o c(ear and uneBui oca(, the bour*eoi#ie, from &hich the Dur! i# #e(ected, a(&a!# find# #ome bac1door throu*h &hich to e#cape the fri*htfu( erdict, death from #tar ation8 +he bour*eoi#ie dare not #pea1 the truth in the#e ca#e#, for it &ou(d #pea1 it# o&n condemnation8 <ut indirect(!, far more than direct(!, man! ha e died of #tar ation, &here (on*$continued &ant of proper nouri#hment ha# ca((ed forth fata( i((ne##, &hen it ha# produced #uch debi(it! that cau#e# &hich mi*ht other&i#e ha e remained inoperati e brou*ht on #e ere i((ne## and death8 +he En*(i#h &or1in*$men ca(( thi#C#ocia( murderT, and accu#e our &ho(e #ociet! of perpetratin* thi# crime perpetua((!8 9re the! &ron*K +rue, it i# on(! indi idua(# &ho #tar e, but &hat #ecurit! ha# the &or1in*$man that it ma! not be hi# turn tomorro&K Who a##ure# him emp(o!ment, &ho ouche# for it that, if for an! rea#on or no rea#on hi# (ord and ma#ter di#char*e# him tomorro&, he can #tru**(e a(on* &ith tho#e dependent upon him, unti( he ma! find #ome one e(#eCto *i e him breadTK Who *uarantee# that &i((in*ne## to &or1 #ha(( #uffice to obtain &or1, that upri*htne##, indu#tr!, thrift, and the re#t of the irtue# recommended b! the bour*eoi#ie, are rea((! hi# road to happine##K /o one8 5e 1no&# that he ha# #omethin* toda! and that it doe# not depend upon him#e(f &hether he #ha(( ha e #omethin* tomorro&8 5e 1no&# that e er! bree)e that b(o&#, e er! &him of hi# emp(o!er, e er! bad turn of trade ma! hur( him bac1 into the fierce &hir(poo( from &hich he ha# temporari(! #a ed him#e(f, and in &hich it i# hard and often impo##ib(e to 1eep hi# head abo e &ater8 5e 1no&# that, thou*h he ma! ha e the mean# of (i in* toda!, it i# er! uncertain &hether he #ha(( tomorro&8 Mean&hi(e, (et u# proceed to a more detai(ed in e#ti*ation of the po#ition in &hich the #ocia( &ar ha# p(aced the non$po##e##in* c(a##8 %et u# #ee &hat pa! for hi# &or1 #ociet! doe# *i e the &or1in*$man in the form of d&e((in*, c(othin*, food, &hat #ort of #ub#i#tence it *rant# tho#e &ho contribute mo#t to the maintenance of #ociet!; and, fir#t, (et u# con#ider the d&e((in*#8 E er! *reat cit! ha# one or more #(um#, &here the &or1in*$c(a## i# cro&ded to*ether8 +rue, po ert! often d&e((# in hidden a((e!# c(o#e to the pa(ace# of the rich; but, in *enera(, a #eparate territor! ha# been a##i*ned to it, &here, remo ed from the #i*ht of the happier c(a##e#, it ma! #tru**(e a(on* a# it can8 +he#e #(um# are prett! eBua((! arran*ed in a(( the *reat to&n# of En*(and, the &or#t hou#e# in the &or#t Buarter# of the to&n#; u#ua((! one$ or t&o$#toried cotta*e# in (on* ro&#, perhap# &ith ce((ar# u#ed a# d&e((in*#, a(mo#t a(&a!# irre*u(ar(! bui(t8 +he#e hou#e# of three or four room# and a 1itchen# form, throu*hout En*(and, #ome part# of %ondon excepted, the *enera( d&e((in*# of the &or1in*$c(a##8 +he #treet# are *enera((! unpa ed, rou*h, dirt!, fi((ed &ith e*etab(e and anima( refu#e, &ithout #e&er# or *utter#, but #upp(ied &ith fou(, #ta*nant poo(# in#tead8 Moreo er, enti(ation i# impeded b! the bad, confu#ed method of bui(din* of the &ho(e Buarter, and #ince man! human bein*# here (i e cro&ded into a #ma(( #pace, the atmo#phere that pre ai(# in the#e &or1in*$menN# Buarter# ma! readi(! be ima*ined8 'urther, the #treet# #er e a# dr!in* *round# in fine &eather; (ine# are #tretched acro## from hou#e to hou#e, and hun* &ith &et c(othin*8

%et u# in e#ti*ate #ome of the #(um# in their order8 %ondon come# fir#t, 1. and in %ondon the famou# roo1er! of St8 :i(e# &hich i# no&, at (a#t, about to be penetrated b! a coup(e of broad #treet#8 St8 :i(e# i# in the mid#t of the mo#t popu(ou# part of the to&n, #urrounded b! broad, #p(endid a enue# in &hich the *a! &or(d of %ondon id(e# about, in the immediate nei*hbourhood of ?xford Street, =e*ent Street, of +rafa(*ar SBuare and the Strand8 "t i# a di#order(! co((ection of ta((, three$ or four$#toried hou#e#, &ith narro&, croo1ed, fi(th! #treet#, in &hich there i# Buite a# much (ife a# in the *reat thorou*hfare# of the to&n, except that, here, peop(e of the &or1in*$c(a## on(! are to be #een8 9 e*etab(e mar1et i# he(d in the #treet, ba#1et# &ith e*etab(e# and fruit#, natura((! a(( bad and hard(! fit to u#e ob#truct the #ide&a(1 #ti(( further, and from the#e, a# &e(( a# from the fi#h$dea(er#N #ta((#, ari#e# a horrib(e #me((8 +he hou#e# are occupied from ce((ar to *arret, fi(th! &ithin and &ithout, and their appearance i# #uch that no human bein* cou(d po##ib(! &i#h to (i e in them8 <ut a(( thi# i# nothin* in compari#on &ith the d&e((in*# in the narro& court# and a((e!# bet&een the #treet#, entered b! co ered pa##a*e# bet&een the hou#e#, in &hich the fi(th and totterin* ruin #urpa## a(( de#cription8 Scarce(! a &ho(e &indo&$pane can be found, the &a((# are crumb(in*, door$po#t# and &indo&$frame# (oo#e and bro1en, door# of o(d board# nai(ed to*ether, or a(to*ether &antin* in thi# thie e#N Buarter, &here no door# are needed, there bein* nothin* to #tea(8 5eap# of *arba*e and a#he# (ie in a(( direction#, and the fou( (iBuid# emptied before the door# *ather in #tin1in* poo(#8 5ere (i e the poore#t of the poor, the &or#t paid &or1er# &ith thie e# and the ictim# of pro#titution indi#criminate(! hudd(ed to*ether, the maDorit! "ri#h, or of "ri#h extraction, and tho#e &ho ha e not !et #un1 in the &hir(poo( of mora( ruin &hich #urround# them, #in1in* dai(! deeper, (o#in* dai(! more and more of their po&er to re#i#t the demora(i#in* inf(uence of &ant, fi(th, and e i( #urroundin*#8 /or i# St8 :i(e# the on(! %ondon #(um8 "n the immen#e tan*(e of #treet#, there are hundred# and thou#and# of a((e!# and court# (ined &ith hou#e# too bad for an!one to (i e in, &ho can #ti(( #pend an!thin* &hat#oe er upon a d&e((in* fit for human bein*#8 ;(o#e to the #p(endid hou#e# of the rich #uch a (ur1in*$p(ace of the bittere#t po ert! ma! often be found8 So, a #hort time a*o, on the occa#ion of a coronerN# inBue#t, a re*ion c(o#e to Portman SBuare, one of the er! re#pectab(e #Buare#, &a# characteri#ed a# an abodeCof a mu(titude of "ri#h demora(i#ed b! po ert! and fi(thT8 So, too, ma! be found in #treet#, #uch a# %on* 9cre and other#, &hich, thou*h not fa#hionab(e, are !etCre#pectab(eT, a *reat number of ce((ar d&e((in*# out of &hich pun! chi(dren and ha(f$ #tar ed, ra**ed &omen emer*e into the (i*ht of da!8 "n the immediate nei*hbourhood of 4rur! %ane +heatre, the #econd in %ondon, are #ome of the &or#t #treet# of the &ho(e metropo(i#, ;har(e#, Hin*, and Par1 Street#, in &hich the hou#e# are inhabited from ce((ar to *arret exc(u#i e(! b! poor fami(ie#8 "n the pari#he# of St8 Lohn and St8 Mar*aret there (i ed in 1847, accordin* to the Lourna( of the Stati#tica( Societ!, 5,566 &or1in*$menN# fami(ie# in 5,694Cd&e((in*#T ,if the! de#er e the name@-, men, &omen, and chi(dren thro&n to*ether &ithout di#tinction of a*e or #ex, 66,857 per#on# a(( to(d; and of the#e fami(ie# three$fourth# po##e##ed but one room8 "n the ari#tocratic pari#h of St8 :eor*e, 5ano er SBuare, there (i ed, accordin* to the #ame authorit!, 1,465 &or1in*$menN# fami(ie#, near(! 6,777 per#on#, under #imi(ar condition#, and here, too, more than t&o$third# of the &ho(e number cro&ded to*ether at the rate of one fami(! in one room8 9nd ho& the po ert! of the#e unfortunate#, amon* &hom e en thie e# find nothin* to #tea(, i# exp(oited b! the propert!$ho(din* c(a## in (a&fu( &a!#@ +he abominab(e d&e((in*# in 4rur! %ane, Du#t mentioned, brin* in the fo((o&in* rent#: t&o ce((ar d&e((in*#, >#8, one room, *round$f(oor, 4#8; #econd$#tore!, 4#8 6d8; third$f(oor, 4#8; *arret$room, >#8 &ee1(!, #o that the #tar in* occupant# of ;har(e# Street a(one, pa! the hou#e$o&ner# a !ear(! tribute of U6,777, and the 5,566 fami(ie# abo e mentioned in We#tmin#ter, a !ear(! rent of U47,7778 +he mo#t exten#i e &or1in*$peop(eN# di#trict (ie# ea#t of the +o&er in Whitechape( and <ethna( :reen, &here the *reate#t ma##e# of %ondon &or1in*$peop(e (i e8 %et u# hear Mr8 :8 9(#ton, preacher of St8 Phi(ipN#, <ethna( :reen, on the condition of hi# pari#h8 5e #a!#:

T"t contain# 1,477 hou#e#, inhabited b! 6,.95 fami(ie#, compri#in* a popu(ation of 16,7778 +he #pace &ithin &hich thi# (ar*e amount of popu(ation are (i in* i# (e## than 477 !ard# #Buare ,1,677 feet-, and it i# no uncommon thin* for a man and hi# &ife, &ith four or fi e chi(dren, and #ometime# the *randfather and *randmother, to be found (i in* in a room from ten to t&e( e feet #Buare, and &hich #er e# them for eatin* and &or1in* in8 " be(ie e that ti(( the <i#hop of %ondon ca((ed the attention of the pub(ic to the #tate of <ethna( :reen, about a# (itt(e &a# 1no&n at the We#t$ end of the to&n of thi# mo#t de#titute pari#h a# the &i(d# of 9u#tra(ia or the i#(and# of the South Sea#8 "f &e rea((! de#ire to find out the mo#t de#titute and de#er in*, &e mu#t (ift the (atch of their door#, and find them at their #cant! mea(; &e mu#t #ee them &hen #ufferin* from #ic1ne## and &ant of &or1; and if &e do thi# from da! to da! in #uch a nei*hbourhood a# <ethna( :reen, &e #ha(( become acBuainted &ith a ma## of &retchedne## and mi#er! #uch a# a nation (i1e our o&n ou*ht to be a#hamed to permit8 " &a# ;urate of a pari#h near 5udder#fie(d durin* the three !ear# of the *reate#t manufacturin* di#tre##; but " ne er &itne##ed #uch a thorou*h pro#tration of the poor a# " ha e #een #ince " ha e been in <ethna( :reen8 +here i# not one father of a fami(! in ten

throu*hout

the

entire

di#trict

that

po##e##e# an! c(othe# but hi# &or1in* dre##, and that too common(! in the &or#t tattered condition; and &ith man! thi# &retched c(othin* form# their on(! co erin* at ni*ht, &ith nothin* better than a ba* of #tra& or #ha in*# to (ie upon8T +he fore*oin* de#cription furni#he# an idea of the a#pect of the interior of the d&e((in*#8 <ut (et u# fo((o& the En*(i#h officia(#, &ho occa#iona((! #tra! thither, into one or t&o of the#e &or1in*menN# home#8 ?n the occa#ion of an inBue#t he(d /o 8 16th, 184>, b! Mr8 ;arter, coroner for Surre!, upon the bod! of 9nn :a(&a!, a*ed 45 !ear#, the ne&#paper# re(ated the fo((o&in* particu(ar# concernin* the decea#ed: She had (i ed at /o8 5 White %ion ;ourt, <ermond#e! Street, %ondon, &ith her hu#band and a nineteen$ !ear$o(d #on in a (itt(e room, in &hich neither a bed#tead nor an! other furniture &a# to be #een8 She (a! dead be#ide her #on upon a heap of feather# &hich &ere #cattered o er her a(mo#t na1ed bod!, there bein* neither #heet nor co er(et8 +he feather# #tuc1 #o fa#t o er the &ho(e bod! that the ph!#ician cou(d not examine the corp#e unti( it &a# c(ean#ed, and then found it #tar ed and #carred from the bite# of ermin8 Part of the f(oor of the room &a# torn up, and the ho(e u#ed b! the fami(! a# a pri !8 ?n Monda!, Lan8 15th, 1844, t&o bo!# &ere brou*ht before the po(ice ma*i#trate becau#e, bein* in a #tar in* condition, the! had #to(en and immediate(! de oured a ha(f$coo1ed ca(fN# foot from a #hop8 +he ma*i#trate fe(t ca((ed upon to in e#ti*ate the ca#e further, and recei ed the fo((o&in* detai(# from the po(iceman: +he mother of the t&o bo!# &a# the &ido& of an ex$#o(dier, after&ard# po(iceman, and had had a er! hard time #ince the death of her hu#band, to pro ide for her nine chi(dren8 She (i ed at /o8 6 Poo(N# P(ace, Oua1er ;ourt, Spita(fie(d#, in the utmo#t po ert!8 When the po(iceman came to her, he found her &ith #ix of her chi(dren (itera((! hudd(ed to*ether in a (itt(e bac1 room, &ith no furniture but t&o o(d ru#h$bottomed chair# &ith the #eat# *one, a #ma(( tab(e &ith t&o (e*# bro1en, a bro1en cup, and a #ma(( di#h8 ?n the hearth &a# #carce(! a #par1 of fire, and in one corner (a! a# man! o(d ra*# a# &ou(d fi(( a &omanN# apron, &hich #er ed the &ho(e fami(! a# a bed8 'or bed c(othin* the! had on(! their #cant! da! c(othin*8 +he poor &oman to(d him that #he had been forced to #e(( her bed#tead the !ear before to bu! food8 5er beddin* #he had pa&ned &ith the ictua((er for food8 "n #hort, e er!thin* had *one for food8 +he ma*i#trate ordered the &oman a con#iderab(e pro i#ion from the poor$box8 "n 'ebruar!, 1844, +here#a <i#hop, a &ido& 67 !ear# o(d, &a# recommended, &ith her #ic1 dau*hter, a*ed 66, to the compa##ion of the po(ice ma*i#trate in Mar(borou*h Street8 She (i ed at /o8 5 <ro&n Street, :ro# enor SBuare, in a #ma(( bac1 room no (ar*er than a c(o#et, in &hich there &a# not one #in*(e piece of furniture, "n one corner (a! #ome ra*# upon &hich both #(ept; a che#t #er ed a# tab(e and chair8 +he mother earned a (itt(e b! charrin*8 +he o&ner of the hou#e #aid that the! had (i ed in thi# &a! #ince Ma! 184>, had *radua((! #o(d or pa&ned e er!thin* that the! had, and had #ti(( ne er paid an! rent8 +he ma*i#trate a##i*ned them U1 from the poor$box8 " am far from a##ertin* that a(( %ondon &or1in*$peop(e (i e in #uch &ant a# the fore*oin* three fami(ie#8 " 1no& er! &e(( that ten are #ome&hat better off, &here one i# #o tota((! trodden under foot b! #ociet!; but " a##ert that thou#and# of indu#triou# and &orth! peop(e E far &orthier and more to be re#pected than the rich of %ondon E do find them#e( e# in a condition un&orth! of

human bein*#; and that e er! pro(etarian, e er!one, &ithout exception, i# expo#ed to a #imi(ar fate &ithout an! fau(t of hi# o&n and in #pite of e er! po##ib(e effort8 <ut in #pite of a(( thi#, the! &ho ha e #ome 1ind of a #he(ter are fortunate, fortunate in compari#on &ith the utter(! home(e##8 "n %ondon fift! thou#and human bein*# *et up e er! mornin*, not 1no&in* &here the! are to (a! their head# at ni*ht8 +he (uc1ie#t of thi# mu(titude, tho#e &ho #ucceed in 1eepin* a penn! or t&o unti( e enin*, enter a (od*in*$hou#e, #uch a# abound in e er! *reat cit!, &here the! find a bed8 <ut &hat a bed@ +he#e hou#e# are fi((ed &ith bed# from ce((ar to *arret, four, fi e, #ix bed# in a room; a# man! a# can be cro&ded in8 "nto e er! bed four, fi e, or #ix human bein*# are pi(ed, a# man! a# can be pac1ed in, #ic1 and &e((, !oun* and o(d, drun1 and #ober, men and &omen, Du#t a# the! come, indi#criminate(!8 +hen come #trife, b(o&#, &ound#, or, if the#e bedfe((o&# a*ree, #o much the &or#e; theft# are arran*ed and thin*# done &hich our (an*ua*e, *ro&n more humane than our deed#, refu#e# to record8 9nd tho#e &ho cannot pa! for #uch a refu*eK +he! #(eep &here the! find a p(ace, in pa##a*e#, arcade#, in corner# &here the po(ice and the o&ner# (ea e them undi#turbed8 9 fe& indi idua(# find their &a! to the refu*e# &hich are mana*ed, here and there, b! pri ate charit!, other# #(eep on the benche# in the par1# c(o#e under the &indo&# of Oueen Jictoria8 %et u# hear the $ondon !imes0 T"t appear# from the report of the proceedin*# Po(ice ;ourt at in Mar(borou*h our Street of co(umn#

!e#terda!, that there i# an a era*e number of 57 human bein*# of a(( a*e#, &ho hudd(e to*ether in the par1# e er! ni*ht, ha in* no other #he(ter than &hat i# #upp(ied b! the tree# and a fe& ho((o&# of the emban1ment8 ?f the#e, the maDorit! are !oun* *ir(# &ho ha e been #educed from the countr! b! the #o(dier# and turned (oo#e on the &or(d in a(( the de#titution of friend(e## penur!, and a(( the rec1(e##ne## of ear(! ice8 I+hi# i# tru(! horrib(e@ Poor there mu#t be e er!&here8 "ndi*ence &i(( find it# &a! and #et up it# hideou# #tate in the heart of a *reat and (uxuriou# cit!8 9mid the thou#and narro& (ane# and b!$#treet# of a popu(ou# metropo(i# there mu#t a(&a!#, &e fear, be much #ufferin* E much that offend# the e!e E much that (ur1# un#een8

I<ut that &ithin the precinct# of &ea(th, *aiet!, and fa#hion, ni*h the re*a( *randeur of St8 Lame#8 c(o#e on the pa(atia( #p(endour of <a!#&ater, on the confine# of the o(d and ne& ari#tocratic Buarter#, in a di#trict &here the cautiou# refinement of modern de#i*n ha# refrained from creatin* one #in*(e tenement for po ert!; &hich #eem#, a# it &ere, dedicated to the exc(u#i e enDo!ment of &ea(th8 that there &ant, and famine, and di#ea#e, and ice #hou(d #ta(1 in a(( their 1indred horror#, con#umin* bod! b! bod!, #ou( b! #ou(@ I"t i# indeed a mon#trou# #tate of thin*#@ EnDo!ment the mo#t ab#o(ute, that bodi(! ea#e, inte((ectua( excitement, or the more innocent p(ea#ure# of #en#e can #upp(! to manN# cra in*, brou*ht in c(o#e contact &ith the mo#t unmiti*ated mi#er!@ Wea(th, from it# bri*ht #a(oon#, (au*hin* E an in#o(ent(! heed(e## (au*h E at the un1no&n &ound# of &ant@ P(ea#ure, crue((! but uncon#ciou#(! moc1in* the pain that moan# be(o&@ 9(( contrar! thin*# moc1in* one another E a(( contrar!, #a e the ice &hich tempt# and the ice &hich i# tempted@ I<ut (et a(( men remember thi# E that &ithin the mo#t court(! precinct# of the riche#t cit! of :odN# earth, there ma! be found, ni*ht after ni*ht, &inter after &inter, &omen E !oun* in !ear# E o(d in #in and #ufferin* E outca#t# from #ociet! E =?++"/: '=?M '9M"/E, '"%+5,

9/4 4"SE9SE8 %et them remember thi#, and (earn not to theori#e but to act8 :od 1no&#, there i# much room for action no&ada!#8T18 " ha e referred to the refu*e# for the home(e##8 5o& *reat(! o ercro&ded the#e are, t&o examp(e# ma! #ho&8 9 ne&(! erected =efu*e for the 5ou#e(e## in Fpper ?*(e Street, that can #he(ter three hundred per#on# e er! ni*ht, ha# recei ed #ince it# openin*, Lanuar! 6.th to March 1.th, 1844, 6,.47 per#on# for one or more ni*ht#; and, a(thou*h the #ea#on &a# *ro&in* more fa ourab(e, the number of app(icant# in thi#, a# &e(( a# in the a#!(um# of Whitecro## Street and Wappin*, &a# #tron*(! on the increa#e, and a cro&d of the home(e## had to be #ent a&a! e er! ni*ht for &ant of room8 "n another refu*e, the ;entra( 9#!(um in P(a!hou#e 0ard, there &ere #upp(ied on an a era*e 467 bed# ni*ht(!, durin* the fir#t three month# of the !ear 1844, 6,681 per#on# bein* #he(tered, and 96,141 portion# of bread &ere di#tributed8 0et the committee of director# dec(are thi# in#titution be*an to meet the pre##ure of the need! to a (imited extent on(! &hen the Ea#tern 9#!(um a(#o &a# opened8 %et u# (ea e %ondon and examine the other *reat citie# of the three 1in*dom# in their order8 %et u# ta1e 4ub(in fir#t, a cit! the approach to &hich from the #ea i# a# charmin* a# that of %ondon i# impo#in*8 +he <a! of 4ub(in i# the mo#t beautifu( of the &ho(e <riti#h "#(and Hin*dom, and i# e en compared b! the "ri#h &ith the <a! of /ap(e#8 +he cit!, too, po##e##e# *reat attraction#, and it# ari#tocratic di#trict# are better and more ta#tefu((! (aid out than tho#e of an! other <riti#h cit!8 <! &a! of compen#ation, ho&e er the poorer di#trict# of 4ub(in are amon* the mo#t hideou# and repu(#i e to be #een in the &or(d8 +rue, the "ri#h character, &hich under #ome circum#tance#, i# comfortab(e on(! in the dirt, ha# #ome #hare in thi#; but a# &e find thou#and# of "ri#h in e er *reat cit! in En*(and and Scot(and, and a# e er! poor popu(ation mu#t *radua((! #in1 into the #ame unc(ean(ine##, the &retchedne## of 4ub(in i# nothin* #pecific, nothin* pecu(iar to 4ub(in, but #omethin* common to a(( *reat to&n#8 +he poor Buarter# of 4ub(in are extreme(! exten#i e, and the fi(th, the uninhabitab(ene## of the hou#e# and the ne*(ect of the #treet# #urpa## a(( de#cription8 Some idea of the manner in &hich the poor are here cro&ded to*ether ma! be formed from the fact that, in 181., accordin* to the report of the "n#pector of Wor1hou#e#, 19 1,>18 per#on# (i ed in 56 hou#e# &ith >97 room# in <arrac1 Street, and 1,99. per#on# in .1 hou#e# &ith >9> room# in and near ;hurch Street; that: Tfou( (ane#, court#, and !ard#, are interpo#ed bet&een thi# and the adDoinin* #treet# 8888 +here are man! ce((ar# &hich ha e no (i*ht but from the door 8888 "n #ome of the#e ce((ar# the inhabitant# #(eep on the f(oor# &hich are a(( earthen; but in *enera(, the! ha e bed#tead# 8888 /icho(#onN# ;ourt 888 contain# 151 per#on# in 68 #ma(( apartment# mi#erab(e, 888 their #tate i# on(! er! t&o there bein*

bed#tead# and t&o b(an1et# in the &ho(e court8T +he po ert! i# #o *reat in 4ub(in, that a #in*(e bene o(ent in#titution, the Mendicit! 9##ociation, *i e# re(ief to 6,577 per#on# or one per cent of the popu(ation dai(!, recei in* and feedin* them for the da! and di#mi##in* them at ni*ht8 4r8 9(i#on de#cribe# a #imi(ar #tate of thin*# in Edinbur*h, &ho#e #uperb #ituation, &hich ha# &on it the tit(e of the modern 9then#, and &ho#e bri((iant ari#tocratic Buarter in the /e& +o&n, contra#t #tron*(! &ith the fou( &retchedne## of the poor in the ?(d +o&n8 9(i#on a##ert# that thi# exten#i e Buarter i# a# fi(th! and horrib(e a# the &or#t di#trict# of 4ub(in, &hi(e the Mendicit! 9##ociation &ou(d ha e a# *reat a proportion of need! per#on# to a##i#t in Edinbur*h a# in the "ri#h capita(8 5e a##ert#, indeed, that the poor in Scot(and, e#pecia((! in Edinbur*h and :(a#*o&, are &or#e off than in an! other re*ion of the three 1in*dom#, and that the poore#t are not "ri#h, but Scotch8 +he preacher of the ?(d ;hurch of Edinbur*h, 4r8 %ee, te#tified in 18>6, before the ;ommi##ion of =e(i*iou# "n#truction, that: T" ha e ne er #een #uch a concentration of mi#er! a# in thi# pari#h,T &here the peop(e are &ithout furniture, &ithout e er!thin*8C" freBuent(! #ee the #ame room occupied b! t&o married coup(e#8 " ha e been in one da! in #e en hou#e# &here there &a# no bed, in #ome of them not e en #tra&8 " found peop(e of ei*ht! !ear# of a*e (!in* on the board#8 Man! #(eep in the #ame c(othe# &hich the! &ear durin* the da!8 " ma! mention the ca#e of t&o Scotch fami(ie# (i in* in a ce((ar, &ho had come from the countr! &ithin a fe& month#8888 Since the! came the! had had t&o chi(dren dead, and another apparent(! d!in*8 +here &a# a (itt(e bund(e of dirt! #tra& in one corner, for one fami(!, and in another for the other8 "n the p(ace the! inhabit it i# impo##ib(e at noonda! to di#tin*ui#h the feature# of the human face &ithout artificia( (i*ht8 E "t &ou(d a(mo#t ma1e a heart of adamant b(eed to #ee #uch an

accumu(ation of mi#er! in a countr! (i1e thi#8T "n the Edin,urgh +edical and 1urgical %ournal, 4r8 5ennen report# a #imi(ar #tate of thin*#8 'rom a Par(iamentar! =eport,67 it i# e ident that in the d&e((in*# of the poor of Edinbur*h a &ant of c(ean(ine## rei*n#, #uch a# mu#t be expected under the#e condition#8 ?n the bed$po#t# chic1en# roo#t at ni*ht, do*# and hor#e# #hare the d&e((in*# of human bein*#, and the natura( con#eBuence i# a #hoc1in* #tench, &ith fi(th and #&arm# of ermin8 +he pre ai(in* con#truction of Edinbur*h fa our# the#e atrociou# condition# a# far a# po##ib(e8 +he ?(d +o&n i# bui(t upon both #(ope# of a hi((, a(on* the cre#t of &hich run# the 5i*h Street8 ?ut of the 5i*h Street there open do&n&ard# mu(titude# of narro&, croo1ed a((e!#, ca((ed &!nd# from their man! turnin*#, and the#e &!nd# form the pro(etarian di#trict of the cit!8 +he hou#e# of the Scotch citie#, in *enera(, are fi e or #ix$ #toried bui(din*#, (i1e tho#e of Pari#, and in contra#t &ith En*(and &here, #o far a# po##ib(e, each fami(! ha# a #eparate hou#e8 +he cro&din* of human bein*# upon a (imited area i# thu# inten#ified8 88888the hou#e,T #a!# an En*(i#h Dourna( in an artic(e upon the #anitar! condition of the &or1in*$peop(e in citie#,Care often #o c(o#e to*ether, that per#on# ma! #tep from the &indo& of one hou#e to that of the hou#e oppo#ite E #o hi*h, pi(ed #tor! after #tor!, that the (i*ht can #carce(! penetrate to the court beneath8 "n thi# part of the to&n there are neither #e&er# nor an! pri ate con enience# &hate er be(on*in* to the d&e((in*#; and hence the excrementitiou# and other refu#e of at (ea#t 57,777 per#on# i#, durin* the ni*ht, thro&n into the *utter#, cau#in* ,in #pite of the #ca en*er#N dai(! (abour#an amount of #o(id fi(th and foetid exha(ation di#*u#tin* to both #i*ht and #me((, a# &e(( a# exceedin*(! preDudicia( to hea(th8 ;an it be &ondered that, in #uch (oca(itie#, hea(th, mora(#, and common decenc! #hou(d be at once ne*(ectedK /o; a(( &ho 1no& the pri ate condition of the inhabitant# &i(( bear te#timon! to the immen#e amount of

their

di#ea#e,

mi#er!,

and

demora(i#ation8 Societ! in the#e Buarter# ha# #un1 to a #tate inde#cribab(! i(e and &retched8888 +he d&e((in*# of the poorer c(a##e# are *enera((! ne er er! to fi(th!, an! apparent(! #ubDected

c(eanin* proce## &hate er, con#i#tin*, in mo#t ca#e#, of a #in*(e room, i(($ enti(ated and !et co(d, o&in* to bro1en, i(($fittin* &indo&#, #ometime# damp and partia((! #canti(! under*round, furni#hed and a(&a!# and a(to*ether

comfort(e##, heap# of #tra& often #er in* for bed#, in &hich a &ho(e fami(! E ma(e and fema(e, !oun* and o(d, are hudd(ed to*ether in re o(tin* confu#ion8 +he #upp(ie# of &ater are obtained on(! from the pub(ic pump#, and the troub(e of procurin* it of cour#e fa our# the accumu(ation of a(( 1ind# of abomination#8T "n the other *reat #eaport to&n# the pro#pect i# no better8 %i erpoo(, &ith a(( it# commerce, &ea(th, and *randeur !et treat# it# &or1er# &ith the #ame barbarit!8 9 fu(( fifth of the popu(ation, more than 45,777 human bein*#, (i e in narro&, dar1, damp, bad(!$ enti(ated ce((ar d&e((in*#, of &hich there are .,866 in the cit!8 <e#ide# the#e ce((ar d&e((in*# there are 6,6.7 court#, #ma(( #pace# bui(t up on a(( four #ide# and ha in* but one entrance, a narro&, co ered pa##a*e$&a!, the &ho(e ordinari(! er! dirt! and inhabited exc(u#i e(! b! pro(etarian#8 ?f #uch court# &e #ha(( ha e more to #a! &hen &e come to Manche#ter8 "n <ri#to(, on one occa#ion, 6,877 fami(ie# &ere i#ited, of &hom 46 per cent occupied but one room each8 Preci#e(! the #ame #tate of thin*# pre ai(# in the factor! to&n#8 "n /ottin*ham there are in a(( 11,777 hou#e#, of &hich bet&een .,777 and 8,777 are bui(t bac1 to bac1 &ith a rear part!$&a(( #o that no throu*h enti(ation i# po##ib(e, &hi(e a #in*(e pri ! u#ua((! #er e# for #e era( hou#e#8 4urin* an in e#ti*ation made a #hort time #ince, man! ro&# of hou#e# &ere found to ha e been bui(t o er #ha((o& drain# co ered on(! b! the board# of the *round$ f(oor8 "n %eice#ter, 4erb!, and Sheffie(d, it i# no better8 ?f <irmin*ham, the artic(e abo e cited from the -rtisan #tate#: T"n the o(der part# of the to&n there are man! inferior #treet# and court#, &hich are dirt! and ne*(ected, fi((ed &ith

#ta*nant &ater and heap# of refu#e8 +he court# of <irmin*ham are er! numerou# in e er! direction, exceedin* 6,777, and compri#in* the re#idence of a (ar*e portion of the &or1in*$c(a##e#8 +he! are for the mo#t part narro&, fi(th!, i(($ enti(ated8 and bad(! drained, containin* from ei*ht to t&ent! hou#e# each, the hou#e# bein* bui(t a*ain#t #ome other tenement and the end of the court# bein* prett! con#tant(! occupied b! a#hpit#, etc8, the fi(th of &hich &ou(d def! de#cription8 "t i# but Du#t, ho&e er, to remar1 that the court# of more modern date are bui(t in a more rationa( manner, and 1ept to(erab(! re#pectab(e; and the cotta*e#, e en in o(d court#, are far (e## cro&ded than in Manche#ter and %i erpoo(, the re#u(t of &hich i#, that the inhabitant#, in epidemic #ea#on#, ha e been much (e## i#ited b! death than tho#e of Wo( erhampton, 4ud(e!, and <i(#ton, at on(! a fe& mi(e# di#tance8 ;e((ar re#idence#, a(#o, are un1no&n in <irmin*ham, thou*h #ome fe& are, er! improper(!, u#ed a# &or1#hop#8 +he (o& (od*in*$hou#e# are prett! numerou# ,#ome&hat exceedin* 477-, chief(! in court# near the centre of the to&n; the! are a(mo#t a(&a!# (oath#ome(! fi(th! and c(o#e, the re#ort# of be**ar#, tramper#, thie e# and pro#titute#, &ho here, re*ard(e## a(i1e of decenc! or comfort, eat, drin1, #mo1e and #(eep in an

atmo#phere unendurab(e b! a(( except the de*raded, be#otted inmate#8T :(a#*o& i# in man! re#pect# #imi(ar to Edinbur*h, po##e##in* the #ame &!nd#, the #ame ta(( hou#e#8 ?f thi# cit! the -rtisan ob#er e#: +he &or1in*$c(a## form# here #ome .8 per cent of the &ho(e popu(ation ,about >77,777-, and (i e# in part# of the cit!C&hich, in abDect &retchedne##, exceed the (o&e#t pur(ieu# of St8 :i(e#N or Whitechape(, the (ibertie# of 4ub(in, or the &!nd# of Edinbur*h8 Such (oca(itie# exi#t mo#t abundant(! in the heart of the cit! E #outh of the "ron*ate and &e#t of the Sa(tmar1et, a# &e(( a# in the ;a(ton, off the 5i*h Street, etc8E end(e## (ab!rinth# of narro& (ane# or &!nd#, into &hich a(mo#t at e er! #tep debouche court# or c(o#e# formed b! o(d, i(($ enti(ated, and cro&ded three to&erin* &ith or hou#e# inhabitant#, four fami(ie# crumb(in* to deca!, de#titute of &ater compri#in*

,perhap# t&ent! per#on#- on each f(at, and #ometime# each f(at (et out in (od*in*# that confine E &e dare not #a! accommodate E from fifteen to t&ent! per#on# in a #in*(e room8 +he#e di#trict# are occupied b! the poore#t, mo#t depra ed, and mo#t &orth(e## portion of the popu(ation, and the! ma! be con#idered a# the fruitfu( #ource of tho#e pe#ti(entia( fe er# &hich thence #pread their de#tructi e ra a*e# o er the &ho(e of :(a#*o&8T

%et u# hear ho& L8 ;8 S!mon#, :o ernment ;ommi##ioner for the in e#ti*ation of the condition of the hand$&ea er#, de#cribe# the#e portion# of the cit!: 61 T" ha e #een human de*radation in #ome of it# &or#t pha#e#, both in En*(and and abroad, but " did not be(ie e unti( " i#ited the &!nd# of :(a#*o&, that #o (ar*e an amount of fi(th, crime, mi#er!, and di#ea#e exi#ted in an! ci i(i#ed countr!8 "n the (o&er (od*in*$hou#e# ten, t&e( e, and #ometime# t&ent! per#on# of both #exe# and a(( a*e# #(eep promi#cuou#(! on the f(oor in different de*ree# of na1edne##8 +he#e p(ace# are, *enera((!, a# re*ard# dirt, damp and deca!, #uch a# no per#on &ou(d #tab(e hi# hor#e in8T 9nd in another p(ace: T+he &!nd# of :(a#*o& hou#e a f(uctuatin* popu(ation of bet&een 15,777 and >7,777 per#on#8 +hi# di#trict i# compo#ed of man! narro& #treet# and #Buare court# and in the midd(e of each court there i# a dun*$hi((8 9(thou*h the out&ard appearance of the#e p(ace# &a# re o(tin*, " &a# ne erthe(e## Buite unprepared for the fi(th and mi#er! that &ere to be found in#ide8 "n #ome of the#e bedroom# &e Qi8e8 Po(ice Superintendent ;aptain Mi((er and S!mon#R i#ited at ni*ht &e found a &ho(e ma## of humanit! #tretched out on the f(oor8 +here &ere often 15 to 67 men and &omen hudd(ed to*ether, #ome bein* c(othed and other# na1ed8 +heir bed &a# a heap of mu#t! #tra& mixed &ith ra*#8

+here &a# hard(! an! furniture there and the on(! thin* &hich *a e the#e ho(e# the appearance of a d&e((in* &a# fire burnin* on the hearth8 +hie in* and pro#titution are the main #ource# of income of the#e peop(e8 /o one #eem# to ha e ta1en the troub(e to c(ean out the#e 9u*ean #tab(e#, thi# pandemonium, thi# nuc(eu# of crime, fi(th and pe#ti(ence in the #econd cit! of the empire8 9 detai(ed in e#ti*ation of the mo#t &retched #(um# of other to&n# ha# ne er re ea(ed an!thin* ha(f #o bad a# thi# concentration of mora( iniBuit!, ph!#ica( de*radation and *ro## o ercro&din*8888 "n thi# part of :(a#*o& mo#t of the hou#e# ha e been condemned b! the ;ourt of :ui(d a# di(apidated and uninhabitab(e E but it i# Du#t the#e d&e((in*# &hich are fi((ed to o erf(o&in*, becau#e, b! (a& no rent can be char*ed on them8T +he *reat manufacturin* di#trict in the centre of the <riti#h "#(and#, the thic1(! peop(ed #tretch of We#t 0or1#hire and South %anca#hire, &ith it# numerou# factor! to&n#, !ie(d# nothin* to the other *reat manufacturin* centre#8 +he &oo( di#trict of the We#t =idin* of 0or1#hire i# a charmin* re*ion, a beautifu( *reen hi(( countr!, &ho#e e(e ation# *ro& more ru**ed to&ard# the &e#t unti( the! reach their hi*he#t point in the bo(d rid*e of <(ac1#tone Ed*e, the &ater#hed bet&een the "ri#h Sea and the :erman ?cean, +he a((e!# of the 9ire, a(on* &hich #tretche# %eed#, and of the ;a(der, throu*h &hich the Manche#ter$%eed# rai(&a! run#, are amon* the mo#t attracti e in En*(and, and are #tre&n in a(( direction# &ith the factorie#, i((a*e#, and to&n#8 +he hou#e# of rou*h *re! #tone (oo1 #o neat and c(ean in compari#on &ith the b(ac1ened bric1 bui(din*# of %anca#hire, that it i# a p(ea#ure to (oo1 at them8 <ut on comin* into the to&n# them#e( e#, one find# (itt(e to reDoice o er8 %eed# (ie#, a# the -rtisande#cribe# it, and a# " found confirmed upon examination: Ton a #(ope runnin* do&n to&ard# the ri er 9ire, &hich meander# about a$ mi(e$and$a$ha(f throu*h the to&n, and i# (iab(e to o erf(o&# durin* tha&# or after

hea ! rain#8 +he hi*her or &e#tern di#trict# are c(ean for #o (ar*e a to&n, but the (o&er part# conti*uou# to the ri er and it# bec1# or ri u(et# are dirt!, confined, and, in them#e( e#, #ufficient to #horten (ife, e#pecia((! infant (ife; add to thi# the di#*u#tin* #tate of the (o&er part# of the to&n about Hir1$*ate8 March$(ane, ;ro##$#treet and =ichmond$ road, principa((! o&in* to a *enera( &ant of pa in* and drainin*, irre*u(arit! of bui(din*, the abundance of court# and b(ind a((e!#, a# &e(( a# the a(mo#t tota( ab#ence of the commone#t mean# for promotin* c(ean(ine##, and &e ha e then Buite #ufficient data to account for the #urp(u# morta(it! in the#e unhapp! re*ion# of fi(th and mi#er!8888 "n con#eBuence of the f(ood# from the 9ireT ,&hich, it mu#t be added, (i1e a(( other ri er# in the #er ice of manufacture, f(o&# into the cit! at one end c(ear and tran#parent, and f(o&# out at the other end thic1, b(ac1, and fou(, #me((in* of a(( po##ib(e refu#e-,Cthe d&e((in*$hou#e# and ce((ar# are not infreBuent(! #o inundated that the &ater ha# to be pumped out b! hand$pump#, on to the #urface of the #treet#; and at #uch time#, e en &here there are #e&er#, the &ater ri#e# throu*h them into the ce((ar#,66 creatin* mia#matic exha(ation#, #tron*(! char*ed &ith #u(phuretted h!dro*en, and (ea in* offen#i e refu#e, exceedin*(! preDudicia( to human hea(th8

"ndeed, durin* a #ea#on of inundation in the #prin* of 1859, #o fata( &ere the effect# of #uch an en*or*ement of the #e&er#, that the re*i#trar of the /orth di#trict made a report, that durin* that Buarter there &ere, in that nei*hbourhood, t&o birth# to three death#, &hi(#t in a(( the other di#trict# there &ere three to t&o death#8 ?ther popu(ou# di#trict# are &ho((! &ithout #e&er#, or #o inadeBuate(! pro ided a# to deri e no ad anta*e therefrom8C"n #ome ro&# of hou#e#, the ce((ar d&e((in*# are #e(dom dr!T; in certain di#trict# there are #e era( #treet# co ered &ith #oft mud a foot deep8C+he inhabitant# ha e from time to time ain(! attempted to repair the#e #treet# &ith #ho e(fu(# of a#he#; and #oi(, refu#e$&ater, etc8, #tand in e er! ho(e, there to remain unti( ab#orbed b! &ind or #un8888 9n ordinar! cotta*e, in %eed#, extend# o er no more than about fi e !ard# #Buare, and con#i#t# u#ua((! of a ce((ar, a #ittin*$ room, and a #(eepin* chamber8 +hi# #ma(( #i)e of the hou#e# crammed &ith human bein*# both da! and ni*ht, i# another point dan*erou# a(i1e to the mora(# and the hea(th of the inhabitant#8T 9nd ho& *reat(! the#e cotta*e# are cro&ded, the =eport on the 5ea(th of the Wor1in*$;(a##e#, Buoted abo e, bear# te#timon!: T"n %eed#, brother# and #i#ter#, and (od*er# of both #exe#, are found occup!in* the #ame #(eepin*$room &ith the parent#, and con#eBuence# occur

&hich

humanit!

#hudder#

to

contemp(ate8T So, too, <radford, &hich, but #e en mi(e# from %eed# at the Dunction of #e era( a((e!#, (ie# upon the ban1# of a #ma((, coa($b(ac1, fou($#me((in* #tream8 ?n &ee1$da!# the to&n i# en e(oped in a *re! c(oud of coa( #mo1e, but on a fine Sunda! it offer# a #uperb picture, &hen ie&ed from the #urroundin* hei*ht#8 0et &ithin rei*n# the #ame fi(th and di#comfort a# in %eed#8 +he o(der portion# of the to&n are bui(t upon #teep hi((#ide#, and are narro& and irre*u(ar8 "n the (ane#, a((e!#, and court# (ie fi(th and d/,ris in heap#; the hou#e# are ruinou#, dirt!, and mi#erab(e, and in the immediate icinit! of the ri er and the a((e! bottom " found man! a one &ho#e *round$f(oor, ha(f$buried in the hi((#ide, &a# tota((! abandoned8 "n *enera(, the portion# of the a((e! bottom in &hich &or1in*$menN# cotta*e# ha e cro&ded bet&een the ta(( factorie#, are amon* the &or#t$bui(t and dirtie#t di#trict# of the &ho(e to&n8 "n the ne&er portion# of thi#, a# of e er! other factor! to&n, the cotta*e# are more re*u(ar, bein* bui(t in ro&#, but the! #hare here, too, a(( the e i(# incident to the cu#tomar! method of pro idin* &or1in*$menN# d&e((in*#, e i(# of &hich &e #ha(( ha e occa#ion# to #pea1 more particu(ar(! in di#cu##in* Manche#ter8 +he #ame i# true of the remainin* to&n# of the We#t =idin*, e#pecia((! of <arn#(e!, 5a(ifax, and 5udder#fie(d8 +he (a#t named, the hand#ome#t b! far of a(( the factor! to&n# of 0or1#hire and %anca#hire b! rea#on of it# charmin* #ituation and modern architecture, ha# !et it# bad Buarter; for a committee appointed b! a meetin* of citi)en# to #ur e! the to&n reported 9u*u#t 5th, 1844: T"t i# notoriou# that there are &ho(e #treet# in the to&n of 5udder#fie(d, and man! court# and a((e!#, &hich are neither f(a**ed, pa ed, #e&ered, nor drained; &here *arba*e and fi(th of e er! de#cription are (eft on the #urface to ferment and rot; &here poo(# of #ta*nant &ater are a(mo#t con#tant, &here the d&e((in*# adDoinin* are thu# nece##ari(! cau#ed to be of an inferior and e en fi(th! de#cription; thu# &here di#ea#e i# en*endered, and the hea(th of the &ho(e to&n peri((ed8T "f &e cro## <(ac1#tone Ed*e or penetrate it &ith the rai(road, &e enter upon that c(a##ic #oi( on &hich En*(i#h manufacture ha# achie ed it# ma#ter&or1 and from &hich a(( (abour mo ement# emanate, name(!, South %anca#hire &ith it# centra( cit! Manche#ter8 9*ain &e ha e beautifu( hi(( countr!, #(opin* *ent(! from the &ater#hed &e#t&ard# to&ard# the "ri#h Sea, &ith the charmin* *reen a((e!# of the =ibb(e, the "r&e((, the Mer#e!, and their tributarie#, a countr! &hich, a hundred !ear# a*o chief(! #&amp (and, thin(! popu(ated, i# no& #o&n &ith to&n# and i((a*e#, and i# the mo#t den#e(! popu(ated #trip of countr! in En*(and8 "n %anca#hire, and e#pecia((! in Manche#ter, En*(i#h manufacture find# at once it# #tartin*$point and it# centre8 +he Manche#ter Exchan*e i# the thermometer for a(( the f(uctuation# of trade8 +he modern art of manufacture ha# reached it# perfection in Manche#ter8 "n the cotton indu#tr! of South %anca#hire, the app(ication

of the force# of /ature, the #uper#edin* of hand$(abour b! machiner! ,e#pecia((! b! the po&er$ (oom and the #e(f$actin* mu(e-, and the di i#ion of (abour, are #een at the hi*he#t point; and, if &e reco*ni#e in the#e three e(ement# that &hich i# characteri#tic of modern manufacture, &e mu#t confe## that the cotton indu#tr! ha# remained in ad ance of a(( other branche# of indu#tr! from the be*innin* do&n to the pre#ent da!8 +he effect# of modern manufacture upon the &or1in*$ c(a## mu#t nece##ari(! de e(op here mo#t free(! and perfect(!, and the manufacturin* pro(etariat pre#ent it#e(f in it# fu((e#t c(a##ic perfection8 +he de*radation to &hich the app(ication of #team$ po&er, machiner! and the di i#ion of (abour reduce the &or1in*$man, and the attempt# of the pro(etariat to ri#e abo e thi# aba#ement, mu#t (i1e&i#e be carried to the hi*he#t point and &ith the fu((e#t con#ciou#ne##8 5ence becau#e Manche#ter i# the c(a##ic t!pe of a modern manufacturin* to&n, and becau#e " 1no& it a# intimate(! a# m! o&n nati e to&n, more intimate(! than mo#t of it# re#ident# 1no& it, &e #ha(( ma1e a (on*er #ta! here8 +he to&n# #urroundin* Manche#ter ar! (itt(e from the centra( cit!, #o far a# the &or1in*$peop(eN# Buarter# are concerned, except that the &or1in*$c(a## form#, if po##ib(e, a (ar*er proportion of their popu(ation8 +he#e to&n# are pure(! indu#tria( and conduct a(( their bu#ine## throu*h Manche#ter upon &hich the! are in e er! re#pect dependent, &hence the! are inhabited on(! b! &or1in*$men and pett! trade#men, &hi(e Manche#ter ha# a er! con#iderab(e commercia( popu(ation, e#pecia((! of commi##ion andCre#pectab(eT retai( dea(er#8 5ence <o(ton, Pre#ton, Wi*an, <ur!, =ochda(e, Midd(eton, 5e!&ood, ?(dham, 9#hton, Sta(!brid*e, Stoc1port, etc8, thou*h near(! a(( to&n# of thirt!, fift!, #e ent! to ninet! thou#and inhabitant#, are a(mo#t &ho((! &or1in*$peop(eN# di#trict#, inter#per#ed on(! &ith factorie#, a fe& thorou*hfare# (ined &ith #hop#, and a fe& (ane# a(on* &hich the *arden# and hou#e# of the manufacturer# are #cattered (i1e i((a#8 +he to&n# them#e( e# are bad(! and irre*u(ar(! bui(t &ith fou( court#, (ane#, and bac1 a((e!#, ree1in* of coa( #mo1e, and e#pecia((! din*! from the ori*ina((! bri*ht red bric1, turned b(ac1 &ith time, &hich i# here the uni er#a( bui(din* materia(8 ;e((ar d&e((in*# are *enera( here; &here er it i# in an! &a! po##ib(e, the#e #ubterranean den# are con#tructed, and a er! con#iderab(e portion of the popu(ation d&e((# in them8 9mon* the &or#t of the#e to&n# after Pre#ton and ?(dham i# <o(ton, e(e en mi(e# north$&e#t of Manche#ter8 "t ha#, #o far a# " ha e been ab(e to ob#er e in m! repeated i#it#, but one main #treet, a er! dirt! one, 4ean#*ate, &hich #er e# a# a mar1et, and i# e en in the fine#t &eather a dar1, unattracti e ho(e in #pite of the fact that, except for the factorie#, it# #ide# are formed b! (o& one and t&o$#toried hou#e#8 5ere, a# e er!&here, the o(der part of the to&n i# e#pecia((! ruinou# and mi#erab(e8 9 dar1$co(oured bod! of &ater, &hich (ea e# the beho(der in doubt &hether it i# a broo1 or a (on* #trin* of #ta*nant pudd(e#, f(o&# throu*h the to&n and contribute# it# #hare to the tota( po((ution of the air, b! no mean# pure &ithout it8 +here i# Stoc1port, too, &hich (ie# on the ;he#hire #ide of the Mer#e!, but be(on*# ne erthe(e## to the manufacturin* di#trict of Manche#ter8 "t (ie# in a narro& a((e! a(on* the Mer#e!, #o that the #treet# #(ope do&n a #teep hi(( on one #ide and up an eBua((! #teep one on the other, &hi(e the rai(&a! from Manche#ter to <irmin*ham pa##e# o er a hi*h iaduct abo e the cit! and the &ho(e a((e!8 Stoc1port i# reno&ned throu*hout the entire di#trict a# one of the du#1ie#t, #mo1ie#t ho(e#, and (oo1#, indeed, e#pecia((! &hen ie&ed from the iaduct, exce##i e(! repe((ent8 <ut far more repu(#i e are the cotta*e# and ce((ar d&e((in*# of the &or1in*$c(a##, &hich #tretch in (on* ro&# throu*h a(( part# of the to&n from the a((e! bottom to the cre#t of the hi((8 " do not remember to ha e #een #o man! ce((ar# u#ed a# d&e((in*# in an! other to&n of thi# di#trict8 9 fe& mi(e# north$ea#t of Stoc1port i# 9#hton$under$%!ne, one of the ne&e#t factor! to&n# of thi# re*ion8 "t #tand# on the #(ope of a hi(( at the foot of &hich are the cana( and the ri er +ame, and i#, in *enera(, bui(t on the ne&er, more re*u(ar p(an8 'i e or #ix para((e( #treet# #tretch a(on* the hi((, inter#ected at ri*ht an*(e# b! other# (eadin* do&n into the a((e!8 <! thi# method, the factorie# &ou(d be exc(uded from the to&n proper, e en if the proximit! of the ri er and the

cana($&a! did not dra& them a(( into the a((e! &here the! #tand thic1(! cro&ded, be(chin* forth b(ac1 #mo1e from their chimne!#8 +o thi# arran*ement 9#hton o&e# a much more attracti e appearance than that of mo#t factor! to&n#; the #treet# are broader and c(eaner, the cotta*e# (oo1 ne&, bri*ht red, and comfortab(e8 <ut the modern #!#tem of bui(din* cotta*e# for &or1in*$men ha# it# o&n di#ad anta*e#; e er! #treet ha# it# concea(ed bac1 (ane to &hich a narro& pa ed path (ead#, and &hich i# a(( the dirtier8 9nd, a(thou*h " #a& no bui(din*#, except a fe& on enterin*, &hich cou(d ha e been more than fift! !ear# o(d, there are e en in 9#hton #treet# in &hich the cotta*e# are *ettin* bad, &here the bric1# in the hou#e$corner# are no (on*er firm but #hift about, in &hich the &a((# ha e crac1# and &i(( not ho(d the cha(1 &hite&a#h in#ide; #treet#, &ho#e dirt!, #mo1e$be*rimed a#pect i# no&i#e different from that of the other to&n# of the di#trict, except that in 9#hton thi# i# the exception, not the ru(e8 9 mi(e ea#t&ard (ie# Sta(!brid*e, a(#o on the +ame8 "n comin* o er the hi(( from 9#hton, the tra e((er ha#, at the top, both ri*ht and (eft, fine (ar*e *arden# &ith #uperb i((a$(i1e hou#e# in their mid#t, bui(t u#ua((! in the E(i)abethan #t!(e, &hich i# to the :othic preci#e(! &hat the 9n*(ican ;hurch i# to the 9po#to(ic =oman ;atho(ic8 9 hundred pace# farther and Sta(!brid*e #ho&# it#e(f in the a((e!, in #harp contra#t &ith the beautifu( countr! #eat#, in #harp contra#t e en &ith the mode#t cotta*e# of 9#hton@ Sta(!brid*e (ie# in a narro&, croo1ed ra ine, much narro&er e en than the a((e! at Stoc1port, and both #ide# of thi# ra ine are occupied b! an irre*u(ar *roup of cotta*e#, hou#e#, and mi((#8 ?n enterin*, the er! fir#t cotta*e# are narro&, #mo1e$be*rimed, o(d and ruinou#; and a# the fir#t hou#e#, #o the &ho(e to&n8 9 fe& #treet# (ie in the narro& a((e! bottom, mo#t of them run cri##$cro##, pe(($me((, up hi(( and do&n, and in near(! a(( the hou#e#, b! rea#on of thi# #(opin* #ituation, the *round$f(oor i# ha(f$buried in the earth; and &hat mu(titude# of court#, bac1 (ane#, and remote noo1# ari#e out of thi# confu#ed &a! of bui(din* ma! be #een from the hi((#, &hence one ha# the to&n, here and there, in a birdN#$e!e ie& a(mo#t at oneN# feet8 9dd to thi# the #hoc1in* fi(th, and the repu(#i e effect of Sta(!brid*e, in #pite of it# prett! #urroundin*#, ma! be readi(! ima*ined8 <ut enou*h of the#e (itt(e to&n#8 Each ha# it# o&n pecu(iaritie#, but in *enera(, the &or1in*$ peop(e (i e in them Du#t a# in Manche#ter8 5ence " ha e e#pecia((! #1etched on(! their pecu(iar con#truction, and &ou(d ob#er e that a(( more *enera( ob#er ation# a# to the condition of the (abourin* popu(ation in Manche#ter are fu((! app(icab(e to the#e #urroundin* to&n# a# &e((8 Manche#ter (ie# at the foot of the #outhern #(ope of a ran*e of hi((#, &hich #tretch hither from ?(dham, their (a#t pea1, Her#a((moor, bein* at once the race cour#e and the Mon# Sacer of Manche#ter8 Manche#ter proper (ie# on the (eft ban1 of the "r&e((, bet&een that #tream and the t&o #ma((er one#, the "r1 and the Med(oc1, &hich here empt! into the "r&e((8 ?n the ri*ht ban1 of the "r&e((, bounded b! a #harp cur e of the ri er, (ie# Sa(ford, and farther &e#t&ard Pend(eton; north&ard from the "r&e(( (ie Fpper and %o&er <rou*hton; north&ard of the "r1, ;heetham 5i((; #outh of the Med(oc1 (ie# 5u(me; farther ea#t ;hor(ton on Med(oc1; #ti(( farther, prett! &e(( to the ea#t of Manche#ter, 9rd&ic18 +he &ho(e a##emb(a*e of bui(din*# i# common(! ca((ed Manche#ter, and contain# about four hundred thou#and inhabitnt#, rather more than (e##8 +he to&n it#e(f i# pecu(iar(! bui(t, #o that a per#on ma! (i e in it for !ear#, and *o in and out dai(! &ithout comin* into contact &ith a &or1in*$peop(eN# Buarter or e en &ith &or1er#, that i#, #o (on* a# he confine# him#e(f to hi# bu#ine## or to p(ea#ure &a(1#8 +hi# ari#e# chief(! from the fact, that b! uncon#ciou# tacit a*reement, a# &e(( a# &ith out#po1en con#ciou# determination, the &or1in*$ peop(eN# Buarter# are #harp(! #eparated from the #ection# of the cit! re#er ed for the midd(e$ c(a##; or, if thi# doe# not #ucceed, the! are concea(ed &ith the c(oa1 of charit!8 Manche#ter contain#, at it# heart, a rather extended commercia( di#trict, perhap# ha(f a mi(e (on* and about a# broad, and con#i#tin* a(mo#t &ho((! of office# and &arehou#e#8 /ear(! the &ho(e di#trict i# abandoned b! d&e((er#, and i# (one(! and de#erted at ni*ht; on(! &atchmen and po(icemen tra er#e it# narro& (ane# &ith their dar1 (antern#8 +hi# di#trict i# cut throu*h b! certain main thorou*hfare# upon

&hich the a#t traffic concentrate#, and in &hich the *round (e e( i# (ined &ith bri((iant #hop#8 "n the#e #treet# the upper f(oor# are occupied, here and there, and there i# a *ood dea( of (ife upon them unti( (ate at ni*ht8 With the exception of thi# commercia( di#trict, a(( Manche#ter proper, a(( Sa(ford and 5u(me, a *reat part of Pend(eton and ;hor(ton, t&o$third# of 9rd&ic1, and #in*(e #tretche# of ;heetham 5i(( and <rou*hton are a(( unmixed &or1in*$peop(eN# Buarter#, #tretchin* (i1e a *ird(e, a era*in* a mi(e and a ha(f in breadth, around the commercia( di#trict8 ?ut#ide, be!ond thi# *ird(e, (i e# the upper and midd(e bour*eoi#ie, the midd(e bour*eoi#ie in re*u(ar(! (aid out #treet# in the icinit! of the &or1in* Buarter#, e#pecia((! in ;hor(ton and the (o&er (!in* portion# of ;heetham 5i((; the upper bour*eoi#ie in remoter i((a# &ith *arden# in ;hor(ton and 9rd&ic1, or on the bree)! hei*ht# of ;heetham 5i((, <rou*hton, and Pend(eton, in free, &ho(e#ome countr! air, in fine, comfortab(e home#, pa##ed once e er! ha(f or Buarter hour b! omnibu#e# *oin* into the cit!8 9nd the fine#t part of the arran*ement i# thi#, that the member# of thi# mone! ari#tocrac! can ta1e the #horte#t road throu*h the midd(e of a(( the (abourin* di#trict# to their p(ace# of bu#ine## &ithout e er #eein* that the! are in the mid#t of the *rim! mi#er! that (ur1# to the ri*ht and the (eft8 'or the thorou*hfare# (eadin* from the Exchan*e in a(( direction# out of the cit! are (ined, on both #ide#, &ith an a(mo#t unbro1en #erie# of #hop#, and are #o 1ept in the hand# of the midd(e and (o&er bour*eoi#ie, &hich, out of #e(f$intere#t, care# for a decent and c(ean(! externa( appearance and can care for it8 +rue, the#e #hop# bear #ome re(ation to the di#trict# &hich (ie behind them, and are more e(e*ant in the commercia( and re#identia( Buarter# than &hen the! hide *rim! &or1in*$menN# d&e((in*#; but the! #uffice to concea( from the e!e# of the &ea(th! men and &omen of #tron* #tomach# and &ea1 ner e# the mi#er! and *rime &hich form the comp(ement of their &ea(th8 So, for in#tance, 4ean#*ate, &hich (ead# from the ?(d ;hurch direct(! #outh&ard, i# (ined fir#t &ith mi((# and &arehou#e#, then &ith #econd$rate #hop# and a(ehou#e#; farther #outh, &hen it (ea e# the commercia( di#trict, &ith (e## in itin* #hop#, &hich *ro& dirtier and more interrupted b! beerhou#e# and *in$pa(ace# the farther one *oe#, unti( at the #outhern end the appearance of the #hop# (ea e# no doubt that &or1er# and &or1er# on(! are their cu#tomer#8 So Mar1et Street runnin* #outh$ea#t from the Exchan*e; at fir#t bri((iant #hop# of the be#t #ort, &ith countin*$hou#e# or &arehou#e# abo e; in the continuation, Piccadi((!, immen#e hote(# and &arehou#e#; in the farther continuation, %ondon =oad, in the nei*hbourhood of the Med(oc1, factorie#, beerhou#e#, #hop# for the humb(er bour*eoi#ie and the &or1in* popu(ation#; and from thi# point on&ard, (ar*e *arden# and i((a# of the &ea(thier merchant# and manufacturer#8 "n thi# &a! an! one &ho 1no&# Manche#ter can infer the adDoinin* di#trict# from the appearance of the thorou*hfare, but one i# #e(dom in a po#ition to catch from the #treet a *(imp#e of the rea( (abourin* di#trict#8 " 1no& er! &e(( that thi# h!pocritica( p(an i# more or (e## common to a(( *reat citie#; " 1no&, too, that the retai( dea(er# are forced b! the nature of their bu#ine## to ta1e po##e##ion of the *reat hi*h&a!#; " 1no& that there are more *ood bui(din*# than bad one# upon #uch #treet# e er!&here, and that the a(ue of (and i# *reater near them than in remoter di#trict#; but at the #ame time " ha e ne er #een #o #!#tematic a #huttin* out of the &or1in*$c(a## from the thorou*hfare#, #o tender a concea(ment of e er!thin* &hich mi*ht affront the e!e and the ner e# of the bour*eoi#ie, a# in Manche#ter8 9nd !et, in other re#pect#, Manche#ter i# (e## bui(t accordin* to a p(an, after officia(# re*u(ation#, i# more an out*ro&th of accident than an! other cit!; and &hen " con#ider in thi# connection the ea*er a##urance# of the midd(e$c(a##, that the &or1in*$c(a## i# doin* famou#(!, " cannot he(p fee(in* that the %ibera( manufacturer#, theC<i* Wi*#T of Manche#ter, are not #o innocent after a((, in the matter of thi# #hamefu( method of con#truction8 " ma! mention Du#t here that the mi((# a(mo#t a(( adDoin the ri er# or the different cana(# that ramif! throu*hout the cit!, before " proceed at once to de#cribe the (abourin* Buarter#8 'ir#t of a((, there i# the ?(d +o&n of Manche#ter, &hich (ie# bet&een the northern boundar! of the commercia( di#trict and the "r18 5ere the #treet#, e en the better one#, are narro& and &indin*, a#

+odd Street, %on* Mi((*ate, With! :ro e, and Shude 5i((, the hou#e# dirt!, o(d, and tumb(e$ do&n, and the con#truction of the #ide #treet# utter(! horrib(e8 :oin* from the ?(d ;hurch to %on* Mi((*ate, the #tro((er ha# at once a ro& of o(d$fa#hioned hou#e# at the ri*ht, of &hich not one ha# 1ept it# ori*ina( (e e(; the#e are remnant# of the o(d pre$manufacturin* Manche#ter, &ho#e former inhabitant# ha e remo ed &ith their de#cendant# into better$bui(t di#trict#, and ha e (eft the hou#e#, &hich &ere not *ood enou*h for them, to a popu(ation #tron*(! mixed &ith "ri#h b(ood8 5ere one i# in an a(mo#t undi#*ui#ed &or1in*$menN# Buarter, for e en the #hop# and beerhou#e# hard(! ta1e the troub(e to exhibit a trif(in* de*ree of c(ean(ine##8 <ut a(( thi# i# nothin* in compari#on &ith the court# and (ane# &hich (ie behind, to &hich acce## can be *ained on(! throu*h co ered pa##a*e#, in &hich no t&o human bein*# can pa## at the #ame time8 ?f the irre*u(ar crammin* to*ether of d&e((in*# in &a!# &hich def! a(( rationa( p(an, of the tan*(e in &hich the! are cro&ded (itera((! one upon the other, it i# impo##ib(e to con e! an idea8 9nd it i# not the bui(din*# #ur i in* from the o(d time# of Manche#ter &hich are to b(ame for thi#; the confu#ion ha# on(! recent(! reached it# hei*ht &hen e er! #crap of #pace (eft b! the o(d &a! of bui(din* ha# been fi((ed up and patched o er unti( not a foot of (and i# (eft to be further occupied8 +o confirm m! #tatement " ha e dra&n here a #ma(( #ection of the p(an of Manche#ter E not the &or#t #pot and not one$tenth of the &ho(e ?(d +o&n8 +hi# dra&in* &i(( #uffice to characteri#e the irrationa( manner in &hich the entire di#trict &a# bui(t, particu(ar(! the part near the "r18 +he #outh ban1 of the "r1 i# here er! #teep and bet&een fifteen and thirt! feet hi*h8 ?n thi# dec(i itou# hi((#ide there are p(anted three ro&# of hou#e#, of &hich the (o&e#t ri#e direct(! out of the ri er, &hi(e the front &a((# of the hi*he#t #tand on the cre#t of the hi(( in %on* Mi((*ate8 9mon* them are mi((# on the ri er, in #hort, the method of con#truction i# a# cro&ded and di#order(! here a# in the (o&er part of %on* Mi((*ate8 =i*ht and (eft a mu(titude of co ered pa##a*e# (ead from the main #treet into numerou# court#, and he &ho turn# in thither *et# into a fi(th and di#*u#tin* *rime, the eBua( of &hich i# not to be found E e#pecia((! in the court# &hich (ead do&n to the "r1, and &hich contain unBua(ified(! the mo#t horrib(e d&e((in*# &hich " ha e !et behe(d8 "n one of the#e court# there #tand# direct(! at the entrance, at the end of the co ered pa##a*e, a pri ! &ithout a door, #o dirt! that the inhabitant# can pa## into and out of the court on(! b! pa##in* throu*h fou( poo(# of #ta*nant urine and excrement8 +hi# i# the fir#t court on the "r1 abo e 4ucie <rid*e E in ca#e an! one #hou(d care to (oo1 into it8 <e(o& it on the ri er there are #e era( tannerie# &hich fi(( the &ho(e nei*hbourhood &ith the #tench of anima( putrefaction8 <e(o& 4ucie <rid*e the on(! entrance to mo#t of the hou#e# i# b! mean# of narro&, dirt! #tair# and o er heap# of refu#e and fi(th8 +he fir#t court be(o& 4ucie <rid*e, 1no&n a# 9((enN# ;ourt, &a# in #uch a #tate at the time of the cho(era that the #anitar! po(ice ordered it e acuated, #&ept, and di#infected &ith ch(oride of (ime8 4r8 Ha! *i e# a terrib(e de#cription of the #tate of thi# court at that time86> Since then, it #eem# to ha e been partia((! torn a&a! and rebui(t; at (ea#t (oo1in* do&n from 4ucie <rid*e, the pa##er$b! #ee# #e era( ruined &a((# and heap# of debri# &ith #ome ne&er hou#e#8 +he ie& from thi# brid*e, mercifu((! concea(ed from morta(# of #ma(( #tature b! a parapet a# hi*h a# a man, i# characteri#tic for the &ho(e di#trict8 9t the bottom f(o&#, or rather #ta*nate#, the "r1, a narro&, coa($b(ac1, fou($#me((in* #tream, fu(( of debri# and refu#e, &hich it depo#it# on 8 the #ha((o&er ri*ht ban18 "n dr! &eather, a (on* #trin* of the mo#t di#*u#tin*, b(ac1i#h$*reen, #(ime poo(# are (eft #tandin* on thi# ban1, from the depth# of &hich bubb(e# of mia#matic *a# con#tant(! ari#e and *i e forth a #tench unendurab(e e en on the brid*e fort! or fift! feet abo e the #urface of the #tream8 <ut be#ide# thi#, the #tream it#e(f i# chec1ed e er! fe& pace# b! hi*h &eir#, behind &hich #(ime and refu#e accumu(ate and rot in thic1 ma##e#8 9bo e the brid*e are tannerie#, bonemi((#, and *a#&or1#, from &hich a(( drain# and refu#e find their &a! into the "r1, &hich recei e# further the content# of a(( the nei*hbourin* #e&er# and pri ie#8 "t ma! be ea#i(! ima*ined, therefore, &hat #ort of re#idue the #tream depo#it#8 <e(o& the brid*e !ou (oo1

upon the pi(e# of d/,ris, the refu#e, fi(th, and offa( from the court# on the #teep (eft ban1; here each hou#e i# pac1ed c(o#e behind it# nei*hbour and a piece of each i# i#ib(e, a(( b(ac1, #mo1!, crumb(in*, ancient, &ith bro1en pane# and &indo&$frame#8 +he bac1*round i# furni#hed b! o(d barrac1$(i1e factor! bui(din*#8 ?n the (o&er ri*ht ban1 #tand# a (on* ro& of hou#e# and mi((#; the #econd hou#e bein* a ruin &ithout a roof, pi(ed &ith d/,ris; the third #tand# #o (o& that the (o&e#t f(oor i# uninhabitab(e, and therefore &ithout &indo&# or door#8 5ere the bac1*round embrace# the pauper buria($*round, the #tation of the %i erpoo( and %eed# rai(&a!, and, in the rear of thi#, the Wor1hou#e, theCPoor$%a& <a#ti((eT of Manche#ter, &hich, (i1e a citade(, (oo1# threatenin*(! do&n from behind it# hi*h &a((# and parapet# on the hi((top, upon the &or1in*$peop(eNa Buarter be(o&8 9bo e 4ucie <rid*e, the (eft ban1 *ro&# more f(at and the ri*ht ban1 #teeper, but the condition of the d&e((in*# on both ban1 *ro&# &or#e rather than better8 5e &ho turn# to the (eft here from the main #treet, %on* Mi((*ate, i# (o#t; he &ander# from one court to another, turn# count(e## corner#, pa##e# nothin* but narro&, fi(th! noo1# and a((e!#, unti( after a fe& minute# he ha# (o#t a(( c(ue, and 1no&# not &hither to turn8 E er!&here ha(f or &ho((! ruined bui(din*#, #ome of them actua((! uninhabited, &hich mean# a *reat dea( here; rare(! a &ooden or #tone f(oor to be #een in the hou#e#, a(mo#t uniform(! bro1en, i(($fittin* &indo&# and door#, and a #tate of fi(th@ E er!&here heap# of d/,ris, refu#e, and offa(; #tandin* poo(# for *utter#, and a #tench &hich a(one &ou(d ma1e it impo##ib(e for a human bein* in an! de*ree ci i(i#ed to (i e in #uch a di#trict8 +he ne&(! bui(t exten#ion of the %eed# rai(&a!, &hich cro##e# the "r1 here, ha# #&ept a&a! #ome of the#e court# and (ane#, (a!in* other# comp(ete(! open to ie&8 "mmediate(! under the rai(&a! brid*e there #tand# a court, the fi(th and horror# of &hich #urpa## a(( the other# b! far, Du#t becau#e it &a# hitherto #o #hut off, #o #ec(uded that the &a! to it cou(d not be found &ithout a *ood dea( of troub(e, " #hou(d ne er ha e di#co ered it m!#e(f, &ithout the brea1# made b! the rai(&a!, thou*h " thou*ht " 1ne& thi# &ho(e re*ion thorou*h(!8 Pa##in* a(on* a rou*h ban1, amon* #ta1e# and &a#hin*$(ine#, one penetrate# into thi# chao# of #ma(( one$#toried, one$roomed hut#, in mo#t of &hich there i# no artificia( f(oor; 1itchen, (i in* and #(eepin*$room a(( in one8 "n #uch a ho(e, #carce(! fi e feet (on* b! #ix broad, " found t&o bed# E and #uch bed#tead# and bed#@ E &hich, &ith a #tairca#e and chimne!$p(ace, exact(! fi((ed the room8 "n #e era( other# " found ab#o(ute(! nothin*, &hi(e the door #tood open, and the inhabitant# (eaned a*ain#t it8 E er!&here before the door# refu#e and offa(; that an! #ort of pa ement (a! underneath cou(d not be #een but on(! fe(t, here and there, &ith the feet8 +hi# &ho(e co((ection of catt(e$#hed# for human bein*# &a# #urrounded on t&o #ide# b! hou#e# and a factor!, and on the third b! the ri er, and be#ide# the narro& #tair up the ban1, a narro& door&a! a(one (ed out into another a(mo#t eBua((! i(($bui(t, i(($1ept (ab!rinth of d&e((in*#8 Enou*h@ +he &ho(e #ide of the "r1 i# bui(t in thi# &a!, a p(an(e##, 1notted chao# of hou#e#, more or (e## on the er*e of uninhabitab(ene##, &ho#e unc(ean interior# fu((! corre#pond &ith their fi(th! externa( #urroundin*#8 9nd ho& cou(d the peop(e be c(ean &ith no proper opportunit! for #ati#f!in* the mo#t natura( and ordinar! &ant#K Pri ie# are #o rare here that the! are either fi((ed up e er! da!, or are too remote for mo#t of the inhabitant# to u#e8 5o& can peop(e &a#h &hen the! ha e on(! the dirt! "r1 &ater at hand, &hi(e pump# and &ater pipe# can be found in decent part# of the cit! a(oneK "n truth, it cannot be char*ed to the account of the#e he(ot# of modern #ociet! if their d&e((in*# are not more c(ean(! than the pi*$#tie# &hich are here and there to be #een amon* them8 +he (and(ord# are not a#hamed to (et d&e((in*# (i1e the #ix or #e en ce((ar# on the Bua! direct(! be(o& Scot(and <rid*e, the f(oor# of &hich #tand at (ea#t t&o feet be(o& the (o&$&ater (e e( of the "r1 that f(o&# not #ix feet a&a! from them; or (i1e the upper f(oor of the corner$hou#e on the oppo#ite #hore direct(! abo e the brid*e, &here the *round$f(oor, utter(! uninhabitab(e, #tand# depri ed of a(( fittin*# for door# and &indo&#, a ca#e b! no mean# rare in

thi# re*ion, &hen thi# open *round$f(oor i# u#ed a# a pri ! b! the &ho(e nei*hbourhood for &ant of other faci(itie#@ "f &e (ea e the "r1 and penetrate once more on the oppo#ite #ide from %on* Mi((*ate into the mid#t of the &or1in*$menN# d&e((in*#, &e #ha(( come into a #ome&hat ne&er Buarter, &hich #tretche# from St8 Michae(N# ;hurch to With! :ro e and Shude 5i((8 5ere there i# #ome&hat better order8 "n p(ace of the chao# of bui(din*#, &e find at (ea#t (on* #trai*ht (ane# and a((e!# or court#, bui(t accordin* to a p(an and u#ua((! #Buare8 <ut if, in the former ca#e, e er! hou#e &a# bui(t accordin* to caprice, here each (ane and court i# #o bui(t, &ithout reference to the #ituation of the adDoinin* one#8 +he (ane# run no& in thi# direction, no& in that, &hi(e e er! t&o minute# the &anderer *et# into a b(ind a((e!, or, on turnin* a corner, find# him#e(f bac1 &here he #tarted from; certain(! no one &ho ha# not (i ed a con#iderab(e time in thi# (ab!rinth can find hi# &a! throu*h it8 "f " ma! u#e the &ord at a(( in #pea1in* of thi# di#trict, the enti(ation of the#e #treet# and court# i#, in con#eBuence of thi# confu#ion, Buite a# imperfect a# in the "r1 re*ion; and if thi# Buarter ma!, ne erthe(e##, be #aid to ha e #ome ad anta*e o er that of the "r1, the hou#e# bein* ne&er and the #treet# occa#iona((! ha in* *utter#, near(! e er! hou#e ha#, on the other hand, a ce((ar d&e((in*, &hich i# rare(! found in the "r1 di#trict, b! rea#on of the *reater a*e and more care(e## con#truction of the hou#e#8 9# for the re#t, the fi(th, d/,ris, and offa( heap#, and the poo(# in the #treet# are common to both Buarter#, and in the di#trict no& under di#cu##ion, another feature mo#t inDuriou# to the c(ean(ine## of the inhabitant#, i# the mu(titude of pi*# &a(1in* about in a(( the a((e!#, rootin* into the offa( heap#, or 1ept impri#oned in #ma(( pen#8 5ere, a# in mo#t of the &or1in*$menN# Buarter# of Manche#ter, the por1$rai#er# rent the court# and bui(d pi*$pen# in them8 "n a(mo#t e er! court one or e en #e era( #uch pen# ma! be found, into &hich the inhabitant# of the court thro& a(( refu#e and offa(, &hence the #&ine *ro& fat; and the atmo#phere, confined on a(( four #ide#, i# utter(! corrupted b! putref!in* anima( and e*etab(e #ub#tance#8 +hrou*h thi# Buarter, a broad and mea#urab(! decent #treet ha# been cut, Mi((er# Street, and the bac1*round ha# been prett! #ucce##fu((! concea(ed8 <ut if an! one #hou(d be (ed b! curio#it! to pa## throu*h one of the numerou# pa##a*e# &hich (ead into the court#, he &i(( find thi# pi**er! repeated at e er! t&ent! pace#8 Such i# the ?(d +o&n of Manche#ter, and on re$readin* m! de#cription, " am forced to admit that in#tead of bein* exa**erated, it i# far from b(ac1 enou*h to con e! a true impre##ion of the fi(th, ruin, and uninhabitab(ene##, the defiance of a(( con#ideration# of c(ean(ine##, enti(ation, and hea(th &hich characteri#e the con#truction of thi# #in*(e di#trict, containin* at (ea#t t&ent! to thirt! thou#and inhabitant#8 9nd #uch a di#trict exi#t# in the heart of the #econd cit! of En*(and, the fir#t manufacturin* cit! of the &or(d8 "f an! one &i#he# to #ee in ho& (itt(e #pace a human bein* can mo e, ho& (itt(e air E and suchair@ E he can breathe, ho& (itt(e of ci i(i#ation he ma! #hare and !et (i e, it i# on(! nece##ar! to tra e( hither8 +rue, thi# i# the 2ld +o&n, and the peop(e of Manche#ter empha#i#e the fact &hene er an! one mention# to them the fri*htfu( condition of thi# 5e(( upon Earth; but &hat doe# that pro eK E er!thin* &hich here arou#e# horror and indi*nation i# of recent ori*in, be(on*# to the industrial epoch8 +he coup(e of hundred hou#e#, &hich be(on* to o(d Manche#ter, ha e been (on* #ince abandoned b! their ori*ina( inhabitant#; the indu#tria( epoch a(one ha# crammed into them the #&arm# of &or1er# &hom the! no& #he(ter; the indu#tria( epoch a(one ha# bui(t up e er! #pot bet&een the#e o(d hou#e# to &in a co erin* for the ma##e# &hom it ha# conDured hither from the a*ricu(tura( di#trict# and from "re(and; the indu#tria( epoch a(one enab(e# the o&ner# of the#e catt(e#hed# to rent them for hi*h price# to human bein*#, to p(under the po ert! of the &or1er#, to undermine the hea(th of thou#and#, in order that the!alone, the o&ner#, ma! *ro& rich8 "n the indu#tria( epoch a(one ha# it become po##ib(e that the &or1er #carce(! freed from feuda( #er itude cou(d be u#ed a# mere materia(, a mere chatte(; that he mu#t (et him#e(f be cro&ded into a d&e((in* too bad for e er! other, &hich

he for hi# hard$earned &a*e# bu!# the ri*ht to (et *o utter(! to ruin8 +hi# manufacture ha# achie ed, &hich, &ithout the#e &or1er#, thi# po ert!, thi# #(a er! cou(d not ha e (i ed8 +rue, the ori*ina( con#truction of thi# Buarter &a# bad, (itt(e *ood cou(d ha e been made out of it; but, ha e the (ando&ner#, ha# the municipa(it! done an!thin* to impro e it &hen rebui(din*K ?n the contrar!, &here er a noo1 or corner &a# free, a hou#e ha# been run up; &here a #uperf(uou# pa##a*e remained, it ha# been bui(t up; the a(ue of (and ro#e &ith the b(o##omin* out of manufacture, and the more it ro#e, the more mad(! &a# the &or1 of bui(din* up carried on, &ithout reference to the hea(th or comfort of the inhabitant#, &ith #o(e reference to the hi*he#t po##ib(e profit on the princip(e that no hole is so ,ad ,ut that some poor creature must take it who can pay for nothing ,etter. 5o&e er, it i# the ?(d +o&n, and &ith thi# ref(ection the bour*eoi#ie i# comforted8 %et u# #ee, therefore, ho& much better it i# in the New !own. +he New !own, 1no&n a(#o a# "ri#h +o&n, #tretche# up a hi(( of c(a!, be!ond the ?(d +o&n, bet&een the "r1 and St8 :eor*eN# =oad8 5ere a(( the feature# of a cit! are (o#t8 Sin*(e ro&# of hou#e# or *roup# of #treet# #tand, here and there, (i1e (itt(e i((a*e# on the na1ed, not e en *ra##$ *ro&n c(a! #oi(; the hou#e#, or rather cotta*e#, are in bad order, ne er repaired, fi(th!, &ith damp, unc(ean, ce((ar d&e((in*#; the (ane# are neither pa ed nor #upp(ied &ith #e&er#, but harbour numerou# co(onie# of #&ine penned in #ma(( #tie# or !ard#, or &anderin* unre#trained throu*h the nei*hbourhood8 +he mud in the #treet# i# #o deep that there i# ne er a chance, except in the dr!e#t &eather, of &a(1in* &ithout #in1in* into it an1(e deep at e er! #tep8 "n the icinit! of St8 :eor*eN# =oad, the #eparate *roup# of bui(din*# approach each other more c(o#e(!, endin* in a continuation of (ane#, b(ind a((e!#, bac1 (ane# and court#, &hich *ro& more and more cro&ded and irre*u(ar the nearer the! approach the heart of the to&n8 +rue, the! are here oftener pa ed or #upp(ied &ith pa ed #ide&a(1# and *utter#; but the fi(th, the bad order of the hou#e#, and e#pecia((! of the ce((ar#, remain the #ame8 "t ma! not be out of p(ace to ma1e #ome *enera( ob#er ation# Du#t here a# to the cu#tomar! con#truction of &or1in*$menN# Buarter# in Manche#ter8 We ha e #een ho& in the ?(d +o&n pure accident determined the *roupin* of the hou#e# in *enera(8 E er! hou#e i# bui(t &ithout reference to an! other, and the #crap# of #pace bet&een them are ca((ed court# for &ant of another name8 "n the #ome&hat ne&er portion# of the #ame Buarter, and in other &or1in*$menN# Buarter#, datin* from the ear(! da!# of indu#tria( acti it!, a #ome&hat more order(! arran*ement ma! be found8 +he #pace bet&een t&o #treet# i# di ided into more re*u(ar, u#ua((! #Buare court#8 +he#e court# &ere bui(t in thi# &a! from the be*innin*, and communicate &ith the #treet# b! mean# of co ered pa##a*e#8 "f the tota((! p(an(e## con#truction i# inDuriou# to the hea(th of the &or1er# b! pre entin* enti(ation, thi# method of #huttin* them up in court# #urrounded on a(( #ide# b! bui(din*# i# far more #o8 +he air #imp(! cannot e#cape; the chimne!# of the hou#e# are the #o(e drain# for the impri#oned atmo#phere of the court#, and the! #er e the purpo#e on(! #o (on* a# fire i# 1ept burnin*8 64 Moreo er, the hou#e# #urroundin* #uch court# are u#ua((! bui(t bac1 to bac1, ha in* the rear &a(( in common; and thi# a(one #uffice# to pre ent an! #ufficient throu*h enti(ation8 9nd, a# the po(ice char*ed &ith care of the #treet# doe# not troub(e it#e(f about the condition of the#e court#, a# e er!thin* Buiet(! (ie# &here it i# thro&n, there i# no cau#e for &onder at the fi(th and heap# of a#he# and offa( to be found here8 " ha e been in court#, in Mi((er# Street, at (ea#t ha(f a foot be(o& the (e e( of the thorou*hfare, and &ithout the #(i*hte#t draina*e for the &ater that accumu(ate# in them in rain! &eather@ More recent(! another different method of bui(din* &a# adopted, and ha# no& become *enera(8 Wor1in*$menN# cotta*e# are a(mo#t ne er bui(t #in*(!, but a(&a!# b! the do)en or #core; a #in*(e contractor bui(din* up one or t&o #treet# at a time8 +he#e are then arran*ed a# fo((o&#: ?ne front i# formed of cotta*e# of the be#t c(a##, #o fortunate a# to po##e## a bac1 door and #ma(( court, and the#e command the hi*he#t rent8 "n the rear of the#e cotta*e# run# a narro& a((e!, the bac1 #treet, bui(t up at both end#, into &hich either a narro& road&a! or a co ered pa##a*e (ead# from one

#ide8 +he cotta*e# &hich face thi# bac1 #treet command (ea#t rent, and are mo#t ne*(ected8 +he#e ha e their rear &a((# in common &ith the third ro& of cotta*e#, &hich face a #econd #treet and command (e## rent than the fir#t ro& and more than the #econd8 <! thi# method of con#truction, comparati e(! *ood enti(ation can be obtained for the fir#t ro& of cotta*e#, and the third ro& i# no &or#e off than in the former method8 +he midd(e ro&, on the other hand, i# at (ea#t a# bad(! enti(ated a# the hou#e# in the court#, and the bac1 #treet i# a(&a!# in the #ame fi(th!, di#*u#tin* condition a# the!8 +he contractor# prefer thi# method becau#e it #a e# them #pace, and furni#he# the mean# of f(eecin* better$paid &or1er# throu*h the hi*her rent# of the cotta*e# in the fir#t and third ro&#8 +he#e three different form# of cotta*e bui(din* are found a(( o er Manche#ter and throu*hout %anca#hire and 0or1#hire, often mixed up to*ether, but u#ua((! #eparate enou*h to indicate the re(ati e a*e of part# of to&n#8 +he third #!#tem, that of the bac1 a((e!#, pre ai(# (ar*e(! in the *reat &or1in*$menN# di#trict ea#t of St8 :eor*eN# =oad and 9ncoat# Street, and i# the one mo#t often found in the other &or1in*$menN# Buarter# of Manche#ter and it# #uburb#8 "n the (a#t$mentioned broad di#trict inc(uded under the name 9ncoat#, #tand the (ar*e#t mi((# of Manche#ter (inin* the cana(#, co(o##a( #ix and #e en$#toried bui(din*# to&erin* &ith their #(ender chimne!# far abo e the (o& cotta*e# of the &or1er#8 +he popu(ation of the di#trict con#i#t#, therefore, chief(! of mi(($hand#, and in the &or#t #treet#, of hand$&ea er#8 +he #treet# neare#t the heart of the to&n are the o(de#t, and con#eBuent(! the &or#t; the! are, ho&e er, pa ed, and #upp(ied &ith drain#8 9mon* them " inc(ude tho#e neare#t to and para((e( &ith ?(dham =oad and :reat 9ncoat# Street8 'arther to the north$ea#t (ie man! ne&(! bui(t$up #treet#; here the cotta*e# (oo1 neat and c(ean(!, door# and &indo&# are ne& and fre#h(! painted, the room# &ithin ne&(! &hite&a#hed; the #treet# them#e( e# are better aired, the acant bui(din* (ot# bet&een them (ar*er and more numerou#8 <ut thi# can be #aid of a minorit! of the hou#e# on(!, &hi(e ce((ar d&e((in*# are to be found under a(mo#t e er! cotta*e; man! #treet# are unpa ed and &ithout #e&er#; and, &or#e than a((, thi# neat appearance i# a(( pretence, a pretence &hich ani#he# &ithin the fir#t ten !ear#8 'or the con#truction of the cotta*e# indi idua((! i# no (e## to be condemned than the p(an of the #treet#8 9(( #uch cotta*e# (oo1 neat and #ub#tantia( at fir#t; their ma##i e bric1 &a((# decei e the e!e, and, on pa##in* throu*h a ne&(! bui(t &or1in*$ menN# #treet, &ithout rememberin* the bac1 a((e!# and the con#truction of the hou#e# them#e( e#, one i# inc(ined to a*ree &ith the a##ertion of the %ibera( manufacturer# that the &or1in* popu(ation i# no&here #o &e(( hou#ed a# in En*(and8 <ut on c(o#er examination, it become# e ident that the &a((# of the#e cotta*e# are a# thin a# it i# po##ib(e to ma1e them8 +he outer &a((#, tho#e of the ce((ar, &hich bear the &ei*ht of the *round$f(oor and roof, are one &ho(e bric1 thic1 at mo#t, the bric1# (!in* &ith their (on* #ide# touchin* ; but " ha e #een man! a cotta*e of the #ame hei*ht, #ome in proce## of bui(din*, &ho#e outer &a((# &ere but one$ha(f bric1 thic1, the bric1# (!in* not #ide&i#e but (en*th&i#e, their narro& end# touchin* 8 +he obDect of thi# i# to #pare materia(, but there i# a(#o another rea#on for it; name(!, the fact that the contractor# ne er o&n the (and but (ea#e it, accordin* to the En*(i#h cu#tom, for t&ent!, thirt!, fort!, fift!, or ninet!$nine !ear#, at the expiration of &hich time it fa((#, &ith e er!thin* upon it, bac1 into the po##e##ion of the ori*ina( ho(der, &ho pa!# nothin* in return for impro ement# upon it8 +he impro ement# are therefore #o ca(cu(ated b! the (e##ee a# to be &orth a# (itt(e a# po##ib(e at the expiration of the #tipu(ated term8 9nd a# #uch cotta*e# are often bui(t but t&ent! or thirt! !ear# before the expiration of the term, it ma! ea#i(! be ima*ined that the contractor# ma1e no unnece##ar! expenditure# upon them8 Moreo er, the#e contractor#, u#ua((! carpenter# and bui(der#, or manufacturer#, #pend (itt(e or nothin* in repair#, part(! to a oid dimini#hin* their rent receipt#, and part(! in ie& of the approachin* #urrender of the impro ement to the (ando&ner; &hi(e in con#eBuence of commercia( cri#e# and the (o## of &or1 that fo((o&# them, &ho(e #treet# often #tand empt!, the cotta*e# fa((in* rapid(! into ruin and uninhabitab(ene##8 "t i# ca(cu(ated in *enera( that &or1in*$menN# cotta*e#

(a#t on(! fort! !ear# on the a era*e8 +hi# #ound# #tran*e(! enou*h &hen one #ee# the beautifu(, ma##i e &a((# of ne&(! bui(t one#, &hich #eem to *i e promi#e of (a#tin* a coup(e of centurie#; but the fact remain# that the ni**ard(ine## of the ori*ina( expenditure, the ne*(ect of a(( repair#, the freBuent period# of emptine##, the con#tant chan*e of inhabitant#, and the de#truction carried on b! the d&e((er# durin* the fina( ten !ear#, u#ua((! "ri#h fami(ie#, &ho do not he#itate to u#e the &ooden portion# for fire&ood E a(( thi#, ta1en to*ether, accomp(i#he# the comp(ete ruin of the cotta*e# b! the end of fort! !ear#8 5ence it come# that 9ncoat#, bui(t chief(! #ince the #udden *ro&th of manufacture, chief(! indeed &ithin the pre#ent centur!, contain# a a#t number of ruinou# hou#e#, mo#t of them bein*, in fact, in the (a#t #ta*e# of inhabitab(ene##8 " &i(( not d&e(( upon the amount of capita( thu# &a#ted, the #ma(( additiona( expenditure upon the ori*ina( impro ement and upon repair# &hich &ou(d #uffice to 1eep thi# &ho(e di#trict c(ean, decent, and inhabitab(e for !ear# to*ether8 " ha e to dea( here &ith the #tate of the hou#e# and their inhabitant#, and it mu#t be admitted that no more inDuriou# and demora(i#in* method of hou#in* the &or1er# ha# !et been di#co ered than preci#e(! thi#8 +he &or1in*$man i# con#trained to occup! #uch ruinou# d&e((in*# becau#e he cannot pa! for other#, and becau#e there are no other# in the icinit! of hi# mi((; perhap#, too, becau#e the! be(on* to the emp(o!er, &ho en*a*e# him on(! on condition of hi# ta1in* #uch a cotta*e8 +he ca(cu(ation &ith reference to the fort! !ear#N duration of the cotta*e i#, of cour#e, not a(&a!# perfect(! #trict; for, if the d&e((in*# are in a thic1(! bui(t$up portion of the to&n, and there i# a *ood pro#pect of findin* #tead! occupant# for them, &hi(e the *round$rent i# hi*h, the contractor# do a (itt(e #omethin* to 1eep the cotta*e# inhabitab(e after the expiration of the fort! !ear#8 +he! ne er do an!thin* more, ho&e er, than i# ab#o(ute(! una oidab(e, and the d&e((in*# #o repaired are the &or#t of a((8 ?cca#iona((! &hen an epidemic threaten#, the other&i#e #(eep! con#cience of the #anitar! po(ice i# a (itt(e #tirred, raid# are made into the &or1in*$menN# di#trict#, &ho(e ro&# of ce((ar# and cotta*e# are c(o#ed, a# happened in the ca#e of #e era( (ane# near ?(dham =oad; but thi# doe# not (a#t (on*: the condemned cotta*e# #oon find occupant# a*ain, the o&ner# are much better off b! (ettin* them, and the #anitar! po(ice &onNt come a*ain #o #oon8 +he#e ea#t and north$ea#t #ide# of Manche#ter are the on(! one# on &hich the bour*eoi#ie ha# not bui(t, becau#e ten or e(e en month# of the !ear the &e#t and #outh$&e#t &ind dri e# the #mo1e of a(( the factorie# hither, and that the &or1in*$ peop(e a(one ma! breathe8 South&ard from :reat 9ncoat# Street, (ie# a *reat, #tra**(in*, &or1in*$menN# Buarter, a hi((!, barren #tretch of (and, occupied b! detached, irre*u(ar(! bui(t ro&# of hou#e# or #Buare#, bet&een the#e, empt! bui(din* (ot#, une en, c(a!e!, &ithout *ra## and #carce(! pa##ab(e in &et &eather8 +he cotta*e# are a(( fi(th! and o(d, and reca(( the /e& +o&n to mind8 +he #tretch cut throu*h b! the <irmin*ham rai(&a! i# the mo#t thic1(! bui(t$up and the &or#t8 5ere f(o&# the Med(oc1 &ith count(e## &indin*# throu*h a a((e!, &hich i#, in p(ace#, on a (e e( &ith the a((e! of the "r18 9(on* both #ide# of the #tream, &hich i# coa($b(ac1, #ta*nant and fou(, #tretche# a broad be(t of factorie# and &or1in*$menN# d&e((in*#, the (atter a(( in the &or#t condition8 +he ban1 i# chief(! dec(i itou# and i# bui(t o er to the &aterN# ed*e, Du#t a# &e #a& a(on* the "r1; &hi(e the hou#e# are eBua((! bad, &hether bui(t on the Manche#ter #ide or in 9rd&ic1, ;hor(ton, or 5u(me8 <ut the mo#t horrib(e #pot ,if " #hou(d de#cribe a(( the #eparate #pot# in detai( " #hou(d ne er come to the end- (ie# on the Manche#ter #ide, immediate(! #outh$&e#t of ?xford =oad, and i# 1no&n a# %itt(e "re(and8 "n a rather deep ho(e, in a cur e of the Med(oc1 and #urrounded on a(( four #ide# b! ta(( factorie# and hi*h emban1ment#, co ered &ith bui(din*#, #tand t&o *roup# of about t&o hundred cotta*e#, bui(t chief(! bac1 to bac1, in &hich (i e about four thou#and human bein*#, mo#t of them "ri#h8 +he cotta*e# are o(d, dirt!, and of the #ma((e#t #ort, the #treet# une en, fa((en into rut# and in part &ithout drain# or pa ement; ma##e# of refu#e, offa( and #ic1enin* fi(th (ie amon* #tandin* poo(# in a(( direction#; the atmo#phere i# poi#oned b! the eff(u ia from the#e, and (aden and dar1ened b! the #mo1e of a do)en ta(( factor! chimne!#8 9 horde of ra**ed &omen and

chi(dren #&arm about here, a# fi(th! a# the #&ine that thri e upon the *arba*e heap# and in the pudd(e#8 "n #hort, the &ho(e roo1er! furni#he# #uch a hatefu( and repu(#i e #pectac(e a# can hard(! be eBua((ed in the &or#t court on the "r18 +he race that (i e# in the#e ruinou# cotta*e#, behind bro1en &indo&#, mended &ith oi(#1in, #prun* door#, and rotten doorpo#t#, or in dar1, &et ce((ar#, in mea#ure(e## fi(th and #tench, in thi# atmo#phere penned in a# if &ith a purpo#e, thi# race mu#t rea((! ha e reached the (o&e#t #ta*e of humanit!8 +hi# i# the impre##ion and the (ine of thou*ht &hich the exterior of thi# di#trict force# upon the beho(der8 <ut &hat mu#t one thin1 &hen he hear# that in each of the#e pen#, containin* at mo#t t&o room#, a *arret and perhap# a ce((ar, on the a era*e t&ent! human bein*# (i e; that in the &ho(e re*ion, for each one hundred and t&ent! per#on#, one u#ua((! inacce##ib(e pri ! i# pro ided; and that in #pite of a(( the preachin*# of the ph!#ician#, in #pite of the excitement into &hich the cho(era epidemic p(un*ed the #anitar! po(ice b! rea#on of the condition of %itt(e "re(and, in #pite of e er!thin*, in thi# !ear of *race 1844, it i# in a(mo#t the #ame #tate a# in 18>1@ 4r8 Ha! a##ert# that not on(! the ce((ar# but the fir#t f(oor# of a(( the hou#e# in thi# di#trict are damp; that a number of ce((ar# once fi((ed up &ith earth ha e no& been emptied and are occupied once more b! "ri#h peop(e; that in one ce((ar the &ater con#tant(! &e((# up throu*h a ho(e #topped &ith c(a!, the ce((ar (!in* be(o& the ri er (e e(, #o that it# occupant, a hand$(oom &ea er, had to ba(e out the &ater from hi# d&e((in* e er! mornin* and pour it into the #treet@ 'arther do&n, on the (eft #ide of the Med(oc1, (ie# 5u(me, &hich proper(! #pea1in*, i# one *reat &or1in*$peop(eN# di#trict, the condition of &hich coincide# a(mo#t exact(! &ith that of 9ncoat#; the more thic1(! bui(t$up re*ion# chief(! bad and approachin* ruin, the (e## popu(ou# of more modern #tructure, but *enera((! #un1 in fi(th8 ?n the other #ide of the Med(oc1, in Manche#ter proper, (ie# a #econd *reat &or1in*$menN# di#trict &hich #tretche# on both #ide# of 4ean#*ate a# far a# the bu#ine## Buarter, and in certain part# ri a(# the ?(d +o&n8 E#pecia((! in the immediate icinit! of the bu#ine## Buarter, bet&een <rid*e and Oua! Street#, Prince## and Peter Street#, the cro&ded con#truction exceed# in p(ace# the narro&e#t court# of the ?(d +o&n8 5ere are (on* narro& (ane# bet&een &hich run contracted, croo1ed court# and pa##a*e#, the entrance# to &hich are #o irre*u(ar that the exp(orer i# cau*ht in a b(ind a((e! at e er! fe& #tep#, or come# out &here he (ea#t expect# to, un(e## he 1no&# e er! court and e er! a((e! exact(! and #eparate(!8 9ccordin* to 4r8 Ha!, the mo#t demora(i#ed c(a## of a(( Manche#ter (i ed in the#e ruinou# and fi(th! di#trict#, peop(e &ho#e occupation# are thie in* and pro#titution and, to a(( appearance#, hi# a##ertion i# #ti(( true at the pre#ent moment8 When the #anitar! po(ice made it# expedition hither in 18>1, it found the unc(eanne## a# *reat a# in %itt(e "re(and or a(on* the "r1 ,that it i# not much better toda!, " can te#tif!-; and amon* other item#, the! found in Par(iament Street for three hundred and ei*ht! per#on#, and in Par(iament Pa##a*e for thirt! thic1(! popu(ated hou#e#, but a #in*(e pri !8 "f &e cro## the "r&e(( to Sa(ford, &e find on a penin#u(a formed b! the ri er a to&n of ei*ht! thou#and inhabitant#, &hich, proper(! #pea1in*, i# one (ar*e &or1in*$menN# Buarter, penetrated b! a #in*(e &ide a enue8 Sa(ford, once more important than Manche#ter, &a# then the (eadin* to&n of the #urroundin* di#trict to &hich it #ti(( *i e# it# name, Sa(ford 5undred8 5ence it i# that an o(d and therefore er! un&ho(e#ome, dirt!, and ruinou# (oca(it! i# to be found here, (!in* oppo#ite the ?(d ;hurch of Manche#ter, and in a# bad a condition a# the ?(d +o&n on the other #ide of the "r&e((8 'arther a&a! from the ri er (ie# the ne&er portion, &hich i#, ho&e er, a(read! be!ond the (imit of it# fort! !ear# of cotta*e (ife, and therefore ruinou# enou*h8 9(( Sa(ford i# bui(t in court# or narro& (ane#, #o narro&, that the! remind me of the narro&e#t " ha e e er #een, the (itt(e (ane# of :enoa8 +he a era*e con#truction of Sa(ford i# in thi# re#pect much &or#e than that of Manche#ter, and #o, too, in re#pect to c(ean(ine##8 "f, in Manche#ter, the po(ice, from time to time, e er! #ix or ten !ear#, ma1e# a raid upon the &or1in*$peop(eN# di#trict#, c(o#e# the &or#t d&e((in*#, and cau#e# the fi(thie#t #pot# in the#e 9u*ean #tab(e# to be c(ean#ed, in Sa(ford it

#eem# to ha e done ab#o(ute(! nothin*8 +he narro& #ide (ane# and court# of ;hape( Street, :reen*ate, and :ra e( %ane ha e certain(! ne er been c(ean#ed #ince the! &ere bui(t8 ?f (ate, the %i erpoo( rai(&a! ha# been carried throu*h the midd(e of them, o er a hi*h iaduct, and ha# abo(i#hed man! of the fi(thie#t noo1#; but &hat doe# that a ai(K Whoe er pa##e# o er thi# iaduct and (oo1# do&n, #ee# fi(th and &retchedne## enou*h; and, if an! one ta1e# the troub(e to pa## throu*h the#e (ane# and *(ance throu*h the open door# and &indo&# into the hou#e# and ce((ar#, he can con ince him#e(f afre#h &ith e er! #tep that the &or1er# of Sa(ford (i e in d&e((in*# in &hich c(ean(ine## and comfort are impo##ib(e8 Exact(! the #ame #tate of affair# i# found in the more di#tant re*ion# of Sa(ford, in "#(in*ton, a(on* =e*ent =oad, and bac1 of the <o(ton rai(&a!8 +he &or1in*$menN# d&e((in*# bet&een ?(dfie(d =oad and ;ro## %ane, &here a ma## of court# and a((e!# are to be found in the &or#t po##ib(e #tate, ie &ith the d&e((in*# of the ?(d +o&n in fi(th and o ercro&din*8 "n thi# di#trict " found a man, apparent(! about #ixt! !ear# o(d, (i in* in a co&$ #tab(e8 5e had con#tructed a #ort of chimne! for hi# #Buare pen, &hich had neither &indo&#, f(oor, nor cei(in*, had obtained a bed#tead and (i ed there, thou*h the rain dripped throu*h hi# rotten roof8 +hi# man &a# too o(d and &ea1 for re*u(ar &or1, and #upported him#e(f b! remo in* manure &ith a hand$cart; the dun*$heap# (a! next door to hi# pa(ace@ Such are the ariou# &or1in*$peop(eN# Buarter# of Manche#ter a# " had occa#ion to ob#er e them per#ona((! durin* t&ent! month#8 "f &e brief(! formu(ate the re#u(t of our &anderin*#, &e mu#t admit that >57,777 &or1in*$peop(e of Manche#ter and it# en iron# (i e, a(mo#t a(( of them, in &retched, damp, fi(th! cotta*e#, that the #treet# &hich #urround them are u#ua((! in the mo#t mi#erab(e and fi(th! condition, (aid out &ithout the #(i*hte#t reference to enti(ation, &ith reference #o(e(! to the profit #ecured b! the contractor8 "n a &ord, &e mu#t confe## that in the &or1in*$menN# d&e((in*# of Manche#ter, no c(ean(ine##, no con enience, and con#eBuent(! no comfortab(e fami(! (ife i# po##ib(e; that in #uch d&e((in*# on(! a ph!#ica((! de*enerate race, robbed of a(( humanit!, de*raded, reduced mora((! and ph!#ica((! to be#tia(it!, cou(d fee( comfortab(e and at home8 9nd " am not a(one in ma1in* thi# a##ertion8 We ha e #een that 4r8 Ha! *i e# preci#e(! the #ame de#cription; and, thou*h it i# #uperf(uou#, " Buote further the &ord# of a %ibera(, reco*ni#ed and hi*h(! a(ued a# an authorit! b! the manufacturer#, and a fanatica( opponent of a(( independent mo ement# of the &or1er#: 65 T<ut &hen " &ent throu*h their Qi8e8, the Manche#ter operati e#NR habitation# in "ri#h +o&n, and 9ncoat#, and %itt(e "re(and, m! on(! &onder &a# that to(erab(e hea(th cou(d be maintained b! the inmate# of #uch hou#e#8 +he#e to&n#, for #uch the! are in extent and popu(ation, ha e been erected b! #ma(( #pecu(ator# &ith an utter di#re*ard to e er!thin* except immediate profit8 9 carpenter and a bric1(a!er c(ub to bu! a patch of *round Qi8e8, the! (ea#e it for a number of !ear#R, and co er it &ith &hat the! ca(( hou#e#8 "n one p(ace &e #a& a

&ho(e #treet fo((o&in* the cour#e of a ditch, in order to ha e deeper ce((ar# ,ce((ar# for peop(e, not for (umber&ithout the expen#e of exca ation#8 /ot a hou#e in thi# #treet e#caped cho(era8 9nd *enera((! #pea1in*, throu*hout the#e #uburb# the #treet# are unpa ed, &ith a dun*$hi(( or a pond in the midd(e; the hou#e# bui(t bac1 to bac1, &ithout enti(ation or draina*e; and &ho(e fami(ie# occup! a corner of a ce((ar or of a *arret8T " ha e a(read! referred to the unu#ua( acti it! &hich the #anitar! po(ice manife#ted durin* the cho(era i#itation8 When the epidemic &a# approachin*, a uni er#a( terror #ei)ed the bour*eoi#ie of the cit!8 Peop(e remembered the un&ho(e#ome d&e((in*# of the poor, and tremb(ed before the certaint! that each of the#e #(um# &ou(d become a centre for the p(a*ue, &hence it &ou(d #pread de#o(ation in a(( direction# throu*h the hou#e# of the propertied c(a##8 9 5ea(th ;ommi##ion &a# appointed at once to in e#ti*ate the#e di#trict#, and report upon their condition to the +o&n ;ounci(8 4r8 Ha!, him#e(f a member of thi# ;ommi##ion, &ho i#ited in per#on e er! #eparate po(ice di#trict except one, the e(e enth, Buote# extract# from their report#: +here &ere in#pected, in a((, 6,951 hou#e# E natura((! in Manche#ter proper a(one, Sa(ford and the other #uburb# bein* exc(uded8 ?f the#e, 6,565 ur*ent(! needed &hite&a#hin* &ithin; 967 &ere out of repair, 959 had in#ufficient drain#; 1,455 &ere damp; 456 &ere bad(! enti(ated; 6,661 &ere &ithout pri ie#8 ?f the 68. #treet# in#pected, 648 &ere unpa ed, 5> but partia((! pa ed, 116 i(($ enti(ated, >56 containin* #tandin* poo(#, heap# of debri#, refu#e, etc8 +o c(ean#e #uch an 9u*ean #tab(e before the arri a( of the cho(era &a#, of cour#e, out of the Bue#tion8 9 fe& of the &or#t noo1# &ere therefore c(ean#ed, and e er!thin* e(#e (eft a# before88"n the c(ean#ed #pot#, a# %itt(e "re(and pro e#, the o(d fi(th! condition &a# natura((! re#tored in a coup(e of month#8 9# to the interna( condition of the#e hou#e#, the #ame ;ommi##ion report# a #tate of thin*# #imi(ar to that &hich &e ha e a(read! met &ith in %ondon, Edinbur*h, and other citie#8 T9 &ho(e "ri#h fami(! i# often accommodated on a #in*(e bed, and #ometime# a heap of fi(th! #tra& and a co erin* of o(d #ac1in* hide them in one undi#tin*ui#hed heap, deba#ed a(i1e b! penur!, &ant of econom! and di##o(ute habit#8 'reBuent(! the in#pector# found t&o fami(ie# cro&ded into one #ma(( hou#e, containin* on(! t&o apartment#, one in &hich the! #(ept, and another in

&hich the! eat; and often more than one fami(! (i ed in a damp ce((ar, containin* on(! one room, in &ho#e pe#ti(entia( atmo#phere from t&e( e to #ixteen per#on# &ere cro&ded8 +o the#e ferti(e #ource# of di#ea#e &ere #ometime# added the 1eepin* of the pi*# and other anima(# nui#ance# in the of hou#e, &ith other the mo#t re o(tin*

character8T We mu#t add that man! fami(ie#, &ho had but one room for them#e( e#, recei e boarder# and (od*er# in it, that #uch (od*er# of both #exe# b! no mean# rare(! #(eep in the #ame bed &ith the married coup(e; and that the #in*(e ca#e of a man and hi# &ife and hi# adu(t #i#ter$in$(a& #(eepin* in one bed &a# found, accordin* to theC=eport on the Sanitar! ;ondition of the %abourin* Popu(ationT, #ix time# repeated in Manche#ter8 ;ommon (od*in*$hou#e#, too, are er! numerou#; 4r8 Ha! *i e# their number in 18>1 a# 66. in Manche#ter proper, and the! mu#t ha e increa#ed *reat(! #ince then8 Each of the#e recei e# from t&ent! to thirt! *ue#t#, #o that the! #he(ter a(( to(d, ni*ht(!, from fi e to #e en thou#and human bein*#8 +he character of the hou#e# and their *ue#t# i# the #ame a# in other citie#8 'i e to #e en bed# in each room (ie on the f(oor E &ithout bed#tead#, and on the#e #(eep, mixed indi#criminate(!, a# man! per#on# a# app(!8 What ph!#ica( and mora( atmo#phere rei*n# in the#e ho(e# " need not #tate8 Each of the#e hou#e# i# a focu# of crime, the #cene of deed# a*ain#t &hich human nature re o(t#, &hich &ou(d perhap# ne er ha e been executed but for thi# forced centra(i#ation of ice8 :a#1e(( 66 *i e# the number of per#on# (i in* in ce((ar# in Manche#ter proper a# 67,7778 +he Weekly .ispatch *i e# the number,Caccordin* to officia( report#T, a# t&e( e per cent of the &or1in*$c(a##, &hich a*ree# &ith :a#1e((N# number; the &or1er# bein* e#timated at 1.5,777, 61,777 &ou(d form t&e( e per cent of it8 +he ce((ar d&e((in*# in the #uburb# are at (ea#t a# numerou#8 #o that the number of per#on# (i in* in ce((ar# in Manche#ter E u#in* it# name in the broader #en#e E i# not (e## than fort! to fift! thou#and8 So much for the d&e((in*# of the &or1er# in the (ar*e#t citie# and to&n#8 +he manner in &hich the need of a #he(ter i# #ati#fied furni#he# a #tandard for the manner in &hich a(( other nece##itie# are #upp(ied8 +hat in the#e fi(th! ho(e# a ra**ed, i(($fed popu(ation a(one can d&e(( i# a #afe conc(u#ion, and #uch i# the fact8 +he c(othin* of the &or1in*$peop(e, in the maDorit! of ca#e#, i# in a er! bad condition8 +he materia( u#ed for it i# not of the be#t adapted8 Woo( and (inen ha e a(mo#t ani#hed from the &ardrobe of both #exe#, and cotton ha# ta1en their p(ace8 Shirt# are made of b(eached or co(oured cotton *ood#; the dre##e# of the &omen are chief(! of cotton print *ood#, and &oo((en petticoat# are rare(! to be #een on the &a#h(ine8 +he men &ear chief(! trou#er# of fu#tian or other hea ! cotton *ood#, and Dac1et# or coat# of the #ame8 'u#tian ha# become the pro erbia( co#tume of the &or1in*$men, &ho are ca((edCfu#tian Dac1et#T, and ca(( them#e( e# #o in contra#t to the *ent(emen &ho &ear broadc(oth, &hich (atter &ord# are u#ed a# characteri#tic for the midd(e$c(a##8 When 'ear*u# ?N;onnor, the ;harti#t (eader, came to Manche#ter durin* the in#urrection of 1846, he appeared, amid#t the deafenin* app(au#e of the &or1in*$men, in a fu#tian #uit of c(othin*8 5at# are the uni er#a( head$co erin* in En*(and, e en for &or1in*$men, hat# of the mo#t di er#e form#, round, hi*h, broad$brimmed, narro&$ brimmed, or &ithout brim# E on(! the !oun*er men in factor! to&n# &earin* cap#8 9n! one &ho doe# not o&n a hat fo(d# him#e(f a (o&, #Buare paper cap8

+he &ho(e c(othin* of the &or1in*$c(a##, e en a##umin* it to be in *ood condition, i# (itt(e adapted to the c(imate8 +he damp air of En*(and, &ith it# #udden chan*e# of temperature, more ca(cu(ated than an! other to *i e ri#e to co(d#, ob(i*e# a(mo#t the &ho(e midd(e$c(a## to &ear f(anne( next to the #1in, about the bod!, and f(anne( #carf# and #hirt# are in a(mo#t uni er#a( u#e8 /ot on(! i# the &or1in*$c(a## depri ed of thi# precaution, it i# #carce(! e er in a po#ition to u#e a thread of &oo((en c(othin*; and the hea ! cotton *ood#, thou*h thic1er, #tiffer, and hea ier than &oo((en c(othe#, afford much (e## protection a*ain#t co(d and &et, remain damp much (on*er becau#e of their thic1ne## and the nature of the #tuff, and ha e nothin* of the compact den#it! of fu((ed &oo((en c(oth#8 9nd, if a &or1in*$man once bu!# him#e(f a &oo((en coat for Sunda!, he mu#t *et it from one of theCcheap #hop#T &here he find# bad, #o$ca((edC4e i(N#$du#tT c(oth, manufactured for #a(e and not for u#e, and (iab(e to tear or *ro& threadbare in a fortni*ht, or he mu#t bu! of an o(d c(othe#N$dea(er a ha(f$&orn coat &hich ha# #een it# be#t da!#, and (a#t# but a fe& &ee1#8 Moreo er, the &or1in*$manN# c(othin* i#, in mo#t ca#e#, in bad condition, and there i# the oft$recurrin* nece##it! for p(acin* the be#t piece# in the pa&nbro1erN# #hop8 <ut amon* er! (ar*e number#, e#pecia((! amon* the "ri#h, the pre ai(in* c(othin* con#i#t# of perfect ra*# often be!ond a(( mendin*, or #o patched that the ori*ina( co(our can no (on*er be detected8 0et the En*(i#h and 9n*(o$"ri#h *o on patchin*, and ha e carried thi# art to a remar1ab(e pitch, puttin* &oo( or ba**in* on fu#tian, or the re er#e E itN# a(( the #ame to them8 <ut the true, tran#p(anted "ri#h hard(! e er patch except in the extreme#t nece##it!, &hen the *arment &ou(d other&i#e fa(( apart8 ?rdinari(! the ra*# of the #hirt protrude throu*h the rent# in the coat or trou#er#8 +he! &ear, a# +homa# ;ar(!(e #a!#, 6. Ta #uit of tatter#, the *ettin* on or off &hich i# #aid to be a difficu(t operation, tran#acted on(! in fe#ti a(# and the hi*h tide# of the ca(endar8T +he "ri#h ha e introduced, too, the cu#tom, pre iou#(! un1no&n in En*(and, of *oin* barefoot8 "n e er! manufacturin* to&n there i# no& to be #een a mu(titude of peop(e, e#pecia((! &omen and chi(dren, *oin* about barefoot, and their examp(e i# *radua((! bein* adopted b! the poorer En*(i#h8 9# &ith c(othin*, #o &ith food8 +he &or1er# *et &hat i# too bad for the propert!$ho(din* c(a##8 "n the *reat to&n# of En*(and e er!thin* ma! be had of the be#t, but it co#t# mone!; and the &or1man, &ho mu#t 1eep hou#e on a coup(e of pence, cannot afford much expen#e8 Moreo er, he u#ua((! recei e# hi# &a*e# on Saturda! e enin*, for, a(thou*h a be*innin* ha# been made in the pa!ment of &a*e# on 'rida!, thi# exce((ent arran*ement i# b! no mean# uni er#a(; and #o he come# to mar1et at fi e or e en #e en oNc(oc1, &hi(e the bu!er# of the midd(e$c(a## ha e had the fir#t choice durin* the mornin*, &hen the mar1et teem# &ith the be#t of e er!thin*8 <ut &hen the &or1er# reach it, the be#t ha# ani#hed, and, if it &a# #ti(( there, the! &ou(d probab(! not be ab(e to bu! it8 +he potatoe# &hich the &or1er# bu! are u#ua((! poor, the e*etab(e# &i(ted, the chee#e o(d and of poor Bua(it!, the bacon rancid, the meat (ean, tou*h, ta1en from o(d, often di#ea#ed, catt(e, or #uch a# ha e died a natura( death, and not fre#h e en then, often ha(f deca!ed8 +he #e((er# are u#ua((! #ma(( huc1#ter# &ho bu! up inferior *ood#, and can #e(( them cheap(! b! rea#on of their badne##8 +he poore#t &or1er# are forced to u#e #ti(( another de ice to *et to*ether the thin*# the! need &ith their fe& pence8 9# nothin* can be #o(d on Sunda!, and a(( #hop# mu#t be c(o#ed at t&e( e oNc(oc1 on Saturda! ni*ht, #uch thin*# a# &ou(d not 1eep unti( Monda! are #o(d at an! price bet&een ten oNc(oc1 and midni*ht8 <ut nine$tenth# of &hat i# #o(d at ten oNc(oc1 i# pa#t u#in* b! Sunda! mornin*, !et the#e are preci#e(! the pro i#ion# &hich ma1e up the Sunda! dinner of the poore#t c(a##8 +he meat &hich the &or1er# bu! i# er! often pa#t u#in*; but

ha in* bou*ht it, the! mu#t eat it8 ?n the 6th of Lanuar!, 1844 ,if " am not *reat(! mi#ta1en-, a court (eet &a# he(d in Manche#ter, &hen e(e en meat$#e((er# &ere fined for ha in* #o(d tainted meat8 Each of them had a &ho(e ox or pi*, or #e era( #heep, or from fift! to #ixt! pound# of meat, &hich &ere a(( confi#cated in a tainted condition8 "n one ca#e, fift!$four #tuffed ;hri#tma# *ee#e &ere #ei)ed &hich had pro ed un#a(eab(e in %i erpoo(, and had been for&arded to Manche#ter, &here the! &ere brou*ht to mar1et fou( and rotten8 9(( the particu(ar#, &ith name# and fine#, &ere pub(i#hed at the time in the +anchester *uardian8 "n the #ix &ee1#, from Lu(! 1#t to 9u*u#t 14th Q1844R, the #ame #heet reported three #imi(ar ca#e#8 9ccordin* to the *uardian for Lu(! >rd, a pi*, &ei*hin* 677 pound#, &hich had been found dead and deca!ed, &a# cut up and expo#ed for #a(e b! a butcher at 5e!&ood, and &a# then #ei)ed8 9ccordin* to the number for Lu(! >1#t, t&o butcher# at Wi*an, of &hom one had pre iou#(! been con icted of the #ame offence, &ere fined U6 and U4 re#pecti e(!, for expo#in* tainted meat for #a(e; and, accordin* to the number for 9u*u#t 17th, t&ent!$#ix tainted ham# #ei)ed at a dea(erN# in <o(ton, &ere pub(ic(! burnt, and the dea(er fined t&ent! #hi((in*#8 <ut the#e are b! no mean# a(( the ca#e#; the! do not e en form a fair a era*e for a period of #ix &ee1#, accordin* to &hich to form an a era*e for the !ear8 +here are often #ea#on# in &hich e er! number of the #emi$&ee1(! *uardianmention# a #imi(ar ca#e found in Manche#ter or it# icinit!8 9nd &hen one ref(ect# upon the man! ca#e# &hich mu#t e#cape detection in the exten#i e mar1et# that #tretch a(on* the front of e er! main #treet, under the #(ender #uper i#ion of the mar1et in#pector# E and ho& e(#e can one exp(ain the bo(dne## &ith &hich &ho(e anima(# are expo#ed for #a(eK E &hen one con#ider# ho& *reat the temptation mu#t be, in ie& of the incomprehen#ib(! #ma(( fine# mentioned in the fore*oin* ca#e#; &hen one ref(ect# &hat condition a piece of meat mu#t ha e reached to be #ei)ed b! the in#pector#, it i# impo##ib(e to be(ie e that the &or1er# obtain *ood and nouri#hin* meat a# a u#ua( thin*8 <ut the! are ictimi#ed in !et another &a! b! the mone!$*reed of the midd(e$c(a##8 4ea(er# and manufacturer# adu(terate a(( 1ind# of pro i#ion# in an atrociou# manner, and &ithout the #(i*hte#t re*ard to the hea(th of the con#umer#8 We ha e heard the +anchester *uardian upon thi# #ubDect, (et u# hear another or*an of the midd(e$c(a## E " de(i*ht in the te#timon! of m! opponent# E (et u# hear the $iverpool +ercury0 TSa(t butter i# mou(ded into the form of pound# of fre#h butter, and ca#ed o er &ith fre#h8 "n other in#tance# a pound of fre#h i# con#picuou#(! p(aced to be ta#ted; but that pound i# not #o(d; and in other in#tance# #a(t butter, &a#hed, i# mou(ded and #o(d a# fre#h8888 Pounded rice and other cheap materia(# are mixed in #u*ar, and #o(d at fu(( monopo(! price8 9 chemica( #ub#tance E the refu#e of the #oap manufactorie# E i# a(#o mixed &ith other #ub#tance# and #o(d a# #u*ar8888 ;hicor! i# mixed in *ood coffee8 ;hicor!, or #ome #imi(ar(! cheap #ub#tance, i# #1i(fu((! mou(ded into the

form of the coffee berr!, and i# mixed &ith the bu(1 er! (ibera((!8888 ;ocoa i# exten#i e(! adu(terated &ith fine bro&n earth, &rou*ht up &ith mutton fat, #o a# to ama(*amate &ith portion# of the rea( artic(e8888 +he (ea e# of tea are min*(ed &ith #(oe (e ie# and other abomination#8 F#ed (ea e# are a(#o re$dried, and re$ co(oured on hot copper p(ate#, and #o(d a# tea8 Pepper i# adu(terated &ith du#t from hu#1# etc8; port &ine i# a(to*ether manufactured ,from #pirit#, d!e#, etc8-, it bein* notoriou# that more port &ine i# drun1 in thi# countr! than i# made in Portu*a(8 /a#t! thin*# of a(( #ort# are mixed &ith the &eed tobacco in a(( it# manufactured form#T8 " can add that #e era( of the mo#t re#pected tobacco dea(er# in Manche#ter announced pub(ic(! (a#t #ummer, that, b! rea#on of the uni er#a( adu(teration of tobacco, no firm cou(d carr! on bu#ine## &ithout adu(teration, and that no ci*ar co#tin* (e## than three pence i# made &ho((! from tobacco8 +he#e fraud# are natura((! not re#tricted to artic(e# of food, thou*h " cou(d mention a do)en more, the i((ain! of mixin* *!p#um or cha(1 &ith f(our amon* them8 'raud i# practi#ed in the #a(e of artic(e# of e er! #ort: f(anne(, #toc1in*#, etc8, are #tretched, and #hrin1 after the fir#t &a#hin*; narro& c(oth i# #o(d a# bein* from one and a ha(f to three inche# broader than it actua((! i#; #tone&are i# #o thin(! *(a)ed that the *(a)in* i# *ood for nothin* and crac1# at once, and a hundred other ra#ca(itie#, tout comme che3 nous8 <ut the (ionN# #hare of the e i( re#u(t# of the#e fraud# fa((# to the &or1er#8 +he rich are (e## decei ed, becau#e the! can pa! the hi*h price# of the (ar*e #hop# &hich ha e a reputation to (o#e, and &ou(d inDure them#e( e# more than their cu#tomer# if the! 1ept poor or adu(terated &are#; the rich are #poi(ed, too, b! habitua( *ood eatin*, and detect adu(teration more ea#i(! &ith their #en#iti e pa(ate#8 <ut the poor, the &or1in*$ peop(e, to &hom a coup(e of farthin*# are important, &ho mu#t bu! man! thin*# &ith (itt(e mone!, &ho cannot afford to inBuire too c(o#e(! into the Bua(it! of their purcha#e#, and cannot do #o in an! ca#e becau#e the! ha e had no opportunit! of cu(ti atin* their ta#te E to their #hare fa(( a(( the adu(terated, poi#oned pro i#ion#8 +he! mu#t dea( &ith the #ma(( retai(er#, mu#t bu! perhap# on credit, and8the#e #ma(( retai( dea(er# &ho cannot #e(( e en the #ame Bua(it! of *ood# #o cheap(! a# the (ar*e#t retai(er#, becau#e of their #ma(( capita( and the (ar*e proportiona( expen#e# of their bu#ine##, mu#t 1no&in*(! or un1no&in*(! bu! adu(terated *ood# in order to #e(( at the (o&er price# reBuired, and to meet the competition of the other#8 'urther, a (ar*e retai( dea(er &ho ha# exten#i e capita( in e#ted in hi# bu#ine## i# ruined &ith hi# ruined credit if detected in a fraudu(ent practice; but &hat harm doe# it do a #ma(( *rocer, &ho ha# cu#tomer# in a #in*(e #treet on(!, if fraud# are pro ed a*ain#t himK "f no one tru#t# him in 9ncoat#, he mo e# to ;hor(ton or 5u(me, &here no one 1no&# him, and &here he continue# to defraud a# before; &hi(e

(e*a( pena(tie# attach to er! fe& adu(teration# un(e## the! in o( e re enue fraud#8 /ot in the Bua(it! a(one, but in the Buantit! of hi# *ood# a# &e((, i# the En*(i#h &or1in*$man defrauded8 +he #ma(( dea(er# u#ua((! ha e fa(#e &ei*ht# and mea#ure#, and an incredib(e number of con iction# for #uch offence# ma! be read in the po(ice report#8 5o& uni er#a( thi# form of fraud i# in the manufacturin* di#trict#, a coup(e of extract# from the Manche#ter :uardian ma! #er e to #ho&8 +he! co er on(! a #hort period, and, e en here, " ha e not a(( the number# at hand: *uardian, Lune 15, 1844, =ochda(e Se##ion#8E 'our dea(er# fined fi e to ten #hi((in*# for u#in* (i*ht &ei*ht#8 Stoc1port Se##ion#8E +&o dea(er# fined one #hi((in*, one of them ha in* #e en (i*ht &ei*ht# and a fa(#e #ca(e, and both ha in* been &arned8 *uardian, Lune 19, =ochda(e Se##ion#8E ?ne dea(er fined fi e, and t&o farmer# ten #hi((in*#8 *uardian, Lune 66, Manche#ter Lu#tice# of the Peace8E /ineteen dea(er# fined t&o #hi((in*# and #ixpence to t&o pound#8 *uardian, Lune 66, 9#hton Se##ion#8E 'ourteen dea(er# and farmer# fined t&o #hi((in*# and #ixpence to one pound8 5!de Pett! Se##ion#8E /ine farmer# and dea(er# condemned to pa! co#t# and fi e #hi((in*# fine#8 *uardian, Lu(! 6, Manche#ter8E Sixteen dea(er# condemned to pa! co#t# and fine# not exceedin* ten #hi((in*#8 *uardian, Lu(! 1>, Manche#ter8E /ine dea(er# fined from t&o #hi((in*# and #ixpence to t&ent! #hi((in*#8 *uardian, Lu(! 64, =ochda(e8E 'our dea(er# fined ten to t&ent! #hi((in*#8 *uardian, Lu(! 6., <o(ton8E +&e( e dea(er# and inn1eeper# condemned to

pa!

co#t#8

*uardian, 9u*u#t >, <o(ton8E +hree dea(er# fined t&o #hi((in*# and #ixpence, and fi e #hi((in*#8 *uardian, 9u*u#t 17, <o(ton8E ?ne dea(er fined fi e #hi((in*#8 9nd the #ame cau#e# &hich ma1e the &or1in*$c(a## the chief #ufferer# from fraud# in the Bua(it! of *ood# ma1e them the u#ua( ictim# of fraud# in the Bue#tion of Buantit! too8 +he habitua( food of the indi idua( &or1in*$man natura((! arie# accordin* to hi# &a*e#8 +he better$paid &or1er#, e#pecia((! tho#e in &ho#e fami(ie# e er! member i# ab(e to earn #omethin*, ha e *ood food a# (on* a# thi# #tate of thin*# (a#t#; meat dai(! and bacon and chee#e for #upper8 Where &a*e# are (e##, meat i# u#ed on(! t&o or three time# a &ee1, and the proportion of bread and potatoe# increa#e#8 4e#cendin* *radua((!, &e find the anima( food reduced to a #ma(( piece of bacon cut up &ith the potatoe#; (o&er #ti((, e en thi# di#appear#, and there remain on(! bread, chee#e, porrid*e, and potatoe#, unti( on the (o&e#t round of the (adder, amon* the "ri#h, potatoe# form the #o(e food, 9# an accompaniment, &ea1 tea, &ith perhap# a (itt(e #u*ar, mi(1, or #pirit#, i# uni er#a((! drun18 +ea i# re*arded in En*(and, and e en in "re(and, a# Buite a# indi#pen#ab(e a# coffee in :erman!, and &here no tea i# u#ed, the bittere#t po ert! rei*n#8 <ut a(( thi# pre#uppo#e# that the &or1man ha# &or18 When he ha# none, he i# &ho((! at the merc! of accident, and eat# &hat i# *i en him, &hat he can be* or #tea(8 9nd, if he *et# nothin*, he #imp(! #tar e#, a# &e ha e #een8 +he Buantit! of food arie#, of cour#e, (i1e it# Bua(it!, accordin* to the rate of &a*e#, #o that amon* i(($paid &or1er#, e en if the! ha e no (ar*e fami(ie#, hun*er pre ai(# in #pite of fu(( and re*u(ar &or1; and the number of the i(($paid i# er! (ar*e8 E#pecia((! in %ondon, &here the competition of the &or1er# ri#e# &ith the increa#e of popu(ation, thi# c(a## i# er! numerou#, but it i# to be found in other to&n# a# &e((8 "n the#e ca#e# a(( #ort# of de ice# are u#ed; potato parin*#, e*etab(e refu#e, and rotten e*etab(e# 68 are eaten for &ant of other food, and e er!thin* *reedi(! *athered up &hich ma! po##ib(! contain an atom of nouri#hment8 9nd, if the &ee1N# &a*e# are u#ed up before the end of the &ee1, it often enou*h happen# that in the c(o#in* da!# the fami(! *et# on(! a# much food, if an!, a# i# bare(! #ufficient to 1eep off #tar ation8 ?f cour#e #uch a &a! of (i in* una oidab(! en*ender# a mu(titude of di#ea#e#, and &hen the#e appear, &hen the father from &ho#e &or1 the fami(! i# chief(! #upported, &ho#e ph!#ica( exertion mo#t demand# nouri#hment, and &ho therefore fir#t #uccumb# E &hen the father i# utter(! di#ab(ed, then mi#er! reache# it# hei*ht, and then the bruta(it! &ith &hich #ociet! abandon# it# member#, Du#t &hen their need i# *reate#t, come# out fu((! into the (i*ht of da!8 +o #um up brief(! the fact# thu# far cited8 +he *reat to&n# are chief(! inhabited b! &or1in*$ peop(e, #ince in the be#t ca#e there i# one bour*eoi# for t&o &or1er#, often for three, here and there for four; the#e &or1er# ha e no propert! &hat#oe er of their o&n, and (i e &ho((! upon &a*e#, &hich u#ua((! *o from hand to mouth8 Societ!, compo#ed &ho((! of atom#, doe# not troub(e it#e(f about them; (ea e# them to care for them#e( e# and their fami(ie#, !et #upp(ie# them no mean# of doin* thi# in an efficient and permanent manner8 E er! &or1in*$man, e en the be#t, i# therefore con#tant(! expo#ed to (o## of &or1 and food, that i# to death b! #tar ation, and man! peri#h in thi# &a!8 +he d&e((in*# of the &or1er# are e er!&here bad(! p(anned, bad(! bui(t, and 1ept in the &or#t condition, bad(! enti(ated, damp, and un&ho(e#ome8 +he inhabitant# are confined to the #ma((e#t po##ib(e #pace, and at (ea#t one fami(! u#ua((! #(eep# in each room8 +he interior arran*ement of the d&e((in*# i# po ert!$#tric1en in ariou# de*ree#, do&n to the utter ab#ence of e en the mo#t nece##ar! furniture8 +he c(othin* of the &or1er#, too, i# *enera((!

#cant!, and that of *reat mu(titude# i# in ra*#8 +he food i#, in *enera(, bad; often a(mo#t unfit for u#e, and in man! ca#e#, at (ea#t at time#, in#ufficient in Buantit!, #o that, in extreme ca#e#, death b! #tar ation re#u(t#8 +hu# the &or1in*$c(a## of the *reat citie# offer# a *raduated #ca(e of condition# in (ife, in the be#t ca#e# a temporari(! endurab(e exi#tence for hard &or1 and *ood &a*e#, *ood and endurab(e, that i#, from the &or1erN# #tandpoint; in the &or#t ca#e#, bitter &ant, reachin* e en home(e##ne## and death b! #tar ation8 +he a era*e i# much nearer the &or#t ca#e than the be#t8 9nd thi# #erie# doe# not fa(( into fixed c(a##e#, #o that one can #a!, thi# fraction of the &or1in*$c(a## i# &e(( off, ha# a(&a!# been #o, and remain# #o8 "f that i# the ca#e here and there, if #in*(e branche# of &or1 ha e in *enera( an ad anta*e o er other#, !et the condition of the &or1er# in each branch i# #ubDect to #uch *reat f(uctuation# that a #in*(e &or1in*$man ma! be #o p(aced a# to pa## throu*h the &ho(e ran*e from comparati e comfort to the extreme#t need, e en to death b! #tar ation, &hi(e a(mo#t e er! En*(i#h &or1in*$man can te(( a ta(e of mar1ed chan*e# of fortune8 %et u# examine the cau#e# of thi# #ome&hat more c(o#e(!8

$om)etition
We ha e #een in the introduction ho& competition created the pro(etariat at the er! be*innin* of the indu#tria( mo ement b! increa#in* the &a*e# of &ea er# in con#eBuence of the increa#ed demand for &o en *ood#, #o inducin* the &ea in* pea#ant# to abandon their farm# and earn more mone! b! de otin* them#e( e# to their (oom#8 We ha e #een ho& it cro&ded out the #ma(( farmer# b! mean# of the (ar*e farm #!#tem, reduced them to the ran1 of pro(etarian#, and attracted them in part into the to&n#; ho& it further ruined the #ma(( bour*eoi#ie in *reat mea#ure and reduced it# member# a(#o to the ran1# of the pro(etariat; ho& it centra(i#ed capita( in the hand# of the fe&, and popu(ation in the *reat to&n#8 Such are the ariou# &a!# and mean# b! &hich competition, a# it reached it# fu(( manife#tation and free de e(opment in modern indu#tr!, created and extended the pro(etariat8 We #ha(( no& ha e to ob#er e it# inf(uence on the &or1in*$c(a## a(read! created8 9nd here &e mu#t be*in b! tracin* the re#u(t# of competition of #in*(e &or1er# &ith one another8 ;ompetition i# the comp(ete#t expre##ion of the batt(e of a(( a*ain#t a(( &hich ru(e# in modern ci i( #ociet!8 +hi# batt(e, a batt(e for (ife, for exi#tence, for e er!thin*, in ca#e of need a batt(e of (ife and death, i# fou*ht not bet&een the different c(a##e# of #ociet! on(!, but a(#o bet&een the indi idua( member# of the#e c(a##e#8 Each i# in the &a! of the other, and each #ee1# to cro&d out a(( &ho are in hi# &a!, and to put him#e(f in their p(ace8 +he &or1er# are in con#tant competition amon* them#e( e# a# are the member# of the bour*eoi#ie amon* them#e( e#8 +he po&er$(oom &ea er i# in competition &ith the hand$(oom &ea er, the unemp(o!ed or i(($paid hand$(oom &ea er &ith him &ho ha# &or1 or i# better paid, each tr!in* to #upp(ant the other8 <ut thi# competition of the &or1er# amon* them#e( e# i# the &or#t #ide of the pre#ent #tate of thin*# in it# effect upon the &or1er, the #harpe#t &eapon a*ain#t the pro(etariat in the hand# of the bour*eoi#ie8 5ence the effort of the &or1er# to nu((if! thi# competition b! a##ociation#, hence the hatred of the bour*eoi#ie to&ard# the#e a##ociation#, and it# triumph in e er! defeat &hich befa((# them8 +he pro(etarian i# he(p(e##; (eft to him#e(f, he cannot (i e a #in*(e da!8 +he bour*eoi#ie ha# *ained a monopo(! of a(( mean# of exi#tence in the broade#t #en#e of the &ord8 What the pro(etarian need#, he can obtain on(! from thi# bour*eoi#ie, &hich i# protected in it# monopo(! b! the po&er of the #tate8 +he pro(etarian i#, therefore, in (a& and in fact, the #(a e of the bour*eoi#ie, &hich can decree hi# (ife or death8 "t offer# him the mean# of (i in*, but on(! for anCeBui a(entT, for hi# &or18 "t e en (et# him ha e the appearance of actin* from a free choice, of ma1in* a contract &ith free, uncon#trained con#ent, a# a re#pon#ib(e a*ent &ho ha# attained hi# maDorit!8 'ine freedom, &here the pro(etarian ha# no other choice than that of either acceptin* the condition# &hich the bour*eoi#ie offer# him, or of #tar in*, of free)in* to death, of #(eepin* na1ed amon* the bea#t# of the fore#t#@ 9 fineCeBui a(entT a(ued at p(ea#ure b! the bour*eoi#ie@ 9nd if one pro(etarian i# #uch a foo( a# to #tar e rather than a*ree to theCeBuitab(eT propo#ition# of the bour*eoi#ie, hi#Cnatura( #uperior#T, 69 another i# ea#i(! found in hi# p(ace; there are pro(etarian# enou*h in the &or(d, and not a(( #o in#ane a# to prefer d!in* to (i in*8 5ere &e ha e the competition of the &or1er# amon* them#e( e#8 "f a(( the pro(etarian# announced their determination to #tar e rather than &or1 for the bour*eoi#ie, the (atter &ou(d ha e to #urrender it# monopo(!8 <ut thi# i# not the ca#e E i#, indeed, a rather impo##ib(e ca#e E #o that the bour*eoi#ie #ti(( thri e#8 +o thi# competition of the &or1er# there i# but one (imit; no &or1er &i(( &or1 for (e## than he need# to #ub#i#t8 "f he mu#t #tar e, he &i(( prefer to #tar e in id(ene## rather

than in toi(8 +rue, thi# (imit i# re(ati e; one need# more than another, one i# accu#tomed to more comfort than another; the En*(i#hman, &ho i# #ti(( #ome&hat ci i(i#ed, need# more than the "ri#hman, &ho *oe# in ra*#, eat# potatoe#, and #(eep# in a pi*$#t!8 <ut that doe# not hinder the "ri#hmanN# competin* &ith the En*(i#hman, and *radua((! forcin* the rate of &a*e#, and &ith it the En*(i#hmanN# (e e( of ci i(i#ation, do&n to the "ri#hmanN# (e e(8 ;ertain 1ind# of &or1 reBuire a certain *rade of ci i(i#ation, and to the#e be(on* a(mo#t a(( form# of indu#tria( occupation; hence the intere#t of the bour*eoi#ie reBuire# in thi# ca#e that &a*e# #hou(d be hi*h enou*h to enab(e the &or1man to 1eep him#e(f upon the reBuired p(ane8 +he ne&(! immi*rated "ri#hman, encamped in the fir#t #tab(e that offer#, or turned out in the #treet after a &ee1 becau#e he #pend# e er!thin* upon drin1 and cannot pa! rent, &ou(d be a poor mi(($hand8 +he mi(($hand mu#t, therefore, ha e &a*e# enou*h to enab(e him to brin* up hi# chi(dren to re*u(ar &or1; but no more, (e#t he #hou(d be ab(e to *et on &ithout the &a*e# of hi# chi(dren, and #o ma1e #omethin* e(#e of them than mere &or1in*$men8 5ere, too, the (imit, the minimum &a*e, i# re(ati e8 When e er! member of the fami(! &or1#, the indi idua( &or1er can *et on &ith proportionate(! (e##, and the bour*eoi#ie ha# made the mo#t of the opportunit! of emp(o!in* and ma1in* profitab(e the (abour of &omen and chi(dren afforded b! machine$&or18 ?f cour#e it i# not in e er! fami(! that e er! member can be #et to &or1, and tho#e in &hich the ca#e i# other&i#e &ou(d be in a bad &a! if ob(i*ed to exi#t upon the minimum &a*e po##ib(e to a &ho((! emp(o!ed fami(!8 5ence the u#ua( &a*e# form an a era*e accordin* to &hich a fu((! emp(o!ed fami(! *et# on prett! &e((, and one &hich embrace# fe& member# ab(e to &or1, prett! bad(!8 <ut in the &or#t ca#e, e er! &or1in*$man prefer# #urrenderin* the trif(in* (uxur! to &hich he &a# accu#tomed to not (i in* at a((; prefer# a pi*$pen to no roof, &ear# ra*# in preference to *oin* na1ed, confine# him#e(f to a potato diet in preference to #tar ation8 5e content# him#e(f &ith ha(f$pa! and the hope of better time# rather than be dri en into the #treet to peri#h before the e!e# of the &or(d, a# #o man! ha e done &ho had no &or1 &hate er8 +hi# trif(e, therefore, thi# #omethin* more than nothin*, i# the minimum of &a*e#8 9nd if there are more &or1er# at hand than the bour*eoi#ie thin1# &e(( to emp(o! E if at the end of the batt(e of competition there !et remain &or1er# &ho find nothin* to do, the! mu#t #imp(! #tar e; for the bour*eoi# &i(( hard(! *i e them &or1 if he cannot #e(( the produce of their (abour at a profit8 'rom thi# it i# e ident &hat the minimum of &a*e# i#8 +he maximum i# determined b! the competition of the bour*eoi#ie amon* them#e( e#; for &e ha e #een ho& the!, too, mu#t compete &ith each other8 +he bour*eoi# can increa#e hi# capita( on(! in commerce and manufacture, and in both ca#e# he need# &or1er#8 E en if he in e#t# hi# capita( at intere#t, he need# them indirect(!; for &ithout commerce and manufacture, no one &ou(d pa! him intere#t upon hi# capita(, no one cou(d u#e it8 So the bour*eoi# certain(! need# &or1er#, not indeed for hi# immediate (i in*, for at need he cou(d con#ume hi# capita(, but a# &e need an artic(e of trade or a bea#t of burden E a# a mean# of profit8 +he pro(etarian produce# the *ood# &hich the bour*eoi# #e((# &ith ad anta*e8 When, therefore, the demand for the#e *ood# increa#e# #o that a(( the competin* &or1in*$men are emp(o!ed, and a fe& more mi*ht perhap# be u#efu(, the competition amon* the &or1er# fa((# a&a!, and the bour*eoi#ie be*in to compete amon* them#e( e#8 +he capita(i#t in #earch of &or1men 1no&# er! &e(( that hi# profit# increa#e a# price# ri#e in con#eBuence of the increa#ed demand for hi# *ood#, and pa!# a trif(e hi*her &a*e# rather than (et the &ho(e profit e#cape him8 5e #end# the butter to fetch the chee#e, and *ettin* the (atter, (ea e# the butter un*rud*in*(! to the &or1er#8 So one capita(i#t after another *oe# in cha#e of &or1er#, and &a*e# ri#e; but on(! a# hi*h a# the increa#in* demand permit#8 "f the capita(i#t, &ho &i((in*(! #acrificed a part of hi# extraordinar! profit, run# into dan*er of #acrificin* an! part of hi# ordinar! a era*e profit, he ta1e# er! *ood care not to pa! more than a era*e &a*e#8 'rom thi# &e can determine the a era*e rate of &a*e#8 Fnder a era*e circum#tance#, &hen neither &or1er# nor capita(i#t# ha e rea#on to compete, e#pecia((! amon* them#e( e#, &hen there

are Du#t a# man! &or1er# at hand a# can be emp(o!ed in producin* preci#e(! the *ood# that are demanded, &a*e# #tand a (itt(e abo e the minimum8 5o& far the! ri#e abo e the minimum &i(( depend upon the a era*e need# and the *rade of ci i(i#ation of the &or1er#8 "f the &or1er# are accu#tomed to eat meat #e era( time# in the &ee1, the capita(i#t# mu#t reconci(e them#e( e# to pa!in* &a*e# enou*h to ma1e thi# food attainab(e; not (e##, becau#e the &or1er# are not competin* amon* them#e( e# and ha e no occa#ion to content them#e( e# &ith (e##; not more, becau#e the capita(i#t#, in the ab#ence of competition amon* them#e( e#, ha e no occa#ion to attract &or1in*$men b! extraordinar! fa our#8 +hi# #tandard of the a era*e need# and the a era*e ci i(i#ation of the &or1er# ha# become er! comp(icated b! rea#on of the comp(ication# of En*(i#h indu#tr!, and i# different for different #ort# of &or1er#, a# ha# been pointed out8 Mo#t indu#tria( occupation# demand a certain #1i(( and re*u(arit!, and for the#e Bua(itie#, &hich in o( e a certain *rade of ci i(i#ation, the rate of &a*e# mu#t be #uch a# to induce the &or1er to acBuire #uch #1i(( and #ubDect him#e(f to #uch re*u(arit!8 5ence it i# that the a era*e &a*e# of indu#tria( &or1er# are hi*her than tho#e of mere porter#, da!$(abourer#, etc8, hi*her e#pecia((! than tho#e of a*ricu(tura( (abourer#, a fact to &hich the additiona( co#t of the nece##itie# of (ife in citie# contribute# #ome&hat8 "n other &ord#, the &or1er i#, in (a& and in fact, the #(a e of the propert!$ho(din* c(a##, #o effectua((! a #(a e that he i# #o(d (i1e a piece of *ood#, ri#e# and fa((# in a(ue (i1e a commodit!8 "f the demand for &or1er# increa#e#, the price of &or1er# ri#e#; if it fa((#, their price fa((#8 "f it fa((# #o *reat(! that a number of them become un#a(eab(e, if the! are (eft in #toc1, the! are #imp(! (eft id(e; and a# the! cannot (i e upon that, the! die of #tar ation8 'or, to #pea1 in the &ord# of the economi#t#, the expen#e incurred in maintainin* them &ou(d not be reproduced, &ou(d be mone! thro&n a&a!, and to thi# end no man ad ance# capita(; and, #o far, Ma(thu# &a# perfect(! ri*ht in hi# theor! of popu(ation8 +he on(! difference a# compared &ith the o(d, out#po1en #(a er! i# thi#, that the &or1er of toda! #eem# to he free becau#e he i# not #o(d once for a((, but piecemea( b! the da!, the &ee1, the !ear, and becau#e no one o&ner #e((# him to another, but he i# forced to #e(( him#e(f in thi# &a! in#tead, bein* the #(a e of no particu(ar per#on, but of the &ho(e propert!$ ho(din* c(a##8 'or him the matter i# unchan*ed at bottom, and if thi# #emb(ance of (ibert! nece##ari(! *i e# him #ome rea( freedom on the one hand, it entai(# on the other the di#ad anta*e that no one *uarantee# him a #ub#i#tence, he i# in dan*er of bein* repudiated at an! moment b! hi# ma#ter, the bour*eoi#ie, and (eft to die of #tar ation, if the bour*eoi#ie cea#e# to ha e an intere#t in hi# emp(o!ment, hi# exi#tence8 +he bour*eoi#ie, on the other hand, i# far better off under the pre#ent arran*ement than unco er the o(d #(a e #!#tem; it can di#mi## it# emp(o!ee# at di#cretion &ithout #acrificin* in e#ted capita(, and *et# it# &or1 done much more cheap(! than i# po##ib(e &ith #(a e (abour, a# 9dam Smith comfortin*(! pointed out8>7 5ence it fo((o&#, too, that 9dam Smith &a# perfect(! ri*ht in ma1in* the a##ertion: T+hat the demand for men, (i1e that for an! other the commodit!, production nece##ari(! of men, re*u(ate#

Buic1en# it &hen it *oe# on too #(o&(!, and #top# it &hen it ad ance# too fa#t8T %ust as in the case of any other commodity4 "f there are too fe& (abourer# on hand, price#, i8e8, &a*e#, ri#e, the &or1er# are more pro#perou#, marria*e# mu(tip(!, more chi(dren are born and more (i e to *ro& up, unti( a #ufficient number of (abourer# ha# been #ecured8 "f there are too man! on hand, price# fa((, &ant of &or1, po ert!, and #tar ation, and con#eBuent di#ea#e# ari#e, and theC#urp(u# popu(ationT i# put out of the &a!8 9nd Ma(thu#, &ho carried the fore*oin*

propo#ition of Smith farther, &a# a(#o ri*ht, in hi# &a!, in a##ertin* that there i# a(&a!# aC#urp(u# popu(ationT; that there are a(&a!# too man! peop(e in the &or(d; he i# &ron* on(! &hen he a##ert# that there are more peop(e on hand than can be maintained from the a ai(ab(e mean# of #ub#i#tence8 Surp(u# popu(ation i# en*endered rather b! the competition of the &or1er# amon* them#e( e#, &hich force# each #eparate &or1er to (abour a# much each da! a# hi# #tren*th can po##ib(! admit8 "f a manufacturer can emp(o! ten hand# nine hour# dai(!, he can emp(o! nine if each &or1# ten hour#, and the tenth *oe# hun*r!8 9nd if a manufacturer can force the nine hand# to &or1 an extra hour dai(! for the #ame &a*e# b! threatenin* to di#char*e them at a time &hen the demand for hand# i# not er! *reat, he di#char*e# the tenth and #a e# #o much &a*e#8 +hi# i# the proce## on a #ma(( #ca(e, &hich *oe# on in a nation on a (ar*e one8 +he producti ene## of each hand rai#ed to the hi*he#t pitch b! the competition of the &or1er# amon* them#e( e#, the di i#ion of (abour, the introduction of machiner!, the #ubDu*ation of the force# of /ature, depri e a mu(titude of &or1er# of bread8 +he#e #tar in* &or1er# are then remo ed from the mar1et, the! can bu! nothin*, and the Buantit! of artic(e# of con#umption pre iou#(! reBuired b! them i# no (on*er in demand, need no (on*er be produced; the &or1er# pre iou#(! emp(o!ed in producin* them are therefore dri en out of &or1, and are a(#o remo ed from the mar1et, and #o it *oe# on, a(&a!# the #ame o(d round, or rather, #o it &ou(d *o if other circum#tance# did not inter ene8 +he introduction of the indu#tria( force# a(read! referred to for increa#in* production (ead#, in the cour#e of time, to a reduction of price# of the artic(e# produced and to con#eBuent increa#ed con#umption, #o that a (ar*e part of the di#p(aced &or1er# fina((!, after (on* #ufferin*, find &or1 a*ain8 "f, in addition to thi#, the conBue#t of forei*n mar1et# con#tant(! and rapid(! increa#e# the demand for manufactured *ood#, a# ha# been the ca#e in En*(and durin* the pa#t #ixt! !ear#, the demand for hand# increa#e#, and, in proportion to it, the popu(ation8 +hu#, in#tead of dimini#hin*, the popu(ation of the <riti#h Empire ha# increa#ed &ith extraordinar! rapidit!, and i# #ti(( increa#in*8 0et, in #pite of the exten#ion of indu#tr!, in #pite of the demand for &or1in*$men &hich, in *enera(, ha# increa#ed, there i#, accordin* to the confe##ion of a(( the officia( po(itica( partie# ,+or!, Whi*, and =adica(-, permanent #urp(u#, #uperf(uou# popu(ation; the competition amon* the &or1er# i# con#tant(! *reater than the competition to #ecure &or1er#8 Whence come# thi# incon*ruit!K "t (ie# in the nature of indu#tria( competition and the commercia( cri#e# &hich ari#e from it8 "n the pre#ent unre*u(ated production and di#tribution of the mean# of #ub#i#tence, &hich i# carried on not direct(! for the #a1e of #upp(!in* need#, but for profit, in the #!#tem under &hich e er! one &or1# for him#e(f to enrich him#e(f, di#turbance# ine itab(! ari#e at e er! moment8 'or examp(e, En*(and #upp(ie# a number of countrie# &ith mo#t di er#e *ood#8 /o&, a(thou*h the manufacturer ma! 1no& ho& much of each artic(e i# con#umed in each countr! annua((!, he cannot 1no& ho& much i# on hand at e er! *i en moment, much (e## can he 1no& ho& much hi# competitor# export thither8 5e can on(! dra& mo#t uncertain inference# from the perpetua( f(uctuation# in price#, a# to the Buantitie# on hand and the need# of the moment8 5e mu#t tru#t to (uc1 in exportin* hi# *ood#8 E er!thin* i# done b(ind(!, a# *ue##$&or1, more or (e## at the merc! of accident8 Fpon the #(i*hte#t fa ourab(e report each one export# &hat he can, and before (on* #uch a mar1et i# *(utted, #a(e# #top, capita( remain# inacti e, price# fa((, and En*(i#h manufacture ha# no further emp(o!ment for it# hand#8 "n the be*innin* of the de e(opment of manufacture, the#e chec1# &ere (imited to #in*(e branche# and #in*(e mar1et#; but the centra(i)in* tendenc! of competition, &hich dri e# the hand# thro&n out of one branch into #uch other branche# a# are mo#t ea#i(! acce##ib(e and tran#fer# the *ood# &hich cannot be di#po#ed of in one mar1et to other mar1et#, ha# *radua((! brou*ht the #in*(e minor cri#e# nearer to*ether and united them into one periodica((! recurrin* cri#i#8 Such a cri#i# u#ua((! recur# once in fi e !ear# after a brief period of acti it! and *enera( pro#perit!; the home mar1et, (i1e a(( forei*n one#, i# *(utted &ith En*(i#h *ood#, &hich it can on(! #(o&(! ab#orb, the indu#tria( mo ement come# to a #tand#ti(( in a(mo#t e er! branch, the #ma(( manufacturer# and merchant# &ho cannot #ur i e a

pro(on*ed inacti it! of their in e#ted capita( fai(, the (ar*er one# #u#pend bu#ine## durin* the &or#t #ea#on, c(o#e their mi((# or &or1 #hort time, perhap# ha(f the da!; &a*e# fa(( b! rea#on of the competition of the unemp(o!ed, the diminution of &or1in*$time and the (ac1 of profitab(e #a(e#; &ant become# uni er#a( amon* the &or1er#, the #ma(( #a in*#, &hich indi idua(# ma! ha e made, are rapid(! con#umed, the phi(anthropic in#titution# are o erburdened, the poor$rate# are doub(ed, treb(ed, and #ti(( in#ufficient, the number of the #tar in* increa#e#, and the &ho(e mu(titude ofC#urp(u#T popu(ation pre##e# in terrific number# into the fore*round8 +hi# continue# for a time; theC#urp(u#T exi#t a# be#t the! ma!, or peri#h; phi(anthrop! and the Poor %a& he(p man! of them to a painfu( pro(on*ation of their exi#tence8 ?ther# find #cant mean# of #ub#i#tence here and there in #uch 1ind# of &or1 a# ha e been (ea#t open to competition, are mo#t remote from manufacture8 9nd &ith ho& (itt(e can a human bein* 1eep bod! and #ou( to*ether for a time@ :radua((! the #tate of thin*# impro e#; the accumu(ation# of *ood# are con#umed, the *enera( depre##ion amon* the men of commerce and manufacture pre ent# a too ha#t! rep(eni#hin* of the mar1et#, and at (a#t ri#in* price# and fa ourab(e report# from a(( direction# re#tore acti it!8 Mo#t of the mar1et# are di#tant one#; demand increa#e# and price# ri#e con#tant(! &hi(e the fir#t export# are arri in*; peop(e #tru**(e for the fir#t *ood#, the fir#t #a(e# en(i en trade #ti(( more, the pro#pecti e one# promi#e #ti(( hi*her price#; expectin* a further ri#e, merchant# be*in to bu! upon #pecu(ation, and #o to &ithdra& from con#umption the artic(e# intended for it, Du#t &hen the! are mo#t needed8 Specu(ation force# price# #ti(( hi*her, b! in#pirin* other# to purcha#e, and appropriatin* ne& importation# at once8 9(( thi# i# reported to En*(and, manufacturer# be*in to produce &ith a &i((, ne& mi((# are bui(t, e er! mean# i# emp(o!ed to ma1e the mo#t of the fa ourab(e moment8 Specu(ation ari#e# here, too, exertin* the #ame inf(uence a# upon forei*n mar1et#, rai#in* price#, &ithdra&in* *ood# from con#umption, #purrin* manufacture in both &a!# to the hi*he#t pitch of effort8 +hen come the darin* #pecu(ator# &or1in* &ith fictitiou# capita(, (i in* upon credit, ruined if the! cannot #peedi(! #e((; the! hur( them#e( e# into thi# uni er#a(, di#order(! race for profit#, mu(tip(! the di#order and ha#te b! their unbrid(ed pa##ion, &hich dri e# price# and production to madne##8 "t i# a frantic #tru**(e, &hich carrie# a&a! e en the mo#t experienced and ph(e*matic; *ood# are #pun, &o en, hammered, a# if a(( man1ind &ere to be ne&(! eBuipped, a# thou*h t&o thou#and mi((ion ne& con#umer# had been di#co ered in the moon8 9(( at once the #ha1! #pecu(ator# abroad, &ho mu#t ha e mone!, be*in to #e((, be(o& mar1et price, of cour#e, for their need i# ur*ent; one #a(e i# fo((o&ed b! other#, price# f(uctuate, #pecu(ator# thro& their *ood# upon the mar1et in terror, the mar1et i# di#ordered, credit #ha1en, one hou#e after another #top# pa!ment#, ban1ruptc! fo((o&# ban1ruptc!, and the di#co er! i# made that three time# more *ood# are on hand or under &a! than can be con#umed8 +he ne&# reache# En*(and, &here production ha# been *oin* on at fu(( #peed mean&hi(e, panic #ei)e# a(( hand#, fai(ure# abroad cau#e other# in En*(and, the panic cru#he# a number of firm#, a(( re#er e# are thro&n upon the mar1et here, too, in the moment of anxiet!, and the a(arm i# #ti(( further exa**erated8 +hi# i# the be*innin* of the cri#i#, &hich then ta1e# preci#e(! the #ame cour#e a# it# predece##or, and *i e# p(ace in turn to a #ea#on of pro#perit!8 So it *oe# on perpetua((!,E pro#perit!, cri#i#, pro#perit!, cri#i#, and thi# perennia( round in &hich En*(i#h indu#tr! mo e# i#, a# ha# been before ob#er ed, u#ua((! comp(eted once in fi e or #ix !ear#8 'rom thi# it i# c(ear that En*(i#h manufacture mu#t ha e, at a(( time# #a e the brief period# of hi*he#t pro#perit!, an unemp(o!ed re#er e arm! of &or1er#, in order to be ab(e to produce the ma##e# of *ood# reBuired b! the mar1et in the (i e(ie#t month#8 +hi# re#er e arm! i# (ar*er or #ma((er, accordin* a# the #tate of the mar1et occa#ion# the emp(o!ment of a (ar*er or #ma((er proportion of it# member#8 9nd if at the moment of hi*he#t acti it! of the mar1et the a*ricu(tura( di#trict# and the branche# (ea#t affected b! the *enera( pro#perit! temporari(! #upp(! to manufacture a number of &or1er#, the#e are a mere minorit!, and the#e too be(on* to the re#er e arm!, &ith the #in*(e difference that the pro#perit! of the moment &a# reBuired to re ea( their

connection &ith it8 When the! enter upon the more acti e branche# of &or1, their former emp(o!er# dra& in #ome&hat, in order to fee( the (o## (e##, &or1 (on*er hour#, emp(o! &omen and !oun*er &or1er#, and &hen the &anderer# di#char*ed at the be*innin* of the cri#i# return, the! find their p(ace# fi((ed and them#e( e# #uperf(uou# E at (ea#t in the maDorit! of ca#e#8 +hi# re#er e arm!, &hich embrace# an immen#e mu(titude durin* the cri#i# and a (ar*e number durin* the period &hich ma! be re*arded a# the a era*e bet&een the hi*he#t pro#perit! and the cri#i#, i# theC#urp(u# popu(ationT of En*(and, &hich 1eep# bod! and #ou( to*ether b! be**in*, #tea(in*, #treet$#&eepin*, co((ectin* manure, pu#hin* hand$cart#, dri in* don1e!#, pedd(in*, or performin* occa#iona( #ma(( Dob#8 "n e er! *reat to&n a mu(titude of #uch peop(e ma! be found8 "t i# a#toni#hin* in &hat de ice# thi#C#urp(u# popu(ationT ta1e# refu*e8 +he %ondon cro##in*$#&eeper# are 1no&n a(( o er the &or(d; but hitherto the principa( #treet# in a(( the *reat citie#, a# &e(( a# the cro##in*#, ha e been #&ept b! peop(e out of other &or1, and emp(o!ed b! the Poor %a& *uardian# or the municipa( authoritie# for the purpo#e8 /o&, ho&e er, a machine ha# been in ented &hich ratt(e# throu*h the #treet# dai(!, and ha# #poi(ed thi# #ource of income for the unemp(o!ed8 9(on* the *reat hi*h&a!# (eadin* into the citie#, on &hich there i# a *reat dea( of &a*on traffic, a (ar*e number of peop(e ma! be #een &ith #ma(( cart#, *atherin* fre#h hor#e$dun* at the ri#1 of their (i e# amon* the pa##in* coache# and omnibu#e# often pa!in* a coup(e of #hi((in*# a &ee1 to the authoritie# for the pri i(e*e8 <ut thi# occupation i# forbidden in man! p(ace#, becau#e the ordinar! #treet$#&eepin*# thu# impo eri#hed cannot be #o(d a# manure8 5app! are #uch of theC#urp(u#T a# can obtain a pu#h$cart and *o about &ith it8 5appier #ti(( tho#e to &hom it i# ouch#afed to po##e## an a## in addition to the cart8 +he a## mu#t *et hi# o&n food or i# *i en a (itt(e *athered refu#e, and can !et brin* in a trif(e of mone!8 Mo#t of theC#urp(u#T beta1e them#e( e# to huc1#terin*8 ?n Saturda! afternoon#, e#pecia((!, &hen the &ho(e &or1in* popu(ation i# on the #treet#, the cro&d &ho (i e from huc1#terin* and pedd(in* ma! be #een8 Shoe and cor#et (ace#, brace#, t&ine, ca1e#, oran*e#, e er! 1ind of #ma(( artic(e# are offered b! men, &omen, and chi(dren; and at other time# a(#o, #uch pedd(er# are a(&a!# to be #een #tandin* at the #treet corner#, or *oin* about &ith ca1e# and *in*er$beer or nett(e$beer8 >1 Matche# and #uch thin*#, #ea(in*$&ax, and patent mixture# for (i*htin* fire# are further re#ource# of #uch endor#8 ?ther#, #o$ca((ed Dobber#, *o about the #treet# #ee1in* #ma(( Dob#8 Man! of the#e #ucceed in *ettin* a da!N# &or1, man! are not #o fortunate8 T9t the *ate# of each of the Q%ondonR doc1#,T #a!# the =e 8 W8 ;hampne!#, preacher of the Ea#t End,Chundred# of poor men ma! be #een before da!brea1 &aitin* for the openin* of the *ate# in the hope of obtainin* a da!N# &or1; and &hen the !oun*e#t and mo#t ab(e$ bodied, and tho#e be#t 1no&n, ha e been en*a*ed, hundred# #ti(( ma! be #een returnin* to their de#titute fami(ie# &ith that #ic1ne## of heart &hich ari#e# from hope deferred8T When the#e peop(e find no &or1 and &i(( not rebe( a*ain#t #ociet!, &hat remain# for them but to be*K 9nd #ure(! no one can &onder at the *reat arm! of be**ar#, mo#t of them ab(e$bodied men,

&ith &hom the po(ice carrie# on perpetua( &ar8 <ut the be**ar! of the#e men ha# a pecu(iar character8 Such a man u#ua((! *oe# about &ith hi# fami(! #in*in* a p(eadin* #on* in the #treet# or appea(in*, in a #peech, to the bene o(ence of the pa##er#$b!8 9nd it i# a #tri1in* fact that the#e be**ar# are #een a(mo#t exc(u#i e(! in the &or1in*$peop(eN# di#trict#, that it i# a(mo#t exc(u#i e(! the *ift# of the poor from &hich the! (i e8 ?r the fami(! ta1e# up it# po#ition in a bu#! #treet, and &ithout utterin* a &ord, (et# the mere #i*ht of it# he(p(e##ne## p(ead for it8 "n thi# ca#e, too, the! rec1on upon the #!mpath! of the &or1er# a(one, &ho 1no& from experience ho& it fee(# to be hun*r!, and are (iab(e to find them#e( e# in the #ame #ituation at an! moment; for thi# dumb !et mo#t mo in* appea(, i# met &ith a(mo#t #o(e(! in #uch #treet# a# are freBuented b! &or1in*$men, and at #uch hour# a# &or1in* men pa## b!; but e#pecia((! on #ummer e enin*#, &hen theC#ecret#T of the &or1in*$peop(eN# Buarter# are *enera((! re ea(ed, and the midd(e$c(a## &ithdra&# a# far a# po##ib(e from the di#trict thu# po((uted8 9nd he amon* theC#urp(u#T &ho ha# coura*e and pa##ion enou*h open(! to re#i#t #ociet!, to rep(! &ith dec(ared &ar upon the bour*eoi#ie to the di#*ui#ed &ar &hich the bour*eoi#ie &a*e# upon him, *oe# forth to rob, p(under, murder, and burn@ ?f thi# #urp(u# popu(ation there are, accordin* to the report# a the Poor %a& commi##ioner#, on an a era*e, a mi((ion and a ha(f in En*(and and Wa(e#; in Scot(and the number cannot be a#certained for &ant of Poor %a& re*u(ation#, and &ith "re(and &e #ha(( dea( #eparate(!8 Moreo er, thi# mi((ion and a ha(f inc(ude# on(! tho#e &ho actua((! app(! to the pari#h for re(ief; the *reat mu(titude &ho #tru**(e on &ithout recour#e to thi# mo#t hated expedient, it doe# not embrace8 ?n the other hand, a *ood part of the number be(on*# to the a*ricu(tura( di#trict#, and doe# not enter into the pre#ent di#cu##ion8 4urin* 8a cri#i# thi# number natura((! increa#e# mar1ed(!, and &ant reache# it# hi*he#t pitch8 +a1e, for in#tance, the cri#i# of 1846, &hich, bein* the (ate#t, &a# the mo#t io(ent; for the inten#it! of the cri#i# increa#e# &ith each repetition, and the next, &hich ma! be expected not (ater than 184., &i(( probab(! be #ti(( more io(ent and (a#tin*8 4urin* thi# cri#i# the poor$rate# ro#e in e er! to&n to a hitherto un1no&n hei*ht8 "n Stoc1port, amon* other to&n#, for e er! pound paid in hou#e$rent, ei*ht #hi((in*# of poor$rate had to be paid, #o that the rate a(one formed fort! per cent of the hou#e$rent8 Moreo er &ho(e #treet# #tood acant, #o that there &ere at (ea#t t&ent! thou#and fe&er inhabitant# than u#ua(, and on the door# of the empt! hou#e# mi*ht be read:CStoc1port to (et8T "n <o(ton &here, in ordinar! !ear#, the rent# from &hich rate# are paid a era*e U86,777, the! #an1 to U>6,7778 +he number of the poor to be #upported ro#e, on the other hand, to 14,777, or more than t&ent! per cent of the &ho(e number of inhabitant#8 "n %eed#, the Poor %a& *uardian# had a re#er e fund of U17,7778 +hi#, &ith a contribution of U.,777, &a# &ho((! exhau#ted before the cri#i# reached it# hei*ht8 So it &a# e er!&here8 9 report dra&n up in Lanuar!, 1845, b! a committee of the 9nti$;orn %a& %ea*ue, on the condition of the indu#tria( di#trict# in 1846, &hich &a# ba#ed upon detai(ed #tatement# of the manufacturer#, a##ert# that the poor$rate &a#, ta1in* the a era*e, t&ice a# hi*h a# in 18>9, and that the number of per#on# reBuirin* re(ief ha# treb(ed, e en Buintup(ed, #ince that time; that a mu(titude of app(icant# be(on* to a c(a## &hich had ne er before #o(icited re(ief; that the &or1in*$ c(a## command# more than t&o$third# (e## of the mean# of #ub#i#tence than from 18>4$18>6; that the con#umption of meat had been decided(! (e##, in #ome p(ace# t&ent! per cent, in other# reachin* #ixt! per cent (e##; that e en handicraft#men, #mith#, bric1(a!er#, and other#, &ho u#ua((! ha e fu(( emp(o!ment in the mo#t depre##ed period#, no& #uffered *reat(! from &ant of &or1 and reduction of &a*e#; and that, e en no&, in Lanuar!, 1845, &a*e# are #ti(( #teadi(! fa((in*8 9nd the#e are the report# of manufacturer#@ +he #tar in* &or1men, &ho#e mi((# &ere id(e, &ho#e emp(o!er# cou(d *i e them no &or1, #tood in the #treet# in a(( direction#, be**ed #in*(! or in cro&d#, be#ie*ed the #ide&a(1# in armie#, and appea(ed to the pa##er#$b! for he(p; the! be**ed, not crin*in* (i1e ordinar! be**ar#, but threatenin* b! their number#, their *e#ture#, and their &ord#8 Such &a# the #tate of thin*# in a(( the indu#tria( di#trict#, from %eice#ter to %eed#, and from Manche#ter to <irmin*ham8 5ere and

there di#turbance# aro#e, a# in the Stafford#hire potterie#, in Lu(!8 +he mo#t fri*htfu( excitement pre ai(ed amon* the &or1er# unti( the *enera( in#urrection bro1e out throu*hout the manufacturin* di#trict# in 9u*u#t8 When " came to Manche#ter in /o ember, 1846, there &ere cro&d# of unemp(o!ed &or1in*$men at e er! #treet corner, and man! mi((# &ere #ti(( #tandin* id(e8 "n the fo((o&in* month# the#e un&i((in* corner (oafer# *radua((! ani#hed, and the factorie# came into acti it! once more8 +o &hat extent &ant and #ufferin* pre ai( amon* the#e unemp(o!ed durin* #uch a cri#i#, " need not de#cribe8 +he poor$rate# are in#ufficient, a#t(! in#ufficient; the phi(anthrop! of the rich i# a rain$drop in the ocean, (o#t in the moment of fa((in*, be**ar! can #upport but fe& amon* the cro&d#8 "f the #ma(( dea(er# did not #e(( to the &or1in*$peop(e on credit at #uch time# a# (on* a# po##ib(e E pa!in* them#e( e# (ibera((! after&ard#, it mu#t be confe##ed E and if the &or1in*$ peop(e did not he(p each other, e er! cri#i# &ou(d remo e a mu(titude of the #urp(u# throu*h death b! #tar ation8 Since, ho&e er, the mo#t depre##ed period i# brief, (a#tin*, at &or#t, but one, t&o, or t&o and a ha(f !ear#, mo#t of them emer*e from it &ith their (i e# after dire pri ation#8 <ut indirect(! b! di#ea#e, etc8, e er! cri#i# find# a mu(titude of ictim#, a# &e #ha(( #ee8 'ir#t, ho&e er, (et u# turn to another cau#e of aba#ement to &hich the En*(i#h &or1er i# expo#ed, a cau#e permanent(! acti e in forcin* the &ho(e c(a## do&n&ard#8

&rish &mmigration
We ha e a(read! referred #e era( time# in pa##in* to the "ri#h &ho ha e immi*rated into En*(and; and &e #ha(( no& ha e to in e#ti*ate more c(o#e(! the cau#e# and re#u(t# of thi# immi*ration8 +he rapid exten#ion of En*(i#h indu#tr! cou(d not ha e ta1en p(ace if En*(and had not po##e##ed in the numerou# and impo eri#hed popu(ation of "re(and a re#er e at command8 +he "ri#h had nothin* to (o#e at home, and much to *ain in En*(and; and from the time &hen it became 1no&n in "re(and that the ea#t #ide of St8 :eor*eN# ;hanne( offered #tead! &or1 and *ood pa! for #tron* arm#, e er! !ear ha# brou*ht armie# of the "ri#h hither8 "t ha# been ca(cu(ated that more than a mi((ion ha e a(read! immi*rated, and not far from fift! thou#and #ti(( come e er! !ear, near(! a(( of &hom enter the indu#tria( di#trict#, e#pecia((! the *reat citie#, and there form the (o&e#t c(a## of the popu(ation8 +hu# there are in %ondon, 167,777; in Manche#ter, 47,777; in %i erpoo(, >4,777; <ri#to(, 64,777; :(a#*o&, 47,777; Edinbur*h, 69,777, poor "ri#h peop(e8 >6 +he#e peop(e ha in* *ro&n up a(mo#t8 &ithout ci i(i#ation, accu#tomed from !outh to e er! #ort of pri ation, rou*h, intemperate, and impro ident, brin* a(( their bruta( habit# &ith them amon* a c(a## of the En*(i#h popu(ation &hich ha#, in truth, (itt(e inducement to cu(ti ate education and mora(it!8 %et u# hear +homa# ;ar(!(e upon thi# #ubDect: >> T+he &i(d Mi(e#ian
>4

feature#, (oo1in*

fa(#e in*enuit!, re#t(e##ne##, unrea#on, mi#er!, and moc1er!, #a(ute !ou on a(( hi*h&a!# and b!&a!#8 +he En*(i#h coachman, a# he &hir(# pa#t, (a#he# the Mi(e#ian &ith hi# &hip, cur#e# him &ith hi# ton*ue; the Mi(e#ian i# ho(din* out hi# hat to be*8 5e i# the #ore#t e i( thi# countr! ha# to #tri e &ith8 "n hi# ra*# and (au*hin* #a a*er!, he i# there to underta1e a(( &or1 that can be done b! mere #tren*th of hand and bac1 $$ for &a*e# that &i(( purcha#e him potatoe#8 5e need# on(! #a(t for condiment, he (od*e# to hi# mind in an! pi*$hutch or do*$hutch, roo#t# in outhou#e#, and &ear# a #uit of tatter#, the *ettin* on and off of &hich i# #aid to be a difficu(t operation, tran#acted on(! in fe#ti a(# and the hi*h tide# of the ca(endar8 +he

Saxon$man, if he cannot &or1 on the#e term#, find# no &or18 +he unci i(i#ed "ri#hman, not b! hi# #tren*th, but b! the oppo#ite of #tren*th, dri e# the Saxon nati e out, ta1e# po##e##ion in hi# room8 +here abide# he, in hi# #Bua(or and unrea#on, in hi# fa(#it! and drun1en io(ence, a# the read!$made nuc(eu# of de*radation and di#order8 Whoe er #tru**(e#, #&immin* &ith difficu(t!, ma! no& find an examp(e ho& the human bein* can exi#t not #&immin*, but #un18888 +hat the condition of the (o&er mu(titude of En*(i#h (abourer# approximate# more and more to that of the "ri#h, competin* &ith them in a(( the mar1et#: that &hat#oe er (abour, to &hich mere #tren*th &ith (itt(e #1i(( &i(( #uffice, i# to be done, &i(( be done not at the En*(i#h price, but at an approximation to the "ri#h price; at a price #uperior a# !et to the "ri#h, that i#, #uperior to #carcit! of potatoe# for thirt! &ee1# !ear(!; #uperior, !et hour(!, &ith the arri a( of e er! ne& #teamboat, #in1in* nearer to an eBua(it! &ith that8T "f &e except hi# exa**erated and one$#ided condemnation of the "ri#h nationa( character, ;ar(!(e i# perfect(! ri*ht8 +he#e "ri#hmen &ho mi*rate for fourpence to En*(and, on the dec1 of a #team#hip on &hich the! are often pac1ed (i1e catt(e, in#inuate them#e( e# e er!&here8 +he &or#t d&e((in*# are *ood enou*h for them; their c(othin* cau#e# them (itt(e troub(e, #o (on* a# it ho(d# to*ether b! a #in*(e thread; #hoe# the! 1no& not; their food con#i#t# of potatoe# and potatoe# on(!; &hate er the! earn be!ond the#e need# the! #pend upon drin18 What doe# #uch a race &ant &ith hi*h &a*e#K +he &or#t Buarter# of a(( the (ar*e to&n# are inhabited b! "ri#hmen8 Whene er a di#trict i# di#tin*ui#hed for e#pecia( fi(th and e#pecia( ruinou#ne##, the exp(orer ma! #afe(! count upon meetin* chief(! tho#e ;e(tic face# &hich one reco*ni#e# at the fir#t *(ance a# different from the Saxon ph!#io*nom! of the nati e, and the #in*in*, a#pirate bro*ue &hich the true "ri#hman ne er (o#e#8 " ha e occa#iona((! heard the "ri#h$;e(tic (an*ua*e #po1en in the mo#t thic1(! popu(ated part# of Manche#ter8 +he maDorit! of the fami(ie# &ho (i e in ce((ar# are a(mo#t

e er!&here of "ri#h ori*in8 "n #hort, the "ri#h ha e, a# 4r8 Ha! #a!#, di#co ered the minimum of the nece##itie# of (ife, and are no& ma1in* the En*(i#h &or1er# acBuainted &ith it8 'i(th and drun1enne##, too, the! ha e brou*ht &ith them8 +he (ac1 of c(ean(ine##, &hich i# not #o inDuriou# in the countr!, &here popu(ation i# #cattered, and &hich i# the "ri#hmanN# #econd nature, become# terrif!in* and *ra e(! dan*erou# throu*h it# concentration here in the *reat citie#8 +he Mi(e#ian depo#it# a(( *arba*e and fi(th before hi# hou#e door here, a# he &a# accu#tomed to do at home, and #o accumu(ate# the poo(# and dirt$heap# &hich di#fi*ure the &or1in*$ peop(eN# Buarter# and poi#on the air8 5e bui(d# a pi*$#t! a*ain#t the hou#e &a(( a# he did at home, and if he i# pre ented from doin* thi#, he (et# the pi* #(eep in the room &ith him#e(f8 +hi# ne& and unnatura( method of catt(e$rai#in* in citie# i# &ho((! of "ri#h ori*in8 +he "ri#hman (o e# hi# pi* a# the 9rab hi# hor#e, &ith the difference that he #e((# it &hen it i# fat enou*h to 1i((8 ?ther&i#e, he eat# and #(eep# &ith it, hi# chi(dren p(a! &ith it, ride upon it, ro(( in the dirt &ith it, a# an! one ma! #ee a thou#and time# repeated in a(( the *reat to&n# of En*(and8 +he fi(th and comfort(e##ne## that pre ai( in the hou#e# them#e( e# it i# impo##ib(e to de#cribe8 +he "ri#hman i# unaccu#tomed to the pre#ence of furniture; a heap of #tra&, a fe& ra*#, utter(! be!ond u#e a# c(othin*, #uffice for hi# ni*ht(! couch8 9 piece of &ood, a bro1en chair, an o(d che#t for a tab(e, more he need# not; a tea$1ett(e, a fe& pot# and di#he#, eBuip hi# 1itchen, &hich i# a(#o hi# #(eepin* and (i in* room8 When he i# in &ant of fue(, e er!thin* combu#tib(e &ithin hi# reach, chair#, door$po#t#, mou(din*#, f(oorin*, find# it# &a! up the chimne!8 Moreo er, &h! #hou(d he need much roomK 9t home in hi# mud$cabin there &a# on(! one room for a(( dome#tic purpo#e#; more than one room hi# fami(! doe# not need in En*(and8 So the cu#tom of cro&din* man! per#on# into a #in*(e room, no& #o uni er#a(, ha# been chief(! imp(anted b! the "ri#h immi*ration8 9nd #ince the poor de i( mu#t ha e one enDo!ment, and #ociet! ha# #hut him out of a(( other#, he beta1e# him#e(f to the drin1in* of #pirit#8 4rin1 i# the on(! thin* &hich ma1e# the "ri#hmanN# (ife &orth ha in*, drin1 and hi# cheer! care$free temperament; #o he re e(# in drin1 to the point of the mo#t be#tia( drun1enne##8 +he #outhern faci(e character of the "ri#hman, hi# crudit!, &hich p(ace# him but (itt(e abo e the #a a*e, hi# contempt for a(( humane enDo!ment#, in &hich hi# er! crudene## ma1e# him incapab(e of #harin*, hi# fi(th and po ert!, a(( fa our drun1enne##8 +he temptation i# *reat, he cannot re#i#t it, and #o &hen he ha# mone! he *et# rid of it do&n hi# throat8 What e(#e #hou(d he doK 5o& can #ociet! b(ame him &hen it p(ace# him in a po#ition in &hich he a(mo#t of nece##it! become# a drun1ard; &hen it (ea e# him to him#e(f, to hi# #a a*er!K With #uch a competitor the En*(i#h &or1in*$man ha# to #tru**(e, &ith a competitor upon the (o&e#t p(ane po##ib(e in a ci i(i#ed countr!, &ho for thi# er! rea#on reBuire# (e## &a*e# than an! other8 /othin* e(#e i# therefore po##ib(e than that, a# ;ar(!(e #a!#, the &a*e# of En*(i#h &or1in*$ man #hou(d be forced do&n further and further in e er! branch in &hich the "ri#h compete &ith him8 9nd the#e branche# are man!8 9(( #uch a# demand (itt(e or no #1i(( are open to the "ri#h8 'or &or1 &hich reBuire# (on* trainin* or re*u(ar, pertinaciou# app(ication, the di##o(ute, un#tead!, drun1en "ri#hman i# on too (o& a p(ane8 +o become a mechanic, a mi(($hand, he &ou(d ha e to adopt the En*(i#h ci i(i#ation, the En*(i#h cu#tom#, become, in the main, an En*(i#hman8 <ut for a(( #imp(e, (e## exact &or1, &here er it i# a Bue#tion more of #tren*th than #1i((, the "ri#hman i# a# *ood a# the En*(i#hman8 Such occupation# are therefore e#pecia((! o ercro&ded &ith "ri#hmen: hand$&ea er#, bric1(a!er#, porter#, Dobber#, and #uch &or1er#, count horde# of "ri#hmen amon* their number, and the pre##ure of thi# race ha# done much to depre## &a*e# and (o&er the &or1in*$c(a##8 9nd e en if the "ri#h, &ho ha e forced their &a! into other occupation#, #hou(d become more ci i(i#ed, enou*h of the o(d habit# &ou(d c(in* to them to ha e a #tron*, de*radin* inf(uence upon their En*(i#h companion# in toi(, e#pecia((! in ie& of the *enera( effect of bein* #urrounded b! the "ri#h8 'or &hen, in a(mo#t e er! *reat cit!, a fifth or a Buarter of the &or1er# are "ri#h, or chi(dren of "ri#h parent#, &ho ha e *ro&n up amon* "ri#h fi(th, no one can &onder if the (ife, habit#, inte((i*ence, mora( #tatu# $$ in #hort, the &ho(e character of the &or1in*$c(a##

a##imi(ate# a *reat part of the "ri#h characteri#tic#8 ?n the contrar!, it i# ea#! to under#tand ho& the de*radin* po#ition of the En*(i#h &or1er#, en*endered b! our modern hi#tor!, and it# immediate con#eBuence#, ha# been #ti(( more de*raded b! the pre#ence of "ri#h competition8

*es'lts
5a in* no& in e#ti*ated, #ome&hat in detai(, the condition# under &hich the En*(i#h &or1in*$ c(a## (i e#, it i# time to dra& #ome further inference# from the fact# pre#ented, and then to compare our inference# &ith the actua( #tate of thin*#8 %et u# #ee &hat the &or1er# them#e( e# ha e become under the *i en circum#tance#, &hat #ort of peop(e the! are, &hat their ph!#ica(, menta(, and mora( #tatu#8 When one indi idua( inf(ict# bodi(! inDur! upon another #uch inDur! that death re#u(t#, &e ca(( the deed man#(au*hter; &hen the a##ai(ant 1ne& in ad ance that the inDur! &ou(d be fata(, &e ca(( hi# deed murder8 <ut &hen #ociet! >5 p(ace# hundred# of pro(etarian# in #uch a po#ition that the! ine itab(! meet a too ear(! and an unnatura( death, one &hich i# Buite a# much a death b! io(ence a# that b! the #&ord or bu((et; &hen it depri e# thou#and# of the nece##arie# of (ife, p(ace# them under condition# in &hich the! cannot (i e E force# them, throu*h the #tron* arm of the (a&, to remain in #uch condition# unti( that death en#ue# &hich i# the ine itab(e con#eBuence E 1no&# that the#e thou#and# of ictim# mu#t peri#h, and !et permit# the#e condition# to remain, it# deed i# murder Du#t a# #ure(! a# the deed of the #in*(e indi idua(; di#*ui#ed, ma(iciou# murder, murder a*ain#t &hich none can defend him#e(f, &hich doe# not #eem &hat it i#, becau#e no man #ee# the murderer, becau#e the death of the ictim #eem# a natura( one, #ince the offence i# more one of omi##ion than of commi##ion8 <ut murder it remain#8 " ha e no& to pro e that #ociet! in En*(and dai(! and hour(! commit# &hat the &or1in*$menN# or*an#, &ith perfect correctne##, characteri#e a# #ocia( murder, that it ha# p(aced the &or1er# under condition# in &hich the! can neither retain hea(th nor (i e (on*; that it undermine# the ita( force of the#e &or1er# *radua((!, (itt(e b! (itt(e, and #o hurrie# them to the *ra e before their time8 " ha e further to pro e that #ociet! 1no&# ho& inDuriou# #uch condition# are to the hea(th and the (ife of the &or1er#, and !et doe# nothin* to impro e the#e condition#8 +hat it 1no&# the con#eBuence# of it# deed#; that it# act i#, therefore, not mere man#(au*hter, but murder, " #ha(( ha e pro ed, &hen " cite officia( document#, report# of Par(iament and of the :o ernment, in #ub#tantiation of m! char*e8 +hat a c(a## &hich (i e# under the condition# a(read! #1etched and i# #o i(($pro ided &ith the mo#t nece##ar! mean# of #ub#i#tence, cannot be hea(th! and can reach no ad anced a*e, i# #e(f$ e ident8 %et u# re ie& the circum#tance# once more &ith e#pecia( reference to the hea(th of the &or1er#8 +he centra(i#ation of popu(ation in *reat citie# exerci#e# of it#e(f an unfa ourab(e inf(uence; the atmo#phere of %ondon can ne er be #o pure, #o rich in ox!*en, a# the air of the countr!; t&o and a ha(f mi((ion pair# of (un*#, t&o hundred and fift! thou#and fire#, cro&ded upon an area three to four mi(e# #Buare, con#ume an enormou# amount of ox!*en, &hich i# rep(aced &ith difficu(t!, becau#e the method of bui(din* citie# in it#e(f impede# enti(ation8 +he carbonic acid *a#, en*endered b! re#piration and fire, remain# in the #treet# b! rea#on of it# #pecific *ra it!, and the chief air current pa##e# o er the roof# of the cit!8 +he (un*# of the inhabitant# fai( to recei e the due #upp(! of ox!*en, and the con#eBuence i# menta( and ph!#ica( (a##itude and (o& ita(it!8 'or thi# rea#on, the d&e((er# in citie# are far (e## expo#ed to acute, and e#pecia((! to inf(ammator!, affection# than rura( popu(ation#, &ho (i e in a free, norma( atmo#phere; but the! #uffer the more from chronic affection#8 9nd if (ife in (ar*e citie# i#, in it#e(f, inDuriou# to hea(th, ho& *reat mu#t be the harmfu( inf(uence of an abnorma( atmo#phere in the &or1in*$peop(eN# Buarter#, &here, a# &e ha e #een, e er!thin* combine# to poi#on the air8 "n the countr!, it ma!, perhap#, be comparati e(! innoxiou# to 1eep a dun*$heap adDoinin* oneN# d&e((in*, becau#e the air ha# free in*re## from a(( #ide#; but in the mid#t of a (ar*e to&n, amon* c(o#e(! bui(t (ane# and court# that #hut out a(( mo ement of the atmo#phere, the ca#e i# different8

9(( putref!in* e*etab(e and anima( #ub#tance# *i e off *a#e# decided(! inDuriou# to hea(th, and if the#e *a#e# ha e no free &a! of e#cape, the! ine itab(! poi#on the atmo#phere8 +he fi(th and #ta*nant poo(# of the &or1in*$peop(eN# Buarter# in the *reat citie# ha e, therefore, the &or#t effect upon the pub(ic hea(th, becau#e the! produce preci#e(! tho#e *a#e# &hich en*ender di#ea#e; #o, too, the exha(ation# from contaminated #tream#8 <ut thi# i# b! no mean# a((8 +he manner in &hich the *reat mu(titude of the poor i# treated b! #ociet! toda! i# re o(tin*8 +he! are dra&n into the (ar*e citie# &here the! breathe a poorer atmo#phere than in the countr!; the! are re(e*ated to di#trict# &hich, b! rea#on of the method of con#truction, are &or#e enti(ated than an! other#; the! are depri ed of a(( mean# of c(ean(ine##, of &ater it#e(f, #ince pipe# are (aid on(! &hen paid for, and the ri er# #o po((uted that the! are u#e(e## for #uch purpo#e#; the! are ob(i*ed to thro& a(( offa( and *arba*e, a(( dirt! &ater, often a(( di#*u#tin* draina*e and excrement into the #treet#, bein* &ithout other mean# of di#po#in* of them; the! are thu# compe((ed to infect the re*ion of their o&n d&e((in*#8 /or i# thi# enou*h8 9(( concei ab(e e i(# are heaped upon the head# of the poor8 "f the popu(ation of *reat citie# i# too den#e in *enera(, it i# the! in particu(ar &ho are pac1ed into the (ea#t #pace8 9# thou*h the itiated atmo#phere of the #treet# &ere not enou*h, the! are penned in do)en# into #in*(e room#, #o that the air &hich the! breathe at ni*ht i# enou*h in it#e(f to #tif(e them8 +he! are *i en damp d&e((in*#, ce((ar den# that are not &aterproof from be(o& or *arret# that (ea1 from abo e8 +heir hou#e# are #o bui(t that the c(amm! air cannot e#cape8 +he! are #upp(ied bad, tattered, or rotten c(othin*, adu(terated and indi*e#tib(e food8 +he! are expo#ed to the mo#t excitin* chan*e# of menta( condition, the mo#t io(ent ibration# bet&een hope and fear; the! are hunted (i1e *ame, and not permitted to attain peace of mind and Buiet enDo!ment of (ife8 +he! are depri ed of a(( enDo!ment# except that of #exua( indu(*ence and drun1enne##, are &or1ed e er! da! to the point of comp(ete exhau#tion of their menta( and ph!#ica( ener*ie#, and are thu# con#tant(! #purred on to the madde#t exce## in the on(! t&o enDo!ment# at their command8 9nd if the! #urmount a(( thi#, the! fa(( ictim# to &ant of &or1 in a cri#i# &hen a(( the (itt(e i# ta1en from them that had hitherto been ouch#afed them8 5o& i# it po##ib(e, under #uch condition#, for the (o&er c(a## to be hea(th! and (on* (i edK What e(#e can be expected than an exce##i e morta(it!, an unbro1en #erie# of epidemic#, a pro*re##i e deterioration in the ph!#iBue of the &or1in* popu(ationK %et u# #ee ho& the fact# #tand8 +hat the d&e((in*# of the &or1er# in the &or#t portion# of the citie#, to*ether &ith the other condition# of (ife of thi# c(a##, en*ender numerou# di#ea#e#, i# atte#ted on a(( #ide#8 +he artic(e a(read! Buoted from the -rtisan a##ert# &ith perfect truth, that (un* di#ea#e# mu#t be the ine itab(e con#eBuence of #uch condition#, and that, indeed, ca#e# of thi# 1ind are di#proportionate(! freBuent in thi# c(a##8 +hat the bad air of %ondon, and e#pecia((! of the &or1in*$peop(eN# di#trict#, i# in the hi*he#t de*ree fa ourab(e to the de e(opment of con#umption, the hectic appearance of *reat number# of per#on# #ufficient(! indicate#8 "f one roam# the #treet# a (itt(e in the ear(! mornin*, &hen the mu(titude# are on their &a! to their &or1, one i# ama)ed at the number of per#on# &ho (oo1 &ho((! or ha(f$con#umpti e8 E en in Manche#ter the peop(e ha e not the #ame appearance; the#e pa(e, (an1, narro&$ che#ted, ho((o&$e!ed *ho#t#, &hom one pa##e# at e er! #tep, the#e (an*uid, f(abb! face#, incapab(e of the #(i*hte#t ener*etic expre##ion, " ha e #een in #uch #tart(in* number# on(! in %ondon, thou*h con#umption carrie# off a horde of ictim# annua((! in the factor! to&n# of the /orth8 "n competition &ith con#umption #tand# t!phu#, to #a! nothin* of #car(et fe er, a di#ea#e &hich brin*# mo#t fri*htfu( de a#tation into the ran1# of the &or1in*$ c(a##8 +!phu#, that uni er#a((! diffu#ed aff(iction, i# attributed b! the officia( report on the #anitar! condition of the &or1in*$ c(a##, direct(! to the bad #tate of the d&e((in*# in the matter# of enti(ation, draina*e, and c(ean(ine##8 +hi# report compi(ed, it mu#t not be for*otten, b! the (eadin* ph!#ician# of En*(and from the te#timon! of other ph!#ician#, a##ert# that a #in*(e i(($ enti(ated court, a #in*(e b(ind a((e! &ithout draina*e, i# enou*h to en*ender fe er, and u#ua((! doe# en*ender it e#pecia((! if the inhabitant# are *reat(! cro&ded8

+hi# fe er ha# the #ame character a(mo#t e er!&here, and de e(op# in near(! e er! ca#e into #pecific t!phu#8 "t i# to be found in the &or1in*$peop(eN# Buarter# of a(( *reat to&n# and citie#, and in #in*(e i(($bui(t, i(($1ept #treet# of #ma((er p(ace#, thou*h it natura((! #ee1# out #in*(e ictim# in better di#trict# a(#o8 "n %ondon it ha# no& pre ai(ed for a con#iderab(e time; it# extraordinar! io(ence in the !ear 18>. *a e ri#e to the report a(read! referred to8 9ccordin* to the annua( report of 4r8 1outhwood 1mith on the %ondon 'e er 5o#pita(, the number of patient# in 184> &a# 1,466, or 418 more than in an! pre iou# !ear8 "n the damp, dirt! re*ion# of the north, #outh, and ea#t di#trict# of %ondon, thi# di#ea#e ra*ed &ith extraordinar! io(ence8 Man! of the patient# &ere &or1in*$peop(e from the countr!, &ho had endured the #e ere#t pri ation &hi(e mi*ratin*, and, after their arri a(, had #(ept hun*r! and ha(f$na1ed in the #treet#, and #o fa((en ictim# to the fe er8 +he#e peop(e &ere brou*ht into the ho#pita( in #uch a #tate of &ea1ne##, that unu#ua( Buantitie# of &ine, co*nac, and preparation# of ammonia and other #timu(ant# &ere reBuired for their treatment; 16V per cent of a(( patient# died8 +hi# ma(i*nant fe er i# to be found in Manche#ter; in the &or#t Buarter# of the ?(d +o&n, 9ncoat#, %itt(e "re(and, etc8, it i# rare(! extinct; thou*h here, a# in the En*(i#h to&n# *enera((!, it pre ai(# to a (e## extent than mi*ht be expected8 "n Scot(and and "re(and, on the other hand, it ra*e# &ith a io(ence that #urpa##e# a(( conception8 "n Edinbur*h and :(a#*o& it bro1e out in 181., after the famine, and in 1866 and 18>. &ith e#pecia( io(ence, after the commercia( cri#i#, #ub#idin* #ome&hat each time after ha in* ra*ed about three !ear#8 "n Edinbur*h about 6,777 per#on# &ere attac1ed b! the fe er durin* the epidemic of 181., and about 17,777 in that of 18>., and not on(! the number of per#on# attac1ed but the io(ence of the di#ea#e increa#ed &ith each repetition8 >6 <ut the fur! of the epidemic in a(( former period# #eem# to ha e been chi(dN# p(a! in compari#on &ith it# ra a*e# after the cri#i# of 18468 ?ne$#ixth of the &ho(e indi*ent popu(ation of Scot(and &a# #ei)ed b! the fe er, and the infection &a# carried b! &anderin* be**ar# &ith fearfu( rapidit! from one (oca(it! to another8 "t did not reach the midd(e and upper c(a##e# of the popu(ation, !et in t&o month# there &ere more fe er ca#e# than in t&e( e !ear# before8 "n :(a#*o&, t&e( e per cent of the popu(ation &ere #ei)ed in the !ear 184>; 56,777 per#on#, of &hom thirt!$t&o per cent peri#hed, &hi(e thi# morta(it! in Manche#ter and %i erpoo( doe# not ordinari(! exceed ei*ht per cent8 +he i((ne## reached a cri#i# on the #e enth and fifteenth da!#; on the (atter, the patient u#ua((! became !e((o&, &hich our authorit! re*ard# a# an indication that the cau#e of the ma(ad! &a# to be #ou*ht in menta( excitement and anxiet!8 >. "n "re(and, too, the#e fe er epidemic# ha e become dome#ticated8 4urin* t&ent!$one month# of the !ear# 181.$1818, >9,777 fe er patient# pa##ed throu*h the 4ub(in ho#pita(; and in a more recent !ear, accordin* to Sheriff 9(i#on, 67,7778 >8 "n ;or1 the fe er ho#pita( recei ed one$#e enth of the popu(ation in 181.$1818, in %imeric1 in the #ame time one$fourth, and in the bad Buarter of Waterford, nineteen$ t&entieth# of the &ho(e popu(ation &ere i(( of the fe er at one time8 >9 When one remember# under &hat condition# the &or1in*$ peop(e (i e, &hen one thin1# ho& cro&ded their d&e((in*# are, ho& e er! noo1 and corner #&arm# &ith human bein*#, ho& #ic1 and &e(( #(eep in the #ame room, in the #ame bed, the on(! &onder i# that a conta*iou# di#ea#e (i1e thi# fe er doe# not #pread !et farther8 9nd &hen one ref(ect# ho& (itt(e medica( a##i#tance the #ic1 ha e at command, ho& man! are &ithout an! medica( ad ice &hat#oe er, and i*norant of the mo#t ordinar! precautionar! mea#ure#, the morta(it! #eem# actua((! #ma((8 4r8 9(i#on, &ho ha# made a carefu( #tud! of thi# di#ea#e, attribute# it direct(! to the &ant and the &retched condition of the poor, a# in the report a(read! Buoted8 5e a##ert# that pri ation# and the in#ufficient #ati#faction of ita( need# are &hat prepare the frame for conta*ion and ma1e the epidemic &ide#pread and terrib(e8 5e pro e# that a period of pri ation, a commercia( cri#i# or a bad har e#t, ha# each time produced the t!phu# epidemic in "re(and a# in Scot(and, and that the fur! of the p(a*ue ha# fa((en a(mo#t exc(u#i e(! on the &or1in*$c(a##8 "t i# a note&orth! fact, that accordin* to hi# te#timon!, the maDorit! of per#on# &ho peri#h b! t!phu# are father# of fami(ie#,

preci#e(! the per#on# &ho can (ea#t be #pared b! tho#e dependent upon them; and #e era( "ri#h ph!#ician# &hom he Buote# bear the #ame te#timon!8 9nother cate*or! of di#ea#e# ari#e# direct(! from the food rather than the d&e((in*# of the &or1er#8 +he food of the (abourer, indi*e#tib(e enou*h in it#e(f, i# utter(! unfit for !oun* chi(dren, and he ha# neither mean# nor time to *et hi# chi(dren more #uitab(e food8 Moreo er, the cu#tom of *i in* chi(dren #pirit#, and e en opium, i# er! *enera(; and the#e t&o inf(uence#, &ith the re#t of the condition# of (ife preDudicia( to bodi(! de e(opment, *i e ri#e to the mo#t di er#e affection# of the di*e#ti e or*an#, (ea in* (ife$(on* trace# behind them8 /ear(! a(( &or1er# ha e #tomach# more or (e## &ea1, and are !et forced to adhere to the diet &hich i# the root of the e i(8 5o& #hou(d the! 1no& &hat i# to b(ame for itK 9nd if the! 1ne&, ho& cou(d the! obtain a more #uitab(e re*imen #o (on* a# the! cannot adopt a different &a! of (i in* and are not better educatedK <ut ne& di#ea#e ari#e# durin* chi(dhood from impaired di*e#tion8 Scrofu(a i# a(mo#t uni er#a( amon* the &or1in*$c(a##, and #crofu(ou# parent# ha e #crofu(ou# chi(dren, e#pecia((! &hen the ori*ina( inf(uence# continue in fu(( force to operate upon the inherited tendenc! of the chi(dren8 9 #econd con#eBuence of thi# in#ufficient bodi(! nouri#hment, durin* the !ear# of *ro&th and de e(opment, i# rachiti#, &hich i# extreme(! common amon* the chi(dren of the &or1in*$c(a##8 +he hardenin* of the bone# i# de(a!ed, the de e(opment of the #1e(eton in *enera( i# re#tricted, and deformitie# of the (e*# and #pina( co(umn are freBuent, in addition to the u#ua( rachitic affection#8 5o& *reat(! a(( the#e e i(# are increa#ed b! the chan*e# to &hich the &or1er# are #ubDect in con#eBuence of f(uctuation# in trade, &ant of &or1, and the #cant! &a*e# in time of cri#i#, it i# not nece##ar! to d&e(( upon8 +emporar! &ant of #ufficient food, to &hich a(mo#t e er! &or1in*$man i# expo#ed at (ea#t once in the cour#e of hi# (ife, on(! contribute# to inten#if! the effect# of hi# u#ua((! #ufficient but bad diet8 ;hi(dren &ho are ha(f$#tar ed, Du#t &hen the! mo#t need amp(e and nutritiou# food E and ho& man! #uch there are durin* e er! cri#i# and e en &hen trade i# at it# be#t E mu#t ine itab(! become &ea1, #crofu(ou# and rachitic in a hi*h de*ree8 9nd that the! do become #o, their appearance amp(! #ho&#8 +he ne*(ect to &hich the *reat ma## of &or1in*$menN# chi(dren are condemned (ea e# ineradicab(e trace# and brin*# the enfeeb(ement of the &ho(e race of &or1er# &ith it8 9dd to thi# the un#uitab(e c(othin* of thi# c(a##, the impo##ibi(it! of precaution# a*ain#t co(d#, the nece##it! of toi(in* #o (on* a# hea(th permit#, &ant made more dire &hen #ic1ne## appear#, and the on(! too common (ac1 of a(( medica( a##i#tance; and &e ha e a rou*h idea of the #anitar! condition of the En*(i#h &or1in*$c(a##8 +he inDuriou# effect# pecu(iar to #in*(e emp(o!ment# a# no& conducted, " #ha(( not dea( &ith here8 <e#ide# the#e, there are other inf(uence# &hich enfeeb(e the hea(th of a *reat number of &or1er#, intemperance mo#t of a((8 9(( po##ib(e temptation#, a(( a((urement# combine to brin* the &or1er# to drun1enne##8 %iBuor i# a(mo#t their on(! #ource of p(ea#ure, and a(( thin*# con#pire to ma1e it acce##ib(e to them8 +he &or1in*$man come# from hi# &or1 tired, exhau#ted, find# hi# home comfort(e##, damp, dirt!, repu(#i e; he ha# ur*ent need of recreation, he mu#t ha e #omethin* to ma1e &or1 &orth hi# troub(e, to ma1e the pro#pect of the next da! endurab(e8 5i# unner ed, uncomfortab(e, h!pochondriac #tate of mind and bod! ari#in* from hi# unhea(th! condition, and e#pecia((! from indi*e#tion, i# a**ra ated be!ond endurance b! the *enera( condition# of hi# (ife, the uncertaint! of hi# exi#tence, hi# dependence upon a(( po##ib(e accident# and chance#, and hi# inabi(it! to do an!thin* to&ard# *ainin* an a##ured po#ition8 5i# enfeeb(ed frame, &ea1ened b! bad air and bad food, io(ent(! demand# #ome externa( #timu(u#; hi# #ocia( need can be *ratified on(! in the pub(ic$hou#e, he ha# ab#o(ute(! no other p(ace &here he can meet hi# friend#8 5o& can he be expected to re#i#t the temptationK "t i# mora((! and ph!#ica((! ine itab(e that, under #uch circum#tance#, a er! (ar*e number of &or1in*$men #hou(d fa(( into intemperance8 9nd apart from the chief(! ph!#ica( inf(uence# &hich dri e the &or1in*$man into drun1enne##, there i# the examp(e of the *reat ma##, the ne*(ected education, the impo##ibi(it! of protectin* the !oun* from temptation, in man! ca#e# the direct inf(uence of intemperate parent#, &ho *i e their o&n

chi(dren (iBuor, the certaint! of for*ettin* for an hour or t&o the &retchedne## and burden of (ife, and a hundred other circum#tance# #o mi*ht! that the &or1er# can, in truth, hard(! be b(amed for !ie(din* to #uch o er&he(min* pre##ure8 4run1enne## ha# here cea#ed to be a ice, for &hich the iciou# can be he(d re#pon#ib(e; it become# a phenomenon, the nece##ar!, ine itab(e effect of certain condition# upon an obDect po##e##ed of no o(ition in re(ation to tho#e condition#8 +he! &ho ha e de*raded the &or1in*$man to a mere obDect ha e the re#pon#ibi(it! to bear8 <ut a# ine itab(! a# a *reat number of &or1in*$men fa(( a pre! to drin1, Du#t #o ine itab(! doe# it manife#t it# ruinou# inf(uence upon the bod! and mind of it# ictim#8 9(( the tendencie# to di#ea#e ari#in* from the condition# of (ife of the &or1er# are promoted b! it, it #timu(ate# in the hi*he#t de*ree the de e(opment of (un* and di*e#ti e troub(e#, the ri#e and #pread of t!phu# epidemic#8 9nother #ource of ph!#ica( mi#chief to the &or1in*$c(a## (ie# in the impo##ibi(it! of emp(o!in* #1i((ed ph!#ician# in ca#e# of i((ne##8 "t i# true that a number of charitab(e in#titution# #tri e to #upp(! thi# &ant, that the infirmar! in Manche#ter, for in#tance, recei e# or *i e# ad ice and medicine to 66,777 patient# annua((!8 <ut &hat i# that in a cit! in &hich, accordin* to :a#1e((N# ca(cu(ation, 47 three$fourth# of the popu(ation need medica( aid e er! !earK En*(i#h doctor# char*e hi*h fee#, and &or1in*$men are not in a po#ition to pa! them8 +he! can therefore do nothin*, or are compe((ed to ca(( in cheap char(atan#, and u#e Buac1 remedie#, &hich do more harm than *ood8 9n immen#e number of #uch Buac1# thri e in e er! En*(i#h to&n, #ecurin* their c(iente(e amon* the poor b! mean# of ad erti#ement#, po#ter#, and other #uch de ice#8 <e#ide# the#e, a#t Buantitie# of patent medicine# are #o(d, for a(( concei ab(e ai(ment#: Morri#onN# Pi((#, ParrN# %ife Pi((#, 4r8 Main&arin*N# Pi((#, and a thou#and other pi((#, e##ence#, and ba(#am#, a(( of &hich ha e the propert! of curin* a(( the i((# that f(e#h i# heir to8 +he#e medicine# rare(! contain actua((! inDuriou# #ub#tance#, but, &hen ta1en free(! and often, the! affect the #!#tem preDudicia((!; and a# the un&ar! purcha#er# are a(&a!# recommended to ta1e a# much a# po##ib(e, it i# not to be &ondered at that the! #&a((o& them &ho(e#a(e &hether &anted or not8 "t i# b! no mean# unu#ua( for the manufacturer of ParrN# %ife Pi((# to #e(( t&ent! to t&ent!$fi e thou#and boxe# of the#e #a(utar! pi((# in a &ee1, and the! are ta1en for con#tipation b! thi# one, for diarrhoea b! that one, for fe er, &ea1ne##, and a(( po##ib(e ai(ment#8 9# our :erman pea#ant# are cupped or b(ed at certain #ea#on#, #o do the En*(i#h &or1in*$peop(e no& con#ume patent medicine# to their o&n inDur! and the *reat profit of the manufacturer8 ?ne of the mo#t inDuriou# of the#e patent medicine# i# a drin1 prepared &ith opiate#, chief(! (audanum, under the name :odfre!N# ;ordia(8 Women &ho &or1 at home, and ha e their o&n and other peop(eN# chi(dren to ta1e care of, *i e them thi# drin1 to 1eep them Buiet, and, a# man! be(ie e, to #tren*then them8 +he! often be*in to *i e thi# medicine to ne&(! born chi(dren, and continue, &ithout 1no&in* the effect# of thi#CheartN#$ea#eT, unti( the chi(dren die8 +he (e## #u#ceptib(e the chi(dN# #!#tem to the action of the opium, the *reater the Buantitie# admini#tered8 When the cordia( cea#e# to act, (audanum a(one i# *i en, often to the extent of fifteen to t&ent! drop# at a do#e8 +he ;oroner of /ottin*ham te#tified before a Par(iamentar! ;ommi##ion 41 that one apothecar! had, accordin* to hi# o&n #tatement, u#ed thirteen hundred&ei*ht of treac(e in one !ear in the preparation of :odfre!N# ;ordia(8 +he effect# upon the chi(dren #o treated ma! be readi(! ima*ined8 +he! are pa(e, feeb(e, &i(ted, and u#ua((! die before comp(etin* the #econd !ear8 +he u#e of thi# cordia( i# er! exten#i e in a(( *reat to&n# and indu#tria( di#trict# in the 1in*dom8 +he re#u(t of a(( the#e inf(uence# i# a *enera( enfeeb(ement of the frame in the &or1in*$c(a##8 +here are fe& i*orou#, &e(($bui(t, hea(th! per#on# amon* the &or1er#, i8e8 amon* the factor! operati e#, &ho are emp(o!ed in confined room#, and &e are here di#cu##in* the#e on(!8 +he! are a(mo#t a(( &ea1(!, of an*u(ar but not po&erfu( bui(d, (ean, pa(e, and of re(axed fibre, &ith the exception of the mu#c(e# e#pecia((! exerci#ed in their &or18 /ear(! a(( #uffer from indi*e#tion, and con#eBuent(! from a more or (e## h!pochondriac, me(ancho(!, irritab(e, ner ou# condition8 +heir enfeeb(ed con#titution# are unab(e to re#i#t di#ea#e, and are therefore #ei)ed b! it on e er!

occa#ion8 5ence the! a*e premature(!, and die ear(!8 ?n thi# point the morta(it! #tati#tic# #upp(! unBue#tionab(e te#timon!8 9ccordin* to the =eport of =e*i#trar$:enera( :raham, the annua( death$rate of a(( En*(and and Wa(e# i# #omethin* (e## than 6 126 per cent8 +hat i# to #a!, out of fort!$fi e per#on#, one die# e er! !ear8 46 +hi# &a# the a era*e for the !ear 18>9$478 "n 1847$41 the morta(it! dimini#hed #ome&hat, and the death$rate &a# but one in fort!$#ix8 <ut in the *reat citie# the proportion i# &ho((! different8 " ha e before me officia( tab(e# of morta(it! , +anchester *uardian, Lu(! >1#t, 1844-, accordin* to &hich the death$rate of #e era( (ar*e to&n# i# a# fo((o&#: E "n Manche#ter, inc(udin* ;hor(ton and Sa(ford, one in >68.6; and exc(udin* ;hor(ton and Sa(ford, one in 578.58 "n %i erpoo(, inc(udin* We#t 4erb! ,#uburb-, >1897, and exc(udin* We#t 4erb!, 69897; &hi(e the a era*e of a(( the di#trict# of ;he#hire, %anca#hire, and 0or1#hire cited, inc(udin* a number of &ho((! or partia((! rura( di#trict# and man! #ma(( to&n#, &ith a tota( popu(ation of 6,1.6,576 for the &ho(e, i# one death in >9887 per#on#8 5o& unfa ourab(! the &or1er# are p(aced in the *reat citie#, the morta(it! for Pre#cott in %anca#hire #ho&#: a di#trict inhabited b! miner#, and #ho&in* a (o&er #anitar! condition than that of the a*ricu(tura( di#trict#, minin* bein* b! no mean# a hea(thfu( occupation8 <ut the#e miner# (i e in the countr!, and the death$rate amon* them i# but one in 4.854, or near(! t&o$and$a$ha(f per cent better than that for a(( En*(and8 9(( the#e #tatement# are ba#ed upon the morta(it! tab(e# for 184>8 Sti(( hi*her i# the death$rate in the Scotch citie#; in Edinbur*h, in 18>8$>9, one in 69; in 18>1, in the ?(d +o&n a(one, one in 668 "n :(a#*o&, accordin* to 4r8 ;o&an, 4> the a era*e ha# been, #ince 18>7, one in 97; and in #in*(e !ear#, one in 66 to 648 +hat thi# enormou# #hortenin* of (ife fa((# chief(! upon the &or1in*$c(a##, that the *enera( a era*e i# impro ed b! the #ma((er morta(it! of the upper and midd(e$c(a##e#, i# atte#ted upon a(( #ide#8 ?ne of the mo#t recent depo#ition# i# that of a ph!#ician, 4r8 P8 58 5o((and in Manche#ter, &ho in e#ti*ated ;hor(ton$on$Med(oc1, a #uburb of Manche#ter, under officia( commi##ion8 5e di ided the hou#e# and #treet# into three c(a##e# each, and a#certained the fo((o&in* ariation# in the death$rate: 'ir#t c(a## of #treet#8 TII TII Second c(a## of #treet#8 TII TII +hird c(a## of #treet#8 TII TII 5ou#e# T T 5ou#e# T T 5ou#e# T T "8 c(a##8 ""8 """8 "8 c(a##8 ""8 """8 "8 c(a##8 ""8 """8 Morta(it! one in I I Morta(it! one in I I Wantin* E Morta(it!C I >5 65 51 45 >6 55 >8 >5

"t i# c(ear from other tab(e# *i en b! 5o((and that the morta(it! in the streets of the #econd c(a## i# 18 per cent *reater, and in the #treet# of the third c(a## 68 per cent *reater than in tho#e of the fir#t c(a##; that the morta(it! in the houses of the #econd c(a## i# >1 per cent *reater, and in the third c(a## .8 per cent *reater than in tho#e of the fir#t c(a##; that the morta(it! in tho#e bad #treet# &hich &ere impro ed, decrea#ed 65 per cent8 5e c(o#e# &ith the remar1, er! fran1 for an En*(i#h bour*eoi#: 44

TWhen &e find the rate of morta(it! four time# a# hi*h in #ome #treet# a# in other#, and t&ice a# hi*h in &ho(e c(a##e# of #treet# a# in other c(a##e#, and further find that it i# a(( but in ariab(! hi*h in tho#e #treet# &hich are in bad condition, and a(mo#t in ariab(! (o& in tho#e &ho#e condition i# *ood, &e cannot re#i#t of the our conc(u#ion that mu(titude# fe((o&$creature#,

hundred# of our immediate nei*hbour#, are annua((! de#tro!ed for &ant of the mo#t e ident precaution#8T +he =eport on the Sanitar! ;ondition of the Wor1in*$;(a## contain# information &hich atte#t# the #ame fact8 "n %i erpoo(, in 1847, the a era*e (on*e it! of the upper c(a##e#, *entr!, profe##iona( men, etc8, &a# thirt!$fi e !ear#; that of the bu#ine## men and better$p(aced handicraft#men, t&ent!$t&o !ear#; and that of the operati e#, da!$(abourer#, and #er iceab(e c(a## in *enera(, but fifteen !ear#8 +he Par(iamentar! report# contain a ma## of #imi(ar fact#8 +he death$rate i# 1ept #o hi*h chief(! b! the hea ! morta(it! amon* !oun* chi(dren in the &or1in*$c(a##8 +he tender frame of a chi(d i# (ea#t ab(e to &ith#tand the unfa ourab(e inf(uence# of an inferior (ot in (ife; the ne*(ect to &hich the! are often #ubDected, &hen both parent# &or1 or one i# dead, a en*e# it#e(f prompt(!, and no one need &onder that in Manche#ter, accordin* to the report (a#t Buoted, more than fift!$#e en per cent of the chi(dren of the &or1in*$c(a## peri#h before the fifth !ear, &hi(e but t&ent! per cent of the chi(dren of the hi*her c(a##e#, and not Buite8 thirt!$t&o per cent of the chi(dren of a(( c(a##e# in the countr! die under fi e !ear# of a*e8 45 +he artic(e of the -rtisan, a(read! #e era( time# referred to, furni#he# exacter information on thi# point, b! comparin* the cit! death$rate in #in*(e di#ea#e# of chi(dren &ith the countr! death$rate, thu# demon#tratin* that, in *enera(, epidemic# in Manche#ter and %i erpoo( are three time# more fata( than in countr! di#trict#; that affection# of the ner ou# #!#tem are Buintup(ed, and #tomach troub(e# treb(ed, &hi(e death# from affection# of the (un*# in citie# are to tho#e in the countr! a# 6 126 to 18 'ata( ca#e# of #ma(($pox, mea#(e#, #car(et fe er, and &hoopin* cou*h, amon* #ma(( chi(dren, are four time# more freBuent; tho#e of &ater on the brain are treb(ed, and con u(#ion# ten time# more freBuent8 +o Buote another ac1no&(ed*ed authorit!, " append the fo((o&in* tab(e8 ?ut of 17,777 per#on# there die E 46 W5 !ear# 5$ 19 67$ >9 47$ 59 67$ 69 .7$ .9 87$ 97$ 177 89 99 and o er

"n 6,865 891 =uth(and#hire, a hea(th! a*ricu(tura( di#trict

1,6.5 1,699 1,189 1,468 9>8 116 >

E##ex, mar#h! >,159 1,117 1,566 1,41> 96> a*ricu(tura( di#trict +o&n of 4,478 911 ;ar(i#(e, 1..9$ 1.8., before introduction of mi((# +o&n of 4,.>8 9>7 ;ar(i#(e, after the introduction of mi((# 1,776 1,671 947

1,719 6>7 ..

>

866

5>> 15> 66

1,661 1,1>4 6..

.6.

456 87

Pre#ton, factor! 4,94. 1,1>6 1,>.9 1,114 55> to&nP %eed#, to&n factor! 5,686 96. 1,668 1,198 59>

5>6 516

698 >8 665 69

> 6

9part from the di er#e di#ea#e# &hich are the nece##ar! con#eBuence of the pre#ent ne*(ect and oppre##ion of the poorer c(a##e#, there are other inf(uence# &hich contribute to increa#e the morta(it! amon* #ma(( chi(dren8 "n man! fami(ie# the &ife, (i1e the hu#band, ha# to &or1 a&a! from home, and the con#eBuence i# the tota( ne*(ect of the chi(dren, &ho are either (oc1ed up or *i en out to be ta1en care of8 "t i#, therefore, not to be &ondered at if hundred# of them peri#h throu*h a(( manner of accident#8 /o&here are #o man! chi(dren run o er, no&here are #o man! 1i((ed b! fa((in*, dro&nin*, or burnin*, a# in the *reat citie# and to&n# of En*(and8 4eath# from burn# and #ca(d# are e#pecia((! freBuent, #uch a ca#e occurrin* near(! e er! &ee1 durin* the &inter month# in Manche#ter, and er! freBuent(! in %ondon, thou*h (itt(e mention i# made of them in the paper#8 " ha e at hand a cop! of the Weekly .ispatch of 4ecember 15th, 1844, accordin* to &hich, in the &ee1 from 4ecember 1#t to 4ecember .th inc(u#i e, #ix #uch ca#e# occurred8 +he#e unhapp! chi(dren, peri#hin* in thi# terrib(e &a!, are ictim# of our #ocia( di#order, and of the propert!$ho(din* c(a##e# intere#ted in maintainin* and pro(on*in* thi# di#order8 0et one i# (eft in doubt &hether e en thi# terrib(! torturin* death i# not a b(e##in* for the chi(dren in re#cuin* them from a (on* (ife of toi( and &retchedne##, rich in #ufferin* and poor in enDo!ment8 So far ha# it *one in En*(and; and the bour*eoi#ie read# the#e thin*# e er! da! in the ne&#paper# and ta1e# no further troub(e in the matter8 <ut it cannot comp(ain if, after the officia( and non$officia( te#timon! here cited &hich mu#t be 1no&n to it, " broad(! accu#e it of #ocia( murder8 %et the ru(in* c(a## #ee to it that the#e fri*htfu( condition# are ame(iorated, or (et it #urrender the admini#tration of the common intere#t# to the (abourin*$c(a##8 +o the (atter cour#e it i# b! no mean# inc(ined; for the former ta#1, #o (on* a# it remain# the bour*eoi#ie cripp(ed b! bour*eoi# preDudice, it ha# not the needed po&er8 'or if, at (a#t, after hundred# of thou#and# of ictim# ha e peri#hed, it manife#t# #ome (itt(e anxiet! for the future, pa##in* aCMetropo(itan <ui(din*# 9ctT, under &hich the mo#t un#crupu(ou# o ercro&din* of d&e((in*# i# to be, at (ea#t in #ome #(i*ht de*ree, re#tricted; if it point# &ith pride to mea#ure# &hich, far from attac1in* the root of the e i(, do not b! an! mean# meet the demand# of the commone#t #anitar! po(ice, it cannot thu# indicate it#e(f from the accu#ation8 +he En*(i#h bour*eoi#ie ha# but one choice, either to continue it# ru(e under the unan#&erab(e char*e of murder and in #pite of thi# char*e, or to abdicate in fa our of the (abourin*$c(a##8 5itherto it ha# cho#en the former cour#e8

%et u# turn from the ph!#ica( to the menta( #tate of the &or1er#8 Since the bour*eoi#ie ouch#afe# them on(! #o much of (ife a# i# ab#o(ute(! nece##ar!, &e need not &onder that it be#to&# upon them on(! #o much education a# (ie# in the intere#t of the bour*eoi#ie; and that, in truth, i# not much8 +he mean# of education in En*(and are re#tricted out of a(( proportion to the popu(ation8 +he fe& da! #choo(# at the command of the &or1in*$c(a## are a ai(ab(e on(! for the #ma((e#t minorit!, and are bad be#ide#8 +he teacher#, &orn$out &or1er#, and other un#uitab(e per#on# &ho on(! turn to teachin* in order to (i e, are u#ua((! &ithout the indi#pen#ab(e e(ementar! 1no&(ed*e, &ithout the mora( di#cip(ine #o needfu( for the teacher, and re(ie ed of a(( pub(ic #uper i#ion8 5ere, too, free competition ru(e#, and, a# u#ua(, the rich profit b! it, and the poor, for &hom competition i# not free, &ho ha e not the 1no&(ed*e needed to enab(e them to form a correct Dud*ment, ha e the e i( con#eBuence# to bear8 ;ompu(#or! #choo( attendance doe# not exi#t8 "n the mi((# it i#, a# &e #ha(( #ee, pure(! nomina(; and &hen in the #e##ion of 184> the Mini#tr! &a# di#po#ed to ma1e thi# nomina( compu(#ion effecti e, the manufacturin* bour*eoi#ie oppo#ed the mea#ure &ith a(( it# mi*ht, thou*h the &or1in*$c(a## &a# out#po1en(! in fa our of compu(#or! #choo( attendance8 Moreo er, a ma## of chi(dren &or1 the &ho(e &ee1 throu*h in the mi((# or at home, and therefore cannot attend #choo(8 +he e enin* #choo(#, #uppo#ed to be attended b! chi(dren &ho are emp(o!ed durin* the da!, are a(mo#t abandoned or attended &ithout benefit8 "t i# a#1in* too much, that !oun* &or1er#, &ho ha e been u#in* them#e( e# up t&e( e hour# in the da!, #hou(d *o to #choo( from ei*ht to ten at ni*ht8 9nd tho#e &ho tr! it u#ua((! fa(( a#(eep, a# i# te#tified b! hundred# of &itne##e# in the ;hi(drenN# Emp(o!ment ;ommi##ionN# =eport8 Sunda! #choo(# ha e been founded, it i# true, but the!, too, are mo#t #canti(! #upp(ied &ith teacher#, and can be of u#e to tho#e on(! &ho ha e a(read! (earnt #omethin* in the da! #choo(#8 +he inter a( from one Sunda! to the next i# too (on* for an i*norant chi(d to remember in the #econd #ittin* &hat it (earned in the fir#t, a &ee1 before8 +he ;hi(drenN# Emp(o!ment ;ommi##ionN# =eport furni#he# a hundred proof#, and the ;ommi##ion it#e(f mo#t emphatica((! expre##e# the opinion, that neither the &ee1$da! nor the Sunda! #choo(#, in the (ea#t de*ree, meet the need# of the nation8 +hi# =eport *i e# e idence of i*norance in the &or1in*$c(a## of En*(and, #uch a# cou(d hard(! be expected in Spain or "ta(!8 "t cannot be other&i#e; the bour*eoi#ie ha# (itt(e to hope, and much to fear, from the education of the &or1in*$c(a##8 +he Mini#tr!, in it# &ho(e enormou# bud*et of U55,777,777, ha# on(! the #in*(e trif(in* item of U47,777 for pub(ic education, and, but for the fanatici#m of the re(i*iou# #ect# &hich doe# at (ea#t a# much harm a# *ood, the mean# of education &ou(d be !et more #cant!8 9# it i#, the State ;hurch mana*e# it# nationa( #choo(# and the ariou# #ect# their #ectarian #choo(# for the #o(e purpo#e of 1eepin* the chi(dren of the brethren of the faith &ithin the con*re*ation, and of &innin* a&a! a poor chi(di#h #ou( here and there from #ome other #ect8 +he con#eBuence i# that re(i*ion, and preci#e(! the mo#t unprofitab(e #ide of re(i*ion, po(emica( di#cu##ion, i# made the principa( #ubDect of in#truction, and the memor! of the chi(dren o erburdened &ith incomprehen#ib(e do*ma# and theo(o*ica( di#tinction#; that #ectarian hatred and bi*otr! are a&a1ened a# ear(! a# po##ib(e, and a(( rationa( menta( and mora( trainin* #hamefu((! ne*(ected8 +he &or1in*$c(a## ha# repeated(! demanded of Par(iament a #!#tem of #trict(! #ecu(ar pub(ic education, (ea in* re(i*ion to the mini#ter# of the #ect#; but, thu# far, no Mini#tr! ha# been induced to *rant it8 +he Mini#ter i# the obedient #er ant of the bour*eoi#ie, and the bour*eoi#ie i# di ided into count(e## #ect#; but each &ou(d *(ad(! *rant the &or1er# the other&i#e dan*erou# education on the #o(e condition of their acceptin*, a# an antidote, the do*ma# pecu(iar to the e#pecia( #ect in Bue#tion8 9nd a# the#e #ect# are #ti(( Buarre((in* amon* them#e( e# for #upremac!, the &or1er# remain for the pre#ent &ithout education8 "t i# true that the manufacturer# boa#t of ha in* enab(ed the maDorit! to read, but the Bua(it! of the readin* i# appropriate to the #ource of the in#truction, a# the ;hi(drenN# Emp(o!ment ;ommi##ion pro e#8 9ccordin* to thi# report, he &ho 1no&# hi# (etter# can read enou*h to #ati#f! the con#cience of the manufacturer#8 9nd &hen one ref(ect# upon the confu#ed

ortho*raph! of the En*(i#h (an*ua*e &hich ma1e# readin* one of the art#, (earned on(! under (on* in#truction, thi# i*norance i# readi(! under#tood8 Jer! fe& &or1in*$peop(e &rite readi(!; and &ritin* ortho*raphica((! i# be!ond the po&er# e en of man!CeducatedT per#on#8 +he Sunda! #choo(# of the State ;hurch, of the Oua1er#, and, " thin1, of #e era( other #ect#, do not teach &ritin*,Cbecau#e it i# too &or(d(! an emp(o!ment for Sunda!T8 +he Bua(it! of the in#truction offered the &or1er# in other direction# ma! be Dud*ed from a #pecimen or t&o, ta1en from the ;hi(drenN# Emp(o!ment ;ommi##ionN# =eport, &hich unfortunate(! doe# not embrace mi(($&or1 proper: "n <irmin*ham, #a!# ;ommi##ioner :rain*er, the chi(dren examined b! me are, a# a &ho(e, utter(! &antin* in a(( that cou(d be in the remote#t de*ree ca((ed a u#efu( education8 9(thou*h in a(mo#t a(( the a(one #choo(# i# re(i*iou# the in#truction furni#hed,

profounde#t i*norance e en upon that #ubDect pre ai(ed8E "n Wo( erhampton, #a!# ;ommi##ioner 5orne, " found, amon* other#, the fo((o&in* examp(e: 9 *ir( of e(e en !ear# &ho had attended both da! and Sunda! #choo(Chad ne er (earnt of another &or(d, nor of hea en, nor of another (ifeT8 9 bo!, #e enteen !ear# o(d,Cdid not 1no& ho& man! t&o and t&o made, nor ho& man! farthin*# there &ere in t&opence, e en &hen the mone! &a# p(aced in hi# handT8 Se era( bo!# had ne er heard of %ondon nor of Wi((enha((, thou*h the (atter &a# but an hourN# &a(1 from their home#, and in the c(o#e#t re(ation# &ith Wo( erhampton8 Se era( had ne er heard the name of the Oueen nor other name#, #uch a# /e(#on, We((in*ton, <onaparte; but it &a# note&orth! that tho#e &ho had ne er heard e en of St8 Pau(, Mo#e#, or So(omon, &ere er! &e(( in#tructed a# to

the (ife, deed#, and character of 4ic1 +urpin, and e#pecia((! of Lac1 Sheppard8 9 !outh of #ixteen did not 1no&Cho& man! t&ice t&o ma1eT, norCho& much mone! four farthin*# ma1eT8 9 !outh of #e enteen a##erted thatCten farthin*# ma1e ten ha(fpenceT; a third, #e enteen !ear# o(d, an#&ered #e era( er! #imp(e Bue#tion# &ith the brief #tatement, thatChe &a# ne Ded*e oN nothinN8T 4.+he#e chi(dren, &ho are crammed &ith re(i*iou# doctrine# for four or fi e !ear# at a #tretch, 1no& a# (itt(e at the end a# at the be*innin*8 ?ne chi(d hadCattended a Sunda! #choo( re*u(ar(! for fi e !ear#; doe# not 1no& &ho Le#u# ;hri#t &a#, but ha# heard the name8 /e er heard of the t&e( e apo#t(e#8 /e er heard of Sam#on, nor of Mo#e#, nor 9aron, etc8T 9notherCattended a Sunda!
48

#choo(

re*u(ar(! #ix !ear#8 Hno&# &ho Le#u# ;hri#t &a#, he died on the cro## to #hed hi# b(ood, to #a e our Sa iour8 /e er heard of St8 Peter or St8 Pau(8T49 9 third,Cattended the Sunda! #choo(# of different 1ind# about #e en !ear#; can read, on(! in the thin boo1#, ea#! &ord# of one #!((ab(e; ha# heard of the apo#t(e#, doe# not 1no& if St8 Peter &a# one, nor if St8 Lohn &a# one, un(e## it &a# St8 Lohn We#(e!8T57 +o the Bue#tion &ho ;hri#t &a#, 5orne recei ed, amon* other#, the fo((o&in* an#&er#,C0e#, 9dam,TI5e &a# an apo#t(e,TI5e &a# the Sa iourN# %ordN# Son,T and from a !outh

of #ixteen:CLe#u# ;hri#t &a# a 1in* of %ondon a (on* time a*o8T "n Sheffie(d, ;ommi##ioner S!mon# (et the chi(dren from the Sunda! #choo( read a(oud; the! cou(d not te(( &hat the! had read, or &hat #ort of peop(e the apo#t(e# &ere, of &hom the! had Du#t been readin*8 9fter he had a#1ed them a(( one after the other about the apo#t(e# &ithout #ecurin* a #in*(e correct an#&er, one #(!$(oo1in* (itt(e fe((o&, &ith *reat *(ee, ca((ed out:CP(ea#e #ir, the! &ere the (eper#@T
51

'rom the potter! di#trict# and from %anca#hire the report# are #imi(ar8 +hi# i# &hat the bour*eoi#ie and the State are doin* for the education and impro ement of the &or1in*$c(a##8 'ortunate(! the condition# under &hich thi# c(a## (i e# are #uch a# *i e it a #ort of practica( trainin*, &hich not on(! rep(ace# #choo( crammin*, but render# harm(e## the confu#ed re(i*iou# notion# connected &ith it, and e en p(ace# the &or1er# in the an*uard of the nationa( mo ement of En*(and8 /ece##it! i# the mother of in ention, and &hat i# #ti(( more important, of thou*ht and action8 +he En*(i#h &or1in*$man &ho can #carce(! read and #ti(( (e## &rite, ne erthe(e## 1no&# er! &e(( &here hi# o&n intere#t and that of the nation (ie#8 5e 1no&#, too, &hat the e#pecia( intere#t of the bour*eoi#ie i#, and &hat he ha# to expect of that bour*eoi#ie8 "f he cannot &rite he can #pea1, and #pea1 in pub(ic; if he ha# no arithmetic, he can, ne erthe(e##, rec1on &ith the Po(itica( Economi#t# enou*h to #ee throu*h a ;orn$%a&$repea(in* bour*eoi#, and to *et the better of him in ar*ument; if ce(e#tia( matter# remain er! mixed for him in #pite of a(( the effort of the preacher#, he #ee# a(( the more c(ear(! into terre#tria(, po(itica(, and #ocia( Bue#tion#8 We #ha(( ha e occa#ion to refer a*ain to thi# point; and pa## no& to the mora( characteri#tic# of our &or1er#8 "t i# #ufficient(! c(ear that the in#truction in mora(# can ha e no better effect than the re(i*iou# teachin*, &ith &hich in a(( En*(i#h #choo(# it i# mixed up8 +he #imp(e princip(e# &hich, for p(ain human bein*#, re*u(ate the re(ation# of man to man, brou*ht into the dire#t confu#ion b! our #ocia( #tate, our &ar of each a*ain#t a((, nece##ari(! remain confu#ed and forei*n to the &or1in*$ man &hen mixed &ith incomprehen#ib(e do*ma#, and preached in the re(i*iou# form of an arbitrar! and do*matic commandment8 +he #choo(# contribute, accordin* to the confe##ion of a(( authoritie#, and e#pecia((! of the ;hi(drenN# Emp(o!ment ;ommi##ion, a(mo#t nothin* to the mora(it! of the &or1in*$c(a##8 So #hort$#i*hted, #o #tupid(! narro&$minded i# the En*(i#h bour*eoi#ie in it# e*oti#m, that it doe# not e en ta1e the troub(e to impre## upon the &or1er# the mora(it! of the da!, &hich the bour*eoi#ie ha# patched to*ether in it# o&n intere#t for it# o&n protection@ E en thi# precautionar! mea#ure i# too *reat an effort for the enfeeb(ed and #(u**i#h bour*eoi#ie8 9 time mu#t come &hen it &i(( repent it# ne*(ect, too (ate8 <ut it ha# no ri*ht to comp(ain that the &or1er# 1no& nothin* of it# #!#tem of mora(#, and do not act in accordance &ith it8

+hu# are the &or1er# ca#t out and i*nored b! the c(a## in po&er, mora((! a# &e(( a# ph!#ica((! and menta((!8 +he on(! pro i#ion made for them i# the (a&, &hich fa#ten# upon them &hen the! become obnoxiou# to the bour*eoi#ie8 %i1e the du((e#t of the brute#, the! are treated to but one form of education, the &hip, in the #hape of force, not con incin* but intimidatin*8 +here i#, therefore, no cau#e for #urpri#e if the &or1er#, treated a# brute#, actua((! become #uch; or if the! can maintain their con#ciou#ne## of manhood on(! b! cheri#hin* the mo#t *(o&in* hatred, the mo#t unbro1en in&ard rebe((ion a*ain#t the bour*eoi#ie in po&er8 +he! are men #o (on* on(! a# the! burn &ith &rath a*ain#t the rei*nin* c(a##8 +he! become brute# the moment the! bend in patience under the !o1e, and mere(! #tri e to ma1e (ife endurab(e &hi(e abandonin* the effort to brea1 the !o1e8 +hi#, then, i# a(( that the bour*eoi#ie ha# done for the education of the pro(etariat E and &hen &e ta1e into con#ideration a(( the circum#tance# in &hich thi# c(a## (i e#, &e #ha(( not thin1 the &or#e of it for the re#entment &hich it cheri#he# a*ain#t the ru(in* c(a##8 +he mora( trainin* &hich i# not *i en to the &or1er in #choo( i# not #upp(ied b! the other condition# of hi# (ife; that mora( trainin*, at (ea#t, &hich a(one ha# &orth in the e!e# of the bour*eoi#ie; hi# &ho(e po#ition and en ironment in o( e# the #tron*e#t temptation to immora(it!8 5e i# poor, (ife offer# him no charm, a(mo#t e er! enDo!ment i# denied him, the pena(tie# of the (a& ha e no further terror# for him; &h! #hou(d he re#train hi# de#ire#, &h! (ea e to the rich the enDo!ment of hi# birthri*ht, &h! not #ei)e a part of it for him#e(fK What inducement ha# the pro(etarian not to #tea(K "t i# a(( er! prett! and er! a*reeab(e to the ear of the bour*eoi# to hear theC#acredne## of propert!T a##erted; but for him &ho ha# none, the #acredne## of propert! die# out of it#e(f8 Mone! i# the :od of thi# &or(d; the bour*eoi# ta1e# the pro(etarianN# mone! from him and #o ma1e# a practica( athei#t of him8 /o &onder, then, if the pro(etarian retain# hi# athei#m and no (on*er re#pect# the #acredne## and po&er of the earth(! :od8 9nd &hen the po ert! of the pro(etarian i# inten#ified to the point of actua( (ac1 of the bare#t nece##arie# of (ife, to &ant and hun*er, the temptation to di#re*ard a(( #ocia( order doe# but *ain po&er8 +hi# the bour*eoi#ie for the mo#t part reco*ni#e#8 S!mon# 56 ob#er e# that po ert! exerci#e# the #ame ruinou# inf(uence upon the mind &hich drun1enne## exerci#e# upon the bod!; and 4r8 9(i#on exp(ain# to propert!$ho(din* reader#, &ith the *reate#t exactne##, &hat the con#eBuence# of #ocia( oppre##ion mu#t be for the &or1in*$c(a##8 5> Want (ea e# the &or1in*$man the choice bet&een #tar in* #(o&(!, 1i((in* him#e(f #peedi(!, or ta1in* &hat he need# &here he find# it E in p(ain En*(i#h, #tea(in*8 9nd there i# no cau#e for #urpri#e that mo#t of them prefer #tea(in* to #tar ation and #uicide8 +rue, there are, &ithin the &or1in*$c(a##, number# too mora( to #tea( e en &hen reduced to the utmo#t extremit!, and the#e #tar e or commit #uicide8 'or #uicide, former(! the en iab(e pri i(e*e of the upper c(a##e#, ha# become fa#hionab(e amon* the En*(i#h &or1er#, and number# of the poor 1i(( them#e( e# to a oid the mi#er! from &hich the! #ee no other mean# of e#cape8 <ut far more demora(i#in* than hi# po ert! in it# inf(uence upon the En*(i#h &or1in*$man i# the in#ecurit! of hi# po#ition, the nece##it! of (i in* upon &a*e# from hand to mouth, that in #hort &hich ma1e# a pro(etarian of him8 +he #ma((er pea#ant# in :erman! are u#ua((! poor, and often #uffer &ant, but the! are (e## at the merc! of accident, the! ha e at (ea#t #omethin* #ecure8 +he pro(etarian, &ho ha# nothin* but hi# t&o hand#, &ho con#ume# toda! &hat he earned !e#terda!, &ho i# #ubDect to e er! po##ib(e chance, and ha# not the #(i*hte#t *uarantee for bein* ab(e to earn the bare#t nece##itie# of (ife, &hom e er! cri#i#, e er! &him of hi# emp(o!er ma! depri e of bread, thi# pro(etarian i# p(aced in the mo#t re o(tin*, inhuman po#ition concei ab(e for a human bein*8 +he #(a e i# a##ured of a bare (i e(ihood b! the #e(f$intere#t of hi# ma#ter, the #erf ha# at (ea#t a #crap of (and on &hich to (i e; each ha# at &or#t a *uarantee for (ife it#e(f8 <ut the pro(etarian mu#t depend upon him#e(f a(one, and i# !et pre ented from #o app(!in* hi# abi(itie# a# to be ab(e to re(! upon them8 E er!thin* that the pro(etarian can do to impro e hi# po#ition i# but a drop in the ocean compared &ith the f(ood# of ar!in* chance# to &hich he i# expo#ed, o er

&hich he ha# not the #(i*hte#t contro(8 5e i# the pa##i e #ubDect of a(( po##ib(e combination# of circum#tance#, and mu#t count him#e(f fortunate &hen he ha# #a ed hi# (ife e en for a #hort time; and hi# character and &a! of (i in* are natura((! #haped b! the#e condition#8 Either he #ee1# to 1eep hi# head abo e &ater in thi# &hir(poo(, to re#cue hi# manhood, and thi# he can do #o(e(! in rebe((ion54 a*ain#t the c(a## &hich p(under# him #o merci(e##(! and then abandon# him to hi# fate, &hich #tri e# to ho(d him in thi# po#ition #o demora(i#in* to a human bein*; or he *i e# up the #tru**(e a*ain#t hi# fate a# hope(e##, and #tri e# to profit, #o far a# he can, b! the mo#t fa ourab(e moment8 +o #a e i# una ai(in*, for at the utmo#t he cannot #a e more than #uffice# to #u#tain (ife for a #hort time, &hi(e if he fa((# out of &or1, it i# for no brief period8 +o accumu(ate (a#tin* propert! for him#e(f i# impo##ib(e; and if it &ere not, he &ou(d on(! cea#e to be a &or1in*$man and another &ou(d ta1e hi# p(ace8 What better thin* can he do, then, &hen he *et# hi*h &a*e#, than (i e &e(( upon themK +he En*(i#h bour*eoi#ie i# io(ent(! #canda(i#ed at the extra a*ant (i in* of the &or1er# &hen &a*e# are hi*h; !et it i# not on(! er! natura( but er! #en#ib(e of them to enDo! (ife &hen the! can, in#tead of (a!in* up trea#ure# &hich are of no (a#tin* u#e to them, and &hich in the end moth and ru#t ,i8e8, the bour*eoi#ie- *et po##e##ion of8 0et #uch a (ife i# demora(i#in* be!ond a(( other#8 What ;ar(!(e #a!# of the cotton #pinner# i# true of a(( En*(i#h indu#tria( &or1er#:55 T+heir trade, no& in p(ethoric pro#perit!, anon extenuated into inanition and N#hort timeN, i# of the nature of *amb(in*; the! (i e b! it (i1e *amb(er#, no& in (uxuriou# #uperf(uit!, no& in #tar ation8 <(ac1, mutinou# di#content de our# them; #imp(! the mi#erab(e#t fee(in* that can inhabit the heart of man8 En*(i#h commerce, con u(#i e &ith it# &or(d$&ide, &ith it# f(uctuation#,

immea#urab(e Proteu# Steam demon, ma1e# a(( path# uncertain for them, a(( (ife a be&i(derment; #obriet!, #teadfa#tne##, peaceab(e continuance, the fir#t b(e##in*# of man are not their#8E +hi# &or(d i# for them no home, but a din*! pri#on$hou#e, of rec1(e## unthrift, rebe((ion, rancour, indi*nation a*ain#t them#e( e# and a*ain#t a(( men8 "# it a *reen, f(o&er! &or(d, &ith a)ure e er(a#tin* #1! #tretched o er it, the &or1 and *o ernment of a :od; or a mur1!, #immerin* +ophet, of coppera#

fume#, cotton fu)), *in riot, &rath and toi(, created b! a 4emon, *o erned b! a 4emonKT 9nd e(#e&here:
56

T"nDu#tice, infide(it! to truth and fact and /atureN# order, bein* proper(! the one e i( under the #un, and the fee(in* of inDu#tice the one into(erab(e pain under the #un, our *rand Bue#tion a# to the condition of the#e &or1in*$men &ou(d be: "# it Du#tK 9nd, fir#t of a((, &hat be(ief ha e the! them#e( e# formed about the Du#tice of itK +he &ord# the! promu(*ate are notab(e b! &a! of an#&er; their action# are #ti(( more notab(e8 =e o(t, #u((en, re en*efu( humour of re o(t a*ain#t the upper c(a##e#, decrea#in* re#pect for &hat their tempora( #uperior# command, decrea#in* faith for &hat their #piritua( #uperior# teach, i# more and more the uni er#a( #pirit of the (o&er c(a##e#8 Such #pirit ma! be b(amed, ma! be indicated, but a(( men mu#t reco*ni#e it a# extant there, a(( ma! 1no& that it i# mournfu(, that un(e## a(tered it &i(( be fata(8T ;ar(!(e i# perfect(! ri*ht a# to the fact# and &ron* on(! in cen#urin* the &i(d ra*e of the &or1er# a*ain#t the hi*her c(a##e#8 +hi# ra*e, thi# pa##ion, i# rather the proof that the &or1er# fee( the inhumanit! of their po#ition, that the! refu#e to be de*raded to the (e e( of brute#, and that the! &i(( one da! free them#e( e# from #er itude to the bour*eoi#ie8 +hi# ma! be #een in the ca#e of tho#e &ho do not #hare thi# &rath; the! either bo& humb(! before the fate that o erta1e# them, (i e a re#pectfu( pri ate (ife a# &e(( a# the! can, do not concern them#e( e# a# to the cour#e of pub(ic affair#, he(p the bour*eoi#ie to for*e the chain# of the &or1er# !et more #ecure(! and #tand upon the p(ane of inte((ectua( nu((it! that pre ai(ed before the indu#tria( period be*an; or the! are to##ed about b! fate, (o#e their mora( ho(d upon them#e( e# a# the! ha e a(read! (o#t their economic ho(d, (i e a(on* from da! to da!, drin1 and fa(( into (icentiou#ne##; and in both ca#e# the! are brute#8 +he (a#t$named c(a## contribute# chief(! to theCrapid increa#e of iceT, at &hich the bour*eoi#ieN i# #o horrified after it#e(f #ettin* in motion the cau#e# &hich *i e ri#e to it8

9nother #ource of demora(i#ation amon* the &or1er# i# their bein* condemned to &or18 9# o(untar!, producti e acti it! i# the hi*he#t enDo!ment 1no&n to u#, #o i# compu(#or! toi( the mo#t crue(, de*radin* puni#hment8 /othin* i# more terrib(e than bein* con#trained to do #ome one thin* e er! da! from mornin* unti( ni*ht a*ain#t oneN# &i((8 9nd the more a man the &or1er fee(# him#e(f, the more hatefu( mu#t hi# &or1 be to him, becau#e he fee(# the con#traint, the aim(e##ne## of it for him#e(f8 Wh! doe# he &or1K 'or (o e of &or1K 'rom a natura( impu(#eK /ot at a((@ 5e &or1# for mone!, for a thin* &hich ha# nothin* &hat#oe er to do &ith the &or1 it#e(f; and he &or1# #o (on*, moreo er, and in #uch unbro1en monoton!, that thi# a(one mu#t ma1e hi# &or1 a torture in the fir#t &ee1# if he ha# the (ea#t human fee(in* (eft8 +he di i#ion of (abour ha# mu(tip(ied the bruta(i#in* inf(uence# of forced &or18 "n mo#t branche# the &or1erN# acti it! i# reduced to #ome pa(tr!, pure(! mechanica( manipu(ation, repeated minute after minute, unchan*ed !ear after !ear8 5. 5o& much human fee(in*, &hat abi(itie# can a man retain in hi# thirtieth !ear, &ho ha# made need(e point# or fi(ed toothed &hee(# t&e( e hour# e er! da! from hi# ear(! chi(dhood, (i in* a(( the time under the condition# forced upon the En*(i#h pro(etarianK "t i# #ti(( the #ame thin* #ince the introduction of #team8 +he &or1erN# acti it! i# made ea#!, mu#cu(ar effort i# #a ed, but the &or1 it#e(f become# unmeanin* and monotonou# to the (a#t de*ree8 "t offer# no fie(d for menta( acti it!, and c(aim# Du#t enou*h of hi# attention to 1eep him from thin1in* of an!thin* e(#e8 9nd a #entence to #uch &or1, to &or1 &hich ta1e# hi# &ho(e time for it#e(f, (ea in* him #carce(! time to eat and #(eep, none for ph!#ica( exerci#e in the open air, or the enDo!ment of /ature, much (e## for menta( acti it!, ho& can #uch a #entence he(p de*radin* a human bein* to the (e e( of a bruteK ?nce more the &or1er mu#t choo#e, mu#t either #urrender him#e(f to hi# fate, become aC*oodT &or1man, heedCfaithfu((!T the intere#t of the bour*eoi#ie, in &hich ca#e he mo#t certain(! become# a brute, or e(#e he mu#t rebe(, fi*ht for hi# manhood to the (a#t, and thi# he can on(! do in the fi*ht a*ain#t the bour*eoi#ie8 9nd &hen a(( the#e condition# ha e en*endered a#t demora(i#ation amon* the &or1er#, a ne& inf(uence i# added to the o(d, to #pread thi# de*radation more &ide(! and carr! it to the extreme#t point8 +hi# inf(uence i# the centra(i#ation of the popu(ation8 +he &riter# of the En*(i#h bour*eoi#ie are cr!in* murder at the demora(i#in* tendenc! of the *reat citie#; (i1e per erted Leremiah#, the! #in* dir*e#, not o er the de#truction, but the *ro&th of the citie#8 Sheriff 9(i#on attribute# a(mo#t e er!thin*, and 4r8 Jau*han, author of !he -ge of *reat Cities, #ti(( more to thi# inf(uence8 9nd thi# i# natura(, for the propertied c(a## ha# too direct an intere#t in the other condition# &hich tend to de#tro! the &or1er bod! and #ou(8 "f the! #hou(d admit that po ert!, in#ecurit!, o er&or1, forced &or1, are the chief ruinou# inf(uence#, the! &ou(d ha e to dra& the conc(u#ion, then (et u# *i e the poor propert!, *uarantee their #ub#i#tence, ma1e (a&# a*ain#t o er&or1, and thi# the bour*eoi#ie dare not formu(ate8 <ut the *reat citie# ha e *ro&n up #o #pontaneou#(!, the popu(ation ha# mo ed into them #o &ho((! of it# o&n motion, and the inference that manufacture and the midd(e$c(a## &hich profit# from it a(one ha e created the citie# i# #o remote, that it i# extreme(! con enient for the ru(in* c(a## to a#cribe a(( the e i( to thi# apparent(! una oidab(e #ource; &herea# the *reat citie# rea((! on(! #ecure a more rapid and certain de e(opment for e i(# a(read! exi#tin* in the *erm8 9(i#on i# humane enou*h to admit thi#; he i# no thorou*hbred %ibera( manufacturer, but on(! a ha(f de e(oped +or! bour*eoi#, and he ha#, therefore, an open e!e, no& and then, &here the fu(($f(ed*ed bour*eoi# i# #ti(( #tone b(ind8 %et u# hear him858 "t i# in the *reat citie# thatC ice ha# #pread her temptation#, and p(ea#ure her #eduction#, and fo((! her a((urement#; that *ui(t i# encoura*ed b! the hope of

impunit!, and id(ene## fo#tered b! the freBuenc! of examp(e8 "t i# to the#e *reat mart# of human corruption that the ba#e and the prof(i*ate re#ort from the #imp(icit! of countr! (ife; it i# here that the! find ictim# &hereon to practi#e their iniBuit!, and *ain# to re&ard the dan*er# that attend them8 Jirtue i# here depre##ed from the ob#curit! in &hich it i# in o( ed8 :ui(t i# matured from the difficu(t! of it# detection; (icentiou#ne## i# re&arded b! the immediate enDo!ment &hich it promi#e#8 "f an! per#on &i(( &a(1 throu*h St8 :i(e#N#, the cro&ded a((e!# of 4ub(in, or the poorer Buarter# of :(a#*o& b! ni*ht, he &i(( meet &ith amp(e proof of the#e ob#er ation#; he &i(( no (on*er &onder at the di#order(! habit# and prof(i*ate enDo!ment# of the (o&er order#; hi# a#toni#hment &i(( be, not that there i# #o much, but that there i# #o (itt(e crime in the &or(d8 +he *reat cau#e of human corruption in the#e cro&ded #ituation# i# the conta*iou# nature of bad examp(e and the extreme difficu(t! of a oidin* the #eduction# of ice &hen the! are brou*ht into c(o#e and dai(! proximit! &ith the !oun*er part of the peop(e8 Whate er &e ma! thin1 of the #tren*th of irtue, experience pro e# that the hi*her order# are indebted for their exemption from atrociou# crime or di#order(! habit# chief(! to their fortunate remo a( from the #cene of temptation; and that &here

the! are expo#ed to the #eduction# &hich a##ai( their inferior#, the! are no&a!# behind them in !ie(din* to their inf(uence8 "t i# the pecu(iar mi#fortune of the poor in *reat citie# that the! cannot f(! from the#e irre#i#tib(e temptation#, but that, turn &here the! &i((, the! are met b! the a((urin* form# of ice, or the #eduction# of *ui(t! enDo!ment8 "t i# the experienced impo##ibi(it! of concea(in* the attraction# of ice from the !oun*er part of the poor in *reat citie# &hich expo#e# them to #o man! cau#e# of demora(i#ation8 9(( thi# proceed# not from an! un&onted or extraordinar! depra it! in the character of the#e ictim# of (icentiou#ne##, but from the a(mo#t irre#i#tib(e nature of the temptation# to &hich the poor are expo#ed8 +he rich, &ho cen#ure their conduct, &ou(d in a(( probabi(it! !ie(d a# rapid(! a# the! ha e done to the inf(uence of #imi(ar cau#e#8 +here i# a certain de*ree of mi#er!, a certain proximit! to #in, &hich irtue i# rare(! ab(e to &ith#tand, and &hich the !oun*, in particu(ar, are *enera((! unab(e to re#i#t8 +he pro*re## of ice in #uch circum#tance# i# a(mo#t a# certain and often near(! a# rapid a# that of ph!#ica( conta*ion8T 9nd e(#e&here: TWhen the hi*her order# for their o&n profit ha e dra&n the (abourin*$c(a##e# in *reat number# into a #ma(( #pace, the

conta*ion of *ui(t become# rapid and una oidab(e8 +he (o&er order#, #ituated a# the! are in #o far a# re*ard# mora( or re(i*iou# in#tructofion, are freBuent(! hard(! more to be b(amed for !ie(din* to the temptation# &hich #urround them than for fa((in* ictim# to the t!phu# fe er8T Enou*h@ +he ha(f$bour*eoi# 9(i#on betra!# to u#, ho&e er narro& hi# manner of expre##in* him#e(f, the e i( effect of the *reat citie# upon the mora( de e(opment of the &or1er#8 9nother, a bour*eoi# pur sang, 59 a man after the heart of the 9nti$;orn %a& %ea*ue, 4r8 9ndre& Fre, 67 betra!# the other #ide8 5e te((# u# that (ife in *reat citie# faci(itate# caba(# amon* the &or1er# and confer# po&er on the P(eb#8 "f here the &or1er# are not educated ,i8e8, to obedience to the bour*eoi#ie-, the! ma! ie& matter# one$#ided(!, from the #tandpoint of a #ini#ter #e(fi#hne##, and ma! readi(! permit them#e( e# to be hood&in1ed b! #(! dema*o*ue#; na!, the! mi*ht e en be capab(e of ie&in* their *reate#t benefactor#, the fru*a( and enterpri#in* capita(i#t#, &ith a Dea(ou# and ho#ti(e e!e8 5ere proper trainin* a(one can a ai(, or nationa( ban1ruptc! and other horror# mu#t fo((o&, #ince a re o(ution of the &or1er# cou(d hard(! fai( to occur8 9nd our bour*eoi# i# perfect(! Du#tified in hi# fear#8 "f the centra(i#ation of popu(ation #timu(ate# and de e(op# the propert!$ho(din* c(a##, it force# the de e(opment of the &or1er# !et more rapid(!8 +he &or1er# be*in to fee( a# a c(a##, a# a &ho(e; the! be*in to percei e that, thou*h feeb(e a# indi idua(#, the! form a po&er united; their #eparation from the bour*eoi#ie, the de e(opment of ie&# pecu(iar to the &or1er# and corre#pondin* to their po#ition in (ife, i# fo#tered, the con#ciou#ne## of oppre##ion a&a1en#, and the &or1er# attain #ocia( and po(itica( importance8 +he *reat citie# are the birthp(ace# of (abour mo ement#; in them the &or1er# fir#t be*an to ref(ect upon their o&n condition, and to #tru**(e a*ain#t it; in them the oppo#ition bet&een pro(etariat and bour*eoi#ie fir#t made it#e(f manife#t; from them proceeded the +rade# Fnion#, ;harti#m, and Socia(i#m8 +he *reat citie# ha e tran#formed the di#ea#e of the #ocia( bod!, &hich appear# in chronic form in the countr!, into an acute one, and #o made manife#t it# rea( nature and the mean# of curin* it8 Without the *reat citie# and their forcin* inf(uence upon the popu(ar inte((i*ence, the &or1in*$c(a## &ou(d be far (e## ad anced than it i#8 Moreo er, the! ha e de#tro!ed the (a#t remnant of the patriarcha( re(ation bet&een &or1in*$men and emp(o!er#, a re#u(t to &hich manufacture on a (ar*e #ca(e ha# contributed b! mu(tip(!in* the emp(o!ee# dependent upon a #in*(e emp(o!er8 +he bour*eoi#ie dep(ore# a(( thi#, it i# true, and ha# *ood rea#on to do #o; for, under the o(d condition#, the bour*eoi# &a# comparati e(! #ecure a*ain#t a re o(t on the part of hi# hand#8 5e cou(d t!ranni#e o er them and p(under them to hi# heartN# content, and !et recei e obedience, *ratitude, and a##ent from the#e #tupid peop(e b! be#to&in* a trif(e of patroni#in* friend(ine## &hich co#t him nothin*, and perhap# #ome pa(tr! pre#ent, a(( apparent(! out of pure, #e(f$#acrificin*, unca((ed$for *oodne## of heart, but rea((! not one$tenth part of hi# dut!8 9# an indi idua( bour*eoi#, p(aced under condition# &hich he had not him#e(f created, he mi*ht do hi# dut! at (ea#t in part; but, a# a member of the ru(in* c(a##, &hich, b! the mere fact of it# ru(in*, i# re#pon#ib(e for the condition of the &ho(e nation, he did nothin* of &hat hi# po#ition in o( ed8 ?n the contrar!, he p(undered the &ho(e nation for hi# o&n indi idua( ad anta*e8 "n the patriarcha( re(ation that h!pocritica((! concea(ed the #(a er! of the &or1er, the (atter mu#t ha e remained an inte((ectua( )ero, tota((! i*norant of hi# o&n intere#t, a mere pri ate indi idua(8 ?n(! &hen e#tran*ed from hi# emp(o!er, &hen con inced that the #o(e bond bet&een emp(o!er and

emp(o!ee i# the bond of pecuniar! profit, &hen the #entimenta( bond bet&een them, &hich #tood not the #(i*hte#t te#t, had &ho((! fa((en a&a!, then on(! did the &or1er be*in to reco*ni#e hi# o&n intere#t# and de e(op independent(!; then on(! did he cea#e to be the #(a e of the bour*eoi#ie in hi# thou*ht#, fee(in*#, and the expre##ion of hi# &i((8 9nd to thi# end manufacture on a *rand #ca(e and in *reat citie# ha# mo#t (ar*e(! contributed8 9nother inf(uence of *reat moment in formin* the character of the En*(i#h &or1er# i# the "ri#h immi*ration a(read! referred to8 ?n the one hand it ha#, a# &e ha e #een, de*raded the En*(i#h &or1er#, remo ed them from ci i(i#ation, and a**ra ated the hard#hip of their (ot; but, on the other hand, it ha# thereb! deepened the cha#m bet&een &or1er# and bour*eoi#ie, and ha#tened the approachin* cri#i#8 'or the cour#e of the #ocia( di#ea#e from &hich En*(and i# #ufferin* i# the #ame a# the cour#e of a ph!#ica( di#ea#e; it de e(op# accordin* to certain (a&#, ha# it# o&n cri#e#, the (a#t and mo#t io(ent of &hich determine# the fate of the patient8 9nd a# the En*(i#h nation cannot #uccumb under the fina( cri#i#, but mu#t *o forth from it, born a*ain, reDu enated, &e can but reDoice o er e er!thin* &hich acce(erate# the cour#e of the di#ea#e8 9nd to thi# the "ri#h immi*ration further contribute# b! rea#on of the pa##ionate, mercuria( "ri#h temperament, &hich it import# into En*(and and into the En*(i#h &or1in*$c(a##8 +he "ri#h and En*(i#h are to each other much a# the 'rench and the :erman#; and the mixin* of the more faci(e, excitab(e, fier! "ri#h temperament &ith the #tab(e, rea#onin*, per#e erin* En*(i#h mu#t, in the (on* run, be producti e on(! of *ood for both8 +he rou*h e*oti#m of the En*(i#h bour*eoi#ie &ou(d ha e 1ept it# ho(d upon the &or1in*$c(a## much more firm(! if the "ri#h nature, *enerou# to a fau(t, and ru(ed primari(! b! #entiment, had not inter ened, and #oftened the co(d, rationa( En*(i#h character in part b! a mixture of the race#, and in part b! the ordinar! contact of (ife8 "n ie& of a(( thi#, it i# not #urpri#in* that the &or1in*$c(a## ha# *radua((! become a race &ho((! apart from the En*(i#h bour*eoi#ie8 +he bour*eoi#ie ha# more in common &ith e er! other nation of the earth than &ith the &or1er# in &ho#e mid#t it (i e#8 +he &or1er# #pea1 other dia(ect#, ha e other thou*ht# and idea(#, other cu#tom# and mora( princip(e#, a different re(i*ion and other po(itic# than tho#e of the bour*eoi#ie8 +hu# the! are t&o radica((! di##imi(ar nation#, a# un(i1e a# difference of race cou(d ma1e them, of &hom &e on the ;ontinent ha e 1no&n but one, the bour*eoi#ie8 0et it i# preci#e(! the other, the peop(e, the pro(etariat, &hich i# b! far the more important for the future of En*(and8 61 ?f the pub(ic character of the En*(i#h &or1in*$man, a# it find# expre##ion in a##ociation# and po(itica( princip(e#, &e #ha(( ha e occa#ion to #pea1 (ater; (et u# here con#ider the re#u(t# of the inf(uence# cited abo e, a# the! affect the pri ate character of the &or1er8 +he &or1man i# far more humane in ordinar! (ife than the bour*eoi#8 " ha e a(read! mentioned the fact that the be**ar# are accu#tomed to turn a(mo#t exc(u#i e(! to the &or1er#, and that, in *enera(, more i# done b! the &or1er# than b! the bour*eoi#ie for the maintenance of the poor8 +hi# fact, &hich an! one ma! pro e for him#e(f an! da!, i# confirmed, amon* other#, b! 4r8 Par1in#on, ;anon of Manche#ter, &ho #a!#: 66 T+he poor *i e more to each other than the rich *i e to the poor8 " am confirmed in thi# a##ertion b! the te#timon! of one of our o(de#t, mo#t (earned, and mo#t ob#er ant ph!#ician# 4r8 <ard#(e!, &ho#e humanit! i# a# con#picuou# a# hi# (earnin* and ta(ent, and &ho ha# often

pub(ic(! dec(ared that the a**re*ate #um *i en in each !ear b! the poor to each other exceed# that contributed b! the rich in the #ame period8T "n other &a!#, too, the humanit! of the &or1er# i# con#tant(! manife#tin* it#e(f p(ea#ant(!8 +he! ha e experienced hard time# them#e( e#, and can therefore fee( for tho#e in troub(e, &hence the! are more approachab(e, friend(ier, and (e## *reed! for mone!, thou*h the! need it far more than the propert!$ho(din* c(a##8 'or them mone! i# &orth on(! &hat it &i(( bu!, &herea# for the bour*eoi# it ha# an e#pecia( inherent a(ue, the a(ue of a *od, and ma1e# the bour*eoi# the mean, (o& mone!$*rubber that he i#8 +he &or1in*$man &ho 1no&# nothin* of thi# fee(in* of re erence for mone! i# therefore (e## *ra#pin* than the bour*eoi#, &ho#e &ho(e acti it! i# for the purpo#e of *ain, &ho #ee# in the accumu(ation# of hi# mone!$ba*# the end and aim of (ife8 5ence the &or1man i# much (e## preDudiced, ha# a c(earer e!e for fact# a# the! are than the bour*eoi#, and doe# not (oo1 at e er!thin* throu*h the #pectac(e# of per#ona( #e(fi#hne##8 5i# fau(t! education #a e# him from re(i*iou# prepo##e##ion#, he doe# not under#tand re(i*iou# Bue#tion#, doe# not troub(e him#e(f about them, 1no&# nothin* of the fanatici#m that ho(d# the bour*eoi#ie bound; and if he chance# to ha e an! re(i*ion, he ha# it on(! in name, not e en in theor!8 Practica((! he (i e# for thi# &or(d, and #tri e# to ma1e him#e(f at home in it8 9(( the &riter# of the bour*eoi#ie are unanimou# on thi# point, that the &or1er# are not re(i*iou#, and do not attend church8 'rom the *enera( #tatement are to be excepted the "ri#h, a fe& e(der(! peop(e, and the ha(f$bour*eoi#, the o er(oo1er#, foremen, and the (i1e8 <ut amon* the ma##e# there pre ai(# a(mo#t uni er#a((! a tota( indifference to re(i*ion, or at the utmo#t, #ome trace of 4ei#m too unde e(oped to amount to more than mere &ord#, or a a*ue dread of the &ord# infide(, athei#t, etc8 +he c(er*! of a(( #ect# i# in er! bad odour &ith the &or1in*$men, thou*h the (o## of it# inf(uence i# recent8 9t pre#ent, ho&e er, the mere cr!:C5eN# a par#on@T i# often enou*h to dri e one of the c(er*! from the p(atform of a pub(ic meetin*8 9nd (i1e the re#t of the condition# under &hich he (i e#, hi# &ant of re(i*iou# and other cu(ture contribute# to 1eep the &or1in*$man more uncon#trained, freer from inherited #tab1e tenet# and cut$and$dried opinion#, than the bour*eoi# &ho i# #aturated &ith the c(a## preDudice# poured into him from hi# ear(ie#t !outh8 +here i# nothin* to be done &ith the bour*eoi#; he i# e##entia((! con#er ati e in ho&e er (ibera( a *ui#e, hi# intere#t i# bound up &ith that of the propert!$ho(din* c(a##, he i# dead to a(( acti e mo ement; he i# (o#in* hi# po#ition in the forefront of En*(andN# hi#torica( de e(opment8 +he &or1er# are ta1in* hi# p(ace, in ri*htfu( c(aim fir#t, then in fact8 9(( thi#, to*ether &ith the corre#pondent pub(ic action of the &or1er#, &ith &hich &e #ha(( dea( (ater, form# the fa ourab(e #ide of the character of thi# c(a##; the unfa ourab(e one ma! be Buite a# brief(! #ummed up, and fo((o&# Buite a# natura((! out of the *i en cau#e#8 4run1enne##, #exua( irre*u(aritie#, bruta(it!, and di#re*ard for the ri*ht# of propert! are the chief point# &ith &hich the bour*eoi# char*e# them8 +hat the! drin1 hea i(! i# to be expected8 Sheriff 9(i#on a##ert# that in :(a#*o& #ome thirt! thou#and &or1in*$men *et drun1 e er! Saturda! ni*ht, and the e#timate i# certain(! not exa**erated; and that in that cit! in 18>7, one hou#e in t&e( e, and in 1847, one hou#e in ten, &a# a pub(ic$hou#e; that in Scot(and, in 186>, exci#e &a# paid upon 6,>77,777 *a((on#; in 18>., upon 6,667,777 *a((on#; in En*(and, in 186>, upon 1,9.6,777 *a((on#, and in 18>., upon .,8.5,777 *a((on# of #pirit#8 6> +he <eer 9ct of 18>7, &hich faci(itated the openin* of beerhou#e# ,Derr!$#hop#-, &ho#e 1eeper# are (icen#ed to #e(( beer to be drun1 on the premi#e#, faci(itated the #pread of intemperance b! brin*in* a beerhou#e, #o to #a!, to e er!bod!N# door8 "n near(! e er! #treet there are #e era( #uch beerhou#e#, and amon* t&o or three nei*hbourin* hou#e# in the countr! one i# #ure to be a Derr!$#hop8 <e#ide# the#e, there are hu#h$#hop# in

mu(titude#, i8e8, #ecret drin1in*$p(ace# &hich are not (icen#ed, and Buite a# man! #ecret di#ti((erie# &hich product *reat Buantitie# of #pirit# in retired #pot#, rare(! i#ited b! the po(ice, in the *reat citie#8 :a#1e(( e#timate# the#e #ecret di#ti((erie# in Manche#ter a(one at more than a hundred, and their product at 156,777 *a((on# at the (ea#t8 "n Manche#ter there are, be#ide#, more than a thou#and pub(ic hou#e# #e((in* a(( #ort# of a(coho(ic drin1#, or Buite a# man! in proportion to the number of inhabitant# a# in :(a#*o&8 "n a(( other *reat to&n#, the #tate of thin*# i# the #ame8 9nd &hen one con#ider#, apart from the u#ua( con#eBuence# of intemperance, that men and &omen, e en chi(dren, often mother# &ith babie# in their arm#, come into contact in the#e p(ace# &ith the mo#t de*raded ictim# of the bour*eoi# re*ime, &ith thie e#, #&ind(er#, and pro#titute#; &hen one ref(ect# that man! a mother *i e# the bab! on her arm *in to drin1, the demora(i#in* effect# of freBuentin* #uch p(ace# cannot be denied8 ?n Saturda! e enin*#, e#pecia((! &hen &a*e# are paid and &or1 #top# #ome&hat ear(ier than u#ua(, &hen the &ho(e &or1in*$c(a## pour# from it# o&n poor Buarter# into the main thorou*hfare#, intemperance ma! be #een in a(( it# bruta(it!8 " ha e rare(! come out of Manche#ter on #uch an e enin* &ithout meetin* number# of peop(e #ta**erin* and #eein* other# (!in* in the *utter8 ?n Sunda! e enin* the #ame #cene i# u#ua((! repeated, on(! (e## noi#i(!8 9nd &hen their mone! i# #pent, the drun1ard# *o to the neare#t pa&n#hop, of &hich there are p(ent! in e er! cit! E o er #ixt! in Manche#ter, and ten or t&e( e in a #in*(e #treet of Sa(ford, ;hape( Street E and pa&n &hate er the! po##e##8 'urniture, Sunda! c(othe# &here #uch exi#t, 1itchen uten#i(# in ma##e# are fetched from the pa&nbro1er# on Saturda! ni*ht on(! to &ander bac1, a(mo#t &ithout fai(, before the next Wedne#da!, unti( at (a#t #ome accident ma1e# the fina( redemption impo##ib(e, and one artic(e after another fa((# into the c(utche# of the u#urer, or unti( he refu#e# to *i e a #in*(e farthin* more upon the battered, u#ed up p(ed*e8 When one ha# #een the extent of intemperance amon* the &or1er# in En*(and, one readi(! be(ie e# %ord 9#h(e!N# #tatement 64 that thi# c(a## annua((! expend# #omethin* (i1e t&ent!$fi e mi((ion pound# #ter(in* upon intoxicatin* (iBuor; and the deterioration in externa( condition#, the fri*htfu( #hatterin* of menta( and ph!#ica( hea(th, the ruin of a(( dome#tic re(ation# &hich fo((o& ma! readi(! be ima*ined8 +rue, the temperance #ocietie# ha e done much, but &hat are a fe& thou#and teetota((er# amon* the mi((ion# of &or1er#K When 'ather Mathe&, the "ri#h apo#t(e of temperance, pa##e# throu*h the En*(i#h citie#, from thirt! to #ixt! thou#and &or1er# ta1e the p(ed*e; but mo#t of them brea1 it a*ain &ithin a month8 "f one count# up the immen#e number# &ho ha e ta1en the p(ed*e in the (a#t three or four !ear# in Manche#ter, the tota( i# *reater than the &ho(e popu(ation of the to&n E and #ti(( it i# b! no mean# e ident that intemperance i# dimini#hin*8 /ext to intemperance in the enDo!ment of intoxicatin* (iBuor#, one of the principa( fau(t# of En*(i#h &or1in*$men i# #exua( (icence8 <ut thi#, too, fo((o&# &ith re(ent(e## (o*ic, &ith ine itab(e nece##it! out of the po#ition of a c(a## (eft to it#e(f, &ith no mean# of ma1in* fittin* u#e of it# freedom8 +he bour*eoi#ie ha# (eft the &or1in*$c(a## on(! the#e t&o p(ea#ure#, &hi(e impo#in* upon it a mu(titude of (abour# and hard#hip#, and the con#eBuence i# that the &or1in*$men, in order to *et #omethin* from (ife, concentrate their &ho(e ener*! upon the#e t&o enDo!ment#, carr! them to exce##, #urrender to them in the mo#t unbrid(ed manner8 When peop(e are p(aced under condition# &hich appea( to the brute on(!, &hat remain# to them but to rebe( or to #uccumb to utter bruta(it!K 9nd &hen, moreo er, the bour*eoi#ie doe# it# fu(( #hare in maintainin* pro#titution E and ho& man! of the 47,777 pro#titute# &ho fi(( the #treet# of %ondon e er! e enin* (i e upon the irtuou# bour*eoi#ie@ 5o& man! of them o&e it to the #eduction of a bour*eoi#, that the! mu#t offer their bodie# to the pa##er#$b! in order to (i eK E #ure(! it ha# (ea#t of a(( a ri*ht to reproach the &or1er# &ith their #exua( bruta(it!8 +he fai(in*# of the &or1er# in *enera( ma! be traced to an unbrid(ed thir#t for p(ea#ure, to &ant of pro idence, and of f(exibi(it! in fittin* into the #ocia( order, to the *enera( inabi(it! to #acrifice the p(ea#ure of the moment to a remoter ad anta*e8 <ut i# that to be &ondered atK When a c(a##

can purcha#e fe& and on(! the mo#t #en#ua( p(ea#ure# b! it# &ear!in* toi(, mu#t it not *i e it#e(f o er b(ind(! and mad(! to tho#e p(ea#ure#K 9 c(a## about &ho#e education no one troub(e# him#e(f, &hich i# a p(a!ba(( to a thou#and chance#, 1no&# no #ecurit! in (ife E &hat incenti e# ha# #uch a c(a## to pro idence, toCre#pectabi(it!T, to #acrifice the p(ea#ure of the moment for a remoter enDo!ment, mo#t uncertain preci#e(! b! rea#on of the perpetua((! ar!in*, #hiftin* condition# under &hich the pro(etariat (i e#K 9 c(a## &hich bear# a(( the di#ad anta*e# of the #ocia( order &ithout enDo!in* it# ad anta*e#, one to &hich the #ocia( #!#tem appear# in pure(! ho#ti(e a#pect# E &ho can demand that #uch a c(a## re#pect thi# #ocia( orderK Jeri(! that i# a#1in* much@ <ut the &or1in*$man cannot e#cape the pre#ent arran*ement of #ociet! #o (on* a# it exi#t#, and &hen the indi idua( &or1er re#i#t# it, the *reate#t inDur! fa((# upon him#e(f8 +hu# the #ocia( order ma1e# fami(! (ife a(mo#t impo##ib(e for the &or1er8 "n a comfort(e##, fi(th! hou#e, hard(! *ood enou*h for mere ni*ht(! #he(ter, i(($furni#hed, often neither rain$ti*ht nor &arm, a fou( atmo#phere fi((in* room# o ercro&ded &ith human bein*#, no dome#tic comfort i# po##ib(e8 +he hu#band &or1# the &ho(e da! throu*h, perhap# the &ife a(#o and the e(der chi(dren, a(( in different p(ace#; the! meet ni*ht and mornin* on(!, a(( under perpetua( temptation to drin1; &hat fami(! (ife i# po##ib(e under #uch condition#K 0et the &or1in*$man cannot e#cape from the fami(!, mu#t (i e in the fami(!, and the con#eBuence i# a perpetua( #ucce##ion of fami(! troub(e#, dome#tic Buarre(#, mo#t demora(i#in* for parent# and chi(dren a(i1e8 /e*(ect of a(( dome#tic dutie#, ne*(ect of the chi(dren, e#pecia((!, i# on(! too common amon* the En*(i#h &or1in*$ peop(e, and on(! too i*orou#(! fo#tered b! the exi#tin* in#titution# of #ociet!8 9nd chi(dren *ro&in* up in thi# #a a*e &a!, amid#t the#e demora(i#in* inf(uence#, are expected to turn out *ood!$*ood! and mora( in the end@ Jeri(! the reBuirement# are nai e, &hich the #e(f$#ati#fied bour*eoi# ma1e# upon the &or1in*$man@ +he contempt for the exi#tin* #ocia( order i# mo#t con#picuou# in it# extreme form E that of offence# a*ain#t the (a&8 "f the inf(uence# demora(i#in* to the &or1in*$man act more po&erfu((!, more concentrated(! than u#ua(, he become# an offender a# certain(! a# &ater abandon# the f(uid for the aporou# #tate at 87 de*ree#, =Saumur8 Fnder the bruta( and bruta(i#in* treatment of the bour*eoi#ie, the &or1in*$man become# preci#e(! a# much a thin* &ithout o(ition a# &ater, and i# #ubDect to the (a&# of /ature &ith preci#e(! the #ame nece##it!; at a certain point a(( freedom cea#e#8 5ence &ith the exten#ion of the pro(etariat, crime ha# increa#ed in En*(and, and the <riti#h nation ha# become the mo#t crimina( in the &or(d8 'rom the annua( crimina( tab(e# of the 5ome Secretar!, it i# e ident that the increa#e of crime in En*(and ha# proceeded &ith incomprehen#ib(e rapidit!8 +he number# of arre#t# for crimina( offence# reached in the !ear#: 1875, 4,675, 1817, 5,146; 1815, .,818; 1867, 1>,.17; 1865, 14,45.; 18>7, 18,17.; 18>5, 67,.>1; 1847, 6.,18.; 1841, 6.,.67; 1846, >1,>79 in En*(and and Wa(e# a(one8 +hat i# to #a!, the! increa#ed #e enfo(d in thirt!$#e en !ear#8 ?f the#e arre#t#, in 1846, 4,49. &ere made in %anca#hire a(one, or more than 14 per cent of the &ho(e; and 4,794 in Midd(e#ex, inc(udin* %ondon, or more than 1> per cent8 So that t&o di#trict# &hich inc(ude *reat citie# &ith (ar*e pro(etarian popu(ation#, produced one$fourth of the tota( amount of crime, thou*h their popu(ation i# far from formin* one$fourth of the &ho(e8 Moreo er, the crimina( tab(e# pro e direct(! that near(! a(( crime ari#e# &ithin the pro(etariat; for, in 1846, ta1in* the a era*e, out of 177 crimina(#, >68>5 cou(d neither read nor &rite; 588>6 read and &rote imperfect(!; 68.. cou(d read and &rite &e((; 7866 had enDo!ed a hi*her education, &hi(e the de*ree of education of 68>4 cou(d not be a#certained8 "n Scot(and, crime ha# increa#ed !et more rapid(!8 +here &ere but 89 arre#t# for crimina( offence# in 1819, and a# ear(! a# 18>. the number had ri#en to >,166, and in 1846 to 4,1898 "n %anar1#hire, &here Sheriff 9(i#on him#e(f made out the officia( report, popu(ation ha# doub(ed once in thirt! !ear#, and crime once in fi e and a ha(f, or #ix time# more rapid(! than the popu(ation8 +he offence#, a# in a(( ci i(i#ed countrie#, are, in the *reat maDorit! of ca#e#, a*ain#t propert!, and ha e, therefore, ari#en from &ant in #ome form; for &hat a man ha#,

he doe# not #tea(8 +he proportion of offence# a*ain#t propert! to the popu(ation, &hich in the /ether(and# i# a# 1:.,147 and in 'rance, a# 1:1,874, &a# in En*(and, &hen :a#1e(( &rote a# 1:.998 +he proportion of offence# a*ain#t per#on# to the popu(ation i#, in the /ether(and#, 1:68,974; in 'rance, 1:1.,5.>; in En*(and, 1:6>,>95; that of crime# in *enera( to the popu(ation in the a*ricu(tura( di#trict#, a# 1:1,74>; in the manufacturin* di#trict a# 1:8478 65 "n the &ho(e of En*(and toda! the proportion i# 1:667; 66 thou*h it i# #carce(! ten !ear# #ince :a#1e((N# boo1 appeared@ +he#e fact# are certain(! more than #ufficient to brin* an! one, e en a bour*eoi#, to pau#e and ref(ect upon the con#eBuence# of #uch a #tate of thin*#8 "f demora(i#ation and crime mu(tip(! t&ent! !ear# (on*er in thi# proportion ,and if En*(i#h manufacture in the#e t&ent! !ear# #hou(d be (e## pro#perou# than heretofore, the pro*re##i e mu(tip(ication of crime can on(! continue the more rapid(!-, &hat &i(( the re#u(t beK Societ! i# a(read! in a #tate of i#ib(e di##o(ution; it i# impo##ib(e to pic1 up a ne&#paper &ithout #eein* the mo#t #tri1in* e idence of the *i in* &a! of a(( #ocia( tie#8 " (oo1 at random into a heap of En*(i#h Dourna(# (!in* before me; there i# the +anchester *uardian for ?ctober >7, 1844, &hich report# for three da!#8 "t no (on*er ta1e# the troub(e to *i e exact detai(# a# to Manche#ter, and mere(! re(ate# the mo#t intere#tin* ca#e#: that the &or1er# in a mi(( ha e #truc1 for hi*her &a*e# &ithout *i in* notice, and been condemned b! a Lu#tice of the Peace to re#ume &or1; that in Sa(ford a coup(e of bo!# had been cau*ht #tea(in*, and a ban1rupt trade#man tried to cheat hi# creditor#8 'rom the nei*hbourin* to&n# the report# are more detai(ed: in 9#hton, t&o theft#, one bur*(ar!, one #uicide; in <ur! one theft; in <o(ton, t&o theft#, one re enue fraud; in %ei*h, one theft; in ?(dham, one #tri1e for &a*e#, one theft, one fi*ht bet&een "ri#h &omen, one non$Fnion hatter a##au(ted b! Fnion men, one mother beaten b! her #on, one attac1 upon the po(ice, one robber! of a church; in Stoc1port, di#content of &or1in*$ men &ith &a*e#, one theft, one fraud, one fi*ht, one &ife beaten b! her hu#band; in Warrin*ton, one theft, one fi*ht; in Wi*an, one theft, and one robber! of a church8 +he report# of the %ondon paper# are much &or#e; fraud#, theft#, a##au(t#, fami(! Buarre(# cro&d one another8 9 !imes of September 16, 1844, fa((# into m! hand, &hich *i e# a report of a #in*(e da!, inc(udin* a theft, an attac1 upon the po(ice, a #entence upon a father reBuirin* him to #upport hi# i((e*itimate #on, the abandonment of a chi(d b! it# parent#, and the poi#onin* of a man b! hi# &ife8 Simi(ar report# are to be found in a(( the En*(i#h paper#8 "n thi# countr!, #ocia( &ar i# under fu(( head&a!, e er! one #tand# for him#e(f, and fi*ht# for him#e(f a*ain#t a(( comer#, and &hether or not he #ha(( inDure a(( the other# &ho are hi# dec(ared foe#, depend# upon a c!nica( ca(cu(ation a# to &hat i# mo#t ad anta*eou# for him#e(f8 "t no (on*er occur# to an! one to come to a peacefu( under#tandin* &ith hi# fe((o&$man; a(( difference# are #ett(ed b! threat#, io(ence, or in a (a&$court8 "n #hort, e er! one #ee# in hi# nei*hbour an enem! to be *ot out of the &a!, or, at be#t, a too( to be u#ed for hi# o&n ad anta*e8 9nd thi# &ar *ro&# from !ear to !ear, a# the crimina( tab(e# #ho&, more io(ent, pa##ionate, irreconci(ab(e8 +he enemie# are di idin* *radua((! into t&o *reat camp# E the bour*eoi#ie on the one hand, the &or1er# on the other8 +hi# &ar of each a*ain#t a((, of the bour*eoi#ie a*ain#t the pro(etariat, need cau#e u# no #urpri#e, for it i# on(! the (o*ica( #eBue( of the princip(e in o( ed in free competition8 <ut it ma! er! &e(( #urpri#e u# that the bour*eoi#ie remain# #o Buiet and compo#ed in the face of the rapid(! *atherin* #torm$c(oud#, that it can read a(( the#e thin*# dai(! in the paper# &ithout, &e &i(( not #a! indi*nation at #uch a #ocia( condition, but fear of it# con#eBuence#, of a uni er#a( outbur#t of that &hich manife#t# it#e(f #!mptomatica((! from da! to da! in the form of crime8 <ut then it i# the bour*eoi#ie, and from it# #tandpoint cannot e en #ee the fact#, much (e## percei e their con#eBuence#8 ?ne thin* on(! i# a#toundin*, that c(a## preDudice and preconcei ed opinion# can ho(d a &ho(e c(a## of human bein*# in #uch perfect, " mi*ht a(mo#t #a!, #uch mad b(indne##8 Mean&hi(e, the de e(opment of the nation *oe# it# &a! &hether the bour*eoi#ie ha# e!e# for it or not, and &i(( #urpri#e the propert!$ ho(din* c(a## one da! &ith thin*# not dreamed of in it# phi(o#oph!8

Single %ranches of &nd'str+

Factory-Hands
"n dea(in* no& &ith the more important branche# of the En*(i#h manufacturin* pro(etariat, &e #ha(( be*in, accordin* to the princip(e a(read! (aid do&n, &ith the factor!$&or1er#, i8e8, tho#e &ho are compri#ed under the 'actor! 9ct8 +hi# (a& re*u(ate# the (en*th of the &or1in*$da! in mi((# in &hich &oo(, #i(1, cotton, and f(ax are #pun or &o en b! mean# of &ater or #team$po&er, and embrace#, therefore, the more important branche# of En*(i#h manufacture8 +he c(a## emp(o!ed b! them i# the mo#t inte((i*ent and ener*etic of a(( the En*(i#h &or1er#, and, therefore, the mo#t re#t(e## and mo#t hated b! the bour*eoi#ie8 "t #tand# a# a &ho(e, and the cotton$&or1er# pre$ eminent(! #tand, at the head of the (abour mo ement, a# their ma#ter# the manufacturer#, e#pecia((! tho#e of %anca#hire, ta1e the (ead of the bour*eoi# a*itation8 We ha e a(read! #een in the introduction ho& the popu(ation emp(o!ed in &or1in* up the texti(e materia(# &ere fir#t torn from their former &a! of (ife8 "t i#, therefore, not #urpri#in* that the pro*re## of mechanica( in ention in (ater !ear# a(#o affected preci#e(! the#e &or1er# mo#t deep(! and permanent(!8 +he hi#tor! of cotton manufacture a# re(ated b! Fre, 6. <aine#, 68 and other# i# the #tor! of impro ement# in e er! direction, mo#t of &hich ha e become dome#ticated in the other branche# of indu#tr! a# &e((8 5and$&or1 i# #uper#eded b! machine$&or1 a(mo#t uni er#a((!, near(! a(( manipu(ation# are conducted b! the aid of #team or &ater, and e er! !ear i# brin*in* further impro ement#8 "n a &e(($ordered #tate of #ociet!, #uch impro ement# cou(d on(! be a #ource of reDoicin*; in a &ar of a(( a*ain#t a((, indi idua(# #ei)e the benefit for them#e( e#, and #o depri e the maDorit! of the mean# of #ub#i#tence8 E er! impro ement in machiner! thro&# &or1er# out of emp(o!ment, and the *reater the ad ance, the more numerou# the unemp(o!ed; each *reat impro ement produce#, therefore, upon a number of &or1er# the effect of a commercia( cri#i#, create# &ant, &retchedne##, and crime8 +a1e a fe& examp(e#8 +he er! fir#t in ention, the Denn!, &or1ed b! one man, produced at (ea#t #ixfo(d &hat the #pinnin*$&hee( had !ie(ded in the #ame time; thu# e er! ne& Denn! thre& fi e #pinner# out of emp(o!ment8 +he thro#t(e, &hich, in turn, produced much more than the Denn!, and, (i1e it, &a# &or1ed b! one man, thre& #ti(( more peop(e out of emp(o!ment8 +he mu(e, &hich reBuired !et fe&er hand# in proportion to the product, had the #ame effect, and e er! impro ement in the mu(e, e er! mu(tip(ication of it# #pind(e#, dimini#hed #ti(( further the number of &or1er# emp(o!ed8 <ut thi# increa#e of the number of #pind(e# in the mu(e i# #o *reat that &ho(e armie# of &or1er# ha e been thro&n out of emp(o!ment b! it8 'or, &herea# one #pinner, &ith a coup(e of chi(dren for piecer#, former(! #et #ix hundred #pind(e# in motion, he cou(d no& mana*e fourteen hundred to t&o thou#and #pind(e# upon t&o mu(e#, #o that t&o adu(t #pinner# and a part of the piecer# &hom the! emp(o!ed &ere thro&n out8 9nd #ince #e(f$ actin* mu(e# ha e been introduced into a er! (ar*e number of #pinnin*$mi((#, the #pinner#A &or1 i# &ho((! performed b! the machine8 +here (ie# before me a boo1 from the pen of Lame# %each, 69 one of the reco*ni#ed (eader# of the ;harti#t# in Manche#ter8 +he author ha# &or1ed for !ear# in ariou# branche# of indu#tr!, in mi((# and coa($mine#, and i# 1no&n to me per#ona((! a# an hone#t, tru#t&orth!, and capab(e man8 "n con#eBuence of hi# po(itica( po#ition, he had at command exten#i e detai(ed information a# to the different factorie#, co((ected b! the &or1er# them#e( e#, and he pub(i#he# tab(e# from &hich it i# c(ear that in 1841, in >5 factorie#, 1,78> fe&er mu(e #pinner# &ere emp(o!ed than in 1869, thou*h the number of #pind(e# in the#e >5 factorie# had increa#ed b! 99,4698 5e cite# fi e factorie# in &hich no #pinner# &hate er are emp(o!ed, #e(f$actor# on(! bein* u#ed8 Whi(e the number of #pind(e# increa#ed b! 17 per cent, the

number of #pinner# dimini#hed more than 67 per cent8 9nd %each add# that #ince 1841, #o man! impro ement# ha e been introduced b! doub(e$dec1in* and other mean#, that in #ome of the factorie# named, ha(f the operati e# ha e been di#char*ed8 "n one factor! a(one, &here ei*ht! #pinner# &ere emp(o!ed a #hort time a*o, there are no& but t&ent! (eft; the other# ha in* been di#char*ed or #et at chi(drenA# &or1 for chi(drenA# &a*e#8 ?f Stoc1port %each te((# a #imi(ar #tor!, that in 18>5, 877 #pinner# &ere emp(o!ed, and in 184> but 147, thou*h the manufacture of Stoc1port ha# *reat(! increa#ed durin* the (a#t ei*ht or nine !ear#8 Simi(ar impro ement# ha e no& been made in cardin*$frame#, b! &hich one$ha(f the operati e# ha e been thro&n out of emp(o!ment8 "n one factor! impro ed frame# ha e been #et up, &hich ha e thro&n four hand# out of ei*ht out of &or1, be#ide# &hich the emp(o!er reduced the &a*e# of the four retained from ei*ht #hi((in*# to #e en8 +he #ame proce## ha# *one on in the &ea in* indu#tr!; the po&er$(oom ha# ta1en po##e##ion of one branch of hand$&ea in* after another, and #ince it produce# much more than the hand$(oom, &hi(e one &ea er can &or1 t&o (oom#, it ha# #uper#eded a mu(titude of &or1in*$peop(e8 9nd in a(( #ort# of manufacture, in f(ax and &oo($#pinnin*, in #i(1$t&i#tin*, the ca#e i# the #ame8 +he po&er$(oom, too, i# be*innin* to appropriate one branch after another of &oo( and (inen$&ea in*; in =ochda(e a(one, there are more po&er than hand$(oom# in f(anne( and other &oo($&ea in* branche#8 +he bour*eoi#ie u#ua((! rep(ie# to thi#, that impro ement# in machiner!, b! decrea#in* the co#t of production, #upp(! fini#hed *ood# at (o&er price#, and that the#e reduced price# cau#e #uch an increa#e in con#umption that the unemp(o!ed operati e# #oon find fu(( emp(o!ment in ne&(! founded factorie#8 .7 +he bour*eoi#ie i# #o far correct that under certain condition# fa ourab(e for the *enera( de e(opment of manufacture, e er! reduction in price of *ood# in which the raw material is cheap , *reat(! increa#e# con#umption, and *i e# ri#e to the bui(din* of ne& factorie#; but e er! further &ord of the a##ertion i# a (ie8 +he bour*eoi#ie i*nore# the fact that it ta1e# !ear# for the#e re#u(t# of the decrea#e in price to fo((o& and for ne& factorie# to be bui(t; it i# #i(ent upon the point that e er! impro ement in machiner! thro&# the rea( &or1, the expenditure of force, more and more upon the machine, and #o tran#form# the &or1 of fu(($*ro&n men into mere #uper i#ion, &hich a feeb(e &oman or e en a chi(d can do Buite a# &e((, and doe# for ha(f or t&o$third# &a*e#; that, therefore, *ro&n men are con#tant(! more and more #upp(anted and not re5employed b! the increa#e in manufacture; it concea(# the fact that &ho(e branche# of indu#tr! fa(( a&a!, or are #o chan*ed that the! mu#t be (earned afre#h; and it ta1e# *ood care not to confe## &hat it u#ua((! harp# upon, &hene er the Bue#tion of forbiddin* the &or1 of chi(dren i# broached, that factor!$&or1 mu#t be (earned in ear(ie#t !outh in order to be (earned proper(!8 "t doe# not mention the fact that the proce## of impro ement *oe# #teadi(! on, and that a# #oon a# the operati e ha# #ucceeded in ma1in* him#e(f at home in a ne& branch, if he actua((! doe# #ucceed in #o doin*, thi#, too, i# ta1en from him, and &ith it the (a#t remnant of #ecurit! &hich remained to him for &innin* hi# bread8 <ut the bour*eoi#ie *et# the benefit of the impro ement# in machiner!; it ha# a capita( opportunit! for pi(in* up mone! durin* the fir#t !ear# &hi(e man! o(d machine# are #ti(( in u#e, and the impro ement not !et uni er#a((! introduced; and it &ou(d be too much to a#1 that it #hou(d ha e an open e!e for the di#ad anta*e# in#eparab(e from the#e impro ement#8 +he fact that impro ed machiner! reduce# &a*e# ha# a(#o been a# io(ent(! di#puted b! the bour*eoi#ie, a# it i# con#tant(! reiterated b! the &or1in*$men8 +he bour*eoi#ie in#i#t# that a(thou*h the price of piece$&or1 ha# been reduced, !et the tota( of &a*e# for the &ee1A# &or1 ha# rather ri#en than fa((en, and the condition of the operati e# rather impro ed than deteriorated8 "t i# hard to *et to the bottom of the matter, for the operati e# u#ua((! d&e(( upon the price of piece$ &or18 <ut it i# certain that the &ee1(! &a*e, a(#o, ha#, in man! branche# of &or1, been reduced b! the impro ement of machiner!8 +he #o$ca((ed fine #pinner# ,&ho #pin fine mu(e !arn-, for in#tance, do recei e hi*h &a*e#, thirt! to fort! #hi((in*# a &ee1, becau#e the! ha e a po&erfu( a##ociation for 1eepin* &a*e# up, and their craft reBuire# (on* trainin*; but the coar#e #pinner#

&ho ha e to compete a*ain#t #e(f$actor# ,&hich are not a# !et adapted for fine #pinnin*-, and &ho#e a##ociation &a# bro1en do&n b! the introduction of the#e machine#, recei e er! (o& &a*e#8 9 mu(e #pinner to(d me that he doe# not earn more than fourteen #hi((in*# a &ee1, and hi# #tatement a*ree# &ith that of %each, that in ariou# factorie# the coar#e #pinner# earn (e## than #ixteen #hi((in*# and #ixpence a &ee1, and that a #pinner, &ho !ear# a*o earned thirt! #hi((in*#, can no& hard(! #crape up t&e( e and a ha(f, and had not earned more on an a era*e in the pa#t !ear8 +he &a*e# of &omen and chi(dren ma! perhap# ha e fa((en (e##, but on(! becau#e the! &ere not hi*h from the be*innin*8 " 1no& #e era( &omen, &ido&# &ith chi(dren, &ho ha e troub(e enou*h to earn ei*ht to nine #hi((in*# a &ee1; and that the! and their fami(ie# cannot (i e decent(! upon that #um, e er! one mu#t admit &ho 1no&# the price of the bare#t nece##arie# of (ife in En*(and8 +hat &a*e# in *enera( ha e been reduced b! the impro ement of machiner! i# the unanimou# te#timon! of the operati e#8 +he bour*eoi# a##ertion that the condition of the &or1in*$c(a## ha# been impro ed b! machiner! i# mo#t i*orou#(! proc(aimed a fa(#ehood in e er! meetin* of &or1in*$men in the factor! di#trict#8 9nd e en if it &ere true that the re(ati e &a*e, the price of piece$&or1 on(!, ha# fa((en, &hi(e the ab#o(ute &a*e, the #um to be earned in the &ee1, remained unchan*ed, &hat &ou(d fo((o&K +hat the operati e# ha e had Buiet(! to (oo1 on &hi(e the manufacturer# fi((ed their pur#e# from e er! impro ement &ithout *i in* the hand# the #ma((e#t #hare in the *ain8 +he bour*eoi# for*et#, in fi*htin* the &or1in*$man, the mo#t ordinar! princip(e# of hi# o&n Po(itica( Econom!8 5e &ho at other time# #&ear# b! Ma(thu#, crie# out in hi# anxiet! before the &or1er#:CWhere cou(d the mi((ion# b! &hich the popu(ation of En*(and ha# increa#ed find &or1, &ithout the impro ement# in machiner!KC .1 9# thou*h the bour*eoi# did not 1no& &e(( enou*h that &ithout machiner! and the expan#ion of indu#tr! &hich it produced, the#eCmi((ion#C &ou(d ne er ha e been brou*ht into the &or(d and *ro&n up@ +he #er ice &hich machiner! ha# rendered the &or1er# i# #imp(! thi#: that it ha# brou*ht home to their mind# the nece##it! of a #ocia( reform b! mean# of &hich machiner! #ha(( no (on*er &or1 a*ain#t but for them8 %et the &i#e bour*eoi# a#1 the peop(e &ho #&eep the #treet# in Manche#ter and e(#e&here ,thou*h e en thi# i# pa#t no&, #ince machine# for the purpo#e ha e been in ented and introduced-, or #e(( #a(t, matche#, oran*e#, and #hoe$#trin*# on the #treet#, or e en be*, &hat the! &ere former(!, and he &i(( #ee ho& man! &i(( an#&er: Mi(($hand# thro&n out of &or1 b! machiner!8 +he con#eBuence# of impro ement in machiner! under our pre#ent #ocia( condition# are, for the &or1in*$man, #o(e(! inDuriou#, and often in the hi*he#t de*ree oppre##i e8 E er! ne& ad ance brin*# &ith it (o## of emp(o!ment, &ant, and #ufferin*, and in a countr! (i1e En*(and &here, &ithout that, there i# u#ua((! aC#urp(u# popu(ationT, to be di#char*ed from &or1 i# the &or#t that can befa(( the operati e8 9nd &hat a di#piritin*, unner in* inf(uence thi# uncertaint! of hi# po#ition in (ife, con#eBuent upon the uncea#in* pro*re## of machiner!, mu#t exerci#e upon the &or1er, &ho#e (ot i# precariou# enou*h &ithout it@ +o e#cape de#pair, there are but t&o &a!# open to him; either in&ard and out&ard re o(t a*ain#t the bour*eoi#ie or drun1enne## and *enera( demora(i#ation8 9nd the En*(i#h operati e# are accu#tomed to ta1e refu*e in both8 +he hi#tor! of the En*(i#h pro(etariat re(ate# hundred# of upri#in*# a*ain#t machiner! and the bour*eoi#ie; &e ha e a(read! #po1en of the mora( di##o(ution &hich, in it#e(f, i# on(! another form of de#pair8 +he &or#t #ituation i# that of tho#e &or1er# &ho ha e to compete a*ain#t a machine that i# ma1in* it# &a!8 +he price of the *ood# &hich the! produce adapt# it#e(f to the price of the 1indred product of the machine, and a# the (atter &or1# more cheap(!, it# human competitor ha# but the (o&e#t &a*e#8 +he #ame thin* happen# to e er! operati e emp(o!ed upon an o(d machine in competition &ith (ater impro ement#8 9nd &ho e(#e i# there to bear the hard#hipK +he manufacturer &i(( not thro& out hi# o(d apparatu#, nor &i(( he #u#tain the (o## upon it; out of the dead mechani#m he can ma1e nothin*, #o he fa#ten# upon the (i in* &or1er, the uni er#a( #cape*oat of #ociet!8 ?f a(( the &or1er# in competition &ith machiner!, the mo#t i(($u#ed are the hand$(oom cotton &ea er#8 +he! recei e the mo#t trif(in* &a*e#, and, &ith fu(( &or1, are not in a

po#ition to earn more than ten #hi((in*# a &ee18 ?ne c(a## of &o en *ood# after another i# annexed b! the po&er$(oom, and hand$&ea in* i# the (a#t refu*e of &or1er# thro&n out of emp(o!ment in other branche#, #o that the trade i# a(&a!# o ercro&ded8 5ence it come# that, in a era*e #ea#on#, the hand$&ea er count# him#e(f fortunate if he can earn #ix or #e en #hi((in*# a &ee1, &hi(e to reach thi# #um he mu#t #it at hi# (oom fourteen to ei*hteen hour# a da!8 Mo#t &o en *ood# reBuire moreo er a damp &ea in*$room, to 1eep the &eft from #nappin*, and in part for thi# rea#on, in part becau#e of their po ert!, &hich pre ent# them from pa!in* for better d&e((in*#, the &or1$room# of the#e &ea er# are u#ua((! &ithout &ooden or pa ed f(oor#8 " ha e been in man! d&e((in*# of #uch &ea er#, in remote, i(e court# and a((e!#, u#ua((! in ce((ar#8 ?ften ha(f$a$do)en of the#e hand$(oom &ea er#, #e era( of them married, (i e to*ether in a cotta*e &ith one or t&o &or1$room#, and one (ar*e #(eepin*$room8 +heir food con#i#t# a(mo#t exc(u#i e(! of potatoe#, &ith perhap# oatmea( porrid*e, rare(! mi(1, and #carce(! e er meat8 :reat number# of them are "ri#h or of "ri#h de#cent8 9nd the#e poor hand$(oom &ea er#, fir#t to #uffer from e er! cri#i#, and (a#t to be re(ie ed from it, mu#t #er e the bour*eoi#ie a# a hand(e in meetin* attac1# upon the factor! #!#tem8 See, crie# the bour*eoi#, triumphant(!, #ee ho& the#e poor creature# mu#t fami#h, &hi(e the mi(( operati e# are thri in*, and then Dud*e the factor! #!#tem@ 9# thou*h it &ere not preci#e(! the factor! #!#tem and the machiner! be(on*in* to it &hich had #o #hamefu((! cru#hed the hand$(oom &ea er#, and a# thou*h the bour*eoi#ie did not 1no& thi# Buite a# &e(( a# our#e( e#@ <ut the bour*eoi#ie ha# intere#t# at #ta1e, and #o a fa(#ehood or t&o and a bit of h!pocri#! &onAt matter much8 %et u# examine #ome&hat more c(o#e(! the fact that machiner! more and more #uper#ede# the &or1 of men8 +he human (abour, in o( ed in both #pinnin* and &ea in*, con#i#t# chief(! in piecin* bro1en thread#, a# the machine doe# a(( the re#t8 +hi# &or1 reBuire# no mu#cu(ar #tren*th, but on(! f(exibi(it! of fin*er8 Men are, therefore, not on(! not needed for it, but actua((!, b! rea#on of the *reater mu#cu(ar de e(opment of the hand, (e## fit for it than &omen and chi(dren, and are, therefore, natura((! a(mo#t #uper#eded b! them8 5ence, the more the u#e of the arm#, the expenditure of #tren*th, can be tran#ferred to #team or &aterpo&er, the fe&er men need be emp(o!ed; and a# &omen and chi(dren &or1 more cheap(!, and in the#e branche# better than men, the! ta1e their p(ace#8 "n the #pinnin*$mi((# &omen and *ir(# are to be found in a(mo#t exc(u#i e po##e##ion of the thro#t(e#; amon* the mu(e# one man, an adu(t #pinner ,&ith #e(f$actor#, he, too, become# #uperf(uou#-, and #e era( piecer# for t!in* the thread#, u#ua((! chi(dren or &omen, #ometime# !oun* men of from ei*hteen to t&ent! !ear#, here and there an o(d #pinner .6 thro&n out of other emp(o!ment8 9t the po&er$(oom# &omen, from fifteen to t&ent! !ear#, are chief(! emp(o!ed, and a fe& men; the#e, ho&e er, rare(! remain at thi# trade after their t&ent!$fir#t !ear8 9mon* the preparator! machiner!, too, &omen a(one are to be found, &ith here and there a man to c(ean and #harpen the cardin*$frame#8 <e#ide# a(( the#e, the factorie# emp(o! number# of chi(dren E doffer# E for mountin* and ta1in* do&n bobbin#, and a fe& men a# o er(oo1er#, a mechanic and an en*ineer for the #team$ en*ine#, carpenter#, porter#, etc8; but the actua( &or1 of the mi((# i# done b! &omen and chi(dren8 +hi# the manufacturer# den!8 +he! pub(i#hed (a#t !ear e(aborate tab(e# to pro e that machiner! doe# not #uper#ede adu(t ma(e operati e#8 9ccordin* to the#e tab(e#, rather more than ha(f of a(( the factor!$&or1er# emp(o!ed, i)8, 56 per cent, &ere fema(e# and 48 per cent ma(e#, and of the#e operati e# more than ha(f &ere o er ei*hteen !ear# o(d8 So far, #o *ood8 <ut the manufacturer# are er! carefu( not to te(( u#, ho& man! of the adu(t# &ere men and ho& man! &omen8 9nd thi# i# Du#t the point8 <e#ide# thi#, the! ha e e ident(! counted the mechanic#, en*ineer#, carpenter#, a(( the men emp(o!ed in an! &a! in the factorie#, perhap# e en the c(er1#, and #ti(( the! ha e not the coura*e to te(( the &ho(e truth8 +he#e pub(ication# teem *enera((! &ith fa(#ehood#, per er#ion#, croo1ed #tatement#, &ith ca(cu(ation# of a era*e#, that pro e a *reat dea( for the uninitiated reader and nothin* for the initiated, and &ith #uppre##ion# of fact# bearin* on the mo#t important point#; and the! pro e

on(! the #e(fi#h b(indne## and &ant of upri*htne## of the manufacturer# concerned8 %et u# ta1e #ome of the #tatement# of a #peech &ith &hich %ord 9#h(e! introduced the +en 5our#A <i((, March 15th, 1844, into the 5ou#e of ;ommon#8 5ere he *i e# #ome data a# to the re(ation# of #ex and a*e of the operati e#, not !et refuted b! the manufacturer#, &ho#e #tatement#, a# Buoted abo e, co er moreo er on(! a part of the manufacturin* indu#tr! of En*(and8 ?f 419,597 factor! operati e# of the <riti#h Empire in 18>9, 196,88., or near(! ha(f, &ere under ei*hteen !ear# of a*e, and 646,696 of the fema(e #ex, of &hom 116,196 &ere (e## than ei*hteen !ear# o(d8 +here remain, therefore, 87,695 ma(e operati e# under ei*hteen !ear#, and 96,599 adu(t ma(e operati e#, or not one full 6uarter of the whole num,er 8 "n the cotton factorie#, 56X per cent; in the &oo(en mi((#, 69V per cent; in the #i(1 mi((#, .7V per cent; in the f(ax$#pinnin* mi((#, .7V per cent of a(( operati e# are of the fema(e #ex8 +he#e number# #uffice to pro e the cro&din* out of adu(t ma(e#8 <ut !ou ha e on(! to *o into the neare#t mi(( to #ee the fact confirmed8 5ence fo((o&# of nece##it! that in er#ion of the exi#tin* #ocia( order &hich, bein* forced upon them, ha# the mo#t ruinou# con#eBuence# for the &or1er#8 +he emp(o!ment of &omen at once brea1# up the fami(!; for &hen the &ife #pend# t&e( e or thirteen hour# e er! da! in the mi((, and the hu#band &or1# the #ame (en*th of time there or e(#e&here, &hat become# of the chi(drenK +he! *ro& up (i1e &i(d &eed#; the! are put out to nur#e for a #hi((in* or ei*hteenpence a &ee1, and ho& the! are treated ma! be ima*ined8 5ence the accident# to &hich (itt(e chi(dren fa(( ictim# mu(tip(! in the factor! di#trict# to a terrib(e extent8 +he (i#t# of the ;oroner of Manche#ter .> #ho&ed for nine month#: 69 death# from burnin*, 56 from dro&nin*, 6> from fa((in*, 6. from other cau#e#, or a tota( of 615 death# from accident#, .4 &hi(e in non$manufacturin* %i erpoo( durin* t&e( e month# there &ere but 146 fata( accident#8 +he minin* accident# are exc(uded in both ca#e#; and #ince the ;oroner of Manche#ter ha# no authorit! in Sa(ford, the popu(ation of both p(ace# mentioned in the compari#on i# about the #ame8 +he +anchester *uardian report# one or more death# b! burnin* in a(mo#t e er! number8 +hat the *enera( morta(it! amon* !oun* chi(dren mu#t be increa#ed b! the emp(o!ment of the mother# i# #e(f$e ident, and i# p(aced be!ond a(( doubt b! notoriou# fact#8 Women often return to the mi(( three or four da!# after confinement, (ea in* the bab!, of cour#e; in the dinner$hour the! mu#t hurr! home to feed the chi(d and eat #omethin*, and &hat #ort of #uc1(in* that can be i# a(#o e ident8 %ord 9#h(e! repeat# the te#timon! of #e era( &or1&omen: TM8 58, t&ent! !ear# o(d, ha# t&o chi(dren, the !oun*e#t a bab! that i# tended b! the other, a (itt(e o(der8 +he mother *oe# to the mi(( #hort(! after fi e oAc(oc1 in the mornin*, and come# home at ei*ht at ni*ht; a(( da! the mi(1 pour# from her brea#t#, #o that her c(othin* drip# &ith it8CI58 W8 ha# three chi(dren, *oe# a&a! Monda! mornin* at fi e oAc(oc1, and come# bac1 Saturda! e enin*; ha# #o much to do for the chi(dren then that #he cannot *et to bed before three oAc(oc1 in the mornin*;

often &et throu*h to the #1in, and ob(i*ed to &or1 in that #tate8C She #aid:CM! brea#t# ha e *i en me the mo#t fri*htfu( pain, and " ha e been drippin* &et &ith mi(18T +he u#e of narcotic# to 1eep the chi(dren #ti(( i# fo#tered b! thi# infamou# #!#tem, and ha# reached a *reat extent in the factor! di#trict#8 4r8 Lohn#, =e*i#trar in ;hief for Manche#ter, i# of opinion that thi# cu#tom i# the chief #ource of the man! death# from con u(#ion#8 +he emp(o!ment of the &ife di##o( e# the fami(! utter(! and of nece##it!, and thi# di##o(ution, in our pre#ent #ociet!, &hich i# ba#ed upon the fami(!, brin*# the mo#t demora(i#in* con#eBuence# for parent# a# &e(( a# chi(dren8 9 mother &ho ha# no time to troub(e her#e(f about her chi(d, to perform the mo#t ordinar! (o in* #er ice# for it durin* it# fir#t !ear, &ho #carce(! indeed #ee# it, can be no rea( mother to the chi(d, mu#t ine itab(! *ro& indifferent to it, treat it un(o in*(! (i1e a #tran*er8 +he chi(dren &ho *ro& up under #uch condition# are utter(! ruined for (ater fami(! (ife, can ne er fee( at home in the fami(! &hich the! them#e( e# found, becau#e the! ha e a(&a!# been accu#tomed to i#o(ation, and the! contribute therefore to the a(read! *enera( underminin* of the fami(! in the &or1in*$c(a##8 9 #imi(ar di##o(ution of the fami(! i# brou*ht about b! the emp(o!ment of the chi(dren8 When the! *et on far enou*h to earn more than the! co#t their parent# from &ee1 to &ee1, the! be*in to pa! the parent# a fixed #um for board and (od*in*, and 1eep the re#t for them#e( e#8 +hi# often happen# from the fourteenth or fifteenth !ear8 "n a &ord, the chi(dren emancipate them#e( e#, and re*ard the paterna( d&e((in* a# a (od*in*$hou#e, &hich the! often exchan*e for another, a# #uit# them8 "n man! ca#e# the fami(! i# not &ho((! di##o( ed b! the emp(o!ment of the &ife, but turned up#ide do&n8 +he &ife #upport# the fami(!, the hu#band #it# at home, tend# the chi(dren, #&eep# the room and coo1#8 +hi# ca#e happen# er! freBuent(!; in Manche#ter a(one, man! hundred #uch men cou(d be cited, condemned to dome#tic occupation#8 "t i# ea#! to ima*ine the &rath arou#ed amon* the &or1in*$men b! thi# re er#a( of a(( re(ation# &ithin the fami(!, &hi(e the other #ocia( condition# remain unchan*ed8 +here (ie# before me a (etter from an En*(i#h &or1in*$man, =obert Pounder, <aronA# <ui(din*#, Woodhou#e, Moor#ide, in %eed# ,the bour*eoi#ie ma! hunt him up there; " *i e the exact addre## for the purpo#e-, &ritten b! him to ?a#t(er8 5e re(ate# ho& another &or1in*$man, bein* on tramp, came to St8 5e(en#, in %anca#hire, and there (oo1ed up an o(d friend8 5e found him in a mi#erab(e, damp ce((ar, #carce(! furni#hed8 T9nd &hen m! poor friend &ent in, there #at poor Lac1 near the fire, and &hat did he, thin1 !ouK Wh! he #at and mended hi# &ifeA# #toc1in*# &ith the bod1in; and a# #oon a# he #a& hi# o(d friend at the door$po#t, he tried to hide them8 <ut Loe, that i# m! friendA# name, had #een it, and #aid: ALac1, &hat the de i( art thou doin*K Where i# the mi##u#K Wh!, i# that th! &or1KA and

poor Lac1 &a# a#hamed, and #aid: A/o, " 1no& thi# i# not m! &or1, but m! poor mi##u# i# iA thA factor!; #he ha# to (ea e at ha(f$pa#t fi e and &or1# ti(( ei*ht at ni*ht, and then #he i# #o 1noc1ed up that #he cannot do au*ht &hen #he *et# home, #o " ha e to do e er!thin* for her &hat " can, for " ha e no &or1, nor had an! for more nor three !ear#, and " #ha(( ne er ha e an! more &or1 &hi(e " (i e,C and then he &ept a bi* tear8 Lac1 a*ain #aid: A+here i# &or1 enou*h for &omen fo(1# and chi(der hereabout#, but none for men: thou ma!e#t #ooner find a hundred pound on the road than &or1 for men E but " #hou(d ne er ha e be(ie ed that either thou or an! one e(#e &ou(d ha e #een me mendin* m! &ifeA# #toc1in*#, for it i# bad &or18 <ut #he can hard(! #tand on her feet; " am afraid #he &i(( be (aid up, and then " donAt 1no& &hat i# to become of u#, for itA# a *ood bit that #he ha# been the man in the hau( and " the &oman; it i# bad &or1, Loe,C and he cried bitter(!, and #aid, A"t ha# not been a(&a!# #o8A A/o,A #aid Loe; Abut &hen thou hadnAt no &or1, ho& ha#t thou not #hifted A"A(( te(( thee, Loe, a# &e(( a# " can, but it &a# bad enou*h; thou 1no&e#t &hen " *ot married " had &or1 p(ent!, and thou 1no&# " &a# not (a)!8A A/o, that thou &ert not8A A9nd &e had a *ood furni#hed hou#e, and Mar! need not *o to &or18 " cou(d &or1 for the t&o of u#; but no& the &or(d i# up#ide

do&n8 Mar! ha# to &or1 and " ha e to #top at home, mind the chi(der, #&eep and &a#h, ba1e and mend; and, &hen the poor &oman come# home at ni*ht, #he i# 1noc1ed up8 +hou 1no&#, Loe, itA# hard for one that &a# u#ed different8A A0e#, bo!, it i# hard8A 9nd then Lac1 be*an to cr! a*ain, and he &i#hed he had ne er married, and that he had ne er been born; but he had ne er thou*ht, &hen he &ed Mar!, that it &ou(d come to thi#8 A" ha e often cried o er it,A #aid Lac18 /o& &hen Loe heard thi#, he to(d me that he had cur#ed and damned the factorie#, and the ma#ter#, and the :o ernment, &ith a(( the cur#e# that he had (earned &hi(e be &a# in the factor! from a chi(d8T ;an an! one ima*ine a more in#ane #tate of thin*# than that de#cribed in thi# (etter@ 9nd !et thi# condition, &hich un#exe# the man and ta1e# from the &oman a(( &oman(ine## &ithout bein* ab(e to be#to& upon the man true &oman(ine##, or the &oman true man(ine## E thi# condition &hich de*rade#, in the mo#t #hamefu( &a!, both #exe#, and, throu*h them, 5umanit!, i# the (a#t re#u(t of our much$prai#ed ci i(i#ation, the fina( achie ement of a(( the effort# and #tru**(e# of hundred# of *eneration# to impro e their o&n #ituation and that of their po#terit!8 We mu#t either de#pair of man1ind, and it# aim# and effort#, &hen &e #ee a(( our (abour and toi( re#u(t in #uch a moc1er!, or &e mu#t admit that human #ociet! ha# hitherto #ou*ht #a( ation in a fa(#e direction; &e mu#t admit that #o tota( a re er#a( of the po#ition of the #exe# can ha e come to pa## on(! becau#e the #exe# ha e been p(aced in a fa(#e po#ition from the be*innin*8 "f the rei*n of the &ife o er the hu#band, a# ine itab(! brou*ht about b! the factor! #!#tem, i# inhuman, the pri#tine ru(e of the hu#band o er the &ife mu#t ha e been inhuman too8 "f the &ife can no& ba#e her #upremac! upon the fact that #he #upp(ie# the *reater part, na!, the &ho(e of the common po##e##ion, the nece##ar! inference i# that thi# communit! of po##e##ion i# no true and rationa( one, #ince one member of the fami(! boa#t# offen#i e(! of contributin* the *reater #hare8 "f the fami(! of our pre#ent #ociet! i# bein* thu# di##o( ed, thi# di##o(ution mere(! #ho&# that, at bottom, the bindin* tie of thi# fami(! &a# not fami(! affection, but pri ate intere#t (ur1in* under the c(oa1 of a pretended communit! of po##e##ion#8 .5 +he #ame re(ation exi#t# on the part of tho#e chi(dren &ho #upport unemp(o!ed parent# &hen the! do not direct(! pa! board a# a(read! referred to8 4r8 5a&1in# te#tified in the 'actorie#A "nBuir! ;ommi##ionA# =eport that thi# re(ation i# common enou*h, and in Manche#ter it i# notoriou#8 "n thi# ca#e the chi(dren are the ma#ter# in the hou#e, a# the &ife &a# in the former ca#e, and %ord 9#h(e! *i e# an examp(e of thi# in hi# #peech: 9 man berated hi# t&o dau*hter# for *oin* to the pub(ic$hou#e, and the! an#&ered that the! &ere tired of bein*

ordered about, #a!in*,C4amn !ou, &e ha e to 1eep !ou8C 4etermined to 1eep the proceed# of their &or1 for them#e( e#, the! (eft the fami(! d&e((in*, and abandoned their parent# to their fate8 +he unmarried &omen, &ho ha e *ro&n up in mi((#, are no better off than the married one#8 "t i# #e(f$e ident that a *ir( &ho ha# &or1ed in a mi(( from her ninth !ear i# in no po#ition to under#tand dome#tic &or1, &hence it fo((o&# that fema(e operati e# pro e &ho((! inexperienced and unfit a# hou#e1eeper#8 +he! cannot 1nit or #e&, coo1 or &a#h, are unacBuainted &ith the mo#t ordinar! dutie# of a hou#e1eeper, and &hen the! ha e !oun* chi(dren to ta1e care of, ha e not the a*ue#t idea ho& to #et about it8 +he 'actorie#A "nBuir! ;ommi##ionA# =eport *i e# do)en# of examp(e# of thi#, and 4r8 5a&1in#, ;ommi##ioner for %anca#hire expre##e# hi# opinion a# fo((o&#: I9 *ir( marrie# ear(! and rec1(e##(!; #he ha# had no time, no mean#, no opportunitie# of (earnin* the common dutie# of dome#tic (ife; and e en if #he had acBuired the 1no&(ed*e #he ha# #ti(( no time to practi#e them888 +here i# the !oun* mother ab#ent from her chi(d abo e t&e( e hour# dai(!8 Who ha# the char*e of the infant in her ab#enceK F#ua((! #ome (itt(e *ir( or a*ed &oman, &ho i# hired for a trif(e and &ho#e #er ice# are eBui a(ent to the re&ard8 +oo often the d&e((in* of the factor! fami(! i# no home; it #ometime# i# a ce((ar, &hich inc(ude# no coo1in*, no &a#hin*, no ma1in*, no mendin*, no decencie# of (ife, no in itation# to the fire#ide8 " cannot he(p on the#e and on other *round#, e#pecia((! for the better pre#er ation of infant (ife, expre##in* m! hope that a period ma! arri e &hen married &omen #ha(( be rare(! emp(o!ed in a factor!8C <ut that i# the (ea#t of the e i(8 +he mora( con#eBuence# of the emp(o!ment of &omen in factorie# are e en &or#e8 +he co((ectin* of per#on# of both #exe# and a(( a*e# in a #in*(e &or1$room, the ine itab(e contact, the cro&din* into a #ma(( #pace of peop(e, to &hom neither menta( nor mora( education ha# been *i en, i# not ca(cu(ated for the fa ourab(e de e(opment of the fema(e character8 +he manufacturer, if he pa!# an! attention to the matter, can interfere on(! &hen #omethin* #canda(ou# actua((! happen#; the permanent, (e## con#picuou# inf(uence of per#on# of

di##o(ute character upon the more mora(, and e#pecia((! upon the !oun*er one#, he cannot a#certain, and con#eBuent(! cannot pre ent8 <ut preci#e(! thi# inf(uence i# the inDuriou#8 +he (an*ua*e u#ed in the mi((# i# characteri#ed b! man! &itne##e# in the report of 18>>, a#CindecentT,CbadT,Cfi(th!T, etc8 "t i# the #ame proce## upon a #ma(( #ca(e &hich &e ha e a(read! &itne##ed upon a (ar*e one in the *reat citie#8 +he centra(i#ation of popu(ation ha# the #ame inf(uence upon the #ame per#on#, &hether it affect# them in a *reat cit! or a #ma(( factor!8 +he #ma((er the mi(( the c(o#er the pac1in*, and the more una oidab(e the contact; and the con#eBuence# are not &antin*8 9 &itne## in %eice#ter #aid that he &ou(d rather (et hi# dau*hter be* than *o into a factor!; that the! are perfect *ate# of he((; that mo#t of the pro#titute# of the to&n had their emp(o!ment in the mi((# to than1 for their pre#ent #ituation8 9nother, in Manche#ter,Cdid not he#itate to a##ert that three$fourth# of the !oun* factor! emp(o!ee#, from fourteen to t&ent! !ear# of a*e, &ere uncha#teT8 ;ommi##ioner ;o&e(( expre##e# it a# hi# opinion, that the mora(it! of the factor! operati e# i# #ome&hat be(o& the a era*e of that of the &or1in*$ c(a## in *enera(8 9nd 4r8 5a&1in# #a!#: I9n e#timate of #exua( mora(it! i# #carce(! po##ib(e to be reduce into fi*ure#; but if " ma! tru#t m! o&n ob#er ation#, and the *enera( opinion of tho#e &ith &hom " ha e con er#ed, and the #pirit of our e idence, then a mo#t di#coura*in* ie& of the inf(uence of the factor! (ife upon the mora(it! of fema(e !outh obtrude# it#e(f8C "t i#, be#ide#, a matter of cour#e that factor! #er itude, (i1e an! other, and to an e en hi*her de*ree, confer# the 7us primae noctis upon the ma#ter8 "n thi# re#pect a(#o the emp(o!er i# #o erei*n o er the per#on# and charm# of hi# emp(o!ee#8 +he threat of di#char*e #uffice# to o ercome a(( re#i#tance in nine ca#e# out of ten, if not in ninet!$nine out of a hundred, in *ir(# &ho, in an! ca#e, ha e no #tron* inducement# to cha#tit!8 "f the ma#ter i# mean enou*h, and the officia( report mention# #e era( #uch ca#e#, hi# mi(( i# a(#o hi# harem; and the fact that not a(( manufacturer# u#e their po&er, doe# not in the (ea#t chan*e the po#ition of the *ir(#8 "n the be*innin* of manufacturin* indu#tr!, &hen mo#t of the emp(o!er# &ere up#tart# &ithout education or con#ideration for the h!pocri#! of #ociet!, the! (et nothin* interfere &ith the exerci#e of their e#ted ri*ht#8 +o form a correct Dud*ment of the inf(uence of factor!$&or1 upon the hea(th of the fema(e #ex, it i# nece##ar! fir#t to con#ider the &or1 of chi(dren, and then the nature of the &or1 it#e(f8 'rom the be*innin* of manufacturin* indu#tr!, chi(dren ha e been emp(o!ed in mi((#, at fir#t a(mo#t exc(u#i e(! b! rea#on of the #ma((ne## of the machine#, &hich &ere (ater en(ar*ed8 E en chi(dren from the &or1hou#e# &ere emp(o!ed in mu(titude#, bein* rented out for a number of !ear# to the manufacturer# a# apprentice#8 +he! &ere (od*ed, fed, and c(othed in common, and &ere, of cour#e, comp(ete(! the #(a e# of their ma#ter#, b! &hom the! &ere treated &ith the utmo#t rec1(e##ne## and barbarit!8 9# ear(! a# 1.96, the pub(ic obDection to thi# re o(tin* #!#tem found #uch i*orou# expre##ion throu*h 4r8 Perci a( and Sir =obert Pee( ,father of the ;abinet Mini#ter, and him#e(f a cotton manufacturer-, that in 1876 Par(iament pa##ed an 9pprentice#A <i((, b! &hich the mo#t cr!in* e i(# &ere remo ed8 :radua((! the increa#in* competition of free &or1peop(e cro&ded out the &ho(e apprentice #!#tem; factorie# &ere bui(t in citie#, machiner!

&a# con#tructed on a (ar*er #ca(e, and &or1$room# &ere made more air! and &ho(e#ome; *radua((!, too, more &or1 &a# found for adu(t# and !oun* per#on#8 +he number of chi(dren in the mi((# dimini#hed #ome&hat, and the a*e at &hich the! be*an to &or1 ro#e a (itt(e; fe& chi(dren under ei*ht or nine !ear# &ere no& emp(o!ed8 %ater, a# &e #ha(( #ee, the po&er of the #tate inter ened #e era( time# to protect them from the mone!$*reed of the bour*eoi#ie8 +he *reat morta(it! amon* chi(dren of the &or1in*$c(a##, and e#pecia((! amon* tho#e of the factor! operati e#, i# proof enou*h of the un&ho(e#ome condition# under &hich the! pa## their fir#t !ear#8 +he#e inf(uence# are at &or1, of cour#e, amon* the chi(dren &ho #ur i e, but not Buite #o po&erfu((! a# upon tho#e &ho #uccumb8 +he re#u(t in the mo#t fa ourab(e ca#e i# a tendenc! to di#ea#e, or #ome chec1 in de e(opment, and con#eBuent (e## than norma( i*our of the con#titution8 9 nine !ear# o(d chi(d of a factor! operati e that ha# *ro&n up in &ant, pri ation, and chan*in* condition#, in co(d and damp, &ith in#ufficient c(othin* and un&ho(e#ome d&e((in*#, i# far from ha in* the &or1in* force of a chi(d brou*ht up under hea(thier condition#8 9t nine !ear# of a*e it i# #ent into the mi(( to &or1 6V hour# ,former(! 8, ear(ier #ti((, 16 to 14, e en 16 hour#- dai(!, unti( the thirteenth !ear; then t&e( e hour# unti( the ei*hteenth !ear8 +he o(d enfeeb(in* inf(uence# continue, &hi(e the &or1 i# added to them8 "t i# not to be denied that a chi(d of nine !ear#, e en an operati eA# chi(d, can ho(d out throu*h 6V hour#A dai(! &or1, &ithout an! one bein* ab(e to trace i#ib(e bad re#u(t# in it# de e(opment direct(! to thi# cau#e; but in no ca#e can it# pre#ence in the damp, hea ! air of the factor!, often at once &arm and &et, contribute to *ood hea(th; and, in an! ca#e, it i# unpardonab(e to #acrifice to the *reed of an unfee(in* bour*eoi#ie the time of chi(dren &hich #hou(d be de oted #o(e(! to their ph!#ica( and menta( de e(opment, &ithdra& them from #choo( and the fre#h air, in order to &ear them for the benefit of the manufacturer#8 +he bour*eoi#ie #a!#: "f &e do not emp(o! the chi(dren in the mi((#, the! on(! remain under condition# unfa ourab(e to their de e(opment; and thi# i# true on the &ho(e8 <ut &hat doe# thi# mean if it i# not a confe##ion that the bour*eoi#ie fir#t p(ace# the chi(dren of the &or1in*$c(a## under unfa ourab(e condition#, and then exp(oit# the#e bad condition# for it# o&n benefit, appea(# to that &hich i# a# much it# o&n fau(t a# the factor! #!#tem, excu#e# the #in of toda! &ith the #in of !e#terda!K 9nd if the 'actor! 9ct did not in #ome mea#ure fetter their hand#, ho& thi#ChumaneT, thi#Cbene o(entC bour*eoi#ie, &hich ha# bui(t it# factorie# #o(e(! for the *ood of the &or1in*$c(a##, &ou(d ta1e care of the intere#t# of the#e &or1er#@ %et u# hear ho& the! acted before the factor! in#pector &a# at their hee(#8 +heir o&n admitted te#timon! #ha(( con ict them in the =eport of the 'actorie#A "nBuir! ;ommi##ion of 18>>8 +he report of the ;entra( ;ommi##ion re(ate# that the manufacturer# be*an to emp(o! chi(dren rare(! of fi e !ear#, often of #ix, er! often of #e en, u#ua((! of ei*ht to nine !ear#; that the &or1in*$da! often (a#ted fourteen to #ixteen hour#, exc(u#i e of mea(# and inter a(#; that the manufacturer# permitted o er(oo1er# to f(o* and ma(treat chi(dren, and often too1 an acti e part in #o doin* them#e( e#8 ?ne ca#e i# re(ated of a Scotch manufacturer, &ho rode after a #ixteen !ear# o(d runa&a!, forced him to return, runnin* after the emp(o!er a# fa#t a# the ma#terA# hor#e trotted, and beat him the &ho(e &a! &ith a (on* &hip8 "n the (ar*e to&n# &here the operati e# re#i#ted more i*orou#(!, #uch thin*# natura((! happened (e## often8 <ut e en thi# (on* &or1in*$ da! fai(ed to #ati#f! the *reed of the capita(i#t#8 +heir aim &a# to ma1e the capita( in e#ted in the bui(din* and machiner! produce the hi*he#t return, b! e er! a ai(ab(e mean#, to ma1e it &or1 a# acti e(! a# po##ib(e8 5ence the manufacturer# introduced the #hamefu( #!#tem of ni*ht$&or18 Some of them emp(o!ed t&o #et# of operati e#, each numerou# enou*h to fi(( the &ho(e mi((, and (et one #et &or1 the t&e( e hour# of the da!, and the other the t&e( e hour# of the ni*ht8 "t i# need(e## to picture the effect upon the frame# of !oun* chi(dren, and e en upon the hea(th of !oun* per#on# and adu(t#, produced b! permanent (o## of #(eep at ni*ht, &hich cannot be made *ood b! an! amount of #(eep durin* the da!8 "rritation of the &ho(e ner ou# #!#tem, &ith *enera( (a##itude and enfeeb(ement of the entire frame, &ere the ine itab(e re#u(t#, &ith the fo#terin* of

temptation to drun1enne## and unbrid(ed #exua( indu(*ence8 ?ne manufacturer te#tifie# that durin* the t&o !ear# in &hich ni*ht$&or1 &a# carried on in hi# factor!, the number of i((e*itimate chi(dren born &a# doub(ed, and #uch *enera( demora(i#ation pre ai(ed that he &a# ob(i*ed to *i e up ni*ht$&or18 ?ther manufacturer# &ere !et more barbarou#, reBuirin* man! hand# to &or1 thirt! to fort! hour# at a #tretch, #e era( time# a &ee1, (ettin* them *et a coup(e of hour# #(eep on(!, becau#e the ni*ht$#hift &a# not comp(ete, but ca(cu(ated to rep(ace a part of the operati e# on(!8 +he report# of the ;ommi##ion touchin* thi# barbari#m #urpa## e er!thin* that i# 1no&n to me in thi# (ine8 Such infamie#, a# are here re(ated, are no&here e(#e to be found E !et &e #ha(( #ee that the bour*eoi#ie con#tant(! appea(# to the te#timon! of the ;ommi##ion a# bein* in it# o&n fa our8 +he con#eBuence# of the#e crue(tie# became e ident Buic1(! enou*h8 +he ;ommi##ioner# mention a cro&d of cripp(e# &ho appeared before them, &ho c(ear(! o&ed their di#tortion to the (on* &or1in*$hour#8 +hi# di#tortion u#ua((! con#i#t# of a cur in* of the #pina( co(umn and (e*#, and i# de#cribed a# fo((o&# b! 'ranci# Sharp, M8=8;8S8, of %eed#: T<efore " came to %eed#, " had ne er #een the pecu(iar t&i#tin* of the end# of the (o&er part of the thi*h bone8 9t fir#t " con#idered it mi*ht be ric1et#, but from the number# &hich at pre#ented an a*e them#e( e#, particu(ar(!

be!ond the time &hen ric1et# attac1 chi(dren ,bet&een 8 and 14-, and findin* that the! had commenced #ince the! be*an &or1 at the factor! " #oon be*an to chan*e m! opinion8 " no& ma! ha e #een of #uch ca#e# near(! 177, and " can mo#t decided(! #tate the! &ere the re#u(t of too much (abour8 So far a# " 1no& the! a(( be(on* to factorie#, and ha e attributed their di#ea#e to thi# cau#e them#e( e#8CI?f di#tortion# of the #pine, &hich &ere e ident(! o&in* to the (on* #tandin* at their (abour, perhap# the number of ca#e# mi*ht not be (e## than >778T Preci#e(! #imi(ar i# the te#timon! of 4r8 5e!, for ei*hteen !ear# ph!#ician in the ho#pita( in %eed#: T4i#ea#e# of the #pine amon*#t peop(e emp(o!ed in factorie# pre#ented

them#e( e# er! freBuent(!8 Some &ere the re#u(t of pure (abour; other# &ere the re#u(t of (abour on a con#titution perhap# con*enita((! &ea1, or rendered feeb(e b! bad food8 +he deformitie# of the (imb# appear to be more freBuent than the #pina( di#ea#e#888 the bendin* in of the 1nee#, re(axation of the (i*ament# of the an1(e# &a# er! freBuent, and the bendin* of the (ar*e bone#8 +he head# of the (ar*e bone# ha e e#pecia((! been increa#ed and t&i#ted to a con#iderab(e extent; and the#e ca#e# " ha e found to ha e come from tho#e mi((# and factorie# &here (on* hour# ha e been #aid to be common8T Sur*eon# <eaumont and Sharp, of <radford, bear the #ame te#timon!8 +he report# of 4rin1&ater, Po&er, and 4r8 %oudon contain a mu(titude of examp(e# of #uch di#tortion#, and tho#e of +ufne(( and Sir 4a id <arr!, &hich are (e## directed to thi# point, *i e #in*(e examp(e#8 +he ;ommi##ioner# for %anca#hire, ;o&e((, +ufne((, and 5a&1in#, ha e a(mo#t &ho((! ne*(ected thi# a#pect of the ph!#io(o*ica( re#u(t# of the factor! #!#tem, thou*h thi# di#trict ri a(# 0or1#hire in the number of cripp(e#8 " ha e #e(dom tra er#ed Manche#ter &ithout meetin* three or four of them, #ufferin* from preci#e(! the #ame di#tortion# of the #pina( co(umn# and (e*# a# that de#cribed, and " ha e often been ab(e to ob#er e them c(o#e(!8 " 1no& one per#ona((! &ho corre#pond# exact(! &ith the fore*oin* de#cription of 4r8 5e!, and &ho *ot into thi# condition in Mr8 4ou*(a#A factor! in Pend(eton, an e#tab(i#hment &hich enDo!# an unen iab(e notoriet! amon* the operati e# b! rea#on of the former (on* &or1in* period# continued ni*ht after ni*ht8 "t i# e ident, at a *(ance, &hence the di#tortion# of the#e cripp(e# come; the! a(( (oo1 exact(! a(i1e8 +he 1nee# are bent in&ard and bac1&ard#, the an1(e# deformed and thic1, and the #pina( co(umn often bent for&ard# or to one #ide8 <ut the cro&n be(on*# to the phi(anthropic manufacturer# of the Macc(e#fie(d #i(1 di#trict8 +he! emp(o!ed the !oun*e#t chi(dren of a((, e en from fi e to #ix !ear# of a*e8 "n the #upp(ementar! te#timon! of ;ommi##ioner +ufne((, " find the #tatement of a certain factor! mana*er Wri*ht, both of &ho#e #i#ter# &ere mo#t #hamefu((! cripp(ed, and &ho had once counted the cripp(e# in #e era( #treet#, #ome of them the c(eane#t and neate#t #treet# of Macc(e#fie(d8 5e found in +o&n(e! Street ten, :eor*e Street fi e, ;har(otte Street four, Watercot# fifteen, <an1 +op three, %ord Street #e en, Mi(( %ane t&e( e, :reat :eor*e Street t&o, in the &or1hou#e t&o, Par1 :reen one, Pec1ford Street t&o, &ho#e fami(ie# a(( unanimou#(! dec(ared that the cripp(e# had become #uch in con#eBuence of o er&or1 in the #i(1$t&i#tin* mi((#8 ?ne bo! i# mentioned #o cripp(ed a# not to be ab(e to *o up#tair#, and *ir(# deformed in bac1 and hip#8 ?ther deformitie# a(#o ha e proceeded from thi# o er&or1, e#pecia((! f(attenin* of the foot, &hich Sir 48 <arr! freBuent(! ob#er ed, a# did the ph!#ician# and #ur*eon# in %eed#8 "n ca#e#, in

&hich a #tron*er con#titution, better food, and other more fa ourab(e circum#tance# enab(ed the !oun* operati e to re#i#t thi# effect of a barbarou# exp(oitation, &e find, at (ea#t, pain in the bac1, hip#, and (e*#, #&o((en Doint#, arico#e ein#, and (ar*e, per#i#tent u(cer# in the thi*h# and ca( e#8 +he#e affection# are a(mo#t uni er#a( amon* the operati e#8 +he report# of Stuart, Mac1into#h, and Sir 48 <arr! contain hundred# of examp(e#; indeed, the! 1no& a(mo#t no operati e &ho did not #uffer from #ome of the#e affection#; and in the remainin* report#, the occurrence of the #ame phenomena i# atte#ted b! man! ph!#ician#8 +he report# co erin* Scot(and p(ace it be!ond a(( doubt, that a &or1in*$da! of thirteen hour#, e en for men and &omen from ei*hteen to t&ent!$t&o !ear# of a*e, produce# at (ea#t the#e con#eBuence#, both in the f(ax$#pinnin* mi((# of 4undee and 4unferm(ine, and in the cotton mi((# of :(a#*o& and %anar18 9(( the#e affection# are ea#i(! exp(ained b! the nature of factor!$&or1, &hich i#, a# the manufacturer# #a!, er!C(i*htT, and preci#e(! b! rea#on of it# (i*htne##, more ener atin* than an! other8 +he operati e# ha e (itt(e to do, but mu#t #tand the &ho(e time8 9n! one &ho #it# do&n, #a! upon a &indo&$(ed*e or a ba#1et, i# fined, and thi# perpetua( upri*ht po#ition, thi# con#tant mechanica( pre##ure of the upper portion# of the bod! upon #pina( co(umn, hip#, and (e*#, ine itab(! produce# the re#u(t# mentioned8 +hi# #tandin* i# not reBuired b! the &or1 it#e(f, and at /ottin*ham chair# ha e been introduced, &ith the re#u(t that the#e affection# di#appeared, and the operati e# cea#ed to obDect to the (en*th of the &or1in*$da!8 <ut in a factor! &here the operati e &or1# #o(e(! for the bour*eoi#, and ha# #ma(( intere#t in doin* hi# &or1 &e((, he &ou(d probab(! u#e the #eat# more than &ou(d be a*reeab(e and profitab(e to the manufacturer; and in order that #ome&hat (e## ra& materia( ma! be #poi(ed for the bour*eoi#, the operati e mu#t #acrifice hea(th and #tren*th8 +hi# (on* protracted upri*ht po#ition, &ith the bad atmo#phere pre a(ent in the mi((#, entai(#, be#ide# the deformitie# mentioned, a mar1ed re(axation of a(( ita( ener*ie#, and, in con#eBuence, a(( #ort# of other affection# *enera( rather than (oca(8 +he atmo#phere of the factorie# i#, a# a ru(e, at once damp and &arm, u#ua((! &armer than i# nece##ar!, and, &hen the enti(ation i# not very *ood, impure, hea !, deficient in ox!*en, fi((ed &ith du#t and the #me(( of the machine oi(, &hich a(mo#t e er!&here #mear# the f(oor, #in1# into it, and become# rancid8 +he operati e# are (i*ht(! c(ad b! rea#on of the &armth, and &ou(d readi(! ta1e co(d in ca#e of irre*u(arit! of the temperature; a drau*ht i# di#ta#tefu( to them, the *enera( ener ation &hich *radua((! ta1e# po##e##ion of a(( the ph!#ica( function# dimini#he# the anima( &armth: thi# mu#t be rep(aced from &ithout, and nothin* i# therefore more a*reeab(e to the operati e than to ha e a(( the door# and &indo&# c(o#ed, and to #ta! in hi# &arm factor! air8 +hen come# the #udden chan*e of temperature on *oin* out into the co(d and &et or fro#t! atmo#phere, &ithout the mean# of protection from the rain, or of chan*in* &et c(othin* for dr!, a circum#tance &hich perpetua((! produce# co(d#8 9nd &hen one ref(ect# that, &ith a(( thi#, not one #in*(e mu#c(e of the bod! i# rea((! exerci#ed, rea((! ca((ed into acti it!, except perhap# tho#e of the (e*#; that nothin* &hat#oe er counteract# the ener atin*, re(axin* tendenc! of a(( the#e condition#; that e er! inf(uence i# &antin* &hich mi*ht *i e the mu#c(e# #tren*th, the fibre# e(a#ticit! and con#i#tenc!; that from !outh up, the operati e i# depri ed of a(( fre#h$air recreation, it i# impo##ib(e to &onder at the a(mo#t unanimou# te#timon! of the ph!#ician# in the 'actorie#A =eport, that the! find a *reat (ac1 of abi(it! to re#i#t di#ea#e, a *enera( depre##ion in ita( acti it!, a con#tant re(axation of the menta( and ph!#ica( po&er#8 %et u# hear Sir 48 <arr! fir#t: +he unfa ourab(e inf(uence# of mi(($ &or1 upon the hand# are the fo((o&in*:C,1+he indi#pen#ab(e

nece##it! of forcin* both their menta(

and bodi(! exertion# to 1eep exact pace &ith the motion# of machiner! prope((ed b! an un ar!in*, uncea#in* po&er8 ,6+he continuance of an erect po#ture for period# unnatura((! pro(on*ed and too Buic1(! repeated8 ,>- +he pri ation of #(eepT ,in con#eBuence of too (on* &or1in*$hour#, pain in the (e*#, and *enera( ph!#ica( deran*ement-8C+o the#e cau#e# are often added (o&, cro&ded, du#t!, or damp room#; impure air, heated atmo#phere#, con#tant per#piration8 5ence it i# that ma(e chi(dren particu(ar(!, after the! ha e &or1ed #ome time in mi((# (o#e E &ith er! fe& exception# indeed E the ro#! chubbine## of bo!hood, and become pa(er and thinner than bo!# not #o emp(o!ed *enera((! are8 E en the dra&$ bo! &ho #tand# &ith hi# bare feet on the earthen f(oor of hi# ma#terA# #hop pre#er e# hi# appearance much better than the mi(($bo!#,C becau#e he occa#iona((! *oe# into the fre#h air for a time8C<ut the mi(($&or1er ne er ha# a momentA# re#pite except at mea(#, and ne er *et# into the open air except &hen he i# *oin* to (oo1 for them8 9(( the adu(t ma(e #pinner# are pa(e and thin; the! are #ubDect to capriciou# appetite and d!#pep#ia; a(( the #pinner# ha e been brou*ht up in the mi((# from their er! chi(dhood, it i# fair to conc(ude that their mode of (ife i# not fa ourab(e to the de e(opment of the man(! form#, #eein*

that fe&, or none of them are ta(( ath(etic men8 'ema(e# are much (e## deteriorated in their appearance b! mi(($&or1 than ma(e#8C ,Jer! natura((!8 <ut &e #ha(( #ee that the! ha e their o&n di#ea#e#8So, too, Po&er: T" can ha e no he#itation in #tatin* m! be(ief that a (ar*e ma## of deformit! ha# been produced at <radford b! the factor! #!#tem8888 +he effect of (on* and continuou# &or1 upon the frame and (imb# i# not indicated a more b! actua( deformit! a(one; common

indication of it i# found in a #tunted *ro&th, re(axed mu#c(e#, and #(ender conformation8T So, too, '8 Sharp, in %eed#, the #ur*eon .6 a(read! Buoted: When " mo ed from Scarborou*h to %eed#,Cthe *enera( appearance of the chi(dren in %eed# immediate(! #truc1 me a# much more pa((id, and a(#o the firmne## of the fibre a# much inferior a# &hat " had #een in Scarborou*h and the adDacent countr!8 ?b#er ed a(#o man! to be more diminuti e for their a*e8888 "nnumerab(e ca#e# of #crofu(a, affection# of the (un*#, me#enteric di#ea#e#, and d!#pep#ia, ha e a(#o occurred, &hich " ha e no doubt, a# a profe##iona( man, &ere o&in* to the #ame cau#eT, the mi(($ &or18C+he ner ou# ener*! of the bod! " con#ider to be &ea1ened b! the er! (on* hour#, and a foundation (aid for man! di#ea#e#8 Were it not for the indi idua(# &ho Doin the mi((# from the

countr!, the factor! peop(e &ou(d #oon be deteriorated8T So, too, <eaumont, #ur*eon in <radford: I" a(#o con#ider the #!#tem of &or1in* in the factorie# in and around here induce# for the mo#t part a pecu(iar (axit! of the &ho(e #!#tem, renderin* the chi(dren hi*h(! #u#ceptib(e of either pre ai(in* epidemic# or ca#ua( medica( di#order#8888 " certain(! con#ider the &ant of &ho(e#ome re*u(ation# in the mo#t of the factorie#, &hether a# to enti(ation or c(ean(ine##, to be producti e in a *reat mea#ure of that pecu(iar tendenc! or #u#ceptibi(it! of morbid affection# of &hich m! o&n practice afford# amp(e experience8T Simi(ar te#timon! i# borne b! 4r8 5e!Q/ot 5e!, but Wi((iam Sharp Lr ,perC'actorie# "nBuir! ;ommi##ionT, Second =eport, 18>>, ;8 >, p8 6>-R: ,1-C" ha e had an opportunit! of ob#er in* the effect of the factor! #!#tem in the hea(th of chi(dren under the mo#t ad anta*eou# circum#tance#C ,in WoodA# mi((, in <radford, the be#t arran*ed of the di#trict, in &hich he &a# factor! #ur*eon-8 ,6-C+hi# effect i# decided(!8 and, to a *reat extent, inDuriou#, e en under tho#e fa ourab(e circum#tance#8 ,>- 4urin* the !ear 18>6, three$fifth# of a(( the chi(dren emp(o!ed in WoodA# mi(( had medica( a##i#tance from me; ,4- +he mo#t inDuriou# effect i# not in the pre a(enc! of deformed bodie#, but debi(itated and di#ea#ed con#titution#,C ,>- 9(( thi# i# *reat(!

impro ed #ince the &or1in*$hour# of chi(dren ha e been reduced at WoodA# to ten8 +he ;ommi##ioner, 4r8 %oudon him#e(f, &ho #ite# the#e &itne##e#, #a!#: T" thin1 it ha# been c(ear(! pro ed that chi(dren ha e been &or1ed a mo#t unrea#onab(e and crue( (en*th of time dai(!, and that e en adu(t# ha e been expected to do a certain Buantit! of (abour &hich #carce(! an! human bein* i# ab(e to endure8 +he re#u(t of thi# ha# been, that man! ha e met &ith a premature death; man! ha e been affected con#titutiona((! for (ife; and the idea of a po#terit! bein* inDured from the #hattered frame# of the #ur i or# i#, ph!#io(o*ica((! #pea1in*, but too &e(( founded8T 9nd, fina((!, 4r8 5a&1in#, in #pea1in* of Manche#ter: T" be(ie e that mo#t tra e((er# are #truc1 b! the (o&ne## of #tature, the (eanne##, and the pa(ene## &hich pre#ent them#e( e# #o common(! to the e!e at Manche#ter, and abo e a((, amon* the factor! c(a##e#8 " ha e ne er been in an! to&n in :reat <ritain nor in Europe in &hich de*enerac! of form and co(our from the nationa( #tandard ha# been #o ob iou#8 +he married of &omen the fa(( u#ua( remar1ab(! #hort

characteri#tic# of the En*(i#h &ife8888 " cannot he(p remar1in*, that the bo!# and *ir(# &hom " examined from the Manche#ter factorie# er! *enera((! exhibited a depre##ed (oo1, and a pa((id

comp(exion;

none

of

the

a(acrit!,

acti it!, and hi(arit! of ear(! (ife #hone on their countenance# and *e#ture#8 9 (ar*e number of both, in rep(! to m! Bue#tion#, dec(ared that the! had no &i#h to p(a! about on the Saturda! afternoon and on the Sunda!, but that the! preferred remainin* Buiet8T " add, at once, another pa##a*e of 5a&1in#A report, &hich on(! ha(f be(on*# here, but ma! be Buoted here a# &e(( a# an!&here e(#e: T"ntemperance, debaucher! and impro idence are the chief b(emi#he# on the character of the factor! &or1peop(e, and tho#e e i(# ma! ea#i(! be traced to habit# formed under the pre#ent #!#tem, and #prin*in* from it a(mo#t ine itab(!8 ?n a(( #ide# affect it i# admitted c(a## of that and the indi*e#tion, (an*uor popu(ation h!pochondria#i# thi#

er! &ide(!8 9fter t&e( e

hour# of monotonou# (abour, it i# but too natura( to #ee1 for #timu(ant# of one 1ind or another; but &hen &e #uperadd the morbid #tate# abo e a((uded to, the tran#ition to #pirit# i# rapid and perpetua(8T 'or a(( thi# te#timon! of the ph!#ician# and commi##ioner#, the report it#e(f offer# hundred# of ca#e# of proof8 +hat the *ro&th of !oun* operati e# i# #tunted, b! their &or1, hundred# of #tatement# te#tif!; amon* other#, ;o&e(( *i e# the &ei*ht of 46 !outh# of 1. !ear# of a*e, from one Sunda! #choo(, of &hom 66 emp(o!ed in mi((#, a era*ed 17485 pound#, and 67 not emp(o!ed in mi((#, 11.8. pound#8 ?ne of the (ar*e#t manufacturer# of Manche#ter, (eader of the oppo#ition a*ain#t the &or1in*$men, " thin1 =obert 5!de :re* him#e(f, #aid, on one occa#ion, that if thin*# &ent on a# at pre#ent, the operati e# of %anca#hire &ou(d #oon be a race of p!*mie#8 9 recruitin* officer te#tified that operati e# are (itt(e adapted for mi(itar! #er ice, (oo1ed thin and ner ou#, and &ere freBuent(! reDected b! the #ur*eon# a# unfit8 "n Manche#ter he cou(d hard(! *et men of fi e feet ei*ht inche#; the! &ere u#ua((! on(! fi e feet #ix to #e en, &herea# in the a*ricu(tura( di#trict#, mo#t of the recruit# &ere fi e feet ei*ht8

+he men &ear out er! ear(! in con#eBuence of the condition# under &hich the! (i e and &or18 Mo#t of them are unfit for &or1 at fort! !ear#, a fe& ho(d out to fort!$fi e, a(mo#t none to fift! !ear# of a*e8 +hi# i# cau#ed not on(! b! the *enera( enfeeb(ement of the frame, but a(#o er! often b! a fai(ure of the #i*ht, &hich i# a re#u(t of mu(e$#pinnin*, in &hich the operati e i# ob(i*ed to fix hi# *a)e upon a (on* ro& of fine, para((e( thread#, and #o *reat(! to, #train the #i*ht8 ?f 1,677 operati e# emp(o!ed in #e era( factorie# in 5arpur and %anar1, but 17 &ere o er 45 !ear# of a*e; of 66,794 operati e# in di er#e factorie# in Stoc1port and Manche#ter, but 145 &ere o er 45 !ear# o(d8 ?f the#e 14>, 16 &ere retained a# a #pecia( fa our, and one &a# doin* the &or1 of a chi(d8 9 (i#t of 1>1 #pinner# contained but #e en o er 45 !ear#, and !et the &ho(e 1>1 &ere reDected b! the manufacturer#, to &hom the! app(ied for &or1, a#Ctoo o(dT,A and &ere &ithout mean# of #upport b! rea#on of o(d a*e@ Mr8 9#h&orth, a (ar*e manufacturer, admit# in a (etter to %ord 9#h(e!, that, to&ard# the fortieth !ear, the #pinner# can no (on*er prepare the reBuired Buantit! of !arn, and are therefore A#ometime#C di#char*ed; he ca((# operati e# fort! !ear# of a*eCo(d peop(eT@ ;ommi##ioner Mac1into#h expre##e# him#e(f in the #ame &a! in the report of 18>>: I9(thou*h prepared b! #eein* chi(dhood occupied in #uch a manner, it i# ad anced them#e( e#, in #o !ear# a# *i en i# er! b! their difficu(t to be(ie e the a*e of the men comp(ete

premature o(d a*e8T Sur*eon Sme((ie of :(a#*o&, &ho treated operati e# chief(!, #a!# hat fort! !ear# i# o(d a*e for them8 9nd #imi(ar e idence ma! be found e(#e&here8 "n Manche#ter, thi# premature o(d a*e amon* the operati e# i# #o uni er#a( that a(mo#t e er! man of fort! &ou(d be ta1en for ten to fifteen !ear# o(der, &hi(e the pro#perou# c(a##e#, men a# &e(( a# &omen, pre#er e their appearance exceedin*(! &e(( if the! do not drin1 too hea i(!8 +he inf(uence of factor!$&or1 upon the fema(e ph!#iBue a(#o i# mar1ed and pecu(iar8 +he deformitie# entai(ed b! (on* hour# of &or1 are much more #eriou# amon* &omen8 Protracted &or1 freBuent(! cau#e# deformitie# of the pe( i#, part(! in the #hape of abnorma( po#ition and de e(opment of the hip bone#, part(! of ma(formation of the (o&er portion of the #pina( co(umn, T9(thou*h,C #a!# 4r8 %oudon in hi# report,Cno ca#e# pre#ented them#e( e# of deformed pe( i#, and #ome other# of the di#ea#e# &hich ha e been de#cribed, !et their ai(ment# are #uch a# e er! medica( man mu#t expect to be the probab(e con#eBuence#C of #uch &or1in*$hour# for !oun* peop(e,Cand the! are recorded b! men of the hi*he#t profe##iona( and mora( characterT8

+hat factor! operati e# under*o more difficu(t confinement than other &omen i# te#tified to b! #e era( mid&i e# and accoucheur#, and a(#o that the! are more (iab(e to mi#carria*e8 Moreo er, the! #uffer from the *enera( enfeeb(ement common to a(( operati e#, and, &hen pre*nant, continue to &or1 in the factor! up to the hour of de(i er!, becau#e other&i#e the! (o#e their &a*e# and are made to fear that the! ma! be rep(aced if the! #top a&a! too #oon8 "t freBuent(! happen# that &omen are at &or1 one e enin* and de(i ered the next mornin*, and the ca#e i# none too rare of their bein* de(i ered in the factor! amon* the machiner!8 9nd if the *ent(emen of the bour*eoi#ie find nothin* particu(ar(! #hoc1in* in thi#, their &i e# &i(( perhap# admit that it i# a piece of crue(t!, an infamou# act of barbari#m, indirect(! to force a pre*nant &oman to &or1 t&e( e or thirteen hour# dai(! ,former(! #ti(( (on*er-, up to the da! of her de(i er!; in a #tandin* po#ition, &ith freBuent #toopin*#8 <ut thi# i# not a((8 "f the#e &omen are not ob(i*ed to re#ume &or1 &ithin t&o &ee1#, the! are than1fu(, and count them#e( e# fortunate8 Man! come bac1 to the factor! after ei*ht, and e en after three to four da!#, to re#ume fu(( &or18 " once heard a manufacturer a#1 an o er(oo1er;C"# #o and #o not bac1 !etKCI/o8CI5o& (on* #ince #he &a# confined8CI9 &ee18TIShe mi*ht #ure(! ha e been bac1 (on* a*o8 +hat one o er there on(! #ta!# three da!#8C /atura((!, fear of bein* di#char*ed, dread of #tar ation dri e# her to the factor! in #pite of her &ea1ne##, in defiance of her pain8 +he intere#t of the manufacturer &i(( not broo1 that hi# emp(o!ee# #ta! at home b! rea#on of i((ne##; the! mu#t not be i((, the! mu#t not enture to (ie #ti(( throu*h a (on* confinement, or he mu#t #top hi# machiner! or troub(e hi# #upreme head &ith a temporar! chan*e of arran*ement#; and rather than do thi#, he di#char*e# hi# peop(e &hen the! be*in to be i((8 %i#ten: 9 *ir( fee(# er! i((, can #carce(! do her &or18CWh! donAt !ou a#1 for (ea e to #ta! a&a!KCIWe((, #ir, the ma#ter i# Bueer at (ettin* u# off; if &e are off a Buarter of a da! &e #tand a chance of bein* turned a&a!8T ?r Sir 48 <arr!: +homa# Mc4urt, &or1man, ha# #(i*ht fe er8C;annot enture to be off &or1 more than four da!#, for fear of (o#in* hi# &or18T 9nd #o it *oe# on in a(mo#t a(( the factorie#8 +he emp(o!ment of !oun* *ir(# produce# a(( #ort# of irre*u(aritie# durin* the period of de e(opment8 "n #ome, e#pecia((! tho#e &ho are better fed, the heat of the factorie# ha#ten# thi# proce##, #o that in #in*(e ca#e#, *ir(# of thirteen and fourteen are &ho((! mature8 =oberton, &hom " ha e a(read! cited ,mentioned in the 'actorie#A "nBuir! ;ommi##ionA# =eport a# theCeminentC *!naeco(o*i#t of Manche#ter-, re(ate# in the North of England +edical and 1urgical %ournal, that he had #een a *ir( of e(e en !ear# &ho &a# not on(! a &ho((! de e(oped &oman, but pre*nant, and that it &a# b! no mean# rare in Manche#ter for &omen to be confined at fifteen !ear# of a*e-8 "n #uch ca#e#, the inf(uence of the &armth of the factorie# i# the #ame a# that of a tropica( c(imate, and, a# in #uch c(imate#, the abnorma((! ear(! de e(opment re en*e# it#e(f b! corre#pondin*(! premature a*e and debi(it!8 ?n the other hand, retarded de e(opment of the fema(e con#titution occur#, the brea#t# mature (ate or not at a((8 Men#truation fir#t appear# in the #e enteenth or ei*hteenth, #ometime# in the t&entieth !ear, and

i# often &ho((! &antin*8 "rre*u(ar men#truation, coup(ed &ith *reat pain and numerou# affection#, e#pecia((! &ith anaemia, i# er! freBuent, a# the medica( report# unanimou#(! #tate8 ;hi(dren of #uch mother#, particu(ar(! of tho#e &ho are ob(i*ed to &or1 durin* pre*nanc!, cannot be i*orou#8 +he! are, on the contrar!, de#cribed in the report, e#pecia((! in Manche#ter, a# er! feeb(e; and <arr! a(one a##ert# that the! are hea(th!, but #a!# further, that in Scot(and, &here hi# in#pection (a!, a(mo#t no married &omen &or1ed in factorie#8 Moreo er, mo#t of the factorie# there are in the countr! ,&ith the exception of :(a#*o&-, a circum#tance &hich contribute# *reat(! to the in i*oration of the chi(dren8 +he operati e#A chi(dren in the nei*hbourhood of Manche#ter are near(! a(( thri in* and ro#!, &hi(e tho#e &ithin the cit! (oo1 pa(e and #crofu(ou#; but &ith the ninth !ear the co(our ani#he# #udden(!, becau#e a(( are then #ent into the factorie#, &hen it #oon become# impo##ib(e to di#tin*ui#h the countr! from the cit! chi(dren8 <ut be#ide# a(( thi#, there are #ome branche# of factor!$&or1 &hich ha e an e#pecia((! inDuriou# effect8 "n man! room# of the cotton and f(ax$#pinnin* mi((#, the air i# fi((ed &ith fibrou# du#t, &hich produce# che#t affection#, e#pecia((! amon* &or1er# in the cardin* and combin*$room#8 Some con#titution# can bear it, #ome cannot; but the operati e ha# no choice8 5e mu#t ta1e the room in &hich he find# &or1, &hether hi# che#t i# #ound or not8 +he mo#t common effect# of thi# breathin* of du#t are b(ood$#pittin*, hard, noi#! breathin*, pain# in the che#t, cou*h#, #(eep(e##ne## E in #hort, a(( the #!mptom# of a#thma endin* in the &or#t ca#e# in con#umption8 E#pecia((! un&ho(e#ome i# the &et #pinnin* of (inen$!arn &hich i# carried on b! !oun* *ir(# and bo!#8 +he &ater #purt# o er them from the #pind(e, #o that the front of their c(othin* i# con#tant(! &et throu*h to the #1in; and there i# a(&a!# &ater #tandin* on the f(oor8 +hi# i# the ca#e to a (e## de*ree in the doub(in*$room# of the cotton mi((#, and the re#u(t i# a con#tant #ucce##ion of co(d# and affection# of the che#t8 9 hoar#e, rou*h oice i# common to a(( operati e#, but e#pecia((! to &et #pinner# and doub(er#8 Stuart, Mac1into#h, and Sir 48 <arr! expre## them#e( e# in the mo#t i*orou# term# a# to the un&ho(e#omene## of thi# &or1, and the #ma(( con#ideration #ho&n b! mo#t of the manufacturer# for the hea(th of the *ir(# &ho do it8 9nother effect of f(ax$#pinnin* i# a pecu(iar deformit! of the #hou(der, e#pecia((! a proDection of the ri*ht #hou(der$b(ade, con#eBuent upon the nature of the &or18 +hi# #ort of #pinnin* and the thro#t(e$#pinnin* of cotton freBuent(! produce di#ea#e# of the 1nee$pan, &hich i# u#ed to chec1 the #pind(e durin* the Doinin* of bro1en thread#8 +he freBuent #toopin* and the bendin* to the (o& machine# common to both the#e branche# of &or1 ha e, in *enera(, a #tuntin* effect upon the *ro&th of the operati e8 "n the thro#t(e$room of the cotton mi(( at Manche#ter, in &hich " &a# emp(o!ed, " do not remember to ha e #een one #in*(e ta((, &e(($bui(t *ir(; the! &ere a(( #hort, dump!, and bad(!$formed, decided(! u*(! in the &ho(e de e(opment of the fi*ure8 <ut apart from a(( the#e di#ea#e# and ma(formation#, the (imb# of the operati e# #uffer in #ti(( another &a!8 +he &or1 bet&een the machiner! *i e# ri#e to mu(titude# of accident# of more or (e## #eriou# nature, &hich ha e for the operati e the #econdar! effect of unfittin* him for hi# &or1 more or (e## comp(ete(!8 +he mo#t common accident i# the #Buee)in* off of a #in*(e Doint of a fin*er, #ome&hat (e## common the (o## of the &ho(e fin*er, ha(f or a &ho(e hand, an arm, etc8, in the machiner!8 %oc1Da& er! often fo((o&#, e en upon the (e##er amon* the#e inDurie#, and brin*# death &ith it8 <e#ide# the deformed per#on#, a *reat number of maimed one# ma! be #een *oin* about in Manche#ter; thi# one ha# (o#t an arm or a part of one, that one a foot, the third ha(f a (e*; it i# (i1e (i in* in the mid#t of an arm! Du#t returned from a campai*n8 <ut the mo#t dan*erou# portion of the machiner! i# the #trappin* &hich con e!# moti e po&er from the #haft to the #eparate machine#, e#pecia((! if it contain# buc1(e#, &hich, ho&e er, are rare(! u#ed no&8 Whoe er i# #ei)ed b! the #trap i# carried up &ith (i*htnin* #peed, thro&n a*ain#t the cei(in* abo e and f(oor be(o& &ith #uch force that there i# rare(! a &ho(e bone (eft in the bod!, and death fo((o&# in#tant(!8 <et&een Lune 16th and 9u*u#t >rd, 1844, the +anchester *uardian reported the fo((o&in* #eriou# accident# ,the trif(in* one# it doe# not notice-: Lune 16th, a bo! died in Manche#ter of (oc1Da&, cau#ed b! hi# hand

bein* cru#hed bet&een &hee(#8 Lune 15th, a !outh in Sadd(e&orth #ei)ed b! a &hee( and carried a&a! &ith it; died, utter(! man*(ed8 Lune 69th, a !oun* man at :reen 9cre# Moor, near Manche#ter, at &or1 in a machine #hop, fe(( under the *rind#tone, &hich bro1e t&o of hi# rib# and (acerated him terrib(!8 Lu(! 64th, a *ir( in ?(dham died, carried around fift! time# b! a #trap; no bone unbro1en8 Lu(! 6.th, a *ir( in Manche#ter #ei)ed b! the b(o&er ,the fir#t machine that recei e# the ra& cotton-, and died of inDurie# recei ed8 9u*u#t >rd, a bobbin# turner died in 4u1enfie(d, cau*ht in a #trap, e er! rib bro1en8 "n the !ear 1846, the Manche#ter "nfirmar! treated 966 ca#e# of &ound# and muti(ation# cau#ed b! machiner!, &hi(e the number of a(( other accident# &ithin the di#trict of the ho#pita( &a# 6,466, #o that for fi e accident# from a(( other cau#e#, t&o &ere cau#ed b! machiner!8 +he accident# &hich happened in Sa(ford are not inc(uded here, nor tho#e treated b! #ur*eon# in pri ate practice8 "n #uch ca#e#, &hether or not the accident unfit# the ictim for further &or1, the emp(o!er, at be#t, pa!# the doctor, or, in er! exceptiona( ca#e#, he ma! pa! &a*e# durin* treatment; &hat become# of the operati e after&ard#, in ca#e he cannot &or1, i# no concern of the emp(o!er8 +he 'actor! =eport #a!# on thi# #ubDect, that emp(o!er# mu#t be made re#pon#ib(e for a(( ca#e#, #ince chi(dren cannot ta1e care, and adu(t# &i(( ta1e care in their o&n intere#t8 <ut the *ent(emen &ho &rite the report are bour*eoi#, and #o the! mu#t contradict them#e( e# and brin* up (ater a(( #ort# of bo#h on the #ubDect of the cu(pab(e temerit! of the operati e#8 +he #tate of the ca#e i# thi#: "f chi(dren cannot ta1e care, the emp(o!ment of chi(dren mu#t be forbidden8 "f adu(t# are rec1(e##, the! mu#t be mere o er*ro&n chi(dren on a p(ane of inte((i*ence &hich doe# not enab(e them to appreciate the dan*er in it# fu(( #cope; and &ho i# to b(ame for thi# but the bour*eoi#ie &hich 1eep# them in a condition in &hich their inte((i*ence cannot de e(opK ?r the machiner! i# i(($arran*ed, and mu#t be #urrounded &ith fencin*, to #upp(! &hich fa((# to the #hare of the bour*eoi#ie8 ?r the operati e i# under inducement# &hich out&ei*h the threatened dan*er; he mu#t &or1 rapid(! to earn hi# &a*e#, ha# no time to ta1e care, and for thi#, too, the bour*eoi#ie i# to b(ame8 Man! accident# happen, for in#tance, &hi(e the operati e# are c(eanin* machiner! in motion8 Wh!K <ecau#e the bour*eoi# &ou(d other&i#e ob(i*e the &or1er to c(ean the machiner! durin* the free hour# &hi(e it i# not *oin*, and the &or1er natura((! i# not di#po#ed to #acrifice an! part of hi# free time8 E er! free hour i# #o preciou# to the &or1er that he often ri#1# hi# (ife t&ice a &ee1 rather than #acrifice one of them to the bour*eoi#8 %et the emp(o!er ta1e from &or1in*$hour# the time reBuired for c(eanin* the machiner!, and it &i(( ne er a*ain occur to an operati e to c(ean machiner! in motion8 "n #hort, from &hate er point of ie&, the b(ame fa((# u(timate(! on the manufacturer, and of him #hou(d be reBuired, at the er! (ea#t, (ife$(on* #upport of the incapacitated operati e, and #upport of the ictimA# fami(! in ca#e death fo((o&# the accident8 "n the ear(ie#t period of manufacture, the accident# &ere much more numerou# in proportion than no&, for the machiner! &a# inferior, #ma((er, more cro&ded, and a(mo#t ne er fenced8 <ut the number i# #ti(( (ar*e enou*h, a# the fore*oin* ca#e# pro e, to arou#e the *ra e Bue#tion a# to a #tate of thin*# &hich permit# #o man! deformitie# and muti(ation# for the benefit of a #in*(e c(a##, and p(un*e# #o man! indu#triou# &or1in*$peop(e into &ant and #tar ation b! rea#on of inDurie# under*one in the #er ice and throu*h the fau(t of the bour*eoi#ie8 9 prett! (i#t of di#ea#e# en*endered pure(! b! the hatefu( mone!$*reed of the manufacturer#@ Women made unfit for chi(d$bearin*, chi(dren deformed, men enfeeb(ed, (imb# cru#hed, &ho(e *eneration# &rec1ed, aff(icted &ith di#ea#e and infirmit!, pure(! to fi(( the pur#e# of the bour*eoi#ie8 9nd &hen one read# of the barbari#m of #in*(e ca#e#, ho& chi(dren are #ei)ed na1ed in bed b! the o er(oo1er#, and dri en &ith b(o&# and 1ic1# to the factor!, their c(othin* o er their arm#, ho& their #(eepine## i# dri en off &ith b(o&#, ho& the! fa(( a#(eep o er their &or1 ne erthe(e##, ho& one poor chi(d #pran* up, #ti(( a#(eep, at the ca(( of the o er(oo1er, and mechanica((! &ent throu*h the operation# of it# &or1 after it# machine &a# #topped; &hen one read# ho& chi(dren, too tired to *o home, hide a&a! in the &oo( in the dr!in*$room to #(eep there,

and cou(d on(! be dri en out of the factor! &ith #trap#; ho& man! hundred# came home #o tired e er! ni*ht, that the! cou(d eat no #upper for #(eepine## and &ant of appetite, that their parent# found them 1nee(in* b! the bed#ide, &here the! had fa((en a#(eep durin* their pra!er#; &hen one read# a(( thi# and a hundred other i((ainie# and infamie# in thi# one report, a(( te#tified to on oath, confirmed b! #e era( &itne##e#, depo#ed b! men &hom the commi##ioner# them#e( e# dec(are tru#t&orth!; &hen one ref(ect# that thi# i# a %ibera( report, a bour*eoi# report, made for the purpo#e of re er#in* the pre iou# +or! report, and rehabi(itatin* the purene## of heart of the manufacturer#, that the commi##ioner# them#e( e# are on the #ide of the bour*eoi#ie, and report a(( the#e thin*# a*ain#t their o&n &i((, ho& can one be other&i#e than fi((ed &ith &rath and re#entment a*ain#t a c(a## &hich boa#t# of phi(anthrop! and #e(f$#acrifice, &hi(e it# one obDect i# to fi(( it# pur#e a tout pri8K Mean&hi(e, (et u# (i#ten to the bour*eoi#ie #pea1in* throu*h the mouth of it# cho#en apo#t(e, 4r8 Fre, &ho re(ate# in hi# 9hilosophy of +anufactures that the &or1er# ha e been to(d that their &a*e# bore no proportion to their #acrifice#, the *ood under#tandin* bet&een ma#ter# and men bein* thu# di#turbed8 "n#tead of thi#, the &or1in*$men #hou(d ha e #tri en to recommend them#e( e# b! attention and indu#tr!, and #hou(d ha e reDoiced in the pro#perit! of their ma#ter#8 +he! &ou(d then become o er#eer#, #uperintendent#, and fina((! partner#, and &ou(d thu# E ,?h@ Wi#dom, thou #pea1e#t a# the do e@- ECha e increa#ed at the #ame time the demand for their companion#A (abour in the mar1et@T T5ad it not been for the from erroneou# ie&# amon* io(ent the co((i#ion# and interruption# re#u(tin* operati e#, the factor! #!#tem &ou(d ha e been de e(oped #ti(( more rapid(! and beneficia((!8T 5ereupon fo((o&# a (on* Leremiad upon the #pirit of re#i#tance of the operati e#, and on the occa#ion of a #tri1e of the be#t$paid &or1er#, the fine #pinner#, the fo((o&in* nai e ob#er ation: T"n fact, it &a# their hi*h &a*e# &hich enab(ed them to maintain a #tipendiar! committee in aff(uence, and to pamper them#e( e# into ner ou# ai(ment#, b! a diet too rich and excitin* for their indoor emp(o!ment#8T %et u# hear ho& the bour*eoi# de#cribe# the &or1 of chi(dren: T" ha e i#ited man! factorie#, both in Manche#ter and in the #urroundin* di#trict#, durin* a period of #e era( month#, enterin* the #pinnin*$room# unexpected(!, and often a(one, at different time# of the da!, and " ne er #a& a #in*(e in#tance of corpora(

cha#ti#ement inf(icted on a chi(d; nor, indeed, did " e er #ee chi(dren in i(($ humour8 +he! #eemed to be a(&a!# cheerfu( and a(ert; ta1in* p(ea#ure in the (i*ht p(a! of their mu#c(e#, enDo!in* the mobi(it! natura( to their a*e8 +he #cene of indu#tr!, #o far from excitin* #ad emotion#, in m! mind, &a# a(&a!# exhi(aratin*8 "t &a# de(i*htfu( to ob#er e the nimb(ene## &ith &hich the! pieced bro1en end#, a# the mu(e carria*e be*an to recede from the fixed ro((er beam, and to #ee them at (ei#ure, after a fe& #econd#A exerci#e of their tin! fin*er#, to amu#e them#e( e# in an! attitude the! cho#e, ti(( the #tretch and &indin* on &ere once more comp(eted8 +he &or1 of the#e (i e(! e( e# #eemed to re#emb(e a #port, in &hich habit *a e them a p(ea#in* dexterit!8 ;on#ciou# of their #1i((, the! &ere de(i*hted to #ho& it off to an! #tran*er8 9# to exhau#tion b! the da!A# &or1, the! e inced no trace of it on emer*in* from the mi(( in the e enin*; for the! immediate(! be*an to #1ip about an! nei*hbourin* p(a!$ *round, and to commence their (itt(e *ame# &ith the #ame a(acrit! a# bo!# i##uin* from a #choo(8T /atura((!@ 9# thou*h the immediate mo ement of e er! mu#c(e &ere not an ur*ent nece##it! for frame# *ro&n at once #tiff and re(axed@ <ut Fre #hou(d ha e &aited to #ee &hether thi# momentar! excitement had not #ub#ided after a coup(e of minute#8 9nd be#ide#, Fre cou(d #ee thi# &ho(e performance on(! in the afternoon after fi e or #ix hour#A &or1, but not in the e enin*@ 9# to the hea(th of the operati e#, the bour*eoi# ha# the bound(e## impudence to cite the report of 18>> Du#t Buoted in a thou#and p(ace#, a# te#timon! for the exce((ent hea(th of the#e peop(e; to tr! to pro e b! detached and *arb(ed Buotation# that no trace of #crofu(a can be found amon* them, and, &hat i# Buite true, that the factor! #!#tem free# them from a(( acute di#ea#e# ,that the! ha e

e er! ariet! of chronic affection in#tead he natura((! concea(#-8 +o exp(ain the impudence &ith &hich our friend Fre pa(m# off the *ro##e#t fa(#ehood# upon the En*(i#h pub(ic, it mu#t be 1no&n that the report con#i#t# of three (ar*e fo(io o(ume#, &hich it ne er occur# to a &e(($fed En*(i#h bour*eoi# to #tud! throu*h8 %et u# hear further ho& he expre##e# him#e(f a# to the 'actor! 9ct of 18>>, pa##ed b! the %ibera( bour*eoi#ie, and impo#in* on(! the mo#t mea*re (imitation# upon the manufacturer#, a# &e #ha(( #ee8 +hi# (a&, e#pecia((! it# compu(#or! education c(au#e, he ca((# an ab#urd and de#potic mea#ure directed a*ain#t the manufacturer#, throu*h &hich a(( chi(dren under t&e( e !ear# of a*e ha e been thro&n out of emp(o!ment; and &ith &hat re#u(t#K +he chi(dren thu# di#char*ed from their (i*ht and u#efu( occupation recei e no education &hat#oe er; ca#t out from the &arm #pinnin*$room into a co(d &or(d, the! #ub#i#t on(! b! be**in* and #tea(in*, a (ife in #ad contra#t &ith their #teadi(! impro in* condition in the factor! and in Sunda! #choo(8 Fnder the ma#1 of phi(anthrop!, thi# (a& inten#ifie# the #ufferin*# of the poor, and &i(( *reat(! re#trict the con#cientiou# manufacturer in hi# u#efu( &or1, if, indeed, it doe# not &ho((! #top him8 +he ruinou# inf(uence of the factor! #!#tem be*an at an ear(! da! to attract *enera( attention8 We ha e a(read! a((uded to the 9pprentice#A 9ct of 18768 %ater, to&ard# 181., =obert ?&en, then a manufacturer in /e& %anar1, in Scot(and, after&ard# founder of En*(i#h Socia(i#m, be*an to ca(( the attention of the :o ernment, b! memoria(# and petition#, to the nece##it! of (e*i#(ati e *uarantee# for the hea(th of the operati e#, and e#pecia((! of chi(dren8 +he (ate Sir =obert Pee( and other phi(anthropi#t# united &ith him, and *radua((! #ecured the 'actor! 9ct# of 1819, 1865, and 18>1, of &hich the fir#t t&o &ere ne er enforced, and the (a#t on(! here and there8 +hi# (a& of 18>1, ba#ed upon the motion of Sir L8 ;8 5obhou#e, pro ided that in cotton mi((# no one under t&ent!$one #hou(d be emp(o!ed bet&een ha(f$pa#t #e en at ni*ht and ha(f$pa#t fi e in the mornin*; and that in a(( factorie# !oun* per#on# under ei*hteen #hou(d &or1 no (on*er than t&e( e hour# dai(!, and nine hour# on Saturda!8 <ut #ince operati e# cou(d not te#tif! a*ain#t their ma#ter# &ithout bein* di#char*ed, thi# (a& he(ped matter# er! (itt(e8 "n the *reat citie#, &here the operati e# &ere more re#ti e, the (ar*er manufacturer# came to an a*reement amon* them#e( e# to obe! the (a&; but e en there, there &ere man! &ho, (i1e the emp(o!er# in the countr!, did not troub(e them#e( e# about it8 Mean&hi(e, the demand for a ten hour#A (a& had become (i e(! amon* the operati e#; that i#, for a (a& &hich #hou(d forbid a(( operati e# under ei*hteen !ear# of a*e to &or1 (on*er than ten hour# dai(!; the +rade# Fnion#, b! their a*itation, made thi# demand *enera( throu*hout the manufacturin* popu(ation; the phi(anthropic #ection of the +or! part!, then (ed b! Michae( Sad(er, #ei)ed upon the p(an, and brou*ht it before Par(iament8 Sad(er obtained a par(iamentar! committee for the in e#ti*ation of the factor! #!#tem, and thi# committee reported in 18>68 "t# report &a# emphatica((! parti#an, compo#ed b! #tron* enemie# of the factor! #!#tem, for part! end#8 Sad(er permitted him#e(f to be betra!ed b! hi# nob(e enthu#ia#m into the mo#t di#torted and erroneou# #tatement#, dre& from hi# &itne##e# b! the er! form of hi# Bue#tion#, an#&er# &hich contained the truth, but truth in a per erted form8 +he manufacturer# them#e( e#, incen#ed at a report &hich repre#ented them a# mon#ter#, no& demanded an officia( in e#ti*ation; the! 1ne& that an exact report mu#t, in thi# ca#e, be ad anta*eou# to them; the! 1ne& that Whi*#, *enuine bour*eoi#, &ere at the he(m, &ith &hom the! &ere upon *ood term#, &ho#e princip(e# &ere oppo#ed to an! re#triction upon manufacture8 +he! obtained a commi##ion, in due order, compo#ed of %ibera( bour*eoi#, &ho#e report " ha e #o often cited8 +hi# come# #ome&hat nearer the truth than Sad(erA#, but it# de iation# therefrom are in the oppo#ite direction8 ?n e er! pa*e it betra!# #!mpath! &ith the manufacturer#, di#tru#t of the Sad(er report, repu*nance to the &or1in*$men a*itatin* independent(! and the #upporter# of the +en 5our#A <i((8 "t no&here reco*ni#e# the ri*ht of the &or1in*$man to a (ife &orth! of a human bein*, to independent acti it!, and opinion# of hi# o&n8 "t reproache# the operati e# that in #u#tainin* the +en 5our#A <i(( the! thou*ht, not of the chi(dren on(!, but of them#e( e# a# &e((; it ca((# the &or1in*$men en*a*ed in the a*itation dema*o*ue#, i(($intentioned, ma(iciou#, etc8, i#

&ritten, in #hort, on the #ide of the bour*eoi#ie; and #ti(( it cannot &hite&a#h the manufacturer#, and #ti(( it (ea e# #uch a ma## of infamie# upon the #hou(der# of the emp(o!er#, that e en after thi# report, the a*itation for the +en 5our#A <i((, the hatred a*ain#t the manufacturer#, and the committeeA# #e ere#t epithet# app(ied to them are a(( fu((! Du#tified8 <ut there &a# the one difference, that &herea# the Sad(er report accu#e# the manufacturer# of open, undi#*ui#ed bruta(it!, it no& became e ident that thi# bruta(it! &a# chief(! carried on under the ma#1 of ci i(i#ation and humanit!8 0et 4r8 5a&1in#, the medica( commi##ioner for %anca#hire, expre##e# him#e(f decided(! in fa our of the +en 5our#A <i(( in the openin* (ine# of hi# report, and ;ommi##ioner Mac1into#h exp(ain# that hi# o&n report doe# not contain the &ho(e truth, becau#e it i# er! difficu(t to induce the operati e# to te#tif! a*ain#t their emp(o!er#, and becau#e the manufacturer#, be#ide# bein* forced into *reater conce##ion# to&ard# their operati e# b! the excitement amon* the (atter, are often prepared for the in#pection of the factorie#, ha e them #&ept, the #peed of the machiner! reduced, etc8 "n %anca#hire e#pecia((! the! re#orted to the de ice of brin*in* the o er(oo1er# of &or1$room# before the commi##ioner#, and (ettin* them te#tif! a# &or1in*$men to the humanit! of the emp(o!er#, the &ho(e#ome effect# of the &or1, and the indifference, if not the ho#ti(it! of the operati e#, to&ard# the +en 5our#A <i((8 <ut the#e are not *enuine &or1in*$men; the! are de#erter# from their c(a##, &ho ha e entered the #er ice of the bour*eoi#ie for better pa!, and fi*ht in the intere#t# of the capita(i#t# a*ain#t the &or1er#8 +heir intere#t i# that of the capita(i#t#, and the! are, therefore, a(mo#t more hated b! the &or1er# than the manufacturer# them#e( e#8 9nd !et thi# report #uffice# &ho((! to exhibit the mo#t #hamefu( rec1(e##ne## of the manufacturin* bour*eoi#ie to&ard# it# emp(o!ee#, the &ho(e infam! of the indu#tria( exp(oitin* #!#tem in it# fu(( inhumanit!8 /othin* i# more re o(tin* than to compare the (on* re*i#ter of di#ea#e# and deformitie# en*endered b! o er&or1, in thi# report, &ith the co(d, ca(cu(atin* po(itica( econom! of the manufacturer#, b! &hich the! tr! to pro e that the!, and &ith them a(( En*(and, mu#t *o to ruin, if the! #hou(d be forbidden to cripp(e #o and #o man! chi(dren e er! !ear8 +he (an*ua*e of 4r8 Fre a(one, &hich " ha e Buoted, &ou(d be !et more re o(tin* if it &ere not #o prepo#terou#8 +he re#u(t of thi# report &a# the 'actor! 9ct of 18>>, &hich forbade the emp(o!ment of chi(dren under nine !ear# of a*e ,except in #i(1 mi((#-, (imited the &or1in*$hour# of chi(dren bet&een 9$1> !ear# to 48 per &ee1, or 9 hour# in an! one da! at the utmo#t; that of !oun* per#on# from 14$18 !ear# of a*e to 69 per &ee1, or 16 on an! one da! a# the maximum, pro ided for an hour and a ha(f a# the minimum inter a( for mea(#, and repeated the tota( prohibition of ni*ht$&or1 for per#on# under ei*hteen !ear# of a*e8 ;ompu(#or! #choo( attendance t&o hour# dai(! &a# pre#cribed for a(( chi(dren under fourteen !ear#, and the manufacturer dec(ared puni#hab(e in ca#e of emp(o!in* chi(dren &ithout a certificate of a*e from the factor! #ur*eon, and a certificate of #choo( attendance from the teacher8 9# recompen#e, the emp(o!er &a# permitted to &ithdra& one penn! from the chi(dA# &ee1(! earnin*# to pa! the teacher8 'urther, #ur*eon# and in#pector# &ere appointed to i#it the factorie# at a(( time#, ta1e te#timon! of operati e# on oath, and enforce the (a& b! pro#ecution before a Lu#tice of the Peace8 +hi# i# the (a& a*ain#t &hich 4r8 Fre in ei*h# in #uch unmea#ured term#@ +he con#eBuence of thi# (a&, and e#pecia((! of the appointment of in#pector#, &a# the reduction of &or1in*$hour# to an a era*e of t&e( e to thirteen, and the #uper#edin* of chi(dren a# far a# po##ib(e8 5ereupon #ome of the mo#t cr!in* e i(# di#appeared a(mo#t &ho((!8 4eformitie# aro#e no& on(! in ca#e# of &ea1 con#titution, and the effect# of o er&or1 became much (e## con#picuou#8 /e erthe(e##, enou*h te#timon! remain# to be found in the 'actor! =eport, that the (e##er e i(#, #&e((in* of the an1(e#, &ea1ne## and pain in the (e*#, hip#, and bac1, arico#e ein#, u(cer# on the (o&er extremitie#, *enera( &ea1ne##, e#pecia((! of the pe( ic re*ion, nau#ea, &ant of appetite a(ternatin* &ith unnatura( hun*er, indi*e#tion, h!pochondria, affection# of the che#t in

con#eBuence of the du#t and fou( atmo#phere of the factorie#, etc8, etc8, a(( occur amon* emp(o!ee# #ubDect to the pro i#ion# of Sir L8 ;8 5obhou#eA# %a& ,of 18>1-, &hich pre#cribe# t&e( e to thirteen hour# a# the maximum8 +he report# from :(a#*o& and Manche#ter are e#pecia((! &orth! of attention in thi# re#pect8 +he#e e i(# remained too, after the (a& of 18>>, and continue to undermine the hea(th of the &or1in*$c(a## to thi# da!8 ;are ha# been ta1en to *i e the bruta( profit$*reed of the bour*eoi#ie a h!pocritica(, ci i(i#ed form, to re#train the manufacturer# throu*h the arm of the (a& from too con#picuou# i((ainie#, and thu# to *i e them a pretext for #e(f$comp(acent(! paradin* their #ham phi(anthrop!8 +hat i# a((8 "f a ne& commi##ion &ere appointed toda!, it &ou(d find thin*# prett! much a# before8 9# to the extempori#ed compu(#or! attendance at #choo(, it remained &ho((! a dead (etter, #ince the :o ernment fai(ed to pro ide *ood #choo(#8 +he manufacturer# emp(o!ed a# teacher# &orn$out operati e#, to &hom the! #ent the chi(dren t&o hour# dai(!, thu# comp(!in* &ith the (etter of the (a&; but the chi(dren (earned nothin*8 9nd e en the report# of the factor! in#pector#, &hich are (imited to the #cope of the in#pectorA# dutie#, i8e8, the enforcement of the 'actor! 9ct, *i e data enou*h to Du#tif! the conc(u#ion that the o(d e i(# ine itab(! remain8 "n#pector# 5orner and Saunder#, in their report# for ?ctober and 4ecember, 184>, #tate that, in a number of branche# in &hich the emp(o!ment of chi(dren can be di#pen#ed &ith or #uper#eded b! that of adu(t#, the &or1in*$da! i# #ti(( fourteen to #ixteen hour#, or e en (on*er8 9mon* the operati e# in the#e branche# the! found number# of !oun* peop(e &ho had Du#t out*ro&n the pro i#ion# of the (a&8 Man! emp(o!er# di#re*ard the (a&, #horten the mea( time#, &or1 chi(dren (on*er than i# permitted, and ri#1 pro#ecution, 1no&in* that the po##ib(e fine# are trif(in* in compari#on &ith the certain profit# deri ab(e from the offence8 Lu#t at pre#ent e#pecia((!, &hi(e bu#ine## i# exceptiona((! bri#1, the! are under *reat temptation in thi# re#pect8 Mean&hi(e the a*itation for the +en 5our#A <i(( b! no mean# died out amon* the operati e#; in 18>9 it &a# under fu(( head&a! once more, and Sad(erA# p(ace, he ha in* died, &a# fi((ed in the 5ou#e of ;ommon# b! %ord 9#h(e! and =ichard ?a#t(er, both +orie#8 ?a#t(er e#pecia((!, &ho carried on a con#tant a*itation in the factor! di#trict#, and had been acti e in the #ame &a! durin* Sad(erA# (ife, &a# the particu(ar fa ourite of the &or1in*$men8 +he! ca((ed him theirC*ood o(d 1in*T,Cthe 1in* of the factor! chi(drenT, and there i# not a chi(d in the factor! di#trict# that doe# not 1no& and re ere him, that doe# not Doin the proce##ion &hich mo e# to &e(come him &hen he enter# a to&n8 ?a#t(er i*orou#(! oppo#ed the /e& Poor %a& a(#o, and &a# therefore impri#oned for debt b! a Mr8 +hornhi((, on &ho#e e#tate he &a# emp(o!ed a# a*ent, and to &hom he o&ed mone!8 +he Whi*# offered repeated(! to pa! hi# debt and confer other fa our# upon him if he &ou(d on(! *i e up hi# a*itation a*ain#t the Poor %a&8 <ut in ain; he remained in pri#on, &hence he pub(i#hed hi# '(eet Paper# a*ain#t the factor! #!#tem and the Poor %a&8 +he +or! :o ernment of 1841 turned it# attention once more to the 'actor! 9ct#8 +he 5ome Secretar!, Sir Lame# :raham, propo#ed, in 1845, a bi(( re#trictin* the &or1in*$hour# of chi(dren to #ix and one$ha(f, and ma1in* the enactment# for compu(#or! #choo( attendance more effecti e, the principa( point in thi# connection bein* a pro i#ion for better #choo(#8 +hi# bi(( &a#, ho&e er, &rec1ed b! the Dea(ou#! of the di##enter#; for, a(thou*h compu(#or! re(i*iou# in#truction &a# not extended to the chi(dren of di##enter#, the #choo(# pro ided for &ere to be p(aced under the *enera( #uper i#ion of the E#tab(i#hed ;hurch, and the <ib(e made the *enera( readin*$boo1, re(i*ion bein* thu# made the foundation of a(( in#truction, &hence the di##enter# fe(t them#e( e# threatened8 +he manufacturer# and the %ibera(# *enera((! united &ith them, the &or1in*$men &ere di ided b! the ;hurch Bue#tion, and therefore inacti e8 +he opponent# of the bi((, thou*h out&ei*hed in the *reat manufacturin* to&n#, #uch a# Sa(ford and Stoc1port, and ab(e in other#, #uch a# Manche#ter, to attac1 certain of it# point# on(!, for fear of the &or1in*$men, co((ected ne erthe(e## near(! t&o mi((ion #i*nature# for a petition a*ain#t it, and :raham a((o&ed him#e(f to be #o far intimidated a# to &ithdra& the &ho(e bi((8 +he next !ear he omitted the #choo(

c(au#e#, and propo#ed that, in#tead of the pre iou# pro i#ion#, chi(dren bet&een ei*ht and thirteen !ear# #hou(d be re#tricted to #ix and one$ha(f hour#, and #o emp(o!ed a# to ha e either the &ho(e mornin* or the &ho(e afternoon free; that !oun* peop(e bet&een thirteen and ei*hteen !ear#, and a(( fema(e#, #hou(d be (imited to t&e( e hour#; and that the hitherto freBuent e a#ion# of the (a& #hou(d be pre ented8 5ard(! had he propo#ed thi# bi((, &hen the ten hour#A a*itation &a# be*un a*ain more i*orou#(! than e er8 ?a#t(er had Du#t then re*ained hi# (ibert!; a number of hi# friend# and a co((ection amon* the &or1er# had paid hi# debt, and he thre& him#e(f into the mo ement &ith a(( hi# mi*ht8 +he defender# of the +en 5our#A <i(( in the 5ou#e of ;ommon# had increa#ed in number#, the ma##e# of petition# #upportin* it &hich poured in from a(( #ide# brou*ht them a((ie#, and on March 19th, 1844, %ord 9#h(e! carried, &ith a maDorit! of 1.9 to 1.7, a re#o(ution that the &ordC/i*htC in the 'actor! 9ct #hou(d expre## the time from #ix at ni*ht to #ix in the mornin*, &hereb! the prohibition of ni*ht$&or1 came to mean the (imitation of &or1in*$hour# to t&e( e, inc(udin* free hour#, or ten hour# of actua( &or1 a da!8 <ut the Mini#tr! did not a*ree to thi#8 Sir Lame# :raham be*an to threaten re#i*nation from the ;abinet, and at the next ote on the bi(( the 5ou#e reDected b! a #ma(( maDorit! both ten and t&e( e hour#8 :raham and Pee( no& announced that the! #hou(d introduce a ne& bi((, and that if thi# fai(ed to pa## the! #hou(d re#i*n8 +he ne& bi(( &a# exact(! the o(d +&e( e 5our#A <i(( &ith #ome chan*e# of form, and the #ame 5ou#e of ;ommon# &hich had reDected the principa( point# of thi# bi(( in March, no& #&a((o&ed it &ho(e8 +he rea#on of thi# &a# that mo#t of the #upporter# of the +en 5our#A <i(( &ere +orie# &ho (et fa(( the bi(( rather than the Mini#tr!; but be the moti e# &hat the! ma!, the 5ou#e of ;ommon# b! it# ote# upon thi# #ubDect, each ote re er#in* the (a#t, ha# brou*ht it#e(f into the *reate#t contempt amon* a(( the &or1er#, and pro ed mo#t bri((iant(! the ;harti#t#A a##ertion of the nece##it! of it# reform8 +hree member#, &ho had former(! oted a*ain#t the Mini#tr!, after&ard# oted for it and re#cued it8 "n a(( the di i#ion#, the bu(1 of the oppo#ition oted for and the bu(1 of it# o&n part! against the Mini#tr!8 +he fore*oin* propo#ition# of :raham touchin* the emp(o!ment of chi(dren #ix and one$ha(f and of a(( other operati e# t&e( e hour#A are no& (e*i#(ati e pro i#ion#, and b! them and b! the (imitation of o er&or1 for ma1in* up time (o#t throu*h brea1do&n of machiner! or in#ufficient &ater$po&er b! rea#on of fro#t or drou*ht, a &or1in*$da! of more than t&e( e hour# ha# been made &e(($ni*h impo##ib(e8 +here remain#, ho&e er, no doubt that, in a er! #hort time, the +en 5our#A <i(( &i(( rea((! be adopted8 +he manufacturer# are natura((! a(( a*ain#t it; there are perhap# not ten &ho are for it; the! ha e u#ed e er! honourab(e and di#honourab(e mean# a*ain#t thi# dreaded mea#ure, but &ith no other re#u(t than that of dra&in* do&n upon them the e er$deepenin* hatred of the &or1in*$men8 +he bi(( &i(( pa##8 What the &or1in*$men &i(( do the! can do, and that the! &i(( ha e thi# bi(( the! pro ed (a#t #prin*8 +he economic ar*ument# of the manufacturer# that a +en 5our#A <i(( &ou(d increa#e the co#t of production and incapacitate the En*(i#h producer# for competition in forei*n mar1et#, and that &a*e# mu#t fa((, are a(( half true; but the! pro e nothin* except thi#, that the indu#tria( *reatne## of En*(and can be maintained on(! throu*h the barbarou# treatment of the operati e#, the de#truction of their hea(th, the #ocia(, ph!#ica(, and menta( deca! of &ho(e *eneration#8 /atura((!, if the +en 5our#A <i(( &ere a fina( mea#ure, it mu#t ruin En*(and; but #ince it mu#t ine itab(! brin* &ith it other mea#ure# &hich mu#t dra& En*(and into a path &ho((! different from that hitherto fo((o&ed, it can on(! pro e an ad ance8 %et u# turn to another #ide of the factor! #!#tem &hich cannot be remedied b! (e*i#(ati e pro i#ion# #o ea#i(! a# the di#ea#e# no& en*endered b! it8 We ha e a(read! a((uded in a *enera( &a! to the nature of the emp(o!ment, and enou*h in detai( to be ab(e to dra& certain inference# from the fact# *i en8 +he #uper i#ion of machiner!, the Doinin* of bro1en thread#, i# no acti it! &hich c(aim# the operati eA# thin1in* po&er#, !et it i# of a #ort &hich pre ent# him from occup!in* hi# mind &ith other thin*#8 We ha e #een, too, that thi# &or1 afford# the mu#c(e# no opportunit! for ph!#ica( acti it!8 +hu# it i#, proper(! #pea1in*, not &or1, but tedium, the mo#t

deadenin*, &earin* proce## concei ab(e8 +he operati e i# condemned to (et hi# ph!#ica( and menta( po&er# deca! in thi# utter monoton!, it i# hi# mi##ion to be bored e er! da! and a(( da! (on* from hi# ei*hth !ear8 Moreo er, he mu#t not ta1e a momentA# re#t; the en*ine mo e# uncea#in*(!; the &hee(#, the #trap#, the #pind(e# hum and ratt(e in hi# ear# &ithout a pau#e, and if he trie# to #natch one in#tant, there i# the o er(oo1er at hi# bac1 &ith the boo1 of fine#8 +hi# condemnation to be buried a(i e in the mi((, to *i e con#tant attention to the tire(e## machine i# fe(t a# the 1eene#t torture b! the operati e#, and it# action upon mind and bod! i# in the (on* run #tuntin* in the hi*he#t de*ree8 +here i# no better mean# of inducin* #tupefaction than a period of factor!$&or1, and if the operati e# ha e, ne erthe(e##, not on(! re#cued their inte((i*ence, but cu(ti ated and #harpened it more than other &or1in*$men, the! ha e found thi# po##ib(e on(! in rebe((ion a*ain#t their fate and a*ain#t the bour*eoi#ie, the #o(e #ubDect on &hich under a(( circum#tance# the! can thin1 and fee( &hi(e at &or18 ?r, if thi# indi*nation a*ain#t the bour*eoi#ie doe# not become the #upreme pa##ion of the &or1in*$man, the ine itab(e con#eBuence i# drun1enne## and a(( that i# *enera((! ca((ed demora(i#ation8 +he ph!#ica( ener ation and the #ic1ne##, uni er#a( in con#eBuence of the factor! #!#tem, &ere enou*h to induce ;ommi##ioner 5a&1in# to attribute thi# demora(i#ation thereto a# ine itab(e; ho& much more &hen menta( (a##itude i# added to them, and &hen the inf(uence# a(read! mentioned &hich tempt e er! &or1in*$man to demora(i#ation, ma1e them#e( e# fe(t here too@ +here i# no cau#e for #urpri#e, therefore, that in the manufacturin* to&n# e#pecia((!, drun1enne## and #exua( exce##e# ha e reached the pitch &hich " ha e a(read! de#cribed8 .. 'urther, the #(a er! in &hich the bour*eoi#ie ho(d# the pro(etariat chained, i# no&here more con#picuou# than in the factor! #!#tem8 5ere end# a(( freedom in (a& and in fact8 +he operati e mu#t be in the mi(( at ha(f$pa#t fi e in the mornin*; if he come# a coup(e of minute# too (ate, he i# fined; if he come# ten minute# too (ate, he i# not (et in unti( brea1fa#t i# o er, and a Buarter of the da!A# &a*e# i# &ithhe(d, thou*h he (o#e# on(! t&o and one$ha(f hour#A &or1 out of t&e( e8 5e mu#t eat, drin1, and #(eep at command8 'or #ati#f!in* the mo#t imperati e need#, he i# ouch#afed the (ea#t po##ib(e time ab#o(ute(! reBuired b! them8 Whether hi# d&e((in* i# a ha(f$ hour or a &ho(e one remo ed from the factor! doe# not concern hi# emp(o!er8 +he de#potic be(( ca((# him from hi# bed, hi# brea1fa#t, hi# dinner8 What a time he ha# of it, too, in#ide the factor!@ 5ere the emp(o!er i# ab#o(ute (a&$*i er; he ma1e# re*u(ation# at &i((, chan*e# and add# to hi# codex at p(ea#ure, and e en, if he in#ert# the cra)ie#t #tuff, the court# #a! to the &or1in*$man: T0ou &ere !our o&n ma#ter, no one forced !ou to a*ree to #uch a contract if !ou did not &i#h to; but no&, &hen !ou ha e free(! entered into it, !ou mu#t be bound b! it8T 9nd #o the &or1in*$man on(! *et# into the bar*ain the moc1er! of the Lu#tice of the Peace &ho i# a bour*eoi# him#e(f, and of the (a& &hich i# made b! the bour*eoi#ie8 Such deci#ion# ha e been *i en often enou*h8 "n ?ctober, 1844, the operati e# of Henned!A# mi((, in Manche#ter, #truc18 Henned! pro#ecuted them on the #tren*th of a re*u(ation p(acarded in the mi((, that at no time more than t&o operati e# in one room ma! Buit &or1 at once8 9nd the court decided in hi# fa our, *i in* the &or1in*$men the exp(anation cited abo e8 9nd #uch ru(e# a# the#e u#ua((! are@ 'or in#tance: 18 +he door# are c(o#ed ten minute# after &or1 be*in#, and thereafter no one i# admitted unti( the brea1fa#t hour; &hoe er i# ab#ent durin* thi# time forfeit# >d8 per (oom8 68 E er! po&er$(oom &ea er detected ab#entin* him#e(f at another time, &hi(e the machiner! i# in

motion, forfeit# for each hour and each (oom, >d8 E er! per#on &ho (ea e# the room durin* &or1in*$ hour#, &ithout obtainin* permi##ion from the o er(oo1er, forfeit# >d8 >8 Wea er# &ho fai( to #upp(! them#e( e# &ith #ci##or# forfeit, per da!, 1d8 48 9(( bro1en #hutt(e#, bru#he#, oi($ can#, &hee(#, &indo&$pane#, etc8, mu#t be paid for b! the &ea er8 58 /o &ea er to #top &or1 &ithout *i in* a &ee1A# notice8 +he manufacturer ma! di#mi## an! emp(o!ee &ithout notice for bad &or1 or improper beha iour8 68 E er! operati e detected #pea1in* to another, #in*in* or &hi#t(in*, &i(( be fined 6d8; for (ea in* hi# p(ace durin* &or1in*$hour#, 6d8 9nother cop! of factor! re*u(ation# (ie# before me, accordin* to &hich e er! operati e &ho come# three minute# too (ate, forfeit# the &a*e# for a Buarter of an hour, and e er! one &ho come# t&ent! minute# too (ate, for a Buarter of a da!8 E er! one &ho remain# ab#ent unti( brea1fa#t forfeit# a #hi((in* on Monda!, and #ixpence e er! other da! of the &ee1, etc8, etc8 +hi# (a#t i# the re*u(ation of the Phoenix Wor1# in Ler#e! Street, Manche#ter8 "t ma! be #aid that #uch ru(e# are nece##ar! in a *reat, comp(icated factor!, in order to in#ure the harmoniou# &or1in* of the different part#; it ma! be a##erted that #uch a #e ere di#cip(ine i# a# nece##ar! here a# in an arm!8 +hi# ma! be #o, but &hat #ort of a #ocia( order i# it &hich cannot be maintained &ithout #uch #hamefu( t!rann!K Either the end #anctifie# the mean#, or the inference of the badne## of the end from the badne## of the mean# i# Du#tified8 E er! one &ho ha# #er ed a# a #o(dier 1no&# &hat it i# to be #ubDected e en for a #hort time to mi(itar! di#cip(ine8 <ut the#e operati e# are condemned from their ninth !ear to their death to (i e under the #&ord, ph!#ica((! and menta((!8 +he! are &or#e #(a e# than the /e*roe# in 9merica, for the! are more #harp(! &atched, and !et it i# demanded of them that the! #ha(( (i e (i1e human bein*#, #ha(( thin1 and fee( (i1e men@ Jeri(!, thi# the! can do on(! under *(o&in* hatred to&ard# their oppre##or#, and to&ard# that order of thin*# &hich p(ace# them in #uch a po#ition, &hich de*rade# them to machine#8 <ut it i# far more #hamefu( !et, that accordin* to the uni er#a( te#timon! of the operati e#, number# of manufacturer# co((ect the fine# impo#ed upon the operati e# &ith the mo#t heart(e## #e erit!, and for the purpo#e of pi(in* up extra profit# out of the farthin*# thu# extorted from the impo eri#hed pro(etarian#8 %each a##ert#, too, that the operati e# often find the factor! c(oc1 mo ed for&ard a Buarter of an hour and the door# #hut, &hi(e the c(er1 mo e# about &ith the fine#$boo1 in#ide, notin* the man! name# of the ab#entee#8 %each c(aim# to ha e counted ninet!$fi e operati e# thu# #hut out, #tandin* before a factor!, &ho#e c(oc1 &a# a Buarter of an hour #(o&er than the to&n c(oc1# at ni*ht, and a Buarter of an hour fa#ter in the mornin*8 +he 'actor! =eport re(ate# #imi(ar fact#8 "n one factor! the c(oc1 &a# #et bac1 durin* &or1in*$hour#, #o that the operati e# &or1ed o ertime &ithout extra pa!; in another, a &ho(e Buarter of an hour o ertime &a# &or1ed; in a third, there &ere t&o c(oc1#, an ordinar! one and a machine c(oc1, &hich re*i#tered the re o(ution# of the main #haft; if the machiner! &ent #(o&(!, &or1in*$hour# &ere mea#ured b! the machine c(oc1 unti( the number of re o(ution# due in t&e( e hour# &a# reached; if &or1 &ent &e((, #o that the number &a# reached before the u#ua( &or1in*$hour# &ere ended, the operati e# &ere forced to toi( on to the end of the t&e(fth hour8 +he &itne## add# that he had 1no&n *ir(# &ho had *ood &or1, and &ho had &or1ed o ertime, &ho, ne erthe(e##, betoo1 them#e( e# to a (ife of pro#titution rather than #ubmit to thi# t!rann!8 +o return to the fine#, %each re(ate# ha in* repeated(! #een &omen in the (a#t period of pre*nanc! fined 6d8 for the offence of #ittin* do&n a moment to re#t8 'ine# for bad &or1 are &ho((! arbitrar!; the *ood# are examined in the &areroom, and the #uper i#or char*e# the fine# upon a (i#t &ithout e en #ummonin* the operati e, &ho on(! (earn# that he ha# been fined &hen the o er(oo1er pa!# hi# &a*e#, and the *ood# ha e perhap# been #o(d, or certain(! been p(aced be!ond hi# reach8 %each ha# in hi# po##e##ion #uch a fine# (i#t, ten feet (on*, and amountin* to U>5 1.#8 17d8 5e re(ate# that in the factor! &here thi# (i#t &a# made, a ne& #uper i#or &a# di#mi##ed for finin* too (itt(e, and #o brin*in* in fi e pound# too (itt(e &ee1(!8 9nd " repeat that " 1no& %each to be a thorou*h(! tru#t&orth! man incapab(e of a fa(#ehood8

<ut the operati e i# hi# emp(o!erA# #(a e in #ti(( other re#pect#8 "f hi# &ife or dau*hter find# fa our in the e!e# of the ma#ter, a command, a hint #uffice#, and #he mu#t p(ace her#e(f at hi# di#po#a(8 When the emp(o!er &i#he# to #upp(! &ith #i*nature# a petition in fa our of bour*eoi# intere#t#, he need on(! #end it to hi# mi((8 "f he &i#he# to decide a Par(iamentar! e(ection, he #end# hi# enfranchi#ed operati e# in ran1 and fi(e to the po((#, and the! ote for the bour*eoi# candidate &hether the! &i(( or no8 "f he de#ire# a maDorit! in a pub(ic meetin*, he di#mi##e# them ha(f$an$ hour ear(ier than u#ua(, and #ecure# them p(ace# c(o#e to the p(atform, &here he can &atch them to hi# #ati#faction8 +&o further arran*ement# contribute e#pecia((! to force the operati e under the dominion of the manufacturer; the +ruc1 #!#tem and the ;otta*e #!#tem8 +he truc1 #!#tem, the pa!ment of the operati e# in *ood#, &a# former(! uni er#a( in En*(and8 +he manufacturer open# a #hop,Cfor the con enience of the operati e#, and to protect them from the hi*h price# of the pett! dea(er#T8 5ere *ood# of a(( #ort# are #o(d to them on credit, and to 1eep the operati e# from *oin* to the #hop# &here the! cou(d *et their *ood# more cheap(! E theC+omm! #hop#C u#ua((! char*in* t&ent!$ fi e to thirt! per cent more than other# E &a*e# are paid in reBui#ition# on the #hop in#tead of mone!8 +he *enera( indi*nation a*ain#t thi# infamou# #!#tem (ed to the pa##a*e of the +ruc1 9ct in 18>1, b! &hich, for mo#t emp(o!ee#, pa!ment in truc1 order# &a# dec(ared oid and i((e*a(, and &a# made puni#hab(e b! fine; but, (i1e mo#t other En*(i#h (a&#, thi# ha# been enforced on(! here and there8 "n the to&n# it i# carried out comparati e(! efficient(!; but in the countr!, the truc1 #!#tem, di#*ui#ed or undi#*ui#ed, f(ouri#he#8 "n the to&n of %eice#ter, too, it i# er! common8 +here (ie before me near(! a do)en con iction# for thi# offence, datin* from the period bet&een /o ember, 184>, and Lune, 1844, and reported, in part, in the +anchester *uardian and, in part, in the Northern 1tar8 +he #!#tem i#, of cour#e, (e## open(! carried on at pre#ent; &a*e# are u#ua((! paid in ca#h, but the emp(o!er #ti(( ha# mean# enou*h at command to force him to purcha#e hi# &are# in the truc1 #hop and no&here e(#e8 5ence it i# difficu(t to combat the truc1 #!#tem, becau#e it can no& be carried on under co er of the (a&, pro ided on(! that the operati e recei e# hi# &a*e# in mone!8 !he Northern 1tar of 9pri( 6.th, 1844, pub(i#he# a (etter from an operati e of 5o(mfirth, near 5udder#fie(d, in 0or1#hire, &hich refer# to a manufacturer of the name of <o&er#, a# fo((o&#: T"t i# a(mo#t #train*e to #ee that the accur#ed truc1 #i#tim #hou(d exi#t to the enormou#t extent that it do#e in 5o(mfirth, and no one to be found to ha e the mora( coura*e to attempt to put a #top to it8 +haire are a *reate man! hone#t hand(oome &ea er# that i# #ufferin* b! that accur#ed #i#tim8 +hi# i# one #pecimen8 ?ut of the man! of that preciou# freetraid cre&, thaire i# one manufacturer that a# the cur#e of the &ho(e nei*hbourhood upon im, for i# ba#ene## to&ard# i# &ea er#8 When the! finni#h a &arp, &hich come# to U1 14#,

or U1 16#, he *i e# them U(, and the re#t in *ood#, &earin* appare(, at 47 or 57 per #ent dearer then at the re*u(ar #hop1eepper#, and man! a time the *ood# are rotton8 <ut a# the 'ree$+rade Mercur! #a!# b! the factor! (abour, Athe! are not bound to ta1e it; it# Buite optiona(A8 ?, !e#; but tha! mu#t eather ta1e it or #tar e8 "f tha! &hant an! more than the U1 7# 7d, tha! mu#t &ait of a &arp a &ee1 or a fortni*ht; but if tha! ta1e the U1, 7# 7d and the *ood#, thaire i# a(&a!# a &arp for them8 +hi# i# free traidi#m8 %ord <rou*ham #a!# M&e #hou(d (a! #omethin* b! in our !oun* da!#, that &e ma! be independent in our o(d a*e of parochia( re(ief8A Mu#t &e (a! b! the#e rotton *ood#K "f thi# did not come from a (ord, tha! &ou(d thin1 i# brain# &ear a# rotton a# the *ood# &ee *ot for our (abour8 When the un#tampt ne&#paper# &ear in circu(ation thaire &ear no (ac1 of informer# in 5o(mfirth8 +haire &ear the <(!th#, the E#t&ood#, P, but &ear are the! no&K ?, but thi# i# Buite different8 ?ur truc1#ter i# one of the free tradin* piou# cre&8 5e *oe# to the church t&i#e e er! Sunda!, and repeat# after the par#on er! fer ent(!: M&e ha e (eft undone tho#e thin*# &ich &e hou*ht to ha e done; &e ha e done tho#e thin*# &ich &e hou*ht not to ha e done; and thaire i# no he(p in u#; but #pare u#, *ood %ord8A $0e#, #pare u# &i(e

mornin*, and &e &i(( pa! our &ea er# &a*e# in rotton *ood# a*ain8C +he ;otta*e #!#tem (oo1# much more innocent and aro#e in a much more harm(e## &a!, thou*h it ha# the #ame en#(a in* inf(uence upon the emp(o!ee8 "n the nei*hbourhood of the mi((# in the countr!, there i# often a (ac1 of d&e((in* accommodation for the operati e#8 +he manufacturer i# freBuent(! ob(i*ed to bui(d #uch d&e((in*# and doe# #o *(ad(!, a# the! !ie(d *reat ad anta*e#, be#ide# the intere#t upon the capita( in e#ted8 "f an! o&ner of &or1in*$menA# d&e((in*# a era*e# about #ix per cent on hi# in e#ted capita(, it i# #afe to ca(cu(ate that the manufacturerA# cotta*e# !ie(d t&ice thi# rate; for #o (on* a# hi# factor! doe# not #tand perfect(! id(e he i# #ure of occupant#, and of occupant# &ho pa! punctua((!8 5e i# therefore #pared the t&o chief di#ad anta*e# under &hich other hou#e$o&ner# (abour; hi# cotta*e# ne er #tand empt!, and he run# no ri#18 <ut the rent of the cotta*e# i# a# hi*h a# thou*h the#e di#ad anta*e# &ere in fu(( force, and b! obtainin* the #ame rent a# the ordinar! hou#e$o&ner, the manufacturer, at co#t of the operati e#, ma1e# a bri((iant in e#tment at t&e( e to fourteen per cent8 'or it i# c(ear(! unDu#t that he #hou(d ma1e t&ice a# much profit a# other competin* hou#e$o&ner#, &ho at the #ame time are exc(uded from competin* &ith him8 <ut it imp(ie# a doub(e &ron*, &hen he dra&# hi# fixed profit from the poc1et# of the non$po##e##in* c(a##, &hich mu#t con#ider the expenditure of e er! penn!8 5e i# u#ed to that, ho&e er, he &ho#e &ho(e &ea(th i# *ained at the co#t of hi# emp(o!ee#8 <ut thi# inDu#tice become# an infam! &hen the manufacturer, a# often happen#, force# hi# operati e#, &ho mu#t occup! hi# hou#e# on pain of di#mi##a(, to pa! a hi*her rent than the ordinar! one, or e en to pa! rent for hou#e# in &hich the! do not (i e@ !he Halifa8 *uardian, Buoted b! the %ibera( 1un, a##ert# that hundred# of operati e# in 9#hton$ under$%!ne, ?(dham, and =ochda(e, etc8, are forced b! their emp(o!er# to pa! hou#e$rent &hether the! occup! the hou#e or not8 +he cotta*e #!#tem i# uni er#a( in the countr! di#trict#; it ha# created &ho(e i((a*e#, and the manufacturer u#ua((! ha# (itt(e or no competition a*ain#t hi# hou#e#, #o that he can fix hi# price re*ard(e## of an! mar1et rate, indeed at hi# p(ea#ure8 9nd &hat po&er doe# the cotta*e #!#tem *i e the emp(o!er o er hi# operati e# in di#a*reement# bet&een ma#ter and menK "f the (atter #tri1e, he need on(! *i e them notice to Buit hi# premi#e#, and the notice need on(! be a &ee1; after that time the operati e i# not on(! &ithout bread but &ithout a #he(ter, a a*abond at the merc! of the (a& &hich #end# him, &ithout fai(, to the treadmi((8 Such i# the factor! #!#tem #1etched a# fu((! a# m! #pace permit#, and &ith a# (itt(e parti#an #pirit a# the heroic deed# of the bour*eoi#ie a*ain#t the defence(e## &or1er# permit E deed# to&ard# &hich it i# impo##ib(e to remain indifferent, to&ard# &hich indifference &ere a crime8 %et u# compare the condition of the free En*(i#hman of 1845 &ith the Saxon #erf under the (a#h of the /orman baron# of 11458 +he #erf &a# gle,ae adscriptus, bound to the #oi(, #o i# the free &or1in*$ man throu*h the cotta*e #!#tem8 +he #erf o&ed hi# ma#ter the 7us primae noctis, the ri*ht of the fir#t ni*ht E the free &or1in*$man mu#t, on demand, #urrender to hi# ma#ter not on(! that, but the ri*ht of every ni*ht8 +he #erf cou(d acBuire no propert!; e er!thin* that he *ained, hi# ma#ter cou(d ta1e from him; the free &or1in*$man ha# no propert!, can *ain none b! rea#on of the pre##ure of competition, and &hat e en the /orman baron did not do, the modern manufacturer doe#8 +hrou*h the truc1 #!#tem, he a##ume# e er! da! the admini#tration in detai( of the thin*# &hich the &or1er reBuire# for hi# immediate nece##itie#8 +he re(ation of the (ord of the #oi( to the #erf &a# re*u(ated b! the pre ai(in* cu#tom# and b! (a&# &hich &ere obe!ed, becau#e the! corre#ponded to them8 +he free &or1in*$manA# re(ation to hi# ma#ter i# re*u(ated b! (a&# &hich are not obe!ed, becau#e the! corre#pond neither &ith the intere#t# of the emp(o!er nor &ith the pre ai(in* cu#tom#8 +he (ord of the #oi( cou(d not #eparate the #erf from the (and, nor #e(( him apart from it, and #ince a(mo#t a(( the (and &a# fief and there &a# no capita(, practica((! cou(d not #e(( him at a((8 +he modern bour*eoi# force# the &or1in*$man to #e(( him#e(f8 +he #erf &a# the

#(a e of the piece of (and on &hich he &a# born, the &or1in*$man i# the #(a e of hi# o&n nece##arie# of (ife and of the mone! &ith &hich he ha# to bu! them E both are slaves of a thing8 +he #erf had a *uarantee for the mean# of #ub#i#tence in the feuda( order of #ociet! in &hich e er! member had hi# o&n p(ace8+he free &or1in*$man ha# no *uarantee &hat#oe er, becau#e he ha# a p(ace in #ociet! on(! &hen the bour*eoi#ie can ma1e u#e of him; in a(( other ca#e# he i# i*nored, treated a# non$exi#tent8 +he #erf #acrificed him#e(f for hi# ma#ter in &ar, the factor! operati e in peace8 +he (ord of the #erf &a# a barbarian &ho re*arded hi# i((ain a# a head of catt(e; the emp(o!er of operati e# i# ci i(i#ed and re*ard# hi#ChandC a# a machine8 "n #hort, the po#ition of the t&o i# not far from eBua(, and if either i# at a di#ad anta*e, it i# the free &or1in*$ man8 S(a e# the! both are, &ith the #in*(e difference that the #(a er! of the one i# undi##emb(ed, open, hone#t; that of the other cunnin*, #(!, di#*ui#ed, deceitfu((! concea(ed from him#e(f and e er! one e(#e, a h!pocritica( #er itude &or#e than the o(d8 +he phi(anthropic +orie# &ere ri*ht &hen the! *a e the operati e# the name &hite #(a e#8 <ut the h!pocritica( di#*ui#ed #(a er! reco*ni#e# the ri*ht to freedom, at (ea#t in out&ard form; bo&# before a freedom$(o in* pub(ic opinion, and herein (ie# the hi#toric pro*re## a# compared &ith the o(d #er itude, that the principle of freedom i# affirmed, and the oppre##ed &i(( one da! #ee to it that thi# princip(e i# carried out8 9t the c(o#e a fe& #tan)a# of a poem &hich oice# the #entiment# of the &or1er# them#e( e# about the factor! #!#tem8 Written b! Ed&ard P8 Mead of <irmin*ham, it i# a correct expre##ion of the ie&# pre ai(in* amon* them8 +here i# a Hin*, and a ruth(e## Hin*; /ot a Hin* of the poetA# dream; <ut a t!rant fe((, &hite #(a e# 1no& &e((, 9nd that ruth(e## Hin* i# Steam8 5e hath an arm, an iron arm, 9nd thoA he hath but one, "n that mi*ht! arm there i# a charm, +hat mi((ion# hath undone8 %i1e the ancient Mo(och *rim, hi# #ire "n 5immonA# a(e that #tood, 5i# bo&e(# are of (i in* fire, 9nd chi(dren are hi# food8 5i# prie#thood are a hun*r! band, <(ood$thir#t!, proud, and bo(d; A+i# the! direct hi# *iant hand, "n turnin* b(ood to *o(d8 'or fi(th! *ain in their #er i(e chain 9(( natureA# ri*ht# the! bind;

+he! moc1 at (o e(! &omanA# pain, 9nd to man(! tear# are b(ind8 +he #i*h# and *roan# of %abourA# #on# 9re mu#ic in their ear, 9nd the #1e(eton #hade#, of (ad# and maid#, "n the Steam Hin*A# he(( appear8 +ho#e he((# upon earth, #ince the Steam Hin*A# birth, 5a e #catterAd around de#pair; 'or the human mind for 5ea An de#i*nAd, With the bod!, i# murdered there8 +hen do&n &ith the Hin*, the Mo(och Hin*, 0e &or1in* mi((ion# a((; ? chain hi# hand, or our nati e (and "# de#tinAd b! him to fa((8 9nd hi# Satrap# abhorAd, each proud Mi(( %ord, /o& *or*Ad &ith *o(d and b(ood, Mu#t be put do&n b! the nationA# fro&n, 9# &e(( a# their mon#ter :od8 " ha e neither time nor room to dea( in detai( &ith the rep(ie# of the manufacturer# to the char*e# made a*ain#t them for t&e( e !ear# pa#t8 +he#e men &i(( not (earn becau#e their #uppo#ed intere#t b(ind# them8 9#, moreo er, man! of their obDection# ha e been met in the fore*oin*, the fo((o&in* i# a(( that it i# nece##ar! for me to add: 0ou come to Manche#ter, !ou &i#h to ma1e !our#e(f acBuainted &ith the #tate of affair# in En*(and8 0ou natura((! ha e *ood introduction# to re#pectab(e peop(e8 0ou drop a remar1 or t&o a# to the condition of the &or1er#8 0ou are made acBuainted &ith a coup(e of the fir#t %ibera( manufacturer#, =obert 5!de :re*, perhap#, Edmund 9#h&orth, +homa# 9#hton, or other#8 +he! are to(d of !our &i#he#8 +he manufacturer under#tand# !ou, 1no&# &hat he ha# to do8 5e accompanie# !ou to hi# factor! in the countr!; Mr8 :re* to Ouarr!ban1 in ;he#hire, Mr8 9#h&orth to +urton near <o(ton, Mr8 9#hton to 5!de8 5e (ead# !ou throu*h a #uperb, admirab(! arran*ed bui(din*, perhap# #upp(ied &ith enti(ator#, he ca((# !our attention to the (oft!, air! room#, the fine machiner!, here and there a hea(th!$(oo1in* operati e8 5e *i e# !ou an exce((ent (unch, and propo#e# to !ou to i#it the operati e#A home#; he conduct# !ou to the cotta*e#, &hich (oo1 ne&, c(ean and neat, and *oe# &ith !ou into thi# one and that one, natura((! on(! to o er(oo1er#, mechanic#, etc8, #o that !ou ma! #ee $Ifami(ie# &ho (i e &ho((! from the factor!C8 9mon* other fami(ie# !ou mi*ht find that on(! &ife and chi(dren &or1, and the hu#band darn# #toc1in*#8 +he pre#ence of the emp(o!er 1eep# !ou from a#1in* indi#creet Bue#tion#; !ou find e er! one &e(($paid, comfortab(e, comparati e(! hea(th! b! rea#on of the countr! air; !ou be*in to be con erted from !our exa**erated idea# of mi#er! and #tar ation8 <ut, that the cotta*e

#!#tem ma1e# #(a e# of the operati e#, that there ma! be a truc1 #hop in the nei*hbourhood, that the peop(e hate the manufacturer, thi# the! do not point out to !ou, becau#e he i# pre#ent8 5e ha# bui(t a #choo(, church, readin*$room, etc8 +hat he u#e# the #choo( to train chi(dren to #ubordination, that he to(erate# in the readin*$room #uch print# on(! a# repre#ent the intere#t# of the bour*eoi#ie, that he di#mi##e# hi# emp(o!ee# if the! read ;harti#t or Socia(i#t paper# or boo1#, thi# i# a(( concea(ed from !ou8 0ou #ee an ea#!, patriarcha( re(ation, !ou #ee the (ife of the o er(oo1er#, !ou #ee &hat the bour*eoi#ie promi#e# the &or1er# if the! become it# #(a e#, menta((! and mora((!8 +hi#Ccountr! manufactureC ha# a(&a!# been &hat the emp(o!er# (i1e to #ho&, becau#e in it the di#ad anta*e# of the factor! #!#tem, e#pecia((! from the point of ie& of hea(th, are, in part, done a&a! &ith b! the free air and #urroundin*#, and becau#e the patriarcha( #er itude of the &or1er# can here be (on*e#t maintained8 4r8 Fre #in*# a dith!ramb upon the theme8 <ut &oe to the operati e# to &hom it occur# to thin1 for them#e( e# and become ;harti#t#@ 'or them the paterna( affection of the manufacturer come# to a #udden end8 'urther, if !ou #hou(d &i#h to be accompanied throu*h the &or1in*$peop(eA# Buarter# of Manche#ter, if !ou #hou(d de#ire to #ee the de e(opment of the factor! #!#tem in a factor! to&n, !ou ma! &ait (on* before the#e rich bour*eoi#ie &i(( he(p !ou@ +he#e *ent(emen do not 1no& in &hat condition their emp(o!ee# are nor &hat the! &ant, and the! dare not 1no& thin*# &hich &ou(d ma1e them unea#! or e en ob(i*e them to act in oppo#ition to their o&n intere#t#8 <ut, fortunate(!, that i# of no con#eBuence: &hat the &or1in*$men ha e to carr! out, the! carr! out for them#e( e#8

The *emaining %ranches of &nd'str+

We &ere compe((ed to dea( &ith the factor! #!#tem #ome&hat at (en*th, a# it i# an entire(! no e( creation of the indu#tria( period; &e #ha(( be ab(e to treat the other &or1er# the more brief(!, becau#e &hat ha# been #aid either of the indu#tria( pro(etariat in *enera(, or of the factor! #!#tem in particu(ar, &i(( &ho((!, or in part, app(! to them8 We #ha((, therefore, mere(! ha e to record ho& far the factor! #!#tem ha# #ucceeded in forcin* it# &a! into each branch of indu#tr!, and &hat other pecu(iaritie# the#e ma! re ea(8 +he four branche# compri#ed under the 'actor! 9ct are en*a*ed in the production of c(othin* #tuff#8 We #ha(( do be#t if &e dea( next &ith tho#e &or1er# &ho recei e their materia(# from the#e factorie#; and, fir#t of a((, &ith the #toc1in* &ea er# of /ottin*ham, 4erb!, and %eice#ter8 +ouchin* the#e &or1er#, the ;hi(drenN# Emp(o!ment ;ommi##ion report# that the (on* &or1in*$ hour#, impo#ed b! (o& &a*e#, &ith a #edentar! (ife and the #train upon the e!e# in o( ed in the nature of the emp(o!ment, u#ua((! enfeeb(e the &ho(e frame, and e#pecia((! the e!e#8 Wor1 at ni*ht i# impo##ib(e &ithout a er! po&erfu( (i*ht produced b! concentratin* the ra!# of the (amp, ma1in* them pa## throu*h *(a## *(obe#, &hich i# mo#t inDuriou# to the #i*ht8 9t fort! !ear# of a*e, near(! a(( &ear #pectac(e#8 +he chi(dren emp(o!ed at #poo(in* and hemmin* u#ua((! #uffer *ra e inDurie# to the hea(th and con#titution8 +he! &or1 from the #ixth, #e enth, or ei*hth !ear ten to t&e( e hour# dai(! in #ma((, c(o#e room#8 "t i# not uncommon for them to faint at their &or1, to become too feeb(e for the mo#t ordinar! hou#eho(d occupation, and #o near$#i*hted a# to be ob(i*ed to &ear *(a##e# durin* chi(dhood8 Man! &ere found b! the commi##ioner# to exhibit a(( the #!mptom# of a #crofu(ou# con#titution, and the manufacturer# u#ua((! refu#e to emp(o! *ir(# &ho ha e &or1ed in thi# &a! a# bein* too &ea18 +he condition of the#e chi(dren i# characteri#ed a#Ca di#*race to a ;hri#tian countr!T, and the &i#h expre##ed for (e*i#(ati e interference8 +he 'actor! =eport add# that the #toc1in* &ea er# are the &or#t paid &or1er# in %eice#ter, earnin* #ix, or &ith *reat effort, #e en #hi((in*# a &ee1, for #ixteen to ei*hteen hour#N dai(! &or18 'ormer(! the! earned t&ent! to t&ent!$one #hi((in*#, but the introduction of en(ar*ed frame# ha# ruined their bu#ine##; the *reat maDorit! #ti(( &or1 &ith o(d, #ma((, #in*(e frame#, and compete &ith difficu(t! &ith the pro*re## of machiner!8 5ere, too, e er! pro*re## i# a di#ad anta*e for the &or1er#8 /e erthe(e##, ;ommi##ioner Po&er #pea1# of the pride of the #toc1in* &ea er# that the! are free, and ha e no factor! be(( to mea#ure out the time for their eatin*, #(eepin*, and &or1in*8 +heir po#ition toda! i# no better than in 18>>, &hen the 'actor! ;ommi##ion made the fore*oin* #tatement#; the competition of the Saxon #toc1in* &ea er#, &ho ha e #carce(! an!thin* to eat, ta1e# care of that8 +hi# competition i# too #tron* for the En*(i#h in near(! a(( forei*n mar1et#, and for the (o&er Bua(itie# of *ood# e en in the En*(i#h mar1et8 "t mu#t be a #ource of reDoicin* for the patriotic :erman #toc1in* &ea er that hi# #tar ation &a*e# force hi# En*(i#h brother to #tar e too@ 9nd, eri(!, &i(( he not #tar e on, proud and happ!, for the *reater *(or! of :erman indu#tr!, #ince the honour of the 'ather(and demand# that hi# tab(e #hou(d be bare, hi# di#h ha(f$empt!K 9h@ it i# a nob(e thin* thi# competition, thi#Crace of the nation#T8 "n the +orning Chronicle, another %ibera( #heet, the or*an of the bour*eoi#ie par exce((ence, there &ere pub(i#hed #ome (etter# from a #toc1in* &ea er in 5inc1(e!, de#cribin* the condition of hi# fe((o&$&or1er#8 9mon* other thin*#, he report# 57 fami(ie#, >61 per#on#, &ho &ere #upported b! 179 frame#; each frame !ie(ded on an a era*e 5 126, #hi((in*#; each fami(! earned an a era*e of 11#8 4d8 &ee1(!8 ?ut of thi# there &a# reBuired for hou#e rent, frame rent, fue(, (i*ht, #oap, and need(e#, to*ether 5#8 17d8, #o that there remained for food, per head dai(!, 1 126d8, and for c(othin* nothin*8

TE!e hath not #een,T #a!# the #toc1in* &ea er,Cear hath not heard, the heart cannot concei e the ha(f of the #ufferin* endured b! thi# po ert!$#tric1en peop(e8T <ed# &ere &antin* either &ho((! or in part, the chi(dren ran about ra**ed and barefoot; the men #aid, &ith tear# in their e!e#:CWe ne er ta#ted meat thi# man! a da!T ECWe ha e a(mo#t for*otten it# ta#teT; and, fina((!, #ome of them &or1ed on Sunda!, thou*h pub(ic opinion pardon# an!thin* e(#e more readi(! than thi#, and the ratt(in* noi#e of the frame i# audib(e throu*hout the nei*hbourhood8 T%oo1 at m! chi(dren,T #aid one of them,Cand a#1 no more8 "t i# becau#e m! po ert! compe(# me; " cannot and &i(( not hear m! chi(dren cr! for bread &ithout ta1in* the on(! mean# hone#t(! to *et it8 %a#t Monda! mornin* " ro#e at t&o oNc(oc1 and &or1ed ti(( near midni*ht8 " ro#e at #ix oNc(oc1 each #ucceedin* mornin* and &or1ed unti( bet&een e(e en and t&e( e each ni*ht8 " cannot do it (on*er8 " #ha(( *o to an untime(! *ra e if " do; " &i(( therefore end m! (abour# at ten oNc(oc1 each ni*ht and ma1e up the time (o#t b! (abourin* on the Sunda!8T /either in %eice#ter, /ottin*ham, nor 4erb! ha e &a*e# ri#en #ince 18>>; and the &or#t of it i# that in %eice#ter the truc1 #!#tem pre ai(# to a *reat extent, a# " ha e mentioned8 "t i#, therefore, not to be &ondered at that the &ea er# of thi# re*ion ta1e a er! acti e part in a(( &or1in*$menN# mo ement#, the more acti e and effecti e becau#e the frame# are &or1ed chief(! b! men8 "n thi# #toc1in* &ea er#N di#trict the (ace indu#tr! a(#o ha# it# headBuarter#8 "n the three countie# mentioned there are in a(( 6,.67 (ace frame# in u#e, &hi(e in a(( the re#t of En*(and there are but .8.8 +he manufacture of (ace i# *reat(! comp(icated b! a ri*id di i#ion of (abour, and embrace# a mu(titude of branche#8 +he !arn i# fir#t #poo(ed b! *ir(# fourteen !ear# of a*e and up&ard#, &inder#; then the #poo(# are #et up on the frame# b! bo!#, ei*ht !ear# o(d and up&ard#, threader#, &ho pa## the thread throu*h fine openin*#, of &hich each machine ha# an a era*e of 1,877, and brin* it to&ard# it# de#tination; then the &ea er &ea e# the (ace &hich come# out of the machine (i1e a broad piece of c(oth and i# ta1en apart b! er! (itt(e chi(dren &ho dra& out the connectin* thread#8 +hi# i# ca((ed runnin* or dra&in* (ace, and the chi(dren them#e( e# (ace$runner#8 +he (ace i# then made read! for #a(e8 +he &inder#, (i1e the threader#, ha e no #pecified &or1in*$time, bein* ca((ed upon &hene er the #poo(# on a frame are empt!, and are (iab(e, #ince the &ea er# &or1 at ni*ht, to be reBuired at an! time in the factor! or &or1$room8 +hi# irre*u(arit!, the freBuent ni*ht$&or1, the di#order(! &a! of (i in* con#eBuent upon it, en*ender a mu(titude of ph!#ica( and mora( i((#, e#pecia((! ear(! and unbrid(ed #exua( (icence, upon &hich point a(( &itne##e# are unanimou#8 +he &or1 i# er! bad for the e!e#, and a(thou*h a permanent inDur! in the ca#e of the threader# i# not uni er#a((! ob#er ab(e, inf(ammation# of the e!e, pain, tear#, and momentar! uncertaint! of i#ion durin* the act of threadin* are en*endered8 'or the &inder#, ho&e er, it i# certain that their &or1 #eriou#(! affect# the e!e, and produce#, be#ide# the freBuent inf(ammation# of the cornea, man! ca#e# of amauro#i# and cataract8 +he &or1 of the &ea er# them#e( e# i# er! difficu(t, a# the frame# ha e con#tant(! been made &ider, unti( tho#e no& in u#e are a(mo#t a(( &or1ed b! three men in turn, each &or1in* ei*ht hour#, and the frame bein* 1ept in u#e the &ho(e t&ent!$four8 5ence it i# that the &inder# and threader# are #o often ca((ed upon durin* the ni*ht, and mu#t &or1 to pre ent the frame from #tandin* id(e8 +he fi((in* in of 1,877 openin*# &ith thread occupie# three chi(dren at (ea#t t&o hour#8 Man! frame# are mo ed b! #team$po&er, and the &or1 of men thu# #uper#eded; and, a# the ;hi(drenN# Emp(o!ment ;ommi##ionN# =eport mention# on(! (ace factorie# to &hich the chi(dren are #ummoned, it #eem#

to fo((o& either that the &or1 of the &ea er# ha# been remo ed to *reat factor! room# of (ate, or that #team$&ea in* ha# become prett! *enera(; a for&ard mo ement of the factor! #!#tem in either ca#e8 Mo#t un&ho(e#ome of a(( i# the &or1 of the runner#, &ho are u#ua((! chi(dren of #e en, and e en of fi e and four, !ear# o(d8 ;ommi##ioner :rain*er actua((! found one chi(d of t&o !ear# o(d emp(o!ed at thi# &or18 'o((o&in* a thread &hich i# to be &ithdra&n b! a need(e from an intricate texture, i# er! bad for the e!e#, e#pecia((! &hen, a# i# u#ua((! the ca#e, the &or1 i# continued fourteen to #ixteen hour#8 "n the (ea#t unfa ourab(e ca#e, a**ra ated near$ #i*htedne## fo((o&#; in the &or#t ca#e, &hich i# freBuent enou*h, incurab(e b(indne## from amauro#i#8 <ut, apart from that, the chi(dren, in con#eBuence of #ittin* perpetua((! bent up, become feeb(e, narro&$che#ted, and #crofu(ou# from bad di*e#tion8 4i#ordered function# of the uteru# are a(mo#t uni er#a( amon* the *ir(#, and cur ature of the #pine a(#o, #o thatCa(( the runner# ma! be reco*ni#ed from their *aitT8 +he #ame con#eBuence# for the e!e# and the &ho(e con#titution are produced b! the embroider! of (ace8 Medica( &itne##e# are unanimou#(! of the opinion that the hea(th of a(( chi(dren emp(o!ed in the production of (ace #uffer# #eriou#(!, that the! are pa(e, &ea1, de(icate, under#i)ed, and much (e## ab(e than other chi(dren to re#i#t di#ea#e8 +he affection# from &hich the! u#ua((! #uffer are *enera( debi(it!, freBuent faintin*, pain# in the head, #ide#, bac1, and hip#, pa(pitation of the heart, nau#ea, omitin* and &ant of appetite, cur ature of the #pine, #crofu(a, and con#umption8 +he hea(th of the fema(e (ace$ma1er# e#pecia((!, i# con#tant(! and deep(! undermined; comp(aint# are uni er#a( of anaemia, difficu(t chi(d$birth, and mi#carria*e8 +he #ame #ubordinate officia( of the ;hi(drenN# Emp(o!ment ;ommi##ion report# further that the chi(dren are er! often i(($c(othed and ra**ed, and recei e in#ufficient food, u#ua((! on(! bread and tea, often no meat for month# to*ether8 9# to their mora( condition, he report#: T"n the to&n of /ottin*ham a(( partie#, po(ice, c(er*!, manufacturer#, &or1$ peop(e, and parent# of the chi(dren a*ree that the pre#ent #!#tem of (abour i# a mo#t ferti(e #ource of immora(it!8 +he threader#, &ho are u#ua((! bo!#, and the &inder#, &ho are *enera((! *ir(#, are ca((ed out of their parent#N hou#e# at a(( hour# of the ni*ht, and a# it i# Buite uncertain ho& (on* the! ma! be reBuired, a read! and unan#&erab(e excu#e for #ta!in* out i# furni#hed and the! ha e e er! faci(it! for formin* improper connection#8 +hi# mu#t ha e contributed, in no #(i*ht de*ree, to the immora(it! &hich, accordin* to the opinion uni er#a((! expre##ed, pre ai(# to a mo#t a&fu( extent in /ottin*ham8 "n

addition to the immediate e i(# to the chi(dren them#e( e#, the dome#tic peace and comfort of the fami(ie# to &hich the! are member# are #acrificed to thi# mo#t unnatura( #tate of thin*#8T 9nother branch of (ace$ma1in*, bobbin$(ace&or1, i# carried on in the a*ricu(tura( #hire# of /orthampton, ?xford, and <edford, chief(! b! chi(dren and !oun* per#on#, &ho comp(ain uni er#a((! of bad food, and rare(! ta#te meat8 +he emp(o!ment it#e(f i# mo#t un&ho(e#ome8 +he chi(dren &or1 in #ma((, i(($ enti(ated, damp room#, #ittin* a(&a!# bent o er the (ace cu#hion8 +o #upport the bod! in thi# &ear!in* po#ition, the *ir(# &ear #ta!# &ith a &ooden bu#1, &hich, at the tender a*e of mo#t of them, &hen the bone# are #ti(( er! #oft, &ho((! di#p(ace the rib#, and ma1e narro& che#t# uni er#a(8 +he! u#ua((! die of con#umption after #ufferin* the #e ere#t form# of di*e#ti e di#order#, brou*ht on b! #edentar! &or1 in a bad atmo#phere8 +he! are a(mo#t &ho((! &ithout education, (ea#t of a(( do the! recei e mora( trainin*8 +he! (o e finer!, and in con#eBuence of the#e t&o inf(uence# their mora( condition i# mo#t dep(orab(e, and pro#titution a(mo#t epidemic amon* them8 +hi# i# the price at &hich #ociet! purcha#e# for the fine (adie# of the bour*eoi#ie the p(ea#ure of &earin* (ace; a rea#onab(e price tru(!@ ?n(! a fe& thou#and b(ind &or1in*$men, #ome con#umpti e (abourer#N dau*hter#, a #ic1(! *eneration of the i(e mu(titude beBueathin* it# debi(it! to it# eBua((!C i(eT chi(dren and chi(drenN# chi(dren8 <ut &hat doe# that come toK /othin*, nothin* &hat#oe er@ ?ur En*(i#h bour*eoi#ie &i(( (a! the report of the :o ernment ;ommi##ion a#ide indifferent(!, and &i e# and dau*hter# &i(( dec1 them#e( e# &ith (ace a# before8 "t i# a beautifu( thin*, the compo#ure of an En*(i#h bour*eoi#8 9 *reat number of operati e# are emp(o!ed in the cotton$printin* e#tab(i#hment# of %anca#hire, 4erb!#hire, and the We#t of Scot(and8 "n no branch of En*(i#h indu#tr! ha# mechanica( in*enuit! produced #uch bri((iant re#u(t# a# here, but in no other ha# it #o cru#hed the &or1er#8 +he app(ication of en*ra ed c!(inder# dri en b! #team$po&er, and the di#co er! of a method of printin* four to #ix co(our# at once &ith #uch c!(inder#, ha# a# comp(ete(! #uper#eded hand$&or1 a# did the app(ication of machiner! to the #pinnin* and &ea in* of cotton, and the#e ne& arran*ement# in the printin*$&or1# ha e #uper#eded the hand$ &or1er# much more than &a# the ca#e in the production of the fabric#8 ?ne man, &ith the a##i#tance of one chi(d, no& doe# &ith a machine the &or1 done former(! b! 677 b(oc1 printer#; a #in*(e machine !ie(d# 68 !ard# of printed c(oth per minute8 +he ca(ico printer# are in a er! bad &a! in con#eBuence; the #hire# of %anca#ter, 4erb!, and ;he#ter produced ,accordin* to a petition of the printer# to the 5ou#e of ;ommon#-, in the !ear 1846, 11,777,777 piece# of printed cotton *ood#: of the#e, 177,777 &ere printed b! hand exc(u#i e(!, 977,777 in part &ith machiner! and in part b! hand, and 17,777,777 b! machiner! a(one, &ith four to #ix co(our#8 9# the machiner! i# chief(! ne& and under*oe# con#tant impro ement, the number of hand$printer# i# far too *reat for the a ai(ab(e Buantit! of &or1, and man! of them are therefore #tar in*; the petition put# the number at one$Buarter of the &ho(e, &hi(e the re#t are emp(o!ed but one or t&o, in the be#t ca#e three da!# in the &ee1, and are i(($paid8 %each a##ert# of one print$&or1# ,4eep(! 4a(e, near <ur!, in %anca#hire-, that the hand$ printer# did not earn on an a era*e more than fi e #hi((in*#, thou*h he 1no&# that the machine$ printer# &ere prett! &e(( paid8 +he print$&or1# are thu# &ho((! affi(iated &ith the factor! #!#tem, but &ithout bein* #ubDect to the (e*i#(ati e re#triction# p(aced upon it8 +he! produce an artic(e #ubDect to fa#hion, and ha e therefore no re*u(ar &or18 "f the! ha e #ma(( order#, the! &or1 ha(f$ time; if the! ma1e a hit &ith a pattern, and bu#ine## i# bri#1, the! &or1 t&e( e hour#, perhap# a(( ni*ht8 "n the nei*hbourhood of m! home, near Manche#ter, there &a# a print$&or1# that &a# often

(i*hted &hen " returned (ate at ni*ht; and " ha e heard that the chi(dren &ere ob(i*ed at time# to &or1 #o (on* there, that the! &ou(d tr! to catch a momentN# re#t and #(eep on the #tone #tep# and in the corner# of the (obb!8 " ha e no (e*a( proof of the truth of the #tatement, or " #hou(d name the firm8 +he =eport of the ;hi(drenN# Emp(o!ment ;ommi##ion i# er! cur#or! upon thi# #ubDect, #tatin* mere(! that in En*(and, at (ea#t, the chi(dren are mo#t(! prett! &e(( c(othed and fed ,re(ati e(!, accordin* to the &a*e# of the parent#-, that the! recei e no education &hat#oe er, and are mora((! on a (o& p(ane8 "t i# on(! nece##ar! to remember that the#e chi(dren are #ubDect to the factor! #!#tem, and then, referrin* the reader to &hat ha# a(read! been #aid of that, &e can pa## on8 ?f the remainin* &or1er# emp(o!ed in the manufacture of c(othin* #tuff# (itt(e remain# to be #aid; the b(eacher#N &or1 i# er! un&ho(e#ome, ob(i*in* them to breathe ch(orine, a *a# inDuriou# to the (un*#8 +he &or1 of the d!er# i# in man! ca#e# er! hea(thfu(, #ince it reBuire# the exertion of the &ho(e bod!; ho& the#e &or1er# are paid i# (itt(e 1no&n, and thi# i# *round enou*h for the inference that the! do not recei e (e## than the a era*e &a*e#, other&i#e the! &ou(d ma1e comp(aint8 +he fu#tian cutter#, &ho, in con#eBuence of the (ar*e con#umption of cotton e( et, are comparati e(! numerou#, bein* e#timated at from >,777 to 4,777, ha e #uffered er! #e ere(!, indirect(!, from the inf(uence of the factor! #!#tem8 +he *ood# former(! &o en &ith hand$(oom#, &ere not perfect(! uniform, and reBuired a practi#ed hand in cuttin* the #in*(e ro&# of thread#8 Since po&er$(oom# ha e been u#ed, the ro&# run re*u(ar(!; each thread of the &eft i# exact(! para((e( &ith the precedin* one, and cuttin* i# no (on*er an art8 +he &or1er# thro&n out of emp(o!ment b! the introduction of machiner! turn to fu#tian cuttin*, and force do&n &a*e# b! their competition; the manufacturer# di#co ered that the! cou(d emp(o! &omen and chi(dren, and the &a*e# #an1 to the rate paid them, &hi(e hundred# of men &ere thro&n out of emp(o!ment8 +he manufacturer# found that the! cou(d *et the &or1 done in the factor! it#e(f more cheap(! than in the cutter#N &or1$room, for &hich the! indirect(! paid the rent8 Since thi# di#co er!, the (o& upper$#tore! cutter#N room# #tand empt! in man! a cotta*e, or are (et for d&e((in*#, &hi(e the cutter ha# (o#t hi# freedom of choice of hi# &or1in*$hour#, and i# brou*ht under the dominion of the factor! be((8 9 cutter of perhap# fort!$fi e !ear# of a*e to(d me that he cou(d remember a time &hen he had recei ed 8d8 a !ard for &or1, for &hich he no& recei ed (d8; true, he can cut the more re*u(ar texture more Buic1(! than the o(d, but he can b! no mean# do t&ice a# much in an hour a# former(!, #o that hi# &a*e# ha e #un1 to (e## than a Buarter of &hat the! &ere8 %each! *i e# a (i#t of &a*e# paid in 186. and in 184> for ariou# *ood#, from &hich it appear# that artic(e# paid in 186. at the rate of 4d8, 6Vd8, 6Yd8, and 1d8 per !ard, &ere paid in 184> at the rate of 1Vd8, 1d8, Yd8, and >28d8 per !ard, cutter#N &a*e#8 +he a era*e &ee1(! &a*e, accordin* to %each, &a# a# fo((o&#: 186., U1 6#8 6d8; U( 6#8 6d8; U1; U1 6#8 6d8; and for the #ame *ood# in 184>, 17#8; .#8; 6#8 8d8; 17#8; &hi(e there are hundred# of &or1er# &ho cannot find emp(o!ment e en at the#e (a#t$named rate#8 ?f the hand$&ea er# of the cotton indu#tr! &e ha e a(read! #po1en; the other &o en fabric# are a(mo#t exc(u#i e(! produced on hand$(oom#8 5ere mo#t of the &or1er# ha e #uffered a# the &ea er# ha e done from the cro&din* in of competitor# di#p(aced b! machiner!, and are, moreo er, #ubDect (i1e the factor! operati e# to a #e ere fine #!#tem for bad &or18 +a1e, for in#tance, the #i(1 &ea er#8 Mr8 <roc1(ehur#t, one of the (ar*e#t #i(1 manufacturer# in a(( En*(and, (aid before a committee of Member# of Par(iament (i#t# ta1en from hi# boo1#, from &hich it appear# that for *ood# for &hich he paid &a*e# in 1861 at the rate of >7#8, 14#8; >V#8, Y#8, 1 1217#, 17#8; he paid in 18>1 but 9#8, .V#8, 6 X#8, 12>#8, V#8, 6X#8, &hi(e in thi# ca#e no impro ement in the machiner! ha# ta1en p(ace8 <ut &hat Mr8 <roc1(ehur#t doe# ma! er! &e(( be ta1en a# a #tandard for a((8 'rom the #ame (i#t# it appear# that the a era*e &ee1(! &a*e of hi# &ea er#, after a(( deduction#, &a#, in 1861, 16V#8, and, in 18>1, but 6#8 Since that time &a*e# ha e fa((en #ti(( further8 :ood# &hich brou*ht in 4d8 &ea er#N &a*e# in 18>1, brin* in but 6Vd8 in 1845 ,#in*(e #ar#net#-, and a *reat number of &ea er# in the countr! can *et &or1 on(! &hen the!

underta1e the#e *ood# at 1V d8$6d8 Moreo er, the! are #ubDect to arbitrar! deduction# from their &a*e#8 E er! &ea er &ho recei e# materia(# i# *i en a card, on &hich i# u#ua((! to be read that the &or1 i# to be returned at a #pecified hour of the da!; that a &ea er &ho cannot &or1 b! rea#on of i((ne## mu#t ma1e the fact 1no&n at the office &ithin three da!#, or #ic1ne## &i(( not be re*arded a# an excu#e; that it &i(( not be re*arded a# a #ufficient excu#e if the &ea er c(aim# to ha e been ob(i*ed to &ait for !arn; that for certain fau(t# in the &or1 ,if, for examp(e, more &eft$ thread# are found &ithin a *i en #pace than are pre#cribed-, not (e## than ha(f the &a*e# &i(( be deducted; and that if the *ood# #hou(d not be read! at the time #pecified, one penn! &i(( be deducted for e er! !ard returned8 +he deduction# in accordance &ith the#e card# are #o con#iderab(e that, for in#tance, a man &ho come# t&ice a &ee1 to %ei*h, in %anca#hire, to *ather up &o en *ood#, brin*# hi# emp(o!er at (ea#t U15 fine# e er! time8 5e a##ert# thi# him#e(f, and he i# re*arded a# one of the mo#t (enient8 Such thin*# &ere former(! #ett(ed b! arbitration; but a# the &or1er# &ere u#ua((! di#mi##ed if the! in#i#ted upon that, the cu#tom ha# been a(mo#t &ho((! abandoned, and the manufacturer act# arbitrari(! a# pro#ecutor, &itne##, Dud*e, (a&$*i er, and executi e in one per#on8 9nd if the &or1man *oe# to a Lu#tice of the Peace, the an#&er i#:CWhen !ou accepted !our card !ou entered upon a contract, and !ou mu#t abide b! it8T +he ca#e i# the #ame a# that of the factor! operati e#8 <e#ide#, the emp(o!er ob(i*e# the &or1man to #i*n a document in &hich he dec(are# that he a*ree# to the deduction# made8 9nd if a &or1man rebe(#, a(( the manufacturer# in the to&n 1no& at once that he i# a man &ho, a# %each #a!#, Ti# an enem! to a(( tic1et$made (a& and #ocia( order and ha# the impudence to di#pute the &i#dom of tho#e &hom he ou*ht to 1no& are hi# #uperior# in #ociet!8T /atura((!, the &or1er# are perfect(! free; the manufacturer doe# not force them to ta1e hi# materia(# and hi# card#, but he #a!# to them &hat %each tran#(ate# into p(ain En*(i#h &ith the &ord#: T"f !ou donNt (i1e to be fri))(ed in m! fr!in*$pan, !ou can ta1e a &a(1 into the fire8T +he #i(1 &ea er# of %ondon, and e#pecia((! of Spita(fie(d#, ha e (i ed in periodic di#tre## for a (on* time, and that the! #ti(( ha e no cau#e to be #ati#fied &ith their (ot i# pro ed b! their ta1in* a mo#t acti e part in En*(i#h (abour mo ement# in *enera(, and in %ondon one# in particu(ar8 +he di#tre## pre ai(in* amon* them *a e ri#e to the fe er &hich bro1e out in Ea#t %ondon, and ca((ed forth the ;ommi##ion for "n e#ti*atin* the Sanitar! ;ondition of the %abourin* ;(a##8 <ut the (a#t report of the %ondon 'e er 5o#pita( #ho&# that thi# di#ea#e i# #ti(( ra*in*8 9fter the texti(e fabric#, b! far the mo#t important product# of En*(i#h indu#tr! are the meta($ &are#8 +hi# trade ha# it# headBuarter# at <irmin*ham, &here the finer meta( *ood# of a(( #ort# are produced, at Sheffie(d for cut(er!, and in Stafford#hire, e#pecia((! at Wo( erhampton, &here the coar#er artic(e#, (oc1#, nai(#, etc8, are manufactured8 "n de#cribin* the po#ition of the &or1er# emp(o!ed in the#e trade#, (et u# be*in &ith <irmin*ham8 +he di#po#ition of the &or1 ha# retained in <irmin*ham, a# in mo#t p(ace# &here meta(# are &rou*ht, #omethin* of the o(d handicraft character; the #ma(( emp(o!er# are #ti(( to be found, &ho &or1 &ith their apprentice# in the #hop at home, or &hen the! need #team$po&er, in *reat factor! bui(din*# &hich are di ided into (itt(e #hop#, each rented to a #ma(( emp(o!er, and #upp(ied &ith a #haft mo ed b! the en*ine, and

furni#hin* moti e po&er for the machiner!8 %eon 'aucher, author of a #erie# of artic(e# in the Revue des deu8 +ondes, &hich at (ea#t betra! #tud!, and are better than &hat ha# hitherto been &ritten upon the #ubDect b! En*(i#hmen or :erman#, characteri#e# thi# re(ation in contra#t &ith the manufacture of %anca#hire a# .emocratie industrielle, and ob#er e# that it produce# no er! fa ourab(e re#u(t# for ma#ter or men8 +hi# ob#er ation i# perfect(! correct, for the man! #ma(( emp(o!er# cannot &e(( #ub#i#t on the profit di ided amon*#t them, determined b! competition, a profit under other circum#tance# ab#orbed b! a #in*(e manufacturer8 +he centra(i#in* tendenc! of capita( ho(d# them do&n8 'or one &ho *ro&# rich ten are ruined, and a hundred p(aced at *reater di#ad anta*e than e er, b! the pre##ure of the one up#tart &ho can afford to #e(( more cheap(! than the!8 9nd in the ca#e# &here the! ha e to compete from the be*innin* a*ain#t *reat capita(i#t#, it i# #e(f$e ident that the! can on(! toi( a(on* &ith the *reate#t difficu(t!8 +he apprentice# are, a# &e #ha(( #ee, Buite a# bad(! off under the #ma(( emp(o!er# a# under the manufacturer#, &ith the #in*(e difference that the!, in turn, ma! become #ma(( emp(o!er#, and #o attain a certain independence E that i# to #a!, the! are at be#t (e## direct(! exp(oited b! the bour*eoi#ie than under the factor! #!#tem8 +hu# the#e #ma(( emp(o!er# are neither *enuine pro(etarian#, #ince the! (i e in part upon the &or1 of their apprentice#, nor *enuine bour*eoi#, #ince their principa( mean# of #upport i# their o&n &or18 +hi# pecu(iar mid&a! po#ition of the <irmin*ham iron$&or1er# i# to b(ame for their ha in* #o rare(! Doined &ho((! and unre#er ed(! in the En*(i#h (abour mo ement#8 <irmin*ham i# a po(itica((! radica(, but not a ;harti#t, to&n8 +here are, ho&e er, numerou# (ar*er factorie# be(on*in* to capita(i#t#; and in the#e the factor! #!#tem rei*n# #upreme8 +he di i#ion of (abour, &hich i# here carried out to the (a#t detai( ,in the need(e indu#tr!, for examp(e-, and the u#e of #team$po&er, admit of the emp(o!ment of a *reat mu(titude of &omen and chi(dren, and &e find here .8 preci#e(! the #ame feature# reappearin* &hich the 'actorie#N =eport pre#ented, E the &or1 of &omen up to the hour of confinement, incapacit! a# hou#e1eeper#, ne*(ect of home and chi(dren, indifference, actua( di#(i1e to fami(! (ife, and demora(i#ation; further, the cro&din* out of men from emp(o!ment, the con#tant impro ement of machiner!, ear(! emancipation of chi(dren, hu#band# #upported b! their &i e# and chi(dren, etc8, etc8 +he chi(dren are de#cribed a# ha(f$#tar ed and ra**ed, the ha(f of them are #aid not to 1no& &hat it i# to ha e enou*h to eat, man! of them *et nothin* to eat before the midda! mea(, or e en (i e the &ho(e da! upon a penn!&orthN of bread for a noonda! mea( E there &ere actua((! ca#e# in &hich chi(dren recei ed no food from ei*ht in the mornin* unti( #e en at ni*ht8 +heir c(othin* i# er! often #carce(! #ufficient to co er their na1edne##, man! are barefoot e en in &inter8 5ence the! are a(( #ma(( and &ea1 for their a*e, and rare(! de e(op &ith an! de*ree of i*our8 9nd &hen &e ref(ect that &ith the#e in#ufficient mean# of reproducin* the ph!#ica( force#, hard and protracted &or1 in c(o#e room# i# reBuired of them, &e cannot &onder that there are fe& adu(t# in <irmin*ham fit for mi(itar! #er ice8 +he &or1in*$men, #a!# a recruitin* #ur*eon,Care #horter, more pun!, and a(to*ether inferior in their ph!#ica( po&er#8 Man! of the men pre#ented for examination#, are di#torted in the #pine and che#t8T 9ccordin* to the a##ertion of a recruitin* #er*eant, the peop(e of <irmin*ham are #ma((er than tho#e an!&here e(#e, bein*

u#ua((! 5 feet 4 to 5 inche# ta((; out of 61> recruit#, but 6>8 &ere found fit for #er ice8 9# to education, a #erie# of depo#ition# and #pecimen# ta1en from the meta( di#trict# ha e a(read! been *i en, to &hich the reader i# referred8 "t appear# further, from the ;hi(drenN# Emp(o!ment ;ommi##ionN# =eport, that in <irmin*ham more than ha(f the chi(dren, bet&een fi e and fifteen !ear# attend no #choo( &hat#oe er, that tho#e &ho do are con#tant(! chan*in*, #o that it i# impo##ib(e to *i e them an! trainin* of an endurin* 1ind, and that the! are a(( &ithdra&n from #choo( er! ear(! and #et to &or18 +he report ma1e# it c(ear &hat #ort of teacher# are emp(o!ed8 ?ne teacher, in an#&er to the Bue#tion &hether #he *a e mora( in#truction, #aid, /o, for threepence a &ee1 #choo( fee# that &a# too much to reBuire, but that #he too1 a *reat dea( of troub(e to in#ti(( *ood princip(e# into the chi(dren8 ,9nd #he made a decided #(ip in her En*(i#h in #a!in* it8"n the #choo(# the commi##ioner found con#tant noi#e and di#order8 +he mora( #tate of the chi(dren i# in the hi*he#t de*ree dep(orab(e8 5a(f of a(( the crimina(# are chi(dren under fifteen, and in a #in*(e !ear ninet! ten$ !ear#N$o(d offender#, amon* them fort!$ four #eriou# crimina( ca#e#, &ere #entenced8 Fnbrid(ed #exua( intercour#e #eem#, accordin* to the opinion of the

commi##ioner, a(mo#t uni er#a(, and that at a er! ear(! a*e8 "n the iron di#trict of Stafford#hire the #tate of thin*# i# #ti(( &or#e8 'or the coar#e &are# made here neither much di i#ion machiner! Sed*e(e!, of (abour nor can be ,&ith certain or "n exception##team$po&er app(ied8 Wi((enha((,

Wo( erhampton,

<i(#ton, 4ar(a#ton,

Wedne#fie(d,

4ud(e!, Wa(#a((, Wedne#bur!, etc8, there are, therefore, fe&er factorie#8 <ut chief(! #in*(e for*e#, &here the #ma(( ma#ter# &or1 a(one, or &ith one or more apprentice#, &ho #er e them unti( reachin* the t&ent!$fir#t !ear8 +he #ma(( emp(o!er# are in about the #ame #ituation a# tho#e of <irmin*ham; but the apprentice#, a# a ru(e, are much &or#e off8 +he! *et a(mo#t exc(u#i e(! meat from di#ea#ed anima(# or #uch a# ha e died a natura( death, or tainted meat, or fi#h to eat, &ith ea( from ca( e# 1i((ed too !oun*, and por1 from #&ine #mothered durin* tran#portation, and #uch food i# furni#hed not b! #ma(( emp(o!er# on(!, but b! (ar*e manufacturer#, &ho emp(o! from thirt! to fort! apprentice#8 +he cu#tom #eem# to be uni er#a( in Wo( erhampton, and it# natura( con#eBuence i# freBuent bo&e( comp(aint# and other di#ea#e#8 Moreo er, the chi(dren u#ua((! do not *et enou*h to eat, and ha e rare(! other

c(othin* than their &or1in* ra*#, for &hich rea#on, if for no other, the! cannot *o to Sunda! #choo(8 +he d&e((in*# are bad and fi(th!, often #o much #o that the! *i e ri#e to di#ea#e; and in #pite of the not materia((! unhea(th! &or1, the chi(dren are pun!, &ea1, and, in man! ca#e#, #e ere(! cripp(ed8 "n Wi((enha((, for in#tance, there are count(e## per#on# &ho ha e, from perpetua((! fi(in* at the (athe, croo1ed bac1# and one (e* croo1ed,Chind$(e*T a# the! ca(( it, #o that the t&o (e*# ha e the form of a H; &hi(e it i# #aid that more than one$third of the &or1in*$men there are ruptured8 5ere, a# &e(( a# in Wo( erhampton, number(e## ca#e# &ere found of retarded pubert! amon* *ir(# ,for *ir(#, too, &or1 at the for*e#-, a# &e(( a# amon* bo!#, extendin* e en to the nineteenth !ear8 "n Sed*e(e! and it# #urroundin* di#trict, &here nai(# form a(mo#t the #o(e product, the nai(er# (i e and &or1 in the mo#t &retched #tab(e$(i1e hut#, &hich for fi(th can #carce(! be eBua((ed8 :ir(# and bo!# &or1 from the tenth or t&e(fth !ear, and are accounted fu((! #1i((ed on(! &hen the! ma1e a thou#and nai(# a da!8 'or t&e( e hundred nai(# the pa! i# 5Yd8 E er! nai( recei e# t&e( e b(o&#, and #ince the hammer &ei*h# 1X pound#, the nai(er mu#t (ift 18,777 pound# to earn thi# mi#erab(e pa!8 With thi# hard &or1 and in#ufficient food, the

chi(dren ine itab(! de e(op i(($formed, under#i)ed frame#, and the commi##ioner#N depo#ition# confirm thi#8 9# to the #tate of education in thi# di#trict, data ha e a(read! been furni#hed in the fore*oin* chapter#8 "t i# upon an incredib(! (o& p(ane; ha(f the chi(dren do not e en *o to Sunda! #choo(, and the other ha(f *o irre*u(ar(!; er! fe&, in compari#on &ith the other di#trict#, can read, and in the matter of &ritin* the ca#e i# much &or#e8 /atura((!, for bet&een the #e enth and tenth !ear#, Du#t &hen the! are be*innin* to *et #ome *ood out of *oin* to #choo(, the! are #et to &or1, and the Sunda! #choo( teacher#, #mith# or miner#, freBuent(! cannot read, and &rite their name# &ith difficu(t!8 +he pre ai(in* mora(# corre#pond &ith the#e mean# of education8 "n Wi((enha((, ;ommi##ioner 5orne a##ert#, and #upp(ie# amp(e proof# of hi# a##ertion, that there exi#t# ab#o(ute(! no mora( #en#e amon* the &or1er#8 "n *enera(, he found that the chi(dren neither reco*ni#ed dutie# to their parent# nor fe(t an! affection for them8 +he! &ere #o (itt(e capab(e of thin1in* of &hat the! #aid, #o #to(id, #o hope(e##(! #tupid, that the! often a##erted that the! &ere &e(( treated, &ere comin* on famou#(!, &hen the! &ere forced to &or1 t&e( e to fourteen hour#, &ere c(ad in ra*#, did not *et enou*h to eat, and &ere beaten #o that the! fe(t it #e era( da!# after&ard#8

+he! 1ne& nothin* of a different 1ind of (ife than that in &hich the! toi( from mornin* unti( the! are a((o&ed to #top at ni*ht, and did not e en under#tand the Bue#tion ne er heard before, &hether the! &ere tired8 "n Sheffie(d &a*e# are better, and the externa( #tate of the &or1er# a(#o8 ?n the other hand, certain branche# of &or1 are to be noticed here, becau#e of their extraordinari(! inDuriou# inf(uence upon hea(th8 ;ertain operation# reBuire the con#tant pre##ure of too(# a*ain#t the che#t, and en*ender con#umption in man! ca#e#; other#, fi(e$cuttin* amon* them, retard the *enera( de e(opment of the bod! and bone$ brin*# produce cuttin* &ith it di*e#ti e for 1nife headache, di#order#; hand(e#

bi(iou#ne##, and amon* *ir(#, of &hom man! are emp(o!ed, anaemia8 <! far the mo#t un&ho(e#ome &or1 i# the *rindin* of 1nife$b(ade# certain and ear(! for1#, death8 &hich, +he e#pecia((! &hen done &ith a dr! #tone, entai(# un&ho(e#omene## of thi# &or1 (ie# in part in the bent po#ture, in &hich che#t and #tomach are cramped; but e#pecia((! in the Buantit! of #harp$ed*ed meta( du#t partic(e# freed in the cuttin*, &hich fi(( the atmo#phere, and are nece##ari(! inha(ed8 +he dr! *rinder#N a era*e (ife i# hard(! thirt!$fi e !ear#, Nthe &et

*rinder#N rare(! exceed# fort!$fi e8 4r8 Hni*ht, in Sheffie(d, #a!#: " can con e! #ome thatCthe idea of the inDuriou#ne## of thi# occupation on(! b! a##ertin* *reate#t drin1er# amon* the *rinder# are #ometime# the (on*e#t (i ed, o&in* to their more freBuent ab#ence from their &or1T8 9(to*ether the *rinder# in Sheffie(dCamount to about t&o thou#and fi e hundred, of thi# number about one hundred and fift!, i)8 ei*ht! men and #e ent! bo!#, are for1 *rinder# E the#e die from t&ent!$ei*ht to thirt!$t&o !ear# of a*e8 +he ra)or *rinder#, *rind both &et, and dr!, and the! die from fort! to fort!$fi e !ear# of a*e8 +he tab(e$1nife *rinder# &or1 on &et #tone#, and the! (i e to bet&ixt fort! and fift! !ear# of a*e8T +he #ame ph!#ician *i e# the fo((o&in* de#cription of the cour#e of the di#ea#e ca((ed *rinder#N a#thma: T+ho#e &ho are to be brou*ht up *rinder#, u#ua((! be*in to &or1 &hen the! are about fourteen !ear# o(d8 :rinder#, &ho ha e *ood con#titution# #e(dom experience much incon enience from their trade unti( the! arri e at about t&ent! !ear# of a*e: about that time the #!mptom# of their pecu(iar comp(aint be*in to #tea( upon them, their breathin* become# more than u#ua((! embarra##ed on #(i*ht exertion#, particu(ar(! on *oin* up#tair# or a#cendin* a hi((; their #hou(der# are e(e ated in order to re(ie e

their con#tant and increa#in* d!#pnoea; the! #toop for&ard, and appear to breathe the mo#t comfortab(! in that po#ture in &hich the! are accu#tomed to #it at their &or18 +heir comp(exion# a##ume a mudd!, dirt! appearance; their countenance indicate# anxiet!; the! comp(ain of a #en#e of ti*htne## acro## the che#t; their oice i# rou*h, and hoar#e; their cou*h (oud, and a# if the air &ere dra&n throu*h &ooden tube#; the! occa#iona((! expectorate con#iderab(e Buantitie# of du#t, #ometime# mixed up &ith mucu#, at other time# in *(obu(ar or c!(indrica( ma##e# en e(oped in a thin fi(m of mucu#8 5aemopt!#i#, inabi(it! to (ie do&n, ni*ht #&eat#, co(i*nati e diarrhoea, extreme emaciation, to*ether &ith a(( the u#ua( #!mptom# of pu(monar! con#umption at (en*th carr! them off; but not unti( the! ha e (in*ered throu*h month#, and e en !ear# of #ufferin*, incapab(e of &or1in* #o a# to #upport either them#e( e# or their fami(ie#8T " mu#t add thatCa(( the attempt# &hich ha e hitherto been made, to pre ent or to cure the *rinder#N a#thma, ha e utter(! fai(ed8T 9(( thi# Hni*ht &rote ten !ear# a*o; #ince then the number of *rinder# and the io(ence of the di#ea#e ha e increa#ed, thou*h attempt# ha e been made to pre ent it b! co ered *rind#tone# and carr!in* off the du#t b! artificia( drau*ht8 +he#e method# ha e been at (ea#t partia((! #ucce##fu(, but the *rinder# do not de#ire their adoption, and ha e e en de#tro!ed the contri ance here and there, in the be(ief that more &or1er# ma! be attracted to the bu#ine## and &a*e# thu# reduced; the! are for a #hort (ife and a merr! one8 4r8 Hni*ht ha# often to(d *rinder# &ho came to him &ith the fir#t #!mptom# of a#thma that a return to *rindin* mean# certain death, but &ith no a ai(8 5e &ho i# once a *rinder fa((# into de#pair, a# thou*h he had #o(d him#e(f to the de i(8 Education in Sheffie(d i# upon a er! (o& p(ane; a c(er*!man, &ho had occupied him#e(f (ar*e(! &ith the

#tati#tic# of education, &a# of the opinion that of 16,577 chi(dren of the &or1in*$c(a## &ho are in a po#ition to attend #choo(, #carce(! 6,577 can read8 +hi# come# of the fact that the chi(dren are ta1en from #choo( in the #e enth, and, at the er! (ate#t, in the t&e(fth !ear, and that the teacher# are *ood for nothin*; one &a# a con icted thief &ho found no other &a! of #upportin* him#e(f after bein* re(ea#ed from Dai( than teachin* #choo(@ "mmora(it! amon* !oun* peop(e #eem# to be more pre a(ent in Sheffie(d than an!&here e(#e8 "t i# hard to te(( &hich to&n ou*ht to ha e the pri)e, and in readin* the report one be(ie e# of each one that thi# certain(! de#er e# it@ +he !oun*er *eneration #pend the &ho(e of Sunda! (!in* in the #treet to##in* coin# or fi*htin* do*#, *o re*u(ar(! to the *in pa(ace, &here the! #it &ith their #&eetheart# unti( (ate at ni*ht, &hen the! ta1e &a(1# in #o(itar! coup(e#8 "n an a(e$hou#e &hich the commi##ioner i#ited, there #at fort! to fift! !oun* peop(e of both #exe#, near(! a(( under #e enteen !ear# of a*e, and each (ad be#ide hi# (a##8 5ere and there card# &ere p(a!ed, at other p(ace# dancin* &a# *oin* on, and e er!&here drin1in*8 9mon* the compan! &ere open(! a o&ed profe##iona( pro#titute#8 /o &onder, then, that, a# a(( the &itne##e# te#tif!, ear(!, unbrid(ed #exua( intercour#e, !outhfu( pro#titution, be*innin* &ith per#on# of fourteen to fifteen !ear#, i# extraordinari(! freBuent in Sheffie(d8 ;rime# of a #a a*e and de#perate #ort are of common occurrence; one !ear before the commi##ionerN# i#it, a band, con#i#tin* chief(! of !oun* per#on#, &a# arre#ted &hen about to #et fire to the to&n, bein* fu((! eBuipped &ith (ance# and inf(ammab(e #ub#tance#8 We #ha(( #ee (ater that the (abour mo ement in Sheffie(d ha# thi# #ame #a a*e character8 <e#ide# the#e t&o main centre# of the meta( indu#tr!, there are need(e factorie# in Warrin*ton, %anca#hire, &here *reat &ant, immora(it!, and i*norance pre ai( amon* the &or1er#, and e#pecia((! amon* the chi(dren; and a number of nai( for*e# in the nei*hbourhood of Wi*an, in %anca#hire, and in the ea#t of Scot(and8 +he report# from the#e (atter di#trict# te(( a(mo#t preci#e(! the #ame #tor! a# tho#e of Stafford#hire8 +here i# one more branch of thi# indu#tr! carried on in the factor! di#trict#, e#pecia((! in %anca#hire, the e##entia( pecu(iarit! of &hich i# the production of machiner! b! machiner!, &hereb! the &or1er#, cro&ded out e(#e&here, are depri ed of their (a#t refu*e, the creation of the er! enem! &hich #uper#ede# them8 Machiner! for p(anin* and borin*, cuttin* #cre&#, &hee(#, nut#, etc8, &ith po&er (athe#, ha# thro&n out of emp(o!ment a mu(titude of men &ho former(! found re*u(ar &or1 at *ood &a*e#; and &hoe er &i#he# to do #o ma! #ee cro&d# of them in Manche#ter8 /orth of the iron di#trict of Stafford#hire (ie# an indu#tria( re*ion to &hich &e #ha(( no& turn our attention, the Potterie#, &ho#e headBuarter# are in the borou*h of Sto1e, embracin* 5en(e!, <ur#(em, %ane End, %ane 4e(ph, Etruria, ;o(erid*e, %an*port, +un#ta((, and :o(den 5i((, containin* to*ether .7,777 inhabitant#8 +he ;hi(drenN# Emp(o!ment ;ommi##ion report# upon thi# #ubDect that in #ome branche# of thi# indu#tr!, in the production of #tone&are, the chi(dren ha e (i*ht emp(o!ment in &arm, air! room#; in other#, on the contrar!, hard, &earin* (abour i# reBuired, &hi(e the! recei e neither #ufficient food nor *ood c(othin*8 Man! chi(dren comp(ain:C4onNt *et enou*h to eat, *et mo#t(! potatoe# &ith #a(t, ne er meat, ne er bread, donNt *o to #choo(, ha enNt *ot no c(othe#8TI5a enNt *ot nothinN to eat toda! for dinner, donNt ne er ha e dinner at home, *et mo#t(! potatoe# and #a(t, #ometime# bread8TI+hi# i# a(( the c(othe# " ha e, no Sunda! #uit at home8T 9mon* the chi(dren &ho#e &or1 i# e#pecia((! inDuriou# are the mou(d$ runner#, &ho ha e to carr! the mou(ded artic(e &ith the form to the dr!in*$room, and after&ard# brin* bac1 the empt! form, &hen the artic(e i# proper(! dried8 +hu# the! mu#t *o to and fro the &ho(e da!, carr!in* burden# hea ! in proportion to their a*e, &hi(e the hi*h temperature in &hich the! ha e to do thi# increa#e# er! con#iderab(! the exhau#ti ene## of the &or18 +he#e chi(dren, &ith #carce(! a #in*(e exception, are (ean, pa(e, feeb(e, #tunted; near(! a(( #uffer from #tomach troub(e#, nau#ea, &ant of appetite, and man! of them die of con#umption8 9(mo#t a# de(icate are the bo!# ca((edCDi**er#T, from theCDi**erT &hee( &hich the! turn8 <ut b! far the mo#t inDuriou# i# the &or1 of tho#e &ho dip the fini#hed artic(e into a f(uid containin* *reat Buantitie# of (ead, and

often of ar#enic, or ha e to ta1e the fre#h(! dipped artic(e up &ith the hand8 +he hand# and c(othin* of the#e &or1er#, adu(t# and chi(dren, are a(&a!# &et &ith thi# f(uid, the #1in #often# and fa((# off under the con#tant contact &ith rou*h obDect#, #o that the fin*er# often b(eed, and are con#tant(! in a #tate mo#t fa ourab(e for the ab#orption of thi# dan*erou# #ub#tance8 +he con#eBuence i# io(ent pain, and #eriou# di#ea#e of the #tomach and inte#tine#, ob#tinate con#tipation, co(ic, #ometime# con#umption, and, mo#t common of a((, epi(ep#! amon* chi(dren8 9mon* men, partia( para(!#i# of the hand mu#c(e#, co(ica pictorum, and para(!#i# of &ho(e (imb# are ordinar! phenomena8 ?ne &itne## re(ate# that t&o chi(dren &ho &or1ed &ith him died of con u(#ion# at their &or1; another &ho had he(ped &ith the dippin* t&o !ear# &hi(e a bo!, re(ate# that he had io(ent pain# in the bo&e(# at fir#t, then con u(#ion#, in con#eBuence of &hich he &a# confined to hi# bed t&o month#, #ince &hen the attac1# of con u(#ion# ha e increa#ed in freBuenc!, are no& dai(!, accompanied often b! ten to t&ent! epi(eptic fit#, hi# ri*ht arm i# para(!#ed, and the ph!#ician# te(( him that he can ne er re*ain the u#e of hi# (imb#8 "n one factor! &ere found in the dippin*$hou#e four men, a(( epi(eptic and aff(icted &ith #e ere co(ic, and e(e en bo!#, #e era( of &hom &ere a(read! epi(eptic8 "n #hort, thi# fri*htfu( di#ea#e fo((o&# thi# occupation uni er#a((!: and that, too, to the *reater pecuniar! profit of the bour*eoi#ie@ "n the room# in &hich the #tone&are i# #coured, the atmo#phere i# fi((ed &ith pu( eri#ed f(int, the breathin* of &hich i# a# inDuriou# a# that of the #tee( du#t amon* the Sheffie(d *rinder#8 +he &or1er# (o#e breath, cannot (ie do&n, #uffer from #ore throat and io(ent cou*hin*, and come to ha e #o feeb(e a oice that the! can #carce(! be heard8 +he!, too, a(( die of con#umption8 "n the Potterie# di#trict, the #choo(# are #aid to be comparati e(! numerou#, and to offer the chi(dren opportunitie# for in#truction; but a# the (atter are #o ear(! #et to &or1 for t&e( e hour# and often more per da!, the! are not in a po#ition to a ai( them#e( e# of the #choo(#, #o that three$fourth# of the chi(dren examined b! the commi##ioner cou(d neither read nor &rite, &hi(e the &ho(e di#trict i# p(un*ed in the deepe#t i*norance8 ;hi(dren &ho ha e attended Sunda! #choo( for !ear# cou(d not te(( one (etter from another, and the mora( and re(i*iou# education, a# &e(( a# the inte((ectua(, i# on a er! (o& p(ane8 "n the manufacture of *(a##, too, &or1 occur# &hich #eem# (itt(e inDuriou# to men, but cannot be endured b! chi(dren8 +he hard (abour, the irre*u(arit! of the hour#, the freBuent ni*ht$&or1, and e#pecia((! the *reat heat of the &or1in* p(ace ,177 to 1>7 'ahrenheit-, en*ender in chi(dren *enera( debi(it! and di#ea#e, #tunted *ro&th, and e#pecia((! affection# of the e!e, bo&e( comp(aint, and rheumatic and bronchia( affection#8 Man! of the chi(dren are pa(e, ha e red e!e#, often b(ind for &ee1# at a time, #uffer from io(ent nau#ea, omitin*, cou*h#, co(d#, and rheumati#m8 When the *(a## i# &ithdra&n from the fire, the chi(dren mu#t often *o into #uch heat that the board# on &hich the! #tand catch fire under their feet8 +he *(a##$b(o&er# u#ua((! die !oun* of debi(it! and che#t affection#8 9# a &ho(e, thi# report te#tifie# to the *radua( but #ure introduction of the factor! #!#tem into a(( branche# of indu#tr!, reco*ni#ab(e e#pecia((! b! the emp(o!ment of &omen and chi(dren8 " ha e not thou*ht it nece##ar! to trace in e er! ca#e the pro*re## of machiner! and the #uper#edin* of men a# &or1er#8 E er! one &ho i# in an! de*ree acBuainted &ith the nature of manufacture can fi(( thi# out for him#e(f, &hi(e #pace fai(# me to de#cribe in detai( an a#pect of our pre#ent #!#tem of production, the re#u(t of &hich " ha e a(read! #1etched in dea(in* &ith the factor! #!#tem8 "n a(( direction# machiner! i# bein* introduced, and the (a#t trace of the &or1in*$manN# independence thu# de#tro!ed8 "n a(( direction# the fami(! i# bein* di##o( ed b! the (abour of &ife and chi(dren, or in erted b! the hu#bandN# bein* thro&n out of emp(o!ment and made dependent upon them for bread; e er!&here ine itab(e machiner! be#to&# upon the *reat capita(i#t command of trade and of the &or1er# &ith it8 +he centra(i#ation of capita( #tride# for&ard &ithout interruption, the di i#ion of #ociet! into *reat capita(i#t# and non$po##e##in* &or1er# i# #harper

e er! da!, the indu#tria( de e(opment of the nation ad ance# &ith *iant #tride# to&ard# the ine itab(e cri#i#8 " ha e a(read! #tated that in the handicraft# the po&er of capita(, and in #ome ca#e# the di i#ion of (abour too, ha# produced the #ame re#u(t#, cru#hed the #ma(( trade#men, and put *reat capita(i#t# and non$po##e##in* &or1er# in their p(ace8 9# to the#e handicraft#men there i# (itt(e to be #aid, #ince a(( that re(ate# to them ha# a(read! found it# p(ace &here the pro(etariat in *enera( &a# under di#cu##ion8 +here ha# been but (itt(e chan*e here in the nature of the &or1 and it# inf(uence upon hea(th #ince the be*innin* of the indu#tria( mo ement8 <ut the con#tant contact &ith the factor! operati e#, the pre##ure of the *reat capita(i#t#, &hich i# much more fe(t than that of the #ma(( emp(o!er to &hom the apprentice #ti(( #tood in a more or (e## per#ona( re(ation, the inf(uence# of (ife in to&n#, and the fa(( of &a*e#, ha e made near(! a(( the handicraft#men acti e participator# in (abour mo ement#8 We #ha(( #oon ha e more to #a! on thi# point, and turn mean&hi(e to one #ection of &or1er# in %ondon &ho de#er e our attention b! rea#on of the extraordinar! barbarit! &ith &hich the! are exp(oited b! the mone!$*reed of the bour*eoi#ie8 " mean the dre##$ma1er# and #e&in*$&omen8 "t i# a curiou# fact that the production of preci#e(! tho#e artic(e# &hich #er e the per#ona( adornment of the (adie# of the bour*eoi#ie in o( e# the #adde#t con#eBuence# for the hea(th of the &or1er#8 We ha e a(read! #een thi# in the ca#e of the (ace$ma1er#, and come no& to the dre##$ ma1in* e#tab(i#hment# of %ondon for further proof8 +he! emp(o! a ma## of !oun* *ir(# E there are #aid to be 15,777 of them in a(( E &ho #(eep and eat on the premi#e#, come u#ua((! from the countr!, and are therefore ab#o(ute(! the #(a e# of their emp(o!er#8 4urin* the fa#hionab(e #ea#on, &hich (a#t# #ome four month#, &or1in*$hour#, e en in the be#t e#tab(i#hment#, are fifteen, and, in er! pre##in* ca#e#, ei*hteen a da!; but in mo#t #hop# &or1 *oe# on at the#e time# &ithout an! #et re*u(ation, #o that the *ir(# ne er ha e more than #ix, often not more than three or four, #ometime#, indeed, not more than t&o hour# in the t&ent!$four, for re#t and #(eep, &or1in* nineteen to t&ent!$t&o hour#, if not the &ho(e ni*ht throu*h, a# freBuent(! happen#@ +he on(! (imit #et to their &or1 i# the ab#o(ute ph!#ica( inabi(it! to ho(d the need(e another minute8 ;a#e# ha e occurred in &hich the#e he(p(e## creature# did not undre## durin* nine con#ecuti e da!# and ni*ht#, and cou(d on(! re#t a moment or t&o here and there upon a mattre##, &here food &a# #er ed them read! cut up in order to reBuire the (ea#t po##ib(e time for #&a((o&in*8 "n #hort, the#e unfortunate *ir(# are 1ept b! mean# of the mora( &hip of the modern #(a e$dri er, the threat of di#char*e, to #uch (on* and unbro1en toi( a# no #tron* man, much (e## a de(icate *ir( of fourteen to t&ent! !ear#, can endure8 "n addition to thi#, the fou( air of the &or1$room and #(eepin*$p(ace#, the bent po#ture, the often bad and indi*e#tib(e food, a(( the#e cau#e#, combined &ith a(mo#t tota( exc(u#ion from fre#h air, entai( the #adde#t con#eBuence# for the hea(th of the *ir(#8 Ener ation, exhau#tion, debi(it!, (o## of appetite, pain# in the #hou(der#, bac1, and hip#, but e#pecia((! headache, be*in er! #oon; then fo((o& cur ature# of the #pine, hi*h, deformed #hou(der#, (eanne##, #&e((ed, &eepin*, and #martin* e!e#, &hich #oon become #hort$#i*hted; cou*h#, narro& che#t#, and #hortne## of breath, and a(( manner of di#order# in the de e(opment of the fema(e or*ani#m8 "n man! ca#e# the e!e# #uffer #o #e ere(! that incurab(e b(indne## fo((o&#; but if the #i*ht remain# #tron* enou*h to ma1e continued &or1 po##ib(e, con#umption u#ua((! #oon end# the #ad (ife of the#e mi((iner# and dre##$ma1er#8 E en tho#e &ho (ea e thi# &or1 at an ear(! a*e retain permanent(! inDured hea(th, a bro1en con#titution; and, &hen married, brin* feeb(e and #ic1(! chi(dren into the &or(d8 9(( the medica( men interro*ated b! the commi##ioner# a*reed that no method of (ife cou(d be in ented better ca(cu(ated to de#tro! hea(th and induce ear(! death8 With the #ame crue(t!, thou*h #ome&hat more indirect(!, the re#t of the need(e$&omen of %ondon are exp(oited8 +he *ir(# emp(o!ed in #ta!$ma1in* ha e a hard, &earin* occupation, tr!in* to the e!e#8 9nd &hat &a*e# do the! *etK " do not 1no&; but thi# " 1no&, that the midd(eman &ho ha# to *i e #ecurit! for the materia( de(i ered, and &ho di#tribute# the &or1 amon* the need(e$

&omen, recei e# 1Vd8 per piece8 'rom thi# he deduct# hi# o&n pa!, at (ea#t Vd8, #o that 1d8 at mo#t reache# the poc1et of the *ir(8 +he *ir(# &ho #e& nec1tie# mu#t bind them#e( e# to &or1 #ixteen hour# a da!, and recei e 4V#8 a &ee18 <ut the #hirt$ ma1er#N (ot i# the &or#t8 +he! recei e for an ordinar! #hirt 1Vd8, former(! 6d8$>d8; but #ince the &or1hou#e of St8 Pancra#, &hich i# admini#tered b! a =adica( board of *uardian#, be*an to underta1e &or1 at 1Vd8, the poor &omen out#ide ha e been compe((ed to do the #ame8 'or fine, fanc! #hirt#, &hich can be made in one da! of ei*hteen hour#, 6d8 i# paid8 +he &ee1(! &a*e of the#e #e&in*$ &omen accordin* to thi# and accordin* to te#timon! from man! #ide#, inc(udin* both need(e$&omen and emp(o!er#, i# 6#8 6d8 to >#8 for mo#t #trained &or1 continued far into the ni*ht8 9nd &hat cro&n# thi# #hamefu( barbari#m i# the fact that the &omen mu#t *i e a mone! depo#it for a part of the materia(# entru#ted to them, &hich the! natura((! cannot do un(e## the! pa&n a part of them ,a# the emp(o!er# er! &e(( 1no&-, redeemin* them at a (o##; or if the! cannot redeem the materia(#, the! mu#t appear before a Lu#tice of the Peace, a# happened to a #e&in*$&oman in /o ember, 184>8 9 poor *ir( &ho *ot into thi# #trait and did not 1no& &hat to do next, dro&ned her#e(f in a cana( in 18448 +he#e &omen u#ua((! (i e in (itt(e *arret room# in the utmo#t di#tre##, &here a# man! cro&d to*ether a# the #pace can po##ib(! admit, and &here, in &inter, the anima( &armth of the &or1er# i# the on(! heat obtainab(e8 5ere the! #it bent o er their &or1, #e&in* from four or fi e in the mornin* unti( midni*ht, de#tro!in* their hea(th in a !ear or t&o and endin* in an ear(! *ra e; &ithout bein* ab(e to obtain the poore#t nece##itie# of (ife mean&hi(e8 .9 9nd be(o& them ro(( the bri((iant eBuipa*e# of the upper bour*eoi#ie, and perhap# ten #tep# a&a! #ome pitiab(e dand! (o#e# more mone! in one e enin* at faro than the! can earn in a !ear8

______
Such i# the condition of the En*(i#h manufacturin* pro(etariat8 "n a(( direction#, &hither#oe er &e ma! turn, &e find &ant and di#ea#e permanent or temporar!, and demora(i#ation ari#in* from the condition of the &or1er#; in a(( direction# #(o& but #ure underminin*, and fina( de#truction of the human bein* ph!#ica((! a# &e(( a# menta((!8 "# thi# a #tate of thin*# &hich can (a#tK "t cannot and &i(( not (a#t8 +he &or1er#, the *reat maDorit! of the nation, &i(( not endure it8 %et u# #ee &hat the! #a! of it8

Labo'r Movements
"t mu#t be admitted, e en if " had not pro ed it #o often in detai(, that the En*(i#h &or1er# cannot fee( happ! in thi# condition; that their# i# not a #tate in &hich a man or a &ho(e c(a## of men can thin1, fee(, and (i e a# human bein*#8 +he &or1er# mu#t therefore #tri e to e#cape from thi# bruta(i#in* condition, to #ecure for them#e( e# a better, more human po#ition; and thi# the! cannot do &ithout attac1in* the intere#t of the bour*eoi#ie &hich con#i#t# in exp(oitin* them8 <ut the bour*eoi#ie defend# it# intere#t# &ith a(( the po&er p(aced at it# di#po#a( b! &ea(th and the mi*ht of the State8 "n proportion a# the &or1in*$man determine# to a(ter the pre#ent #tate of thin*#, the bour*eoi# become# hi# a o&ed enem!8 Moreo er, the &or1in*$man i# made to fee( at e er! moment that the bour*eoi#ie treat# him a# a chatte(, a# it# propert!, and for thi# rea#on, if for no other, he mu#t come for&ard a# it# enem!8 " ha e #ho&n in a hundred &a!# in the fore*oin* pa*e#, and cou(d ha e #ho&n in a hundred other#, that, in our pre#ent #ociet!, he can #a e hi# manhood on(! in hatred and rebe((ion a*ain#t the bour*eoi#ie8 9nd he can prote#t &ith mo#t io(ent pa##ion a*ain#t the t!rann! of the propertied c(a##, than1# to hi# education, or rather &ant of education, and to the abundance of hot "ri#h b(ood that f(o&# in the ein# of the En*(i#h &or1in*$c(a##8 +he En*(i#h &or1in*$man i# no En*(i#hman no&ada!#; no ca(cu(atin* mone!$*rubber (i1e hi# &ea(th! nei*hbour8 5e po##e##e# more fu((! de e(oped fee(in*#, hi# nati e northern co(dne## i# o erborne b! the unre#trained de e(opment of hi# pa##ion# and their contro( o er him8 +he cu(ti ation of the under#tandin* &hich #o *reat(! #tren*then# the #e(fi#h tendenc! of the En*(i#h bour*eoi#, &hich ha# made #e(fi#hne## hi# predominant trait and concentrated a(( hi# emotiona( po&er upon the #in*(e point of mone!$*reed, i# &antin* in the &or1in*$man, &ho#e pa##ion# are therefore #tron* and mi*ht! a# tho#e of the forei*ner8 En*(i#h nationa(it! i# annihi(ated in the &or1in*$man8 Since, a# &e ha e #een, no #in*(e fie(d for the exerci#e of hi# manhood i# (eft him, #a e hi# oppo#ition to the &ho(e condition# of hi# (ife, it i# natura( that exact(! in thi# oppo#ition he #hou(d be mo#t man(!, nob(e#t, mo#t &orth! of #!mpath!8 We #ha(( #ee that a(( the ener*!, a(( the acti it! of the &or1in*$men i# directed to thi# point, and that e en their attempt# to attain *enera( education a(( #tand in direct connection &ith thi#8 +rue, &e #ha(( ha e #in*(e act# of io(ence and e en of bruta(it! to report, but it mu#t a(&a!# be 1ept in mind that the #ocia( &ar i# a o&ed(! ra*in* in En*(and; and that, &herea# it i# in the intere#t of the bour*eoi#ie to conduct thi# &ar h!pocritica((!, under the di#*ui#e of peace and e en of phi(anthrop!, the on(! he(p for the &or1in*$men con#i#t# in (a!in* bare the true #tate of thin*# and de#tro!in* thi# h!pocri#!; that the mo#t io(ent attac1# of the &or1er# upon the bour*eoi#ie and it# #er ant# are on(! the open, undi#*ui#ed expre##ion of that &hich the bour*eoi#ie perpetrate# #ecret(!, treacherou#(! a*ain#t the &or1er#8 +he re o(t of the &or1er# be*an #oon after the fir#t indu#tria( de e(opment, and ha# pa##ed throu*h #e era( pha#e#8 +he in e#ti*ation of their importance in the hi#tor! of the En*(i#h peop(e " mu#t re#er e for #eparate treatment, (imitin* m!#e(f mean&hi(e to #uch bare fact# a# #er e to characteri#e the condition of the En*(i#h pro(etariat8 +he ear(ie#t, crude#t, and (ea#t fruitfu( form of thi# rebe((ion &a# that of crime8 +he &or1in*$man (i ed in po ert! and &ant, and #a& that other# &ere better off than he8 "t &a# not c(ear to hi# mind &h! he, &ho did more for #ociet! than the rich id(er, #hou(d be the one to #uffer under the#e condition#8 Want conBuered hi# inherited re#pect for the #acredne## of propert!, and he #to(e8 We ha e #een ho& crime increa#ed &ith the exten#ion of manufacture; ho& the !ear(! number of arre#t# bore a con#tant re(ation to the number of ba(e# of cotton annua((! con#umed8

+he &or1er# #oon rea(i#ed that crime did not he(p matter#8 +he crimina( cou(d prote#t a*ain#t the exi#tin* order of #ociet! on(! #in*(!, a# one indi idua(; the &ho(e mi*ht of #ociet! &a# brou*ht to bear upon each crimina(, and cru#hed him &ith it# immen#e #uperiorit!8 <e#ide#, theft &a# the mo#t primiti e form of prote#t, and for thi# rea#on, if for no other, it ne er became the uni er#a( expre##ion of the pub(ic opinion of the &or1in*$men, ho&e er much the! mi*ht appro e of it in #i(ence8 9# a c(a##, the! fir#t manife#ted oppo#ition to the bour*eoi#ie &hen the! re#i#ted the introduction of machiner! at the er! be*innin* of the indu#tria( 8period8 +he fir#t in entor#, 9r1&ri*ht and other#, &ere per#ecuted in thi# &a! and their machine# de#tro!ed8 %ater, there too1 p(ace a number of re o(t# a*ain#t machiner!, in &hich the occurrence# &ere a(mo#t preci#e(! the #ame a# tho#e of the printer#N di#turbance# in <ohemia in 1844; factorie# &ere demo(i#hed and machiner! de#tro!ed8 +hi# form of oppo#ition a(#o &a# i#o(ated, re#tricted to certain (oca(itie#, and directed a*ain#t one feature on(! of our pre#ent #ocia( arran*ement#8 When the momentar! end &a# attained, the &ho(e &ei*ht of #ocia( po&er fe(( upon the unprotected e i($doer# and puni#hed them to it# heartN# content, &hi(e the machiner! &a# introduced none the (e##8 9 ne& form of oppo#ition had to be found8 9t thi# point he(p came in the #hape of a (a& enacted b! the o(d, unreformed, o(i*archic$+or! Par(iament, a (a& &hich ne er cou(d ha e pa##ed the 5ou#e of ;ommon# (ater, &hen the =eform <i(( had (e*a((! #anctioned the di#tinction bet&een bour*eoi#ie and pro(etariat, and made the bour*eoi#ie the ru(in* c(a##8 +hi# &a# enacted in 1864, and repea(ed a(( (a&# b! &hich coa(ition# bet&een &or1in*$men for (abour purpo#e# had hitherto been forbidden8 +he &or1in*$men obtained a ri*ht pre iou#(! re#tricted to the ari#tocrac! and bour*eoi#ie, the ri*ht of free a##ociation8 Secret coa(ition# had, it i# true, pre iou#(! exi#ted, but cou(d ne er achie e *reat re#u(t#8 "n :(a#*o& a# S!mon# re(ate#, a *enera( #tri1e of &ea er# had ta1en p(ace in 1816, &hich &a# brou*ht about b! a #ecret a##ociation8 "t &a# repeated in 1866, and on thi# occa#ion itrio( &a# thro&n into the face# of the t&o &or1in*$men &ho &ou(d not Doin the a##ociation, and &ere therefore re*arded b! the member# a# traitor# to their c(a##8 <oth the a##au(ted (o#t the u#e of their e!e# in con#eBuence of the inDur!8 So, too, in 1818, the a##ociation of Scotti#h miner# &a# po&erfu( enou*h to carr! on a *enera( #tri1e8 +he#e a##ociation# reBuired their member# to ta1e an oath of fide(it! and #ecrec!, had re*u(ar (i#t#, trea#urer#, boo1$1eeper#, and (oca( branche#8 <ut the #ecrec! &ith &hich e er!thin* &a# conducted cripp(ed their *ro&th8 When, on the other hand, the &or1in*$men recei ed in 1864 the ri*ht of free a##ociation, the#e combination# &ere er! #oon #pread o er a(( En*(and and attained *reat po&er8 "n a(( branche# of indu#tr! +rade# Fnion# &ere formed &ith the out#po1en intention of protectin* the #in*(e &or1in*$man a*ain#t the t!rann! and ne*(ect of the bour*eoi#ie8 +heir obDect# &ere to dea(, en masse, a# a po&er, &ith the emp(o!er#; to re*u(ate the rate of &a*e# accordin* to the profit of the (atter, to rai#e it &hen opportunit! offered, and to 1eep it uniform in each trade throu*hout the countr!8 5ence the! tried to #ett(e &ith the capita(i#t# a #ca(e of &a*e# to be uni er#a((! adhered to, and ordered out on #tri1e the emp(o!ee# of #uch indi idua(# a# refu#ed to accept the #ca(e8 +he! aimed further to 1eep up the demand for (abour b! (imitin* the number of apprentice#, and #o to 1eep &a*e# hi*h; to counteract, a# far a# po##ib(e, the indirect &a*e reduction# &hich the manufacturer# brou*ht about b! mean# of ne& too(# and machiner!; and fina((!, to a##i#t unemp(o!ed &or1in*$men financia((!8 +hi# the! do either direct(! or b! mean# of a card to (e*itimate the bearer a# aC#ociet! man,C and &ith &hich the &or1in*$man &ander# from p(ace to p(ace, #upported b! hi# fe((o&$ &or1er#, and in#tructed a# to the be#t opportunit! for findin* emp(o!ment8 +hi# i# trampin*, and the &anderer a tramp8 +o attain the#e end#, a Pre#ident and Secretar! are en*a*ed at a #a(ar! ,#ince it i# to be expected that no manufacturer &i(( emp(o! #uch per#on#-, and a committee co((ect# the &ee1(! contribution# and &atche# o er their expenditure for the purpo#e# of the a##ociation8 When it pro ed po##ib(e and ad anta*eou#, the ariou# trade# of #in*(e di#trict#

united in a federation and he(d de(e*ate con ention# at #et time#8 +he attempt ha# been made in #in*(e ca#e# to unite the &or1er# of one branch o er a(( En*(and in one *reat Fnion; and #e era( time# ,in 18>7 for the fir#t time- to form one uni er#a( trade# a##ociation for the &ho(e Fnited Hin*dom, &ith a #eparate or*ani#ation for each trade8 +he#e a##ociation#, ho&e er, ne er he(d to*ether (on*, and &ere #e(dom rea(i#ed e en for the moment, #ince an exceptiona((! uni er#a( excitement i# nece##ar! to ma1e #uch a federation po##ib(e and effecti e8 +he mean# u#ua((! emp(o!ed b! the#e Fnion# for attainin* their end# are the fo((o&in*: "f one or more emp(o!er# refu#e to pa! the &a*e #pecified b! the Fnion, a deputation i# #ent or a petition for&arded ,the &or1in*$men, !ou #ee, 1no& ho& to reco*ni#e the ab#o(ute po&er of the (ord of the factor! in hi# (itt(e State-; if thi# pro e# una ai(in*, the Fnion command# the emp(o!ee# to #top &or1, and a(( hand# *o home8 +hi# #tri1e i# either partia( &hen one or #e era(, or *enera( &hen a(( emp(o!er# in the trade refu#e to re*u(ate &a*e# accordin* to the propo#a(# of the Fnion8 So far *o the (a&fu( mean# of the Fnion, a##umin* the #tri1e to ta1e effect after the expiration of the (e*a( notice, &hich i# not a(&a!# the ca#e8 <ut the#e (a&fu( mean# are er! &ea1 &hen there are &or1er# out#ide the Fnion, or &hen member# #eparate from it for the #a1e of the momentar! ad anta*e offered b! the bour*eoi#ie8 E#pecia((! in the ca#e of partia( #tri1e# can the manufacturer readi(! #ecure recruit# from the#e b(ac1 #heep ,&ho are 1no&n a# 1nob#tic1#-, and render fruit(e## the effort# of the united &or1er#8 Hnob#tic1# are u#ua((! threatened, in#u(ted, beaten, or other&i#e ma(treated b! the member# of the Fnion; intimidated, in #hort, in e er! &a!8 Pro#ecution fo((o&#, and a# the (a&$abidin* bour*eoi#ie ha# the po&er in it# o&n hand#, the force of the Fnion i# bro1en a(mo#t e er! time b! the fir#t un(a&fu( act, the fir#t Dudicia( procedure a*ain#t it# member#8 +he hi#tor! of the#e Fnion# i# a (on* #erie# of defeat# of the &or1in*$men, interrupted b! a fe& i#o(ated ictorie#8 9(( the#e effort# natura((! cannot a(ter the economic (a& accordin* to &hich &a*e# are determined b! the re(ation bet&een #upp(! and demand in the (abour mar1et8 5ence the Fnion# remain po&er(e## a*ain#t a(( *reat force# &hich inf(uence thi# re(ation8 "n a commercia( cri#i# the Fnion it#e(f mu#t reduce &a*e# or di##o( e &ho((!; and in a time of con#iderab(e increa#e in the demand for (abour, it cannot fix the rate of &a*e# hi*her than &ou(d be reached #pontaneou#(! b! the competition of the capita(i#t# amon* them#e( e#8 <ut in dea(in* &ith minor, #in*(e inf(uence# the! are po&erfu(8 "f the emp(o!er had no concentrated, co((ecti e oppo#ition to expect, he &ou(d in hi# o&n intere#t *radua((! reduce &a*e# to a (o&er and (o&er point; indeed, the batt(e of competition &hich he ha# to &a*e a*ain#t hi# fe((o&$manufacturer# &ou(d force him to do #o, and &a*e# &ou(d #oon reach the minimum8 <ut thi# competition of the manufacturer# amon* them#e( e# i#, under a era*e condition#, #ome&hat re#tricted b! the oppo#ition of the &or1in*$men8 E er! manufacturer 1no&# that the con#eBuence of a reduction not Du#tified b! condition# to &hich hi# competitor# a(#o are #ubDected, &ou(d be a #tri1e, &hich &ou(d mo#t certain(! inDure him, becau#e hi# capita( &ou(d be id(e a# (on* a# the #tri1e (a#ted, and hi# machiner! &ou(d be ru#tin*, &herea# it i# er! doubtfu( &hether he cou(d, in #uch a ca#e, enforce hi# reduction8 +hen he ha# the certaint! that if he #hou(d #ucceed, hi# competitor# &ou(d fo((o& him, reducin* the price of the *ood# #o produced, and thu# depri in* him of the benefit of hi# po(ic!8 +hen, too, the Fnion# often brin* about a more rapid increa#e of &a*e# after a cri#i# than &ou(d other&i#e fo((o&8 'or the manufacturerN# intere#t i# to de(a! rai#in* &a*e# unti( forced b! competition, but no& the &or1in*$men demand an increa#ed &a*e a# #oon a# the mar1et impro e#, and the! can carr! their point b! rea#on of the #ma((er #upp(! of &or1er# at hi# command under #uch circum#tance#8 <ut, for re#i#tance to more con#iderab(e force# &hich inf(uence the (abour mar1et, the Fnion# are po&er(e##8 "n #uch ca#e# hun*er *radua((! dri e# the #tri1er# to re#ume &or1 on an! term#, and &hen once a fe& ha e be*un, the force of the Fnion i# bro1en, becau#e the#e fe& 1nob#tic1#, &ith the re#er e #upp(ie# of *ood# in the mar1et, enab(e the bour*eoi#ie to o ercome

the &or#t effect# of the interruption of bu#ine##8 +he fund# of the Fnion are #oon exhau#ted b! the *reat number# reBuirin* re(ief, the credit &hich the #hop1eeper# *i e at hi*h intere#t i# &ithdra&n after a time, and &ant compe(# the &or1in*$man to p(ace him#e(f once more under the !o1e of the bour*eoi#ie8 <ut #tri1e# end di#a#trou#(! for the &or1er# mo#t(!, becau#e the manufacturer#, in their o&n intere#t ,&hich ha#, be it #aid, become their intere#t on(! throu*h the re#i#tance of the &or1er#-, are ob(i*ed to a oid a(( u#e(e## reduction#, &hi(e the &or1er# fee( in e er! reduction impo#ed b! the #tate of trade a deterioration of their condition, a*ain#t &hich the! mu#t defend them#e( e# a# far a# in them (ie#8 "t &i(( be a#1ed,CWh!, then, do the &or1er# #tri1e in #uch ca#e#, &hen the u#e(e##ne## of #uch mea#ure# i# #o e identKC Simp(! becau#e the! mu#t prote#t a*ain#t e er! reduction, e en if dictated b! nece##it!; becau#e the! fee( bound to proc(aim that the!, a# human bein*#, #ha(( not be made to bo& to #ocia( circum#tance#, but #ocia( condition# ou*ht to !ie(d to them a# human bein*#; becau#e #i(ence on their part &ou(d be a reco*nition of the#e #ocia( condition#, an admi##ion of the ri*ht of the bour*eoi#ie to exp(oit the &or1er# in *ood time# and (et them #tar e in bad one#8 9*ain#t thi# the &or1in*$men mu#t rebe( #o (on* a# the! ha e not (o#t a(( human fee(in*, and that the! prote#t in thi# &a! and no other, come# of their Nbein* practica( En*(i#h peop(e, &ho expre## them#e( e# in action, and do not, (i1e :erman theori#t#, *o to #(eep a# #oon a# their prote#t i# proper(! re*i#tered and p(aced ad acta, there to #(eep a# Buiet(! a# the prote#ter# them#e( e#8 +he acti e re#i#tance of the En*(i#h &or1in*$men ha# it# effect in ho(din* the mone!$ *reed of the bour*eoi#ie &ithin certain (imit#, and 1eepin* a(i e the oppo#ition of the &or1er# to the #ocia( and po(itica( omnipotence of the bour*eoi#ie, &hi(e it compe(# the admi##ion that #omethin* more i# needed than +rade# Fnion# and #tri1e# to brea1 the po&er of the ru(in* c(a##8 <ut &hat *i e# the#e Fnion# and the #tri1e# ari#in* from them their rea( importance i# thi#, that the! are the fir#t attempt of the &or1er# to abo(i#h competition8 +he! imp(! the reco*nition of the fact that the #upremac! of the bour*eoi#ie i# ba#ed &ho((! upon the competition of the &or1er# amon* them#e( e#; i8e8, upon their &ant of cohe#ion8 9nd preci#e(! becau#e the Fnion# direct them#e( e# a*ain#t the ita( ner e of the pre#ent #ocia( order, ho&e er one$#ided(!, in ho&e er narro& a &a!, are the! #o dan*erou# to thi# #ocia( order8 +he &or1in*$ men cannot attac1 the bour*eoi#ie, and &ith it the &ho(e exi#tin* order of #ociet!, at an! #orer point than thi#8 "f the competition of the &or1er# amon* them#e( e# i# de#tro!ed, if a(( determine not to be further exp(oited b! the bour*eoi#ie, the ru(e of propert! i# at an end8 Wa*e# depend upon the re(ation of demand to #upp(!, upon the accidenta( #tate of the (abour mar1et, #imp(! becau#e the &or1er# ha e hitherto been content to be treated a# chatte(#, to be bou*ht and #o(d8 +he moment the &or1er# re#o( e to be bou*ht and #o(d no (on*er, &hen, in the determination of the a(ue of (abour, the! ta1e the part of men po##e##ed of a &i(( a# &e(( a# of &or1in*$po&er, at that moment the &ho(e Po(itica( Econom! of toda! i# at an end8 +he (a&# determinin* the rate of &a*e# &ou(d, indeed, come into force a*ain in the (on* run, if the &or1in*$men did not *o be!ond thi# #tep of abo(i#hin* competition amon* them#e( e#8 <ut the! mu#t *o be!ond that un(e## the! are prepared to recede a*ain and to a((o& competition amon* them#e( e# to reappear8 +hu# once ad anced #o far, nece##it! compe(# them to *o farther; to abo(i#h not on(! one 1ind of competition, but competition it#e(f a(to*ether, and that the! &i(( do8 +he &or1er# are comin* to percei e more c(ear(! &ith e er! da! ho& competition affect# them; the! #ee far more c(ear(! than the bour*eoi# that competition of the capita(i#t# amon* them#e( e# pre##e# upon the &or1er# too, b! brin*in* on commercia( cri#e#, and that thi# 1ind of competition, too, mu#t be abo(i#hed8 +he! &i(( #oon (earn how the! ha e to *o about it8 +hat the#e Fnion# contribute *reat(! to nouri#h the bitter hatred of the &or1er# a*ain#t the propert!$ho(din* c(a## need hard(! be #aid8 'rom them proceed, therefore, &ith or &ithout the conni ance of the (eadin* member#, in time# of unu#ua( excitement, indi idua( action# &hich can

be exp(ained on(! b! hatred &rou*ht to the pitch of de#pair, b! a &i(d pa##ion o er&he(min* a(( re#traint#8 ?f thi# #ort are the attac1# &ith itrio( mentioned in the fore*oin* pa*e#, and a #erie# of other#, of &hich " #ha(( cite #e era(8 "n 18>1, durin* a io(ent (abour mo ement, !oun* 9#hton, a manufacturer in 5!de, near Manche#ter, &a# #hot one e enin* &hen cro##in* a fie(d, and no trace of the a##a##in di#co ered8 +here i# no doubt that thi# &a# a deed of en*eance of the &or1in*$ men8 "ncendiari#m# and attempted exp(o#ion# are er! common8 ?n 'rida!, September 69th, 1845, an attempt &a# made to b(o& up the #a&$&or1# of Pad*in, in 5o&ard Street, Sheffie(d8 9 c(o#ed iron tube fi((ed &ith po&der &a# the mean# emp(o!ed, and the dama*e &a# con#iderab(e8 ?n the fo((o&in* da!, a #imi(ar attempt &a# made in "bbet#onN# 1nife and fi(e &or1# at Sha(e# Moor, near Sheffie(d8 Mr8 "bbet#on had made him#e(f obnoxiou# b! an acti e participation in bour*eoi# mo ement#, b! (o& &a*e#, the exc(u#i e emp(o!ment of 1nob#tic1#, and the exp(oitation of the Poor %a& for hi# o&n benefit8 5e had reported, durin* the cri#i# of 1846, #uch operati e# a# refu#ed to accept reduced &a*e#, a# per#on# &ho cou(d find &or1 but &ou(d not ta1e it, and &ere, therefore, not de#er in* of re(ief, #o compe((in* the acceptance of a reduction8 ;on#iderab(e dama*e &a# inf(icted b! the exp(o#ion, and a(( the &or1in*$men &ho came to ie& it re*retted on(!Cthat the &ho(e concern &a# not b(o&n into the air8C ?n 'rida!, ?ctober 6th, 184>, an attempt to #et fire to the factor! of 9in#&orth and ;rompton, at <o(ton, did no dama*e; it &a# the third or fourth attempt in the #ame factor! &ithin a er! #hort time8 "n the meetin* of the +o&n ;ounci( of Sheffie(d, on Wedne#da!, Lanuar! 17th, 1844, the ;ommi##ioner of Po(ice exhibited a ca#t$iron machine, made for the expre## purpo#e of producin* an exp(o#ion, and found fi((ed &ith four pound# of po&der, and a fu#e &hich had been (i*hted but had not ta1en effect, in the &or1# of Mr8 Hitchen, Ear( Street, Sheffie(d8 ?n Sunda!, Lanuar! 61#t, 1844, an exp(o#ion cau#ed b! a pac1a*e of po&der too1 p(ace in the #a&mi(( of <ent(e! P White, at <ur!, in %anca#hire, and produced con#iderab(e dama*e8 ?n +hur#da!, 'ebruar! 1#t, 1844, the Soho Whee( Wor1#, in Sheffie(d, &ere #et on fire and burnt up8 5ere are #ix #uch ca#e# in four month#, a(( of &hich ha e their #o(e ori*in in the embitterment of the &or1in*$men a*ain#t the emp(o!er#8 What #ort of a #ocia( #tate it mu#t be in &hich #uch thin*# are po##ib(e " need hard(! #a!8 +he#e fact# are proof enou*h that in En*(and, e en in *ood bu#ine## !ear#, #uch a# 184>, the #ocia( &ar i# a o&ed and open(! carried on, and #ti(( the En*(i#h bour*eoi#ie doe# not #top to ref(ect@ <ut the ca#e &hich #pea1# mo#t (oud(! i# that of the :(a#*o& +hu*#, &hich came up before the 9##i)e# from the >rd to the 11th of Lanuar!, 18>88 "t appear# from the proceedin*# that the ;otton$Spinner#N Fnion, &hich exi#ted here from the !ear 1816, po##e##ed rare or*ani#ation and po&er8 +he member# &ere bound b! an oath to adhere to the deci#ion of the maDorit!, and had durin* e er! turnout a #ecret committee &hich &a# un1no&n to the ma## of the member#, and contro((ed the fund# of the Fnion ab#o(ute(!8 +hi# committee fixed a price upon the head# of 1nob#tic1# and obnoxiou# manufacturer# and upon incendiari#m# in mi((#8 9 mi(( &a# thu# #et on fire in &hich fema(e 1nob#tic1# &ere emp(o!ed in #pinnin* in the p(ace of men; a Mr#8 MNPher#on, mother of one of the#e *ir(#, &a# murdered, and both murderer# #ent to 9merica at the expen#e of the a##ociation8 9# ear(! a# 1867, a 1nob#tic1 named MNOuarr! &a# #hot at and &ounded, for &hich deed the doer recei ed t&ent! pound# from the Fnion, but &a# di#co ered and tran#ported for (ife8 'ina((!, in 18>., in Ma!, di#turbance# occurred in con#eBuence of a turnout in the ?atban1 and Mi(e End factorie#, in &hich perhap# a do)en 1nob#tic1# &ere ma(treated8 "n Lu(!, of the #ame !ear, the di#turbance# #ti(( continued, and a certain Smith, a 1nob#tic1, &a# #o ma(treated that he died8 +he committee &a# no& arre#ted, an in e#ti*ation be*un, and the (eadin* member# found *ui(t! of participation in con#piracie#, ma(treatment of 1nob#tic1#, and incendiari#m in the mi(( of Lame# and 'ranci# Wood, and the! &ere tran#ported for #e en !ear#8 What do our *ood :erman# #a! to thi# #tor!K 87 +he propert!$ho(din* c(a##, and e#pecia((! the manufacturin* portion of it &hich come# into direct contact &ith the &or1in*$men, dec(aim# &ith the *reate#t io(ence a*ain#t the#e Fnion#,

and i# con#tant(! tr!in* to pro e their u#e(e##ne## to the &or1in*$men upon *round# &hich are economica((! perfect(! correct, but for that er! rea#on partia((! mi#ta1en, and for the &or1in*$ manN# under#tandin* tota((! &ithout effect8 +he er! )ea( of the bour*eoi#ie #ho&# that it i# not di#intere#ted in the matter; and apart from the direct (o## in o( ed in a turnout, the #tate of the ca#e i# #uch that &hate er *oe# into the poc1et# of the manufacturer# come# of nece##it! out of tho#e of the &or1er8 So that e en if the &or1in*$men did not 1no& that the Fnion# ho(d the emu(ation of their ma#ter# in the reduction of &a*e#, at (ea#t in a mea#ure, in chec1, the! &ou(d #ti(( #tand b! the Fnion#, #imp(! to the inDur! of their enemie#, the manufacturer#8 "n &ar the inDur! of one part! i# the benefit of the other, and #ince the &or1in*$ men are on a &ar footin* to&ard# their emp(o!er#, the! do mere(! &hat the *reat potentate# do &hen the! *et into a Buarre(8 <e!ond a(( other bour*eoi# i# our friend 4r8 Fre, the mo#t furiou# enem! of the Fnion#8 5e foam# &ith indi*nation at theC#ecret tribuna(#C of the cotton$#pinner#, the mo#t po&erfu( #ection of the &or1er#, tribuna(# &hich boa#t their abi(it! to para(!#e e er! di#obedient manufacturer,Cand #o brin* ruin on the man &ho had *i en them profitab(e emp(o!ment for man! a !ear8C 5e #pea1# of a timeC&hen the in enti e head and the #u#tainin* heart of trade &ere he(d in bonda*e b! the unru(! (o&er member#8C 9 pit! that the En*(i#h &or1in*$men &i(( not (et them#e( e# be pacified #o ea#i(! &ith th! fab(e a# the =oman P(eb#, thou modern Meneniu# 9*rippa@ 'ina((!, he re(ate# the fo((o&in*: 9t one time the coar#e mu(e$#pinner# had mi#u#ed their po&er be!ond a(( endurance8 5i*h &a*e#, in#tead of a&a1enin* than1fu(ne## to&ard# the manufacturer# and (eadin* to inte((ectua( impro ement ,in harm(e## #tud! of #cience# u#efu( to the bour*eoi#ie, of cour#e-, in man! ca#e# produced8 pride and #upp(ied fund# for #upportin* rebe((iou# #pirit# in #tri1e#, &ith &hich a number of manufacturer# &ere i#ited one after the other in a pure(! arbitrar! manner8 4urin* an unhapp! di#turbance of thi# #ort in 5!de, 4u1infie(d, and the #urroundin* nei*hbourhood, the manufacturer# of the di#trict, anxiou# (e#t the! #hou(d be dri en from the mar1et b! the 'rench, <e(*ian#, and 9merican#, addre##ed them#e( e# to the machine$&or1# of Sharp, =obert# P ;o8, and reBue#ted Mr8 Sharp to turn hi# in enti e mind to the con#truction of an automatic mu(e in orderCto emancipate the trade from *a((in* #(a er! and impendin* ruin8C I5e produced in the cour#e of a fe& month#, a machine apparent(! in#tinct &ith the thou*ht, fee(in*, and tact of the experienced &or1man E &hich e en in it# infanc! di#p(a!ed a ne& princip(e of re*u(ation, read! in it# mature #tate to fu(fi( the function# of a fini#hed #pinner8 +hu#, the "ron Man, a# the operati e# fit(! ca(( it, #pran* out of the hand# of our modern Prometheu# at the biddin* of Miner a E a creation de#tined to re#tore order amon* the indu#triou# c(a##e#, and to confirm to :reat <ritain the empire of art8 +he ne&# of thi# 5ercu(ean prodi*! #pread di#ma! throu*h the Fnion, and

e en (on* before it (eft it# crad(e, #o to #pea1, it #tran*(ed the 5!dra of mi#ru(e8C Fre pro e# further that the in ention of the machine, &ith &hich four and fi e co(our# are printed at once, &a# a re#u(t of the di#turbance# amon* the ca(ico printer#; that the refractorine## of the !arn$dre##er# in the po&er$(oom &ea in* mi((# *a e ri#e to a ne& and perfected machine for &arp$dre##in*, and mention# #e era( other #uch ca#e#8 9 fe& pa*e# ear(ier thi# #ame Fre *i e# him#e(f a *reat dea( of troub(e to pro e in detai( that machiner! i# beneficia( to the &or1er#@ <ut Fre i# not the on(! one; in the 'actor! =eport, Mr8 9#h&orth, the manufacturer, and man! another, (o#e no opportunit! to expre## their &rath a*ain#t the Fnion#8 +he#e &i#e bour*eoi#, (i1e certain *o ernment#, trace e er! mo ement &hich the! do not under#tand to the inf(uence of i(($ intentioned a*itator#, dema*o*ue#, traitor#, #poutin* idiot#, and i(($ba(anced !outh8 +he! dec(are that the paid a*ent# of the Fnion# are intere#ted in the a*itation becau#e the! (i e upon it, a# thou*h the nece##it! for thi# pa!ment &ere not forced upon them b! the bour*eoi#, &ho &i(( *i e #uch men no emp(o!ment@ +he incredib(e freBuenc! of the#e #tri1e# pro e# be#t of a(( to &hat extent the #ocia( &ar ha# bro1en out a(( o er En*(and8 /o &ee1 pa##e#, #carce(! a da!, indeed, in &hich there i# not a #tri1e in #ome direction, no& a*ain#t a reduction, then a*ain#t a refu#a( to rai#e the rate of &a*e#, a*ain b! rea#on of the emp(o!ment of 1nob#tic1# or the continuance of abu#e#, #ometime# a*ain#t ne& machiner!, or for a hundred other rea#on#8 +he#e #tri1e#, at fir#t #1irmi#he#, #ometime# re#u(t in &ei*ht! #tru**(e#; the! decide nothin*, it i# true, but the! are the #tron*e#t proof that the deci#i e batt(e bet&een bour*eoi#ie and pro(etariat i# approachin*8 +he! are the mi(itar! #choo( of the &or1in*$men in &hich the! prepare them#e( e# for the *reat #tru**(e &hich cannot be a oided; the! are the pronunciamento# of #in*(e branche# of indu#tr! that the#e too ha e Doined the (abour mo ement8 9nd &hen one examine# a !earN# fi(e of the Northern 1tar, the on(! #heet &hich report# a(( the mo ement# of the pro(etariat, one find# that a(( the pro(etarian# of the to&n# and of countr! manufacture ha e united in a##ociation#, and ha e prote#ted from time to time, b! mean# of a *enera( #tri1e, a*ain#t the #upremac! of the bour*eoi#ie8 9nd a# #choo(# of &ar, the Fnion# are unexce((ed8 "n them i# de e(oped the pecu(iar coura*e of the En*(i#h8 "t i# #aid on the ;ontinent that the En*(i#h, and e#pecia((! the &or1in*$men, are co&ard(!, that the! cannot carr! out a re o(ution becau#e, un(i1e the 'rench, the! do not riot at inter a(#, becau#e the! apparent(! accept the bour*eoi# re*ime #o Buiet(!8 +hi# i# a comp(ete mi#ta1e8 +he En*(i#h &or1in*$men are #econd to none in coura*e; the! are Buite a# re#t(e## a# the 'rench, but the! fi*ht different(!8 +he 'rench, &ho are b! nature po(itica(, #tru**(e a*ain#t #ocia( e i(# &ith po(itica( &eapon#; the En*(i#h, for &hom po(itic# exi#t on(! a# a matter of intere#t, #o(e(! in the intere#t of bour*eoi# #ociet!, fi*ht, not a*ain#t the :o ernment, but direct(! a*ain#t the bour*eoi#ie; and for the time, thi# can be done on(! in a peacefu( manner8 Sta*nation in bu#ine##, and the &ant con#eBuent upon it, en*endered the re o(t at %!on#, in 18>4, in fa our of the =epub(ic: in 1846, at Manche#ter, a #imi(ar cau#e *a e ri#e to a uni er#a( turnout for the ;harter and hi*her &a*e#8 +hat coura*e i# reBuired for a turnout, often indeed much (oftier coura*e, much bo(der, firmer determination than for an in#urrection, i# #e(f$e ident8 "t i#, in truth, no trif(e for a &or1in*$man &ho 1no&# &ant from experience, to face it &ith &ife and chi(dren, to endure hun*er and &retchedne## for month# to*ether, and #tand firm and un#ha1en throu*h it a((8 What i# death, &hat the *a((e!# &hich a&ait the 'rench re o(utioni#t, in compari#on &ith *radua( #tar ation, &ith the dai(! #i*ht of a #tar in* fami(!, &ith the certaint! of future re en*e on the part of the bour*eoi#ie, a(( of &hich the En*(i#h &or1in*$man choo#e# in preference to #ubDection under the !o1e of the propert!$ho(din* c(a##K We #ha(( meet (ater an examp(e of thi# ob#tinate, unconBuerab(e coura*e of men &ho #urrender to force on(! &hen a(( re#i#tance &ou(d be aim(e## and unmeanin*8 9nd preci#e(! in thi# Buiet per#e erance, in thi# (a#tin* determination &hich under*oe# a hundred te#t# e er! da!,

the En*(i#h &or1in*$man de e(op# that #ide of hi# character &hich command# mo#t re#pect8 Peop(e &ho endure #o much to bend one #in*(e bour*eoi# &i(( be ab(e to brea1 the po&er of the &ho(e bour*eoi#ie8 <ut apart from that, the En*(i#h &or1in*$man ha# pro ed hi# coura*e often enou*h8 +hat the turnout of 1846 had no further re#u(t# came from the fact that the men &ere in part forced into it b! the bour*eoi#ie, in part neither c(ear nor united a# to it# obDect8 <ut a#ide from thi#, the! ha e #ho&n their coura*e often enou*h &hen the matter in Bue#tion &a# a #pecific #ocia( one8 /ot to mention the We(#h in#urrection of 18>9, a comp(ete batt(e &a# &a*ed in Manche#ter in Ma!, 184>, durin* m! re#idence there8 Pau(in* P 5enfre!, a bric1 firm, had increa#ed the #i)e of the bric1# &ithout rai#in* &a*e#, and #o(d the bric1#, of cour#e, at a hi*her price8 +he &or1er#, to &hom hi*her &a*e# &ere refu#ed, #truc1 &or1, and the <ric1ma1er#N Fnion dec(ared &ar upon the firm8 +he firm, mean&hi(e, #ucceeded &ith *reat difficu(t! in #ecurin* hand# from the nei*hbourhood, and amon* the 1nob#tic1#, a*ain#t &hom in the be*innin* intimidation &a# u#ed; the proprietor# #et t&e( e men to *uard the !ard, a(( ex$#o(dier# and po(icemen, armed &ith *un#8 When intimidation pro ed una ai(in*, the bric1$!ard, &hich (a! #carce(! four hundred pace# from an infantr! barrac1#, &a# #tormed at ten oNc(oc1 one ni*ht b! a cro&d of bric1ma1er#, &ho ad anced in mi(itar! order, the fir#t ran1# armed &ith *un#8 +he! forced their &a! in, fired upon the &atchmen a# #oon a# the! #a& them, #tamped out the &et bric1# #pread out to dr!, tore do&n the pi(ed$up ro&# of tho#e a(read! dr!, demo(i#hed e er!thin* &hich came in their &a!, pre##ed into a bui(din*, &here the! de#tro!ed the furniture and ma(treated the &ife of the o er(oo1er &ho &a# (i in* there8 +he &atchmen, mean&hi(e, had p(aced them#e( e# behind a hed*e, &hence the! cou(d fire #afe(! and &ithout interruption8 +he a##ai(ant# #tood before a burnin* bric1$1i(n, &hich thre& a bri*ht (i*ht upon them, #o that e er! ba(( of their enemie# #truc1 home, &hi(e e er! one of their o&n #hot# mi##ed it# mar18 /e erthe(e##, the firin* (a#ted ha(f$an$hour, unti( the ammunition &a# exhau#ted, and the obDect of the i#it E the demo(ition of a(( the de#tructib(e obDect# in the !ard E &a# attained8 +hen the mi(itar! approached, and the bric1ma1er# &ithdre& to Ecc(e#, three mi(e# from Manche#ter8 9 #hort time before reachin* Ecc(e# the! he(d ro(($ca((, and each man &a# ca((ed accordin* to hi# number in the #ection &hen the! #eparated, on(! to fa(( the more certain(! into the hand# of the po(ice, &ho &ere approachin* from a(( #ide#8 +he number of the &ounded mu#t ha e been er! con#iderab(e, but tho#e on(! cou(d be counted &ho &ere arre#ted8 ?ne of the#e had recei ed three bu((et# ,in the thi*h, the ca(f, and the #hou(der-, and had tra e((ed in #pite of them more than four mi(e# on foot8 +he#e peop(e ha e pro ed that the!, too, po##e## re o(utionar! coura*e, and do not #hun a rain of bu((et#8 9nd &hen an unarmed mu(titude, &ithout a preci#e aim common to them a((, are he(d in chec1 in a #hut$off mar1et$ p(ace, &ho#e out(et# are *uarded b! a coup(e of po(icemen and dra*oon#, a# happened in 1846, thi# b! no mean# pro e# a &ant of coura*e8 ?n the contrar!, the mu(titude &ou(d ha e #tirred Buite a# (itt(e if the #er ant# of pub(ic ,i8e8, of the bour*eoi#- order had not been pre#ent8 Where the &or1in*$peop(e ha e a #pecific end in ie&, the! #ho& coura*e enou*h; a#, for in#tance, in the attac1 upon <ir(e!N# mi((, &hich had (ater to be protected b! arti((er!8 "n thi# connection, a &ord or t&o a# to the re#pect for the (a& in En*(and8 +rue, the (a& i# #acred to the bour*eoi#, for it i# hi# o&n compo#ition, enacted &ith hi# con#ent, and for hi# benefit and protection8 5e 1no&# that, e en if an indi idua( (a& #hou(d inDure him, the &ho(e fabric protect# hi# intere#t#; and more than a((, the #anctit! of the (a&, the #acredne## of order a# e#tab(i#hed b! the acti e &i(( of one part of #ociet!, and the pa##i e acceptance of the other, i# the #tron*e#t #upport of hi# #ocia( po#ition8 <ecau#e the En*(i#h bour*eoi# find# him#e(f reproduced in hi# (a&, a# he doe# in hi# :od, the po(icemanN# truncheon &hich, in a certain mea#ure, i# hi# o&n c(ub, ha# for him a &onderfu((! #oothin* po&er8 <ut for the &or1in*$man Buite other&i#e@ +he &or1in*$ man 1no&# too &e((, ha# (earned from too oft$repeated experience, that the (a& i# a rod &hich the bour*eoi# ha# prepared for him; and &hen he i# not compe((ed to do #o, he ne er appea(# to the

(a&8 "t i# ridicu(ou# to a##ert that the En*(i#h &or1in*$man fear# the po(ice, &hen e er! &ee1 in Manche#ter po(icemen are beaten, and (a#t !ear an attempt &a# made to #torm a #tation$hou#e #ecured b! iron door# and #hutter#8 +he po&er of the po(ice in the turnout of 1846 (a!, a# " ha e a(read! #aid, in the &ant of a c(ear(! defined obDect on the part of the &or1in*$men them#e( e#8 Since the &or1in*$men do not re#pect the (a&, but #imp(! #ubmit to it# po&er &hen the! cannot chan*e it, it i# mo#t natura( that the! #hou(d at (ea#t propo#e a(teration# in it, that the! #hou(d &i#h to put a pro(etarian (a& in the p(ace of the (e*a( fabric of the bour*eoi#ie8 +hi# propo#ed (a& i# the Peop(eN# ;harter, &hich in form i# pure(! po(itica(, and demand# a democratic ba#i# for the 5ou#e of ;ommon#8 ;harti#m i# the compact form of their oppo#ition to the bour*eoi#ie8 "n the Fnion# and turnout# oppo#ition a(&a!# remained i#o(ated: it &a# #in*(e &or1in*$men or #ection# &ho fou*ht a #in*(e bour*eoi#8 "f the fi*ht became *enera(, thi# &a# #carce(! b! the intention of the &or1in*$men; or, &hen it did happen intentiona((!, ;harti#m &a# at the bottom of it8 <ut in ;harti#m it i# the &ho(e &or1in*$c(a## &hich ari#e# a*ain#t the bour*eoi#ie, and attac1#, fir#t of a((, the po(itica( po&er, the (e*i#(ati e rampart &ith &hich the bour*eoi#ie ha# #urrounded it#e(f8 ;harti#m ha# proceeded from the 4emocratic part! &hich aro#e bet&een 1.87 and 1.97 &ith and in the pro(etariat, *ained #tren*th durin* the 'rench =e o(ution, and came forth after the peace a# the =adica( part!8 "t had it# headBuarter# then in <irmin*ham and Manche#ter, and (ater in %ondon; extorted the =eform <i(( from the ?(i*arch# of the o(d Par(iament b! a union &ith the %ibera( bour*eoi#ie, and ha# #teadi(! con#o(idated it#e(f, #ince then, a# a more and more pronounced &or1in*$menN# part! in oppo#ition to the bour*eoi#ie8 "n 18>8 a committee of the :enera( Wor1in*$menN# 9##ociation of %ondon, &ith Wi((iam %o ett at it# head, dre& up the Peop(eN# ;harter, &ho#e #ix point# are a# fo((o&#: ,1- Fni er#a( #uffra*e for e er! man &ho i# of a*e, #ane and uncon icted of crime; ,6- 9nnua( Par(iament#; ,>- Pa!ment of member# of Par(iament, to enab(e poor men to #tand for e(ection; ,4- Jotin* b! ba((ot to pre ent briber! and intimidation b! the bour*eoi#ie; ,5- EBua( e(ectora( di#trict# to #ecure eBua( repre#entation; and ,6- 9bo(ition of the e en no& mere(! nomina( propert! Bua(ification of U>77 in (and for candidate# in order to ma1e e er! oter e(i*ib(e8 +he#e #ix point#, &hich are a(( (imited to the recon#titution of the 5ou#e of ;ommon#, harm(e## a# the! #eem, are #ufficient to o erthro& the &ho(e En*(i#h ;on#titution, Oueen and %ord# inc(uded8 +he #o$ca((ed monarchica( and ari#tocratic e(ement# of the ;on#titution can maintain them#e( e# on(! becau#e the bour*eoi#ie ha# an intere#t in the continuance of their #ham exi#tence; and more than a #ham exi#tence neither po##e##e# toda!8 <ut a# #oon a# rea( pub(ic opinion in it# tota(it! bac1# the 5ou#e of ;ommon#, a# #oon a# the 5ou#e of ;ommon# incorporate# the &i((, not of the bour*eoi#ie a(one, but of the &ho(e nation, it &i(( ab#orb the &ho(e po&er #o comp(ete(! that the (a#t ha(o mu#t fa(( from the head of the monarch and the ari#tocrac!8 +he En*(i#h &or1in*$man re#pect# neither %ord# nor Oueen8 +he bour*eoi#, &hi(e in rea(it! a((o&in* them but (itt(e inf(uence, !et offer# to them per#ona((! a #ham &or#hip8 +he En*(i#h ;harti#t i# po(itica((! a repub(ican, thou*h he rare(! or ne er mention# the &ord, &hi(e be #!mpathi#e# &ith the repub(ican partie# of a(( countrie#, and ca((# him#e(f in preference a democrat8 <ut he i# more than a mere repub(ican, hi# democrac! i# not #imp(! po(itica(8 ;harti#m &a# from the be*innin* of 18>5 chief(! a mo ement amon* the &or1in*$men, thou*h not !et #harp(! #eparated from the bour*eoi#ie8 +he =adica(i#m of the &or1er# &ent hand in hand &ith the =adica(i#m of the bour*eoi#ie; the ;harter &a# the #hibbo(eth of both8 +he! he(d their /ationa( ;on ention e er! !ear in common, #eemin* to be one part!8 +he (o&er midd(e$c(a## &a# Du#t then in a er! be((ico#e and io(ent #tate of mind in con#eBuence of the di#appointment o er the =eform <i(( and of the bad bu#ine## !ear# of 18>.$18>9, and ie&ed the boi#terou# ;harti#t a*itation &ith a er! fa ourab(e e!e8 ?f the ehemence of thi# a*itation no one in :erman! ha# an! idea8 +he peop(e &ere ca((ed upon to arm them#e( e#, &ere freBuent(! ur*ed to

re o(t; pi1e# &ere *ot read!, a# in the 'rench =e o(ution, and in 18>8, one Stephen#, a Methodi#t par#on, #aid to the a##emb(ed &or1in*$ peop(e of Manche#ter: I0ou ha e no need to fear the po&er of :o ernment, the #o(dier#, ba!onet#, and cannon that are at the di#po#a( of !our oppre##or#; !ou ha e a &eapon that i# far mi*htier than a(( the#e, a &eapon a*ain#t &hich ba!onet# and cannon are po&er(e##, and a chi(d of ten !ear# can &ie(d it8 0ou ha e on(! to ta1e a coup(e of matche# and a bund(e of #tra& dipped in pitch, and " &i(( #ee &hat the :o ernment and it# hundred# of thou#and# of #o(dier# &i(( do a*ain#t thi# one &eapon if it i# u#ed bo(d(!8C 9# ear(! a# that !ear the pecu(iar(! #ocia( character of the &or1in*$menN# ;harti#m manife#ted it#e(f8 +he #ame Stephen# #aid, in a meetin* of 677,777 men on Her#a(( Moor, the Mon# Sacer of Manche#ter: I;harti#m, m! friend#, i# no po(itica( mo ement, &here the main point i# !our *ettin* the ba((ot8 ;harti#m i# a 1nife and for1 Bue#tion: the ;harter mean# a *ood hou#e, *ood food and drin1, pro#perit!, and #hort &or1in*$hour#8C +he mo ement# a*ain#t the /e& Poor %a& and for the +en 5our#N <i(( &ere a(read! in the c(o#e#t re(ation to ;harti#m8 "n a(( the meetin*# of that time the +or! ?a#t(er &a# acti e, and hundred# of petition# for impro ement# of the #ocia( condition# of the &or1er# &ere circu(ated a(on* &ith the nationa( petition for the Peop(eN# ;harter adopted in <irmin*ham8 "n 18>9 the a*itation continued a# i*orou#(! a# e er, and &hen it be*an to re(ax #ome&hat at the end of the !ear, <u##e!, +a!(or, and 'ro#t ha#tened to ca(( forth upri#in*# #imu(taneou#(! in the /orth of En*(and, in 0or1#hire, and Wa(e#8 'ro#tN# p(an bein* betra!ed, he &a# ob(i*ed to open ho#ti(itie# premature(!8 +ho#e in the /orth heard of the fai(ure of hi# attempt in time to &ithdra&8 +&o month# (ater, in Lanuar!, 1847, #e era( #o$ca((ed #p! outbrea1# too1 p(ace in Sheffie(d and <radford, in 0or1#hire, and the excitement *radua((! #ub#ided8 Mean&hi(e the bour*eoi#ie turned it# attention to more practica( proDect#, more profitab(e for it#e(f, name(! the ;orn %a&#8 +he 9nti$;orn$%a& 9##ociation &a# formed in Manche#ter, and the con#eBuence &a# a re(axation of the tie bet&een the =adica( bour*eoi#ie and the pro(etariat8 +he &or1in*$men #oon percei ed that for them the abo(ition of the ;orn %a&# cou(d be of (itt(e u#e, &hi(e er! ad anta*eou# to the bour*eoi#ie; and the! cou(d therefore not be &on for the proDect8

+he cri#i# of 1846 came on8 9*itation &a# once more a# i*orou# a# in 18>98 <ut thi# time the rich manufacturin* bour*eoi#ie, &hich &a# #ufferin* #e ere(! under thi# particu(ar cri#i#, too1 part in it8 +he 9nti$;orn %a& %ea*ue, a# it &a# no& ca((ed, a##umed a decided(! re o(utionar! tone8 "t# Dourna(# and a*itator# u#ed undi#*ui#ed(! re o(utionar! (an*ua*e, one er! *ood rea#on for &hich &a# the fact that the ;on#er ati e part! had been in po&er #ince 18418 9# the ;harti#t# had pre iou#(! done, the#e bour*eoi# (eader# ca((ed upon the peop(e to rebe(; and the &or1in*$ men &ho had mo#t to #uffer from the cri#i# &ere not inacti e, a# the !earN# nationa( petition for the ;harter &ith it# three and a ha(f mi((ion #i*nature# pro e#8 "n #hort, if the t&o =adica( partie# had been #ome&hat e#tran*ed, the! a((ied them#e( e# once more8 9t a meetin* of %ibera(# and ;harti#t# he(d in Manche#ter, 'ebruar! 14th, 1846, a petition ur*in* the repea( of the ;orn %a&# and the adoption of the ;harter &a# dra&n up8 +he next da! it &a# adopted b! both partie#8 +he #prin* and #ummer pa##ed amid#t io(ent a*itation and increa#in* di#tre##8 +he bour*eoi#ie &a# determined to carr! the repea( of the ;orn %a&# &ith the he(p of the cri#i#, the &ant &hich it entai(ed, and the *enera( excitement8 9t thi# time, the ;on#er ati e# bein* in po&er, the %ibera( bour*eoi#ie ha(f abandoned their (a&$abidin* habit#; the! &i#hed to brin* about a re o(ution &ith the he(p of the &or1er#8 +he &or1in*$men &ere to ta1e the che#tnut# from the fire to #a e the bour*eoi#ie from burnin* their o&n fin*er#8 +he o(d idea of aCho(! month,C a *enera( #tri1e, broached in 18>9 b! the ;harti#t#, &a# re i ed8 +hi# time, ho&e er, it &a# not the &or1in*$men &ho &i#hed to Buit &or1, but the manufacturer# &ho &i#hed to c(o#e their mi((# and #end the operati e# into the countr! pari#he# upon the propert! of the ari#tocrac!, thu# forcin* the +or! Par(iament and the +or! Mini#tr! to repea( the ;orn %a&#8 9 re o(t &ou(d natura((! ha e fo((o&ed, but the bour*eoi#ie #tood #afe(! in the bac1*round and cou(d a&ait the re#u(t &ithout compromi#in* it#e(f if the &or#t came to the &or#t8 9t the end of Lu(! bu#ine## be*an to impro e; it &a# hi*h time8 "n order not to (o#e the opportunit!, three firm# in Sta(e!brid*e reduced &a*e# in #pite of the impro ement8 Whether the! did #o of their o&n motion or in a*reement &ith other manufacturer#, e#pecia((! tho#e of the %ea*ue, " do not 1no&8 +&o &ithdre& after a time, but the third, Wi((iam <ai(e! P <rother#, #tood firm, and to(d the obDectin* operati e# thatCif thi# did not p(ea#e them, the! had better *o and p(a! a bit8C +hi# contemptuou# an#&er the hand# recei ed &ith Deer#8 +he! (eft the mi((, paraded throu*h the to&n, and ca((ed upon a(( their fe((o&# to Buit &or18 "n a fe& hour# e er! mi(( #tood id(e, and the operati e# marched to Mottram Moor to ho(d a meetin*8 +hi# &a# on 9u*u#t 5th8 9u*u#t 8th the! proceeded to 9#hton and 5!de fi e thou#and #tron*, c(o#ed a(( the mi((# and coa($pit#, and he(d meetin*#, in &hich, ho&e er, the Bue#tion di#cu##ed &a# not, a# the bour*eoi#ie had hoped, the repea( of the ;orn %a&#, but,Ca fair da!N# &a*e# for a fair da!N# &or18C 9u*u#t 9th the! proceeded to Manche#ter, unre#i#ted b! the authoritie# ,a(( %ibera(#-, and c(o#ed the mi((#; on the 11th the! &ere in Stoc1port, &here the! met &ith the fir#t re#i#tance a# the! &ere #tormin* the &or1hou#e, the fa ourite chi(d of the bour*eoi#ie8 ?n the #ame da! there &a# a *enera( #tri1e and di#turbance in <o(ton, to &hich the authoritie# here, too, made no re#i#tance8 Soon the upri#in* #pread throu*hout the &ho(e manufacturin* di#trict, and a(( emp(o!ment#, except har e#tin* and the production of food, came to a #tand#ti((8 <ut the rebe((iou# operati e# &ere Buiet8 +he! &ere dri en into thi# re o(t &ithout &i#hin* it8 +he manufacturer#, &ith the #in*(e exception of the +or! <ir(e!, in Manche#ter, had, contrar! to their cu#tom, not oppo#ed it8 +he thin* had be*un &ithout the &or1in*$menN# ha in* an! di#tinct end in ie&, for &hich rea#on the! &ere a(( united in the determination not to be #hot at for the benefit of the ;orn %a& repea(in* bour*eoi#ie8 'or the re#t, #ome &anted to carr! the ;harter, other# &ho thou*ht thi# premature &i#hed mere(! to #ecure the &a*e# rate of 18478 ?n thi# point the &ho(e in#urrection &a# &rec1ed8 "f it had been from the be*innin* an intentiona(, determined &or1in*$menN# in#urrection, it &ou(d #ure(! ha e carried it# point; but the#e cro&d# &ho had been dri en into the #treet# b! their ma#ter#, a*ain#t their o&n &i((, and &ith no definite purpo#e, cou(d do nothin*8 Mean&hi(e the bour*eoi#ie, &hich had not mo ed a fin*er to carr! the

a((iance of 'ebruar! 15th into effect, #oon percei ed that the &or1in*$men did not propo#e to become it# too(#, and that the i((o*ica( manner in &hich it had abandoned it# (a&$abidin* #tandpoint threatened dan*er8 "t therefore re#umed it# (a&$abidin* attitude, and p(aced it#e(f upon the #ide of :o ernment a# a*ain#t the &or1in*$men8 "t #&ore in tru#t! retainer# a# #pecia( con#tab(e# ,the :erman merchant# in Manche#ter too1 part in thi# ceremon!, and marched in an entire(! #uperf(uou# manner throu*h the cit! &ith their ci*ar# in their mouth# and thic1 truncheon# in their hand#-8 "t *a e the command to fire upon the cro&d in Pre#ton, #o that the unintentiona( re o(t of the peop(e #tood a(( at once face to face, not on(! &ith the &ho(e mi(itar! po&er of the :o ernment, but &ith the &ho(e propert!$ho(din* c(a## a# &e((8 +he &or1in*$men, &ho had no e#pecia( aim, #eparated *radua((!, and the in#urrection came to an end &ithout e i( re#u(t#8 %ater, the bour*eoi#ie &a# *ui(t! of one #hamefu( act after another, tried to &hite&a#h it#e(f b! expre##in* a horror of popu(ar io(ence b! no mean# con#i#tent &ith it# o&n re o(utionar! (an*ua*e of the #prin*; (aid the b(ame of in#urrection upon ;harti#t in#ti*ator#, &herea# it had it#e(f done more than a(( of them to*ether to brin* about the upri#in*; and re#umed it# o(d attitude of #anctif!in* the name of the (a& &ith a #hame(e##ne## perfect(! uneBua((ed8 +he ;harti#t#, &ho &ere a(( but innocent of brin*in* about thi# upri#in*, &ho #imp(! did &hat the bour*eoi#ie meant to do &hen the! made the mo#t of their opportunit!, &ere pro#ecuted and con icted, &hi(e the bour*eoi#ie e#caped &ithout (o##, and had, be#ide#, #o(d off it# o(d #toc1 of *ood# &ith ad anta*e durin* the pau#e in &or18 +he fruit of the upri#in* &a# the deci#i e #eparation of the pro(etariat from the bour*eoi#ie8 +he ;harti#t# had not hitherto concea(ed their determination to carr! the ;harter at a(( co#t#, e en that of a re o(ution; the bour*eoi#ie, &hich no& percei ed, a(( at once, the dan*er &ith &hich an! io(ent chan*e threatened it# po#ition, refu#ed to hear an!thin* further of ph!#ica( force, and propo#ed to attain it# end b! mora( force, a# thou*h thi# &ere an!thin* e(#e than the direct or indirect threat of ph!#ica( force8 N"Nhi# &a# one point of di##en#ion, thou*h e en thi# &a# remo ed (ater b! the a##ertion of the ;harti#t# ,&ho are at (ea#t a# &orth! of bein* be(ie ed a# the bour*eoi#ie- that the!, too, refrained from appea(in* to ph!#ica( force8 +he #econd point of di##en#ion and the main one, &hich brou*ht ;harti#m to (i*ht in it# purit!, &a# the repea( of the ;orn %a&#8 "n thi# the bour*eoi#ie &a# direct(! intere#ted, the pro(etariat not8 +he ;harti#t# therefore di ided into t&o partie# &ho#e po(itica( pro*ramme# a*reed (itera((!, but &hich &ere ne erthe(e## thorou*h(! different and incapab(e of union8 9t the <irmin*ham /ationa( ;on ention, in Lanuar!, 184>, Stur*e, the repre#entati e of the =adica( bour*eoi#ie, propo#ed that the name of the ;harter be omitted from the ru(e# of the ;harti#t 9##ociation, nomina((! becau#e thi# name had become connected &ith reco((ection# of io(ence durin* the in#urrection, a connection, b! the &a!, &hich had exi#ted for !ear#, and a*ain#t &hich Mr8 Stur*e had hitherto ad anced no obDection8 +he &or1in*$men refu#ed to drop the name, and &hen Mr8 Stur*e &a# out oted, that &orth! Oua1er #udden(! became (o!a(, betoo1 him#e(f out of the ha((, and founded aC;omp(ete Suffra*e 9##ociationC &ithin the =adica( bour*eoi#ie8 So repu*nant had the#e reco((ection# become to the Lacobinica( bour*eoi#ie, that he a(tered e en the name Fni er#a( Suffra*e into the ridicu(ou# tit(e, ;omp(ete Suffra*e8 +he &or1in*$men (au*hed at him and Buiet(! &ent their &a!8 'rom thi# moment ;harti#m &a# pure(! a &or1in*$menN# cau#e freed from a(( bour*eoi# e(ement#8 +heC;omp(eteC Dourna(#, the Weekly .ispatch, Weekly Chronicle, E8aminer, etc8, fe(( *radua((! into the #(eep! tone of the other %ibera( #heet#, e#pou#ed the cau#e of 'ree +rade, attac1ed the +en 5our#N <i(( and a(( exc(u#i e(! &or1in*$menN# demand#, and (et their =adica(i#m a# a &ho(e fa(( rather into the bac1*round8 +he =adica( bour*eoi#ie Doined hand# &ith the %ibera(# a*ain#t the &or1in*$men in e er! co((i#ion, and in *enera( made the ;orn %a& Bue#tion, &hich for the En*(i#h i# the 'ree +rade Bue#tion, their main bu#ine##8 +he! thereb! fe(( under the dominion of the %ibera( bour*eoi#ie, and no& p(a! a mo#t pitifu( ro(e8

+he ;harti#t &or1in*$men, on the contrar!, e#pou#ed &ith redoub(ed )ea( a(( the #tru**(e# of the pro(etariat a*ain#t the bour*eoi#ie8 'ree competition ha# cau#ed the &or1er# #ufferin* enou*h to be hated b! them; it# apo#t(e#, the bour*eoi#ie, are their dec(ared enemie#8 +he &or1in*$man ha# on(! di#ad anta*e# to a&ait from the comp(ete freedom of competition8 +he demand# hitherto made b! him, the +en 5our#N <i((, protection of the &or1er# a*ain#t the capita(i#t, *ood &a*e#, a *uaranteed po#ition, repea( of the /e& Poor %a&, a(( of the thin*# &hich be(on* to ;harti#m Buite a# e##entia((! a# theCSix Point#,C are direct(! oppo#ed to free competition and 'ree +rade8 /o &onder, then, that the &or1in*$men &i(( not hear of 'ree +rade and the repea( of the ;orn %a&# ,a fact incomprehen#ib(e to the &ho(e En*(i#h bour*eoi#ie-, and &hi(e at (ea#t &ho((! indifferent to the ;orn %a& Bue#tion, are mo#t deep(! embittered a*ain#t it# ad ocate#8 +hi# Bue#tion i# preci#e(! the point at &hich the pro(etariat #eparate# from the bour*eoi#ie, ;harti#m from =adica(i#m; and the bour*eoi# under#tandin* cannot comprehend thi#, becau#e it cannot comprehend the pro(etariat8 +herein (ie# the difference bet&een ;harti#t democrac! and a(( pre iou# po(itica( bour*eoi# democrac!8 ;harti#m i# of an e##entia((! #ocia( nature, a c(a## mo ement8 +heCSix Point#C &hich for the =adica( bour*eoi# are the be*innin* and end of the matter, &hich are meant, at the utmo#t, to ca(( forth certain further reform# of the ;on#titution, are for the pro(etarian a mere mean# to further end#8CPo(itica( po&er our mean#, #ocia( happine## our end,C i# no& the c(ear(! formu(ated &ar$cr! of the ;harti#t#8 +heC1nife and for1 Bue#tionC of the preacher Stephen# &a# a truth for a part of the ;harti#t# on(!, in 18>8; it i# a truth for a(( of them in 18458 +here i# no (on*er a mere po(itician amon* the ;harti#t#, and e en thou*h their Socia(i#m i# er! (itt(e de e(oped, thou*h their chief remed! for po ert! ha# hitherto con#i#ted in the (and$a((otment #!#tem, &hich &a# #uper#eded b! the introduction of manufacture, thou*h their chief practica( propo#ition# are apparent(! of a reactionar! nature, !et the#e er! mea#ure# in o( e the a(ternati e that the! mu#t either #uccumb to the po&er of competition once more and re#tore the o(d #tate of thin*#, or the! mu#t them#e( e# entire(! o ercome competition and abo(i#h it8 ?n the other hand, the pre#ent indefinite #tate of ;harti#m, the #eparation from the pure(! po(itica( part!, in o( e# that preci#e(! the characteri#tic feature, it# #ocia( a#pect, &i(( ha e to be further de e(oped8 +he approach to Socia(i#m cannot fai(, e#pecia((! &hen the next cri#i# direct# the &or1in*$men b! force of #heer &ant to #ocia( in#tead of po(itica( remedie#8 9nd a cri#i# mu#t fo((o& the pre#ent acti e #tate of indu#tr! and commerce in 184. at the (ate#t, and probab(! in 1846; one, too, &hich &i(( far exceed in extent and io(ence a(( former cri#e#8 +he &or1in*$men &i(( carr! their ;harter, natura((!; but mean&hi(e the! &i(( (earn to #ee c(ear(! &ith re*ard to man! point# &hich the! can ma1e b! mean# of it and of &hich the! no& 1no& er! (itt(e8 Mean&hi(e the Socia(i#t a*itation a(#o *oe# for&ard8 En*(i#h Socia(i#m come# under our con#ideration #o far on(! a# it affect# the &or1in*$c(a##8 +he En*(i#h Socia(i#t# demand the *radua( introduction of po##e##ion in common in home co(onie# embracin* t&o to three thou#and per#on# &ho #ha(( carr! on both a*ricu(ture and manufacture and enDo! eBua( ri*ht# and eBua( education8 +he! demand *reater faci(it! of obtainin* di orce, the e#tab(i#hment of a rationa( *o ernment, &ith comp(ete freedom of con#cience and the abo(ition of puni#hment, the #ame to be rep(aced b! a rationa( treatment of the offender8 +he#e are their practica( mea#ure#, their theoretica( princip(e# do not concern u# here8 En*(i#h Socia(i#m aro#e &ith ?&en, a manufacturer, and proceed# therefore &ith *reat con#ideration to&ard the bour*eoi#ie and *reat inDu#tice to&ard the pro(etariat in it# method#, a(thou*h it cu(minate# in demandin* the abo(ition of the c(a## anta*oni#m bet&een bour*eoi#ie and pro(etariat8 +he Socia(i#t# are thorou*h(! tame and peaceab(e, accept our exi#tin* order, bad a# it i#, #o far a# to reDect a(( other method# but that of &innin* pub(ic opinion8 0et the! are #o do*matic that #ucce## b! thi# method i# for them, and for their princip(e# a# at pre#ent formu(ated, utter(! hope(e##8 Whi(e bemoanin* the demora(i#ation of the (o&er c(a##e#, the! are b(ind to the e(ement

of pro*re## in thi# di##o(ution of the o(d #ocia( order, and refu#e to ac1no&(ed*e that the corruption &rou*ht b! pri ate intere#t# and h!pocri#! in the propert!$ho(din* c(a## i# much *reater8 +he! ac1no&(ed*e no hi#toric de e(opment, and &i#h to p(ace the nation in a #tate of ;ommuni#m at once, o erni*ht, not b! the una oidab(e march of it# po(itica( de e(opment up to the point at &hich thi# tran#ition become# both po##ib(e and nece##ar!8 +he! under#tand, it i# true, &h! the &or1in*$man i# re#entfu( a*ain#t the bour*eoi#, but re*ard a# unfruitfu( thi# c(a## hatred, &hich i#, after a((, the on(! mora( incenti e b! &hich the &or1er can be brou*ht nearer the *oa(8 +he! preach in#tead, a phi(anthrop! and uni er#a( (o e far more unfruitfu( for the pre#ent #tate of En*(and8 +he! ac1no&(ed*e on(! a p#!cho(o*ica( de e(opment, a de e(opment of man in the ab#tract, out of a(( re(ation to the Pa#t, &herea# the &ho(e &or(d re#t# upon that Pa#t, the indi idua( man inc(uded8 5ence the! are too ab#tract, too metaph!#ica(, and accomp(i#h (itt(e8 +he! are recruited in part from the &or1in*$c(a##, of &hich the! ha e en(i#ted but a er! #ma(( fraction repre#entin*, ho&e er, it# mo#t educated and #o(id e(ement#8 "n it# pre#ent form, Socia(i#m can ne er become the common creed of the &or1in*$c(a##; it mu#t conde#cend to return for a moment to the ;harti#t #tandpoint8 <ut the true pro(etarian Socia(i#m ha in* pa##ed throu*h ;harti#m, purified of it# bour*eoi# e(ement#, a##umin* the form &hich it ha# a(read! reached in the mind# of man! Socia(i#t# and ;harti#t (eader# ,&ho are near(! a(( Socia(i#t#-, mu#t, &ithin a #hort time, p(a! a &ei*ht! part in the hi#tor! of the de e(opment of the En*(i#h peop(e8 En*(i#h Socia(i#m, the ba#i# of &hich i# much more amp(e than that of the 'rench, i# behind it in theoretica( de e(opment, &i(( ha e to recede for a moment to the 'rench #tandpoint in order to proceed be!ond it (ater8 Mean&hi(e the 'rench, too, &i(( de e(op farther8 En*(i#h Socia(i#m afford# the mo#t pronounced expre##ion of the pre ai(in* ab#ence of re(i*ion amon* the &or1in*$ men, an expre##ion #o pronounced indeed that the ma## of the &or1in*$men, bein* uncon#ciou#(! and mere(! practica((! irre(i*iou#, often dra& bac1 before it8 <ut here, too, nece##it! &i(( force the &or1in*$men to abandon the remnant# of a be(ief &hich, a# the! &i(( more and more c(ear(! percei e, #er e# on(! to ma1e them &ea1 and re#i*ned to their fate, obedient and faithfu( to the ampire propert!$ho(din* c(a##8 5ence it i# e ident that the &or1in*$menN# mo ement i# di ided into t&o #ection#, the ;harti#t# and the Socia(i#t#8 +he ;harti#t# are theoretica((! the more bac1&ard, the (e## de e(oped, but the! are *enuine pro(etarian# a(( o er, the repre#entati e# of their c(a##8 +he Socia(i#t# are more far$ #eein*, propo#e practica( remedie# a*ain#t di#tre##, but, proceedin* ori*ina((! from the bour*eoi#ie, are for thi# rea#on unab(e to ama(*amate comp(ete(! &ith the &or1in*$c(a##8 +he union of Socia(i#m &ith ;harti#m, the reproduction of 'rench ;ommuni#m in an En*(i#h manner, &i(( be the next #tep, and ha# a(read! be*un8 +hen on(!, &hen thi# ha# been achie ed, &i(( the &or1in*$c(a## be the true inte((ectua( (eader of En*(and8 Mean&hi(e, po(itica( and #ocia( de e(opment &i(( proceed, and &i(( fo#ter thi# ne& part!, thi# ne& departure of ;harti#m8 +he#e different #ection# of &or1in*$men, often united, often #eparated, +rade# Fnioni#t#, ;harti#t#, and Socia(i#t#, ha e founded on their o&n hoo1 number# of #choo(# and readin*$room# for the ad ancement of education8 E er! Socia(i#t, and a(mo#t e er! ;harti#t in#titution, ha# #uch a p(ace, and #o too ha e man! trade#8 5ere the chi(dren recei e a pure(! pro(etarian education, free from a(( the inf(uence# of the bour*eoi#ie; and, in the readin*$room#, pro(etarian Dourna(# and boo1# a(one, or a(mo#t a(one, are to be found8 +he#e arran*ement# are er! dan*erou# for the bour*eoi#ie, &hich ha# #ucceeded in &ithdra&in* #e era( #uch in#titute#,CMechanic#N "n#titute#,C from pro(etarian inf(uence#, and ma1in* them or*an# for the di##emination of the #cience# u#efu( to the bour*eoi#ie8 5ere the natura( #cience# are no& tau*ht, &hich ma! dra& the &or1in*$men a&a! from the oppo#ition to the bour*eoi#ie, and perhap# p(ace in their hand# the mean# of ma1in* in ention# &hich brin* in mone! for the bour*eoi#ie; &hi(e for the &or1in*$man the acBuaintance &ith the natura( #cience# i# utter(! u#e(e## now &hen it too often happen# that he ne er *et# the #(i*hte#t *(imp#e of /ature in hi# (ar*e to&n &ith hi# (on* &or1in*$hour#85ere

Po(itica( Econom! i# preached, &ho#e ido( i# free competition, and &ho#e #um and #ub#tance for the &or1in*$man i# thi#, that he cannot do an!thin* more rationa( than re#i*n him#e(f to #tar ation8 5ere a(( education i# tame, f(abb!, #ub#er ient to the ru(in* po(itic# and re(i*ion, #o that for the &or1in*$man it i# mere(! a con#tant #ermon upon Buiet obedience, pa##i it!, and re#i*nation to hi# fate8 +he ma## of &or1in*$men natura((! ha e nothin* to do &ith the#e in#titute#, and beta1e them#e( e# to the pro(etarian readin*$room# and to the di#cu##ion of matter# &hich direct(! concern their o&n intere#t#, &hereupon the #e(f$#ufficient bour*eoi#ie #a!# it# .i8i et salvavi, and turn# &ith contempt from a c(a## &hichCprefer# the an*r! rantin* of i(($meanin* dema*o*ue# to the ad anta*e# of #o(id education8C +hat, ho&e er, the &or1in*$men appreciate #o(id education &hen the! can *et it unmixed &ith the intere#ted cant of the bour*eoi#ie, the freBuent (ecture# upon #cientific, ae#thetic, and economic #ubDect# pro e &hich are de(i ered e#pecia((! in the Socia(i#t in#titute#, and er! &e(( attended8 " ha e often heard &or1in*$men, &ho#e fu#tian Dac1et# #carce(! he(d to*ether, #pea1 upon *eo(o*ica(, a#tronomica(, and other #ubDect#, &ith more 1no&(ed*e than mo#tCcu(ti atedC bour*eoi# in :erman! po##e##8 9nd in ho& *reat a mea#ure the En*(i#h pro(etariat ha# #ucceeded in attainin* independent education i# #ho&n e#pecia((! b! the fact that the epoch$ma1in* product# of modern phi(o#ophica(, po(itica(, and poetica( (iterature are read b! &or1in*$men a(mo#t exc(u#i e(!8 +he bour*eoi#, en#(a ed b! #ocia( condition# and the preDudice# in o( ed in them, tremb(e#, b(e##e#, and cro##e# him#e(f before e er!thin* &hich rea((! pa e# the &a! for pro*re##; the pro(etarian ha# open e!e# for it, and #tudie# it &ith p(ea#ure and #ucce##8 "n thi# re#pect the Socia(i#t#, e#pecia((!, ha e done &onder# for the education of the pro(etariat8 +he! ha e tran#(ated the 'rench materia(i#t#, 5e( etiu#, 5o(bach, 4iderot, etc8, and di##eminated them, &ith the be#t En*(i#h &or1#, in cheap edition#8 Strau##N $ife of %esus and ProudhonN# 9roperty a(#o circu(ate amon* the &or1in*$men on(!8 She((e!, the *eniu#, the prophet, She((e!, and <!ron, &ith hi# *(o&in* #en#ua(it! and hi# bitter #atire upon our exi#tin* #ociet!, find mo#t of their reader# in the pro(etariat; the bour*eoi#ie o&n# on(! ca#trated edition#, fami(! edition#, cut do&n in accordance &ith the h!pocritica( mora(it! of toda!8 +he t&o *reat practica( phi(o#opher# of (ate#t date, <entham and :od&in, are, e#pecia((! the (atter, a(mo#t exc(u#i e(! the propert! of the pro(etariat; for thou*h <entham ha# a #choo( &ithin the =adica( bour*eoi#ie, it i# on(! the pro(etariat and the Socia(i#t# &ho ha e #ucceeded in de e(opin* hi# teachin*# a #tep for&ard8 +he pro(etariat ha# formed upon thi# ba#i# a (iterature, &hich con#i#t# chief(! of Dourna(# and pamph(et#, and i# far in ad ance of the &ho(e bour*eoi# (iterature in intrin#ic &orth8 ?n thi# point more (ater8 ?ne more point remain# to be noticed8 +he factor! operati e#, and e#pecia((! tho#e of the cotton di#trict, form the nuc(eu# of the (abour mo ement8 %anca#hire, and e#pecia((! Manche#ter, i# the #eat of the mo#t po&erfu( Fnion#, the centra( point of ;harti#m, the p(ace &hich number# mo#t Socia(i#t#8 +he more the factor! #!#tem ha# ta1en po##e##ion of a branch of indu#tr!, the more the &or1in*$men emp(o!ed in it participate in the (abour mo ement; the #harper the oppo#ition bet&een &or1in*$men and capita(i#t#, the c(earer the pro(etarian con#ciou#ne## in the &or1in*$ men8 +he #ma(( ma#ter# of <irmin*ham, thou*h the! #uffer from the cri#e#, #ti(( #tand upon an unhapp! midd(e *round bet&een pro(etarian ;harti#m and #hop1eeper#N =adica(i#m8 <ut, in *enera(, a(( the &or1er# emp(o!ed in manufacture are &on for one form or the other of re#i#tance to capita( and bour*eoi#ie; and a(( are united upon thi# point, that the!, a# &or1in*$men, a tit(e of &hich the! are proud, and &hich i# the u#ua( form of addre## in ;harti#t meetin*#, form a #eparate c(a##, &ith #eparate intere#t# and princip(e#, &ith a #eparate &a! of (oo1in* at thin*# in contra#t &ith that of a(( propert!$o&ner#; and that in thi# c(a## repo#e# the #tren*th and the capacit! of de e(opment of the nation8

The Mining Proletariat

+he production of ra& materia(# and fue( for a manufacture #o co(o##a( a# that of En*(and reBuire# a con#iderab(e number of &or1er#8 <ut of a(( the materia(# needed for it# indu#trie# ,except &oo(, &hich be(on*# to the a*ricu(tura( di#trict#-, En*(and produce# on(! the minera(#: the meta(# and the coa(8 Whi(e ;orn&a(( po##e##e# rich copper, tin, )inc, and (ead mine#, Stafford#hire, Wa(e#, and other di#trict# !ie(d *reat Buantitie# of iron, and a(mo#t the &ho(e /orth and We#t of En*(and, centra( Scot(and, and certain di#trict# of "re(and, produce a #uperabundance of coa(8 81 "n the ;orni#h mine# about 19,777 men, and 11,777 &omen and chi(dren are emp(o!ed, in part abo e and in part be(o& *round8 Within the mine# be(o& *round, men and bo!# abo e t&e( e !ear# o(d are emp(o!ed a(mo#t exc(u#i e(!8 +he condition of the#e &or1er# #eem#, accordin* to the ;hi(drenN# Emp(o!ment ;ommi##ionN# =eport, to be comparati e(! endurab(e, materia((!, and the En*(i#h often enou*h boa#t of their #tron*, bo(d miner#, &ho fo((o& the ein# of minera( be(o& the bottom of the er! #ea8 <ut in the matter of the hea(th of the#e &or1er#, thi# #ame ;hi(drenN# Emp(o!ment ;ommi##ionN# =eport Dud*e# different(!8 "t #ho&# in 4r8 <arhamN# inte((i*ent report ho& the inha(ation of an atmo#phere containin* (itt(e ox!*en, and mixed &ith du#t amid the #mo1e of b(a#tin* po&der, #uch a# pre ai(# in the mine#, #eriou#(! affect# the (un*#, di#turb# the action of the heart, and dimini#he# the acti it! of the di*e#ti e or*an#; that &earin* toi(, and e#pecia((! the c(imbin* up and do&n of (adder#, upon &hich e en i*orou# !oun* men ha e to #pend in #ome mine# more than an hour a da!, and &hich precede# and fo((o&# dai(! &or1, contribute# *reat(! to the de e(opment of the#e e i(#, #o that men &ho be*in thi# &or1 in ear(! !outh are far from reachin* the #tature of &omen &ho &or1 abo e *round; that man! die !oun* of *a((opin* con#umption, and mo#t miner# at midd(e a*e of #(o& con#umption; that the! a*e premature(! and become unfit for &or1 bet&een the thirt!$fifth and fort!$fifth !ear#; that man! are attac1ed b! acute inf(ammation# of the re#pirator! or*an# &hen expo#ed to the #udden chan*e from the &arm air of the #haft ,after c(imbin* the (adder in profu#e per#piration- to the co(d &ind abo e *round; and that the#e acute inf(ammation# are er! freBuent(! fata(8 Wor1 abo e *round, brea1in* and #ortin* the ore, i# done b! *ir(# and chi(dren, and i# de#cribed a# er! &ho(e#ome, bein* done in the open air8 "n the /orth of En*(and, on the border# of /orthumber(and and 4urham, are the exten#i e (ead$ mine# of 9(#ton Moor8 +he report# from thi# di#trict# a*ree a(mo#t &ho((! &ith tho#e from ;orn&a((8 5ere, too, there are comp(aint# of &ant of ox!*en, exce##i e du#t, po&der #mo1e, carbonic acid *a#, and #u(phur, in the atmo#phere of the &or1in*#8 "n con#eBuence, the miner# here, a# in ;orn&a((, are #ma(( of #tature, and near(! a(( #uffer from the thirtieth !ear throu*hout (ife from che#t affection#, &hich end, e#pecia((! &hen thi# &or1 i# per#i#ted in, a# i# a(mo#t a(&a!# the ca#e, in con#umption, #o *reat(! #hortenin* the a era*e of (ife of the#e peop(e8 "f the miner# of thi# di#trict are #ome&hat (on*er (i ed than tho#e of ;orn&a((, thi# i# the ca#e, becau#e the! do not enter the mine# before reachin* the nineteenth !ear, &hi(e in ;orn&a((, a# &e ha e #een, thi# &or1 i# be*un in the t&e(fth !ear8 /e erthe(e##, the maDorit! die here, too, bet&een fort! and fift! !ear# of a*e, accordin* to medica( te#timon!8 ?f .9 miner#, &ho#e death &a# entered upon the pub(ic re*i#ter of the di#trict, and &ho attained an a era*e of 45 !ear#, >. had died of con#umption and 6 of a#thma8 "n the #urroundin* di#trict#, 9((enda(e, Stanhope, and Midd(eton, the a era*e (en*th of (ife &a# 49, 48, and 4. !ear# re#pecti e(!, and the death# from che#t affection# compo#ed 48, 54, and 56 per cent of the &ho(e number8 %et u# compare the#e fi*ure# &ith the #o$ca((ed S&edi#h tab(e#, detai(ed tab(e# of morta(it! embracin* a(( the

inhabitant# of S&eden, and reco*ni#ed in En*(and a# the mo#t correct #tandard hitherto attainab(e for the a era*e (en*th of (ife of the <riti#h &or1in*$c(a##8 9ccordin* to them, ma(e per#on# &ho #ur i e the nineteenth !ear attain an a era*e of 5. 126 !ear#; but, accordin* to thi#, the /orth of En*(and miner# are robbed b! their &or1 of an a era*e of ten !ear# of (ife8 0et the S&edi#h tab(e# are accepted a# the #tandard of (on*e it! of the workers, and pre#ent, therefore, the a era*e chance# of (ife a# affected b! the unfa ourab(e condition# in &hich the pro(etariat (i e#, a #tandard of (on*e it! (e## than the norma( one8 "n thi# di#trict &e find a*ain the (od*in*$hou#e# and #(eepin*$ p(ace# &ith &hich &e ha e a(read! become acBuainted in the to&n#, and in Buite a# fi(th!, di#*u#tin*, and o ercro&ded a #tate a# there8 ;ommi##ioner Mitche(( i#ited one #uch #(eepin* barrac1, 18 feet (on*, 15 feet &ide, and arran*ed for the reception of 46 men and 14 bo!#, or 56 per#on# a(to*ether, one$ha(f of &hom #(ept abo e the other in berth# a# on #hipboard8 +here &a# no openin* for the e#cape of the fou( air; and, a(thou*h no one had #(ept in thi# pen for three ni*ht# precedin* the i#it, the #me(( and the atmo#phere &ere #uch that ;ommi##ioner Mitche(( cou(d not endure it a moment8 What mu#t it be throu*h a hot #ummer ni*ht, &ith fift!$ #ix occupant#K 9nd thi# i# not the #teera*e of an 9merican #(a e #hip, it i# the d&e((in* of free$ born <riton#@ %et u# turn no& to the mo#t important branch of <riti#h minin*, the iron and coa($mine#, &hich the ;hi(drenN# Emp(o!ment ;ommi##ion treat# in common, and &ith a(( the detai( &hich the importance of the #ubDect demand#8 /ear(! the &ho(e of the fir#t part of thi# report i# de oted to the condition of the &or1er# emp(o!ed in the#e mine#8 9fter the detai(ed de#cription &hich " ha e furni#hed of the #tate of the indu#tria( &or1er#, " #ha((, ho&e er, be ab(e to be a# brief in dea(in* &ith thi# #ubDect a# the #cope of the pre#ent &or1 reBuire#8 "n the coa( and iron mine# &hich are &or1ed in prett! much the #ame &a!, chi(dren of four, fi e, and #e en !ear# are emp(o!ed8 +he! are #et to tran#portin* the ore or coa( (oo#ened b! the miner from it# p(ace to the hor#e$path or the main #haft, and to openin* and #huttin* the door# ,&hich #eparate the di i#ion# of the mine and re*u(ate it# enti(ation- for the pa##a*e of &or1er# and materia(8 'or &atchin* the door# the #ma((e#t chi(dren are u#ua((! emp(o!ed, &ho thu# pa## t&e( e hour# dai(!, in the dar1, a(one, #ittin* u#ua((! in damp pa##a*e# &ithout e en ha in* &or1 enou*h to #a e them from the #tupef!in*, bruta(i#in* tedium of doin* nothin*8 +he tran#port of coa( and iron$#tone, on the other hand, i# er! hard (abour, the #tuff bein* #ho ed in (ar*e tub#, &ithout &hee(#, o er the une en f(oor of the mine; often o er moi#t c(a!, or throu*h &ater, and freBuent(! up #teep inc(ine# and throu*h path# #o (o&$roofed that the &or1er# are forced to creep on hand# and 1nee#8 'or thi# more &earin* (abour, therefore, o(der chi(dren and ha(f$*ro&n *ir(# are emp(o!ed8 ?ne man or t&o bo!# per tub are emp(o!ed, accordin* to circum#tance#; and, if t&o bo!#, one pu#he# and the other pu((#8 +he (oo#enin* of the ore or coa(, &hich i# done b! men or #tron* !outh# of #ixteen !ear# or more, i# a(#o er! &ear! &or18 +he u#ua( &or1in*$da! i# e(e en to t&e( e hour#, often (on*er; in Scot(and it reache# fourteen hour#, and doub(e time i# freBuent, &hen a(( the emp(o!ee# are at &or1 be(o& *round t&ent!$four, and e en thirt!$#ix hour# at a #tretch8 Set time# for mea(# are a(mo#t un1no&n, #o that the#e peop(e eat &hen hun*er and time permit8 +he #tandard of (i in* of the miner# i# in *enera( de#cribed a# fair(! *ood and their &a*e# hi*h in compari#on &ith tho#e of the a*ricu(tura( (abourer# #urroundin* them ,&ho, ho&e er, (i e at #tar ation rate#-, except in certain part# of Scot(and and in the "ri#h mine#, &here *reat mi#er! pre ai(#8 We #ha(( ha e occa#ion to return (ater to thi# #tatement, &hich, b! the &a!, i# mere(! re(ati e, imp(!in* compari#on to the poore#t c(a## in a(( En*(and8 Mean&hi(e, &e #ha(( con#ider the e i(# &hich ari#e from the pre#ent method of minin*, and the reader ma! Dud*e &hether an! pa! in mone! can indemnif! the miner for #uch #ufferin*8 +he chi(dren and !oun* peop(e &ho are emp(o!ed in tran#portin* coa( and iron$#tone a(( comp(ain of bein* o ertired8 E en in the mo#t rec1(e##(! conducted indu#tria( e#tab(i#hment#

there i# no #uch uni er#a( and exa**erated o er&or18 +he &ho(e report pro e# thi#, &ith a number of examp(e# on e er! pa*e8 "t i# con#tant(! happenin* that chi(dren thro& them#e( e# do&n on the #tone hearth or the f(oor a# #oon a# the! reach home, fa(( a#(eep at once &ithout bein* ab(e to ta1e a bite of food, and ha e to be &a#hed and put to bed &hi(e a#(eep; it e en happen# that the! (ie do&n on the &a! home, and are found b! their parent# (ate at ni*ht a#(eep on the road8 "t #eem# to be a uni er#a( practice amon* the#e chi(dren to #pend Sunda! in bed to reco er in #ome de*ree from the o erexertion of the &ee18 ;hurch and #choo( are i#ited b! but fe&, and e en of the#e the teacher# comp(ain of their *reat #(eepine## and the &ant of a(( ea*erne## to (earn8 +he #ame thin* i# true of the e(der *ir(# and &omen8 +he! are o er&or1ed in the mo#t bruta( manner8 +hi# &earine##, &hich i# a(mo#t a(&a!# carried to a mo#t painfu( pitch, cannot fai( to affect the con#titution8 +he fir#t re#u(t of #uch o erexertion i# the di er#ion of ita(it! to the one$#ided de e(opment of the mu#c(e#, #o that tho#e e#pecia((! of the arm#, (e*#, and bac1, of the #hou(der# and che#t, &hich are chief(! ca((ed into acti it! in pu#hin* and pu((in*, attain an uncommon(! i*orou# de e(opment, &hi(e a(( the re#t of the bod! #uffer# and i# atrophied from &ant of nouri#hment8 More than a(( e(#e the #tature #uffer#, bein* #tunted and retarded; near(! a(( miner# are #hort, except tho#e of %eice#ter#hire and War&ic1#hire, &ho &or1 under exceptiona((! fa ourab(e condition#8 'urther, amon* bo!# a# &e(( a# *ir(#, pubert! i# retarded, amon* the former often unti( the ei*hteenth !ear; indeed, a nineteen !ear# o(d bo! appeared before ;ommi##ioner S!mon#, #ho&in* no e idence be!ond that of the teeth, that he &a# more than e(e en or t&e( e !ear# o(d8 +hi# pro(on*ation of the period of chi(dhood i# at bottom nothin* more than a #i*n of chec1ed de e(opment, &hich doe# not fai( to bear fruit in (ater !ear#8 4i#tortion# of the (e*#, 1nee# bent in&ard# and feet bent out&ard#, deformitie# of the #pina( co(umn and other ma(formation#, appear the more readi(! in con#titution# thu# &ea1ened, in con#eBuence of the a(mo#t uni er#a((! con#trained po#ition durin* &or1; and the! are #o freBuent that in 0or1#hire and %anca#hire, a# in /orthumber(and and 4urham, the a##ertion i# made b! man! &itne##e#, not on(! b! ph!#ician#, that a miner ma! be reco*ni#ed b! hi# #hape amon* a hundred other per#on#8 +he &omen #eem to #uffer e#pecia((! from thi# &or1, and are #e(dom, if e er, a# #trai*ht a# other &omen8 +here i# te#timon! here, too, to the fact that deformitie# of the pe( i# and con#eBuent difficu(t, e en fata(, chi(d$bearin* ari#e from the &or1 of &omen in the mine#8 <ut apart from the#e (oca( deformitie#, the coa($miner# #uffer from a number of #pecia( affection# ea#i(! exp(ained b! the nature of the &or18 4i#ea#e# of the di*e#ti e or*an# are fir#t in order; &ant of appetite, pain# in the #tomach, nau#ea, and omitin*, are mo#t freBuent, &ith io(ent thir#t, &hich can be Buenched on(! &ith the dirt!, (u1e&arm &ater of the mine; the di*e#tion i# chec1ed and a(( the other affection# are thu# in ited8 4i#ea#e# of the heart, e#pecia((! h!pertroph!, inf(ammation of the heart and pericardium, contraction of the auricu(o$ entricu(ar communication# and the entrance of the aorta are a(#o mentioned repeated(! a# di#ea#e# of the miner#, and are readi(! exp(ained b! o er&or1; and the #ame i# true of the a(mo#t uni er#a( rupture &hich i# a direct con#eBuence of protracted o erexertion8 "n part from the #ame cau#e and in part from the bad, du#t$fi((ed atmo#phere mixed &ith carbonic acid and h!drocarbon *a#, &hich mi*ht #o readi(! be a oided, there ari#e numerou# painfu( and dan*erou# affection# of the (un*#, e#pecia((! a#thma, &hich in #ome di#trict# appear# in the fortieth, in other# in the thirtieth !ear in mo#t of the miner#, and ma1e# them unfit for &or1 in a #hort time8 9mon* tho#e emp(o!ed in &et &or1in*# the oppre##ion in the che#t natura((! appear# much ear(ier; in #ome di#trict# of Scot(and bet&een the t&entieth and thirtieth !ear#, durin* &hich time the affected (un*# are e#pecia((! #u#ceptib(e to inf(ammation# and di#ea#e# of a fe eri#h nature8 +he pecu(iar di#ea#e of &or1er# of thi# #ort i#Cb(ac1 #pitt(eT, &hich ari#e# from the #aturation of the &ho(e (un* &ith coa( partic(e#, and manife#t# it#e(f in *enera( debi(it!, headache, oppre##ion of the che#t, and thic1, b(ac1 mucou# expectoration8 "n #ome di#trict# thi# di#ea#e appear# in a mi(d form; in other#, on the contrar!, it i# &ho((! incurab(e, e#pecia((! in Scot(and8 5ere, be#ide# the #!mptom# Du#t

mentioned, &hich appear in an inten#ified form, #hort, &hee)in* breathin*, rapid pu(#e ,exceedin* 177 per minute-, and abrupt cou*hin*, &ith increa#in* (eanne## and debi(it!, #peedi(! ma1e the patient unfit for &or18 E er! ca#e of thi# di#ea#e end# fata((!8 4r8 Mac1e((ar, in Pencait(and, Ea#t %othian, te#tified that in a(( the coa($mine# &hich are proper(! enti(ated thi# di#ea#e i# un1no&n, &hi(e it freBuent(! happen# that miner# &ho *o from &e(($ to i(($ enti(ated mine# are #ei)ed b! it8 +he profit$*reed of mine o&ner# &hich pre ent# the u#e of enti(ator# i# therefore re#pon#ib(e for the fact, that thi# &or1in*$menN# di#ea#e exi#t# at a((8 =heumati#m, too, i#, &ith the exception of the War&ic1 and %eice#ter#hire &or1er#, a uni er#a( di#ea#e of the coa($ miner#, and ari#e# e#pecia((! from the freBuent(! damp &or1in*$p(ace#8 +he con#eBuence of a(( the#e di#ea#e# i# that, in a(( di#trict# without e8ception, the coa($miner# a*e ear(! and become unfit for &or1 #oon after the fortieth !ear, thou*h thi# i# different in different p(ace#8 9 coa($ miner &ho can fo((o& hi# ca((in* after the 45th or 57th !ear i# a er! *reat rarit! indeed8 "t i# uni er#a((! reco*ni#ed that #uch &or1er# enter upon o(d a*e at fort!8 +hi# app(ie# to tho#e &ho (oo#en the coa( from the bed; the (oader#, &ho ha e con#tant(! to (ift hea ! b(oc1# of coa( into the tub#, a*e &ith the t&ent!$ei*hth or thirtieth !ear, #o that it i# pro erbia( in the coa($minin* di#trict# that the (oader# are o(d before the! are !oun*8 +hat thi# premature o(d a*e i# fo((o&ed b! the ear(! death of the co((ier# i# a matter of cour#e, and a man &ho reache# #ixt! i# a *reat exception amon* them8 E en in South Stafford#hire, &here the mine# are comparati e(! &ho(e#ome, fe& men reach their fift!$fir#t !ear8 9(on* &ith thi# ear(! #uperannuation of the &or1er# &e natura((! find, Du#t a# in the ca#e of the mi((#, freBuent (ac1 of emp(o!ment of the e(der men, &ho are often #upported b! er! !oun* chi(dren8 "f &e #um up brief(! the re#u(t# of the &or1 in coa($mine#, &e find, a# 4r8 South&ood Smith, one of the commi##ioner#, doe#, that throu*h pro(on*ed chi(dhood on the one hand and premature a*e on the other, that period of (ife in &hich the human bein* i# in fu(( po##e##ion of hi# po&er#, the period of manhood, i# *reat(! #hortened, &hi(e the (en*th of (ife in *enera( i# be(o& the a era*e8 +hi#, too, on the debit #ide of the bour*eoi#ieN# rec1onin*@ 9(( thi# dea(# on(! &ith the a era*e of the En*(i#h coa($mine#8 <ut there are man! in &hich the #tate of thin*# i# much &or#e, tho#e, name(!, in &hich thin #eam# of coa( are &or1ed8 +he coa( &ou(d be too expen#i e if a part of the adDacent #and and c(a! &ere remo ed; #o the mine o&ner# permit on(! the #eam# to be &or1ed; &hereb! the pa##a*e# &hich e(#e&here are four or fi e feet hi*h and more are here 1ept #o (o& that to #tand upri*ht in them i# not to be thou*ht of8 +he &or1in*$man (ie# on hi# #ide and (oo#en# the coa( &ith hi# pic1; re#tin* upon hi# e(bo& a# a pi ot, &hence fo((o& inf(ammation# of the Doint, and in ca#e# &here he i# forced to 1nee(, of the 1nee a(#o8 +he &omen and chi(dren &ho ha e to tran#port the coa( cra&( upon their hand# and 1nee#, fa#tened to the tub b! a harne## and chain ,&hich freBuent(! pa##e# bet&een the (e*#-, &hi(e a man behind pu#he# &ith hand# and head8 +he pu#hin* &ith the head en*ender# (oca( irritation#, painfu( #&e((in*#, and u(cer#8 "n man! ca#e#, too, the #haft# are &et, #o that the#e &or1er# ha e to cra&( throu*h dirt! or #a(t &ater #e era( inche# deep, bein* thu# expo#ed to a #pecia( irritation of the #1in8 "t can be readi(! ima*ined ho& *reat(! the di#ea#e# a(read! pecu(iar to the miner# are fo#tered b! thi# e#pecia((! fri*htfu(, #(a i#h toi(8 <ut the#e are not a(( the e i(# &hich de#cend upon the head of the coa($miner8 "n the &ho(e <riti#h Empire there i# no occupation in &hich a man ma! meet hi# end in #o man! di er#e &a!# a# in thi# one8 +he coa($mine i# the #cene of a mu(titude of the mo#t terrif!in* ca(amitie#, and the#e come direct(! from the #e(fi#hne## of the bour*eoi#ie8 +he h!drocarbon *a# &hich de e(op# #o free(! in the#e mine#, form#, &hen combined &ith atmo#pheric air, an exp(o#i e &hich ta1e# fire upon comin* into contact &ith a f(ame, and 1i((# e er! one &ithin it# reach8 Such exp(o#ion# ta1e p(ace, in one mine or another, near(! e er! da!; on September 68th, 1844, one 1i((ed 96 men in 5a#&e(( ;o((ier!, 4urham8 +he carbonic acid *a#, &hich a(#o de e(op# in *reat Buantitie#, accumu(ate# in the deeper part# of the mine, freBuent(! reachin* the hei*ht of a man, and

#uffocate# e er! one &ho *et# into it8 +he door# &hich #eparate the #ection# of the mine# are meant to pre ent the propa*ation of exp(o#ion# and the mo ement of the *a#e#; but #ince the! are entru#ted to #ma(( chi(dren, &ho often fa(( a#(eep or ne*(ect them, thi# mean# of pre ention i# i((u#or!8 9 proper enti(ation of the mine# b! mean# of fre#h air$#haft# cou(d a(mo#t entire(! remo e the inDuriou# effect# of both the#e *a#e#8 <ut for thi# purpo#e the bour*eoi#ie ha# no mone! to #pare, preferrin* to command the &or1in*$men to u#e the 4a ! (amp, &hich i# &ho((! u#e(e## becau#e of it# du(( (i*ht, and i#, therefore, u#ua((! rep(aced b! a cand(e8 "f an exp(o#ion occur#, the rec1(e##ne## of the miner i# b(amed, thou*h the bour*eoi# mi*ht ha e made the exp(o#ion &e(($ni*h impo##ib(e b! #upp(!in* *ood enti(ation8 'urther, e er! fe& da!# the roof of a &or1in* fa((# in, and burie# or man*(e# the &or1er# emp(o!ed in it8 "t i# the intere#t of the bour*eoi# to ha e the #eam# &or1ed out a# comp(ete(! a# po##ib(e, and hence the accident# of thi# #ort8 +hen, too, the rope# b! &hich the men de#cend into the mine# are often rotten, and brea1, #o that the unfortunate# fa((, and are cru#hed8 9(( the#e accident#, and " ha e no room for #pecia( ca#e#, carr! off !ear(!, accordin* to the +ining %ournal, #ome fourteen hundred human bein*#8 +he +anchester *uardian report# at (ea#t t&o or three accident# e er! &ee1 for %anca#hire a(one8 "n near(! a(( minin* di#trict# the peop(e compo#in* the coronerN# Durie# are, in a(mo#t a(( ca#e#, dependent upon the mine o&ner#, and &here thi# i# not the ca#e, immemoria( cu#tom in#ure# that the erdict #ha(( be:C9ccidenta( 4eathT8 <e#ide#, the Dur! ta1e# er! (itt(e intere#t in the #tate of the mine, becau#e it doe# not under#tand an!thin* about the matter8 <ut the ;hi(drenN# Emp(o!ment ;ommi##ion doe# not he#itate to ma1e the mine o&ner# direct(! re#pon#ib(e for the *reater number of the#e ca#e#8 9# to the education and mora(# of the minin* popu(ation, the! are, accordin* to the ;hi(drenN# Emp(o!ment ;ommi##ion, prett! *ood in ;orn&a((, and exce((ent in 9(#ton Moor; in the coa( di#trict#, in *enera(, the! are, on the contrar!, reported a# on an exce##i e(! (o& p(ane8 +he &or1er# (i e in the countr! in ne*(ected re*ion#, and if the! do their &ear! &or1, no human bein* out#ide the po(ice force troub(e# him#e(f about them8 5ence, and from the tender a*e at &hich chi(dren are put to &or1, it fo((o&# that their menta( education i# &ho((! ne*(ected8 +he da! #choo(# are not &ithin their reach, the e enin* and Sunda! #choo(# mere #ham#, the teacher# &orth(e##8 5ence, fe& can read and #ti(( fe&er &rite8 +he on(! point upon &hich their e!e# are a# !et open i# the fact that their &a*e# are far too (o& for their hatefu( and dan*erou# &or18 +o church the! *o #e(dom or ne er; a(( the c(er*! comp(ain of their irre(i*ion a# be!ond compari#on8 9# a matter of fact, their i*norance of re(i*iou# and of #ecu(ar thin*#, a(i1e, i# #uch that the i*norance of the factor! operati e#, #ho&n in numerou# examp(e# in the fore*oin* pa*e#, i# trif(in* in compari#on &ith it8 +he cate*orie# of re(i*ion are 1no&n to them on(! from the term# of their oath#8 +heir mora(it! i# de#tro!ed b! their &or1 it#e(f8 +hat the o er&or1 of a(( miner# mu#t en*ender drun1enne## i# #e(f$ e ident8 9# to their #exua( re(ation#, men, &omen, and chi(dren &or1 in the mine#, in man! ca#e#, &ho((! na1ed, and in mo#t ca#e#, near(! #o, b! rea#on of the pre ai(in* heat, and the con#eBuence# in the dar1, (one(! mine# ma! be ima*ined8 +he number of i((e*itimate chi(dren i# here di#proportionate(! (ar*e, and indicate# &hat *oe# on amon* the ha(f$#a a*e popu(ation be(o& *round; but pro e# too, that the i((e*itimate intercour#e of the #exe# ha# not here, a# in the *reat citie#, #un1 to the (e e( of pro#titution8 +he (abour of &omen entai(# the #ame con#eBuence# a# in the factorie#, di##o( e# the fami(!, and ma1e# the mother tota((! incapab(e of hou#eho(d &or18 When the ;hi(drenN# Emp(o!ment ;ommi##ionN# =eport &a# (aid before Par(iament, %ord 9#h(e! ha#tened to brin* in a bi(( &ho((! forbiddin* the &or1 of &omen in the mine#, and *reat(! (imitin* that of chi(dren8 +he bi(( &a# adopted, but ha# remained a dead (etter in mo#t di#trict#, becau#e no mine in#pector# &ere appointed to &atch o er it# bein* carried into effect8 +he e a#ion of the (a& i# er! ea#! in the countr! di#trict# in &hich the mine# are #ituated; and no one need be #urpri#ed that the Miner#N Fnion (aid before the 5ome Secretar! an officia( notice, (a#t

!ear, that in the 4u1e of 5ami(tonN# coa($mine# in Scot(and, more than #ixt! &omen &ere at &or1; or that the +anchester *uardian reported that a *ir( peri#hed in an exp(o#ion in a mine near Wi*an, and no one troub(ed him#e(f further about the fact that an infrin*ement of the (a& &a# thu# re ea(ed8 "n #in*(e ca#e# the emp(o!ment of &omen ma! ha e been di#continued, but in *enera( the o(d #tate of thin*# remain# a# before8 +he#e are, ho&e er, not a(( the aff(iction# 1no&n to the coa($miner#8 +he bour*eoi#ie, not content &ith ruinin* the hea(th of the#e peop(e, 1eepin* them in dan*er of #udden (o## of (ife, robbin* them of a(( opportunit! for education, p(under# them in other direction# in the mo#t #hame(e## manner8 +he truc1 #!#tem i# here the ru(e, not the exception, and i# carried on in the mo#t direct and undi#*ui#ed manner8 +he cotta*e #!#tem, (i1e&i#e, i# uni er#a(, and here a(mo#t a nece##it!; but it i# u#ed here, too, for the better p(underin* of the &or1er#8 +o the#e mean# of oppre##ion mu#t be added a(( #ort# of direct cheatin*8 Whi(e coa( i# #o(d b! &ei*ht, the &or1erN# &a*e# are rec1oned chief(! b! mea#ure; and &hen hi# tub i# not perfect(! fu(( he recei e# no pa! &hate er, &hi(e he *et# not a farthin* for o ermea#ure8 "f there i# more than a #pecified Buantit! of du#t in the tub, a matter &hich depend# much (e## upon the miner than upon the nature of the #eam, he not on(! (o#e# hi# &ho(e &a*e but i# fined be#ide#8 +he fine #!#tem in *enera( i# #o hi*h(! perfected in the coa($mine#, that a poor de i( &ho ha# &or1ed the &ho(e &ee1 and come# for hi# &a*e#, #ometime# (earn# from the o er#eer, &ho fine# at di#cretion and &ithout #ummonin* the &or1er#, that he not on(! ha# no &a*e# but mu#t pa! #o and #o much in fine# extra@ +he o er#eer ha#, in *enera(, ab#o(ute po&er o er &a*e#; he note# the &or1 done, and can p(ea#e him#e(f a# to &hat he pa!# the &or1er, &ho i# forced to ta1e hi# &ord8 "n #ome mine#, &here the pa! i# accordin* to &ei*ht, fa(#e decima( #ca(e# are u#ed, &ho#e &ei*ht# are not #ubDect to the in#pection of the authoritie#; in one coa($mine there &a# actua((! a re*u(ation that an! &or1man &ho intended to comp(ain of the fa(#ene## of the #ca(e# must give notice to the overseer three weeks in advance4 "n man! di#trict#, e#pecia((! in the /orth of En*(and, it i# cu#tomar! to en*a*e the &or1er# b! the !ear; the! p(ed*e them#e( e# to &or1 for no other emp(o!er durin* that time, but the mine o&ner b! no mean# p(ed*e# him#e(f to *i e them &or1, #o that the! are often &ithout it for month# to*ether, and if the! #ee1 e(#e&here, the! are #ent to the treadmi(( for #ix &ee1# for breach of contract8 "n other contract#, &or1 to the amount of 66#8 e er! 14 da!#, i# promi#ed the miner#, but not furni#hed; in other# #ti((, the emp(o!er# ad ance the miner# #ma(( #um# to be &or1ed out after&ard#, thu# bindin* the debtor# to them#e( e#8 "n the /orth, the cu#tom i# *enera( of 1eepin* the pa!ment of &a*e# one &ee1 behindhand, chainin* the miner# in thi# &a! to their &or18 9nd to comp(ete the #(a er! of the#e enthra((ed &or1er#, near(! a(( the Lu#tice# of the Peace in the coa( di#trict# are mine o&ner# them#e( e#, or re(ati e# or friend# of mine o&ner#, and po##e## a(mo#t un(imited po&er in the#e poor, unci i(i#ed re*ion# &here there are fe& ne&#paper#, the#e fe& in the #er ice of the ru(in* c(a##, and but (itt(e other a*itation8 "t i# a(mo#t be!ond conception ho& the#e poor coa($miner# ha e been p(undered and t!ranni#ed o er b! Lu#tice# of the Peace actin* a# Dud*e# in their o&n cau#e8 So it &ent on for a (on* time8 +he &or1er# did not 1no& an! better than that the! &ere there for the purpo#e of bein* #&ind(ed out of their er! (i e#8 <ut *radua((!, e en amon* them, and e#pecia((! in the factor! di#trict#, &here contact &ith the more inte((i*ent operati e# cou(d not fai( of it# effect, there aro#e a #pirit of oppo#ition to the #hame(e## oppre##ion of theCcoa( 1in*#T8 +he men be*an to form Fnion# and #tri1e from time to time8 "n ci i(i#ed di#trict# the! Doined the ;harti#t# bod! and #ou(8 +he *reat coa( di#trict of the /orth of En*(and, #hut off from a(( indu#tria( intercour#e, remained bac1&ard unti(, after man! effort#, part(! of the ;harti#t# and part(! of the more inte((i*ent miner# them#e( e#, a *enera( #pirit of oppo#ition aro#e in 184>8 Such a mo ement #ei)ed the &or1er# of /orthumber(and and 4urham that the! p(aced them#e( e# at the forefront of a *enera( Fnion of coa($miner# throu*hout the 1in*dom, and appointed W8 P8 =obert#, a ;harti#t #o(icitor, of <ri#to(, theirC9ttorne! :enera(T, he ha in*

di#tin*ui#hed him#e(f in ear(ier ;harti#t tria(#8 +he Fnion #oon #pread o er a *reat maDorit! of the di#trict#; a*ent# &ere appointed in a(( direction#, &ho he(d meetin*# e er!&here and #ecured ne& member#; at the fir#t conference of de(e*ate#, in Manche#ter, in 1844, there &ere 67,777 member# repre#ented, and at :(a#*o&, #ix month# (ater, at the #econd conference, 177,7778 5ere a(( the affair# of the coa($miner# &ere di#cu##ed and deci#ion# a# to the *reater #tri1e# arri ed at8 Se era( Dourna(# &ere founded, e#pecia((! the +iner:s -dvocate at /e&ca#t(e$upon$+!ne, for defendin* the ri*ht# of the miner#8 ?n March >1#t, 1844, the contract# of a(( the miner# of /orthumber(and and 4urham expired8 =obert# &a# empo&ered to dra& up a ne& a*reement, in &hich the men demanded: ,1- Pa!ment b! &ei*ht in#tead of mea#ure; ,6- 4etermination of &ei*ht b! mean# of ordinar! #ca(e# #ubDect to the pub(ic in#pector#; ,>- 5a(f$!ear(! rene&a( of contract#; ,4- 9bo(ition of the fine# #!#tem and pa!ment accordin* to &or1 actua((! done; ,5- +he emp(o!er# to *uarantee to miner# in their exc(u#i e #er ice at (ea#t four da!#N &or1 per &ee1, or &a*e# for the #ame8 +hi# a*reement &a# #ubmitted to theCcoa( 1in*#T, and a deputation appointed to ne*otiate &ith them; the! an#&ered, ho&e er, that for them the Fnion did not exi#t, that the! had to dea( &ith #in*(e &or1men on(!, and #hou(d ne er reco*ni#e the Fnion8 +he! a(#o #ubmitted an a*reement of their o&n &hich i*nored a(( the fore*oin* point#, and &a#, natura((!, refu#ed b! the miner#8 War &a# thu# dec(ared8 ?n March >1#t, 1844, 47,777 miner# (aid do&n their pic1#, and e er! mine in the count! #tood empt!8 +he fund# of the Fnion &ere #o con#iderab(e that for #e era( month# a &ee1(! contribution of 6#8 6d8 cou(d be a##ured to each fami(!8 Whi(e the miner# &ere thu# puttin* the patience of their ma#ter# to the te#t, =obert# or*ani#ed &ith incomparab(e per#e erance both #tri1e and a*itation, arran*ed for the ho(din* of meetin*#, tra er#ed En*(and from one end to the other, preached peacefu( and (e*a( a*itation, and carried on a cru#ade a*ain#t the de#potic Lu#tice# of the Peace and truc1 ma#ter#, #uch a# had ne er been 1no&n in En*(and8 +hi# he had be*un at the be*innin* of the !ear8 Where er a miner had been condemned b! a Lu#tice of the Peace, he obtained a ha,eas corpus from the ;ourt of OueenN# bench, brou*ht hi# c(ient to %ondon, and a(&a!# #ecured an acBuitta(8 +hu#, Lanuar! 1>th, Lud*e Wi((iam# of OueenN# bench acBuitted three miner# condemned b! the Lu#tice# of the Peace of <i(#ton, South Stafford#hire; the offence of the#e peop(e &a# that the! refu#ed to &or1 in a p(ace &hich threatened to ca e in, and had actua((! ca ed in before their return@ ?n an ear(ier occa#ion, Lud*e Patte#on had acBuitted #ix &or1in*$men, #o that the name =obert# be*an to be a terror to the mine o&ner#8 "n Pre#ton four of hi# c(ient# &ere in Dai(8 "n the fir#t &ee1 of Lanuar! he proceeded thither to in e#ti*ate the ca#e on the #pot, but found, &hen he arri ed, the condemned a(( re(ea#ed before the expiration of the #entence8 "n Manche#ter there &ere #e en in Dai(; =obert# obtained a ha,eas corpus and acBuitta( for a(( from Lud*e Wi*htman8 "n Pre#cott nine coa($miner# &ere in Dai(, accu#ed of creatin* a di#turbance in St8 5e(en#, South %anca#hire, and a&aitin* tria(; &hen =obert# arri ed upon the #pot, the! &ere re(ea#ed at once8 9(( thi# too1 p(ace in the fir#t ha(f of 'ebruar!8 "n 9pri(, =obert# re(ea#ed a miner from Dai( in 4erb!, four in Wa1efie(d, and four in %eice#ter8 So it &ent on for a time unti( the#e 4o*berrie# came to ha e #ome re#pect for the miner#8 +he truc1 #!#tem #hared the #ame fate8 ?ne after another =obert# brou*ht the di#reputab(e mine o&ner# before the court#, and compe((ed the re(uctant Lu#tice# of the Peace to condemn them; #uch dread of thi#C(i*htnin*CI9ttorne! :enera(C &ho #eemed to be e er!&here at once #pread amon* them, that at <e(per, for in#tance, upon =obert#N arri a(, a truc1 firm pub(i#hed the fo((o&in* notice:

N O T I C E! Pentrich Colliery
Me##r#8 5a#(am thin1 it ri*ht ,to pre ent mi#ta1e-, to *i e notice that a(( men emp(o!ed at their co((ier! &i(( recei e their &a*e# &ho((! in mone!, and be at (ibert! to #pend it &here the! (i1e8 "f the! bu! at Me##r#8 5a#(amN# #hop the! &i(( be #upp(ied ,a# heretofore- at &ho(e#a(e price#; but

the! are not expected to bu! there, and &i(( ha e the #ame &or1 and &a*e# &hether the! *o to that #hop or an! other8 +hi# triumph arou#ed the *reate#t Dubi(ation throu*hout the En*(i#h &or1in*$c(a##, and brou*ht the Fnion a ma## of ne& member#8 Mean&hi(e the #tri1e in the /orth &a# proceedin*8 /ot a hand #tirred, and /e&ca#t(e, the chief coa( port, &a# #o #tripped of it# commodit! that coa( had to be brou*ht from the Scotch coa#t, in #pite of the pro erb8 9t fir#t, &hi(e the FnionN# fund# he(d out, a(( &ent &e((, but to&ard# #ummer the #tru**(e became much more painfu( for the miner#8 +he *reate#t &ant pre ai(ed amon* them; the! had no mone!, for the contribution# of the &or1er# of a(( branche# of indu#tr! in En*(and a ai(ed (itt(e amon* the a#t number of #tri1er#, &ho &ere forced to borro& from the #ma(( #hop1eeper# at a hea ! (o##8 +he &ho(e pre##, &ith the #in*(e exception of the fe& pro(etarian Dourna(#, &a# a*ain#t them; the bour*eoi#, e en the fe& amon* them &ho mi*ht ha e had enou*h #en#e of Du#tice to #upport the miner#, (earnt from the corrupt %ibera( and ;on#er ati e #heet# on(! (ie# about them8 9 deputation of t&e( e miner# &ho &ent to %ondon recei ed a #um from the pro(etariat there, but thi#, too, a ai(ed (itt(e amon* the ma## &ho needed #upport8 0et, in #pite of a(( thi#, the miner# remained #teadfa#t, and &hat i# e en more #i*nificant, &ere Buiet and peaceab(e in the face of a(( the ho#ti(itie# and pro ocation of the mine o&ner# and their faithfu( #er ant#8 /o act of re en*e &a# carried out, not a rene*ade &a# ma(treated, not one #in*(e theft committed8 +hu# the #tri1e had continued &e(( on to&ard# four month#, and the mine o&ner# #ti(( had no pro#pect of *ettin* the upper hand8 ?ne &a! &a#, ho&e er, #ti(( open to them8 +he! remembered the cotta*e #!#tem; it occurred to them that the hou#e# of the rebe((iou# #pirit# &ere +5E"= propert!8 "n Lu(!, notice to Buit &a# #er ed the &or1er#, and, in a &ee1, the &ho(e fort! thou#and &ere put out of door#8 +hi# mea#ure &a# carried out &ith re o(tin* crue(t!8 +he #ic1, the feeb(e, o(d men and (itt(e chi(dren, e en &omen in chi(d$birth, &ere merci(e##(! turned from their bed# and ca#t into the road#ide ditche#8 ?ne a*ent dra**ed b! the hair from her bed, and into the #treet, a &oman in the pan*# of chi(d$birth8 So(dier# and po(ice in cro&d# &ere pre#ent, read! to fire at the fir#t #!mptom of re#i#tance, on the #(i*hte#t hint of the Lu#tice# of the Peace, &ho had brou*ht about the &ho(e bruta( procedure8 +hi#, too, the &or1in*$men endured &ithout re#i#tance8 +he hope had been that the men &ou(d u#e io(ence; the! &ere #purred on &ith a(( force to infrin*ement# of the (a&#, to furni#h an excu#e for ma1in* an end of the #tri1e b! the inter ention of the mi(itar!8 +he home(e## miner#, rememberin* the &arnin*# of their 9ttorne! :enera(, remained unmo ed, #et up their hou#eho(d *ood# upon the moor# or the har e#ted fie(d#, and he(d out8 Some, &ho had no other p(ace, encamped on the road#ide# and in ditche#, other# upon (and be(on*in* to other peop(e, &hereupon the! &ere pro#ecuted, and, ha in* cau#edCdama*e of the a(ue of a ha(fpenn!T, &ere fined a pound, and, bein* unab(e to pa! it, &or1ed it out on the treadmi((8 +hu# the! (i ed ei*ht &ee1# and more of the &et fa*$end of (a#t #ummer under the open #1! &ith their fami(ie#, &ith no further #he(ter for them#e( e# and their (itt(e one# than the ca(ico curtain# of their bed#; &ith no other he(p than the #cant! a((o&ance# of their Fnion and the fa#t #hrin1in* credit &ith the #ma(( dea(er#8 5ereupon %ord %ondonderr!, &ho o&n# con#iderab(e mine# in 4urham, threatened the #ma(( trade#men inChi#T to&n of Seaham &ith hi# mo#t hi*h di#p(ea#ure if the! #hou(d continue to *i e credit toChi#T rebe((iou# &or1er#8 +hi#Cnob(eT (ord made him#e(f the fir#t c(o&n of the turnout in con#eBuence of the ridicu(ou#, pompou#, un*rammatica( u1a#e# addre##ed to the &or1er#, &hich he pub(i#hed from time to time, &ith no other re#u(t than the merriment of the nation8 When none of their effort# produced an! effect, the mine o&ner# imported, at *reat expen#e, hand# from "re(and and #uch remote part# of Wa(e# a# ha e a# !et no (abour mo ement8 9nd &hen the competition of &or1er# a*ain#t &or1er# &a# thu# re#tored, the #tren*th of the #tri1er# co((ap#ed8 +he mine o&ner# ob(i*ed them to renounce the Fnion, abandon =obert#, and accept the condition# (aid do&n b! the emp(o!er#8 +hu# ended at the c(o#e of September the *reat fi e month#N batt(e of the coa($miner# a*ain#t the mine o&ner#, a batt(e fou*ht on the part of the

oppre##ed &ith 8an endurance, coura*e, inte((i*ence, and coo(ne## &hich demand# the hi*he#t admiration8 What a de*ree of true human cu(ture, of enthu#ia#m and #tren*th of character, #uch a batt(e imp(ie# on the part of men &ho, a# &e ha e #een in the ;hi(drenN# Emp(o!ment ;ommi##ionN# =eport, &ere de#cribed a# (ate a# 1847, a# bein* thorou*h(! bruta( and &antin* in mora( #en#e@ <ut ho& hard, too, mu#t ha e been the pre##ure &hich brou*ht the#e fort! thou#and co((ier# to ri#e a# one man and to fi*ht out the batt(e (i1e an arm! not on(! &e(($di#cip(ined but enthu#ia#tic, an arm! po##e##ed of one #in*(e determination, &ith the *reate#t coo(ne## and compo#ure, to a point be!ond &hich further re#i#tance &ou(d ha e been madne##8 9nd &hat a batt(e@ /ot a*ain#t i#ib(e, morta( enemie#, but a*ain#t hun*er, &ant, mi#er!, and home(e##ne##, a*ain#t their o&n pa##ion# pro o1ed to madne## b! the bruta(it! of &ea(th8 "f the! had re o(ted &ith io(ence, the!, the unarmed and defence(e##, &ou(d ha e been #hot do&n, and a da! or t&o &ou(d ha e decided the ictor! of the o&ner#8 +hi# (a&$abidin* re#er e &a# no fear of the con#tab(eN# #taff, it &a# the re#u(t of de(iberation, the be#t proof of the inte((i*ence and #e(f$ contro( of the &or1in*$men8 +hu# &ere the &or1in*$men forced once more, in #pite of their unexamp(ed endurance, to #uccumb to the mi*ht of capita(8 <ut the fi*ht had not been in ain8 'ir#t of a((, thi# nineteen &ee1#N #tri1e had tom the miner# of the /orth of En*(and fore er from the inte((ectua( death in &hich the! had hitherto (ain; the! ha e (eft their #(eep, are a(ert to defend their intere#t#, and ha e entered the mo ement of ci i(i#ation, and e#pecia((! the mo ement of the &or1er#8 +he #tri1e, &hich fir#t brou*ht to (i*ht the &ho(e crue(t! of the o&ner#, ha# e#tab(i#hed the oppo#ition of the &or1er# here, fore er, and made at (ea#t t&o$third# of them ;harti#t#; and the acBui#ition of thirt! thou#and #uch determined, experienced men i# certain(! of *reat a(ue to the ;harti#t#8 +hen, too, the endurance and (a&$abidin* &hich characteri#ed the &ho(e #tri1e, coup(ed &ith the acti e a*itation &hich accompanied it, ha# fixed pub(ic attention upon the miner#8 ?n the occa#ion of the debate upon the export dut! on coa(, +homa# 4uncombe, the on(! decided(! ;harti#t member of the 5ou#e of ;ommon#, brou*ht up the condition of the coa($miner#, had their petition read, and b! hi# #peech forced the bour*eoi# Dourna(# to pub(i#h, at (ea#t in their report# of Par(iamentar! proceedin*#, a correct #tatement of the ca#e8 "mmediate(! after the #tri1e, occurred the exp(o#ion at 5a#&e((; =obert# &ent to %ondon, demanded an audience &ith Pee(, in#i#ted a# repre#entati e of the miner# upon a thorou*h in e#ti*ation of the ca#e, and #ucceeded in ha in* the fir#t *eo(o*ica( and chemica( notabi(itie# of En*(and, Profe##or# %!e(( and 'arada!, commi##ioned to i#it the #pot8 9# #e era( other exp(o#ion# fo((o&ed in Buic1 #ucce##ion, and =obert# a*ain (aid the detai(# before the Prime Mini#ter, the (atter promi#ed to propo#e the nece##ar! mea#ure# for the protection of the &or1er#, if po##ib(e, in the next #e##ion of Par(iament, i8 e8, the pre#ent one of 18458 9(( thi# &ou(d not ha e been accomp(i#hed if the#e &or1er# had not, b! mean# of the #tri1e, pro ed them#e( e# freedom$(o in* men &orth! of a(( re#pect, and if the! had not en*a*ed =obert# a# their coun#e(8 Scarce(! had it become 1no&n that the coa($miner# of the /orth had been forced to renounce the Fnion and di#char*e =obert#, &hen the miner# of %anca#hire formed a Fnion of #ome ten thou#and men, and *uaranteed their 9ttorne! :enera( a #a(ar! of U1,677 a !ear8 "n the autumn of (a#t !ear the! co((ected more than U.77, rather more than U677 of &hich the! expended upon #a(arie# and Dudicia( expen#e#, and the re#t chief(! in #upport of men out of &or1, either throu*h &ant of emp(o!ment or throu*h di##en#ion# &ith their emp(o!er#8 +hu# the &or1in*$men are con#tant(! comin* to #ee more c(ear(! that, united, the! too are a re#pectab(e po&er, and can, in the (a#t extremit!, def! e en the mi*ht of the bour*eoi#ie8 9nd thi# in#i*ht, the *ain of a(( (abour mo ement#, ha# been &on for a(( the miner# of En*(and b! the Fnion and the #tri1e of 18448 "n a er! #hort time the difference of inte((i*ence and ener*! &hich no& exi#t# in fa our of the factor! operati e# &i(( ha e ani#hed, and the miner# of the 1in*dom &i(( be ab(e to #tand abrea#t of them in e er! re#pect8 +hu# one piece of #tandin* *round after another i# undermined beneath the

feet of the bour*eoi#ie; and ho& (on* &i(( it be before their &ho(e #ocia( and po(itica( edifice co((ap#e# &ith the ba#i# upon &hich it re#t#K <ut the bour*eoi#ie &i(( not ta1e &arnin*8 +he re#i#tance of the miner# doe# but embitter it the more8 "n#tead of appreciatin* thi# for&ard #tep in the *enera( mo ement of the &or1er#, the propert!$ho(din* c(a## #a& in it on(! a #ource of ra*e a*ain#t a c(a## of peop(e &ho are foo(# enou*h to dec(are them#e( e# no (on*er #ubmi##i e to the treatment the! had hitherto recei ed8 "t #a& in the Du#t demand# of the non$po##e##in* &or1er# on(! impertinent di#content, mad rebe((ion a*ain#tC4i ine and human orderT, and, in the be#t ca#e, a #ucce## ,to be re#i#ted b! the bour*eoi#ie &ith a(( it# mi*ht- &on b!Ci(($intentioned dema*o*ue# &ho (i e b! a*itation and are too (a)! to &or1T8 "t #ou*ht, of cour#e, &ithout #ucce##, to repre#ent to the &or1er# that =obert# and the FnionN# a*ent#, &hom the Fnion er! natura((! had to pa!, &ere in#o(ent #&ind(er#, &ho dre& the (a#t farthin* from the &or1in*$menN# poc1et#8 When #uch in#anit! pre ai(# in the propert!$ho(din* c(a##, &hen it i# #o b(inded b! it# momentar! profit that it no (on*er ha# e!e# for the mo#t con#picuou# #i*n# of the time#, #ure(! a(( hope of a peacefu( #o(ution of the #ocia( Bue#tion for En*(and mu#t be abandoned8 +he on(! po##ib(e #o(ution i# a io(ent re o(ution, &hich cannot fai( to ta1e p(ace8

The Agric'lt'ral Proletariat

We ha e #een in the introduction ho&, #imu(taneou#(! &ith the #ma(( bour*eoi#ie and the mode#t independence of the former &or1er#, the #ma(( pea#antr! a(#o &a# ruined &hen the former Fnion of indu#tria( and a*ricu(tura( &or1 &a# di##o( ed, the abandoned fie(d# thro&n to*ether into (ar*e farm#, and the #ma(( pea#ant# #uper#eded b! the o er&he(min* competition of the (ar*e farmer#8 "n#tead of bein* (ando&ner# or (ea#eho(der#, a# the! had been hitherto, the! &ere no& ob(i*ed to hire them#e( e# a# (abourer# to the (ar*e farmer# or the (and(ord#8 'or a time thi# po#ition &a# endurab(e, thou*h a deterioration in compari#on &ith their former one8 +he exten#ion of indu#tr! 1ept pace &ith the increa#e of popu(ation unti( the pro*re## of manufacture be*an to a##ume a #(o&er pace, and the perpetua( impro ement of machiner! made it impo##ib(e for manufacture to ab#orb the &ho(e #urp(u# of the a*ricu(tura( popu(ation8 'rom thi# time for&ard, the di#tre## &hich had hitherto exi#ted on(! in the manufacturin* di#trict#, and then on(! at time#, appeared in the a*ricu(tura( di#trict# too8 +he t&ent!$fi e !ear#N #tru**(e &ith 'rance came to an end at about the #ame time; the dimini#hed production at the ariou# #eat# of the &ar#, the #huttin* off of import#, and the nece##it! of pro idin* for the <riti#h arm! in Spain, had *i en En*(i#h a*ricu(ture an artificia( pro#perit!, and had be#ide# &ithdra&n to the arm! a#t number# of &or1er# from their ordinar! occupation#8 +hi# chec1 upon the import trade, the opportunit! for exportation, and the mi(itar! demand for &or1er#, no& #udden(! came to an end; and the nece##ar! con#eBuence &a# &hat the En*(i#h ca(( a*ricu(tura( di#tre##8 +he farmer# had to #e(( their corn at (o& price#, and cou(d, therefore, pa! on(! (o& &a*e#8 "n 1815, in order to 1eep up price#, the ;orn %a&# &ere pa##ed, prohibitin* the importation of corn #o (on* a# the price of &heat continued (e## than 87 #hi((in*# per Buarter8 +he#e natura((! ineffecti e (a&# &ere #e era( time# modified, but did not #ucceed in ame(ioratin* the di#tre## in the a*ricu(tura( di#trict#8 9(( that the! did &a# to chan*e the di#ea#e, &hich, under free competition from abroad, &ou(d ha e a##umed an acute form, cu(minatin* in a #erie# of cri#e#, into a chronic one &hich bore hea i(! but uniform(! upon the farm (abourer#8 'or a time after the ri#e of the a*ricu(tura( pro(etariat, the patriarcha( re(ation bet&een ma#ter and man, &hich &a# bein* de#tro!ed for manufacture, de e(oped here the #ame re(ation of the farmer to hi# hand# &hich #ti(( exi#t# a(mo#t e er!&here in :erman!8 So (on* a# thi# (a#ted, the po ert! of the farm$hand# &a# (e## con#picuou#; the! #hared the fate of the farmer, and &ere di#char*ed on(! in ca#e# of the dire#t nece##it!8 <ut no& a(( thi# i# chan*ed8 +he farm$hand# ha e become da!$(abourer# a(mo#t e er!&here, are emp(o!ed on(! &hen needed b! the farmer#, and, therefore, often ha e no &or1 for &ee1# to*ether, e#pecia((! in &inter8 "n the patriarcha( time, the hand# and their fami(ie# (i ed on the farm, and their chi(dren *re& up there, the farmer tr!in* to find occupation on the #pot for the oncomin* *eneration; da!$(abourer#, then, &ere the exception, not the ru(e8 +hu# there &a#, on e er! farm, a (ar*er number of hand# than &ere #trict(! nece##ar!8 "t became, therefore, the intere#t of the farmer# to di##o( e thi# re(ation, dri e the farm$hand from the farm, and tran#form him into a da!$(abourer8 +hi# too1 p(ace prett! *enera((! to&ard# the !ear 18>7, and the con#eBuence &a# that the hitherto (atent o er$popu(ation &a# #et free, the rate of &a*e# forced do&n, and the poor$rate enormou#(! increa#ed8 'rom thi# time the a*ricu(tura( di#trict# became the headBuarter# of permanent, a# the manufacturin* di#trict# had (on* been of periodic, pauperi#m, and the modification of the Poor %a& &a# the fir#t mea#ure &hich the State &a# ob(i*ed to app(! to the dai(! increa#in* impo eri#hment of the countr! pari#he#8 Moreo er, the con#tant exten#ion of farmin* on a (ar*e #ca(e, the introduction of thre#hin* and other machine#, and the emp(o!ment of &omen and chi(dren ,&hich i# no& #o *enera( that it# effect# ha e recent(! been in e#ti*ated b! a #pecia( officia( commi##ion-, thre& a (ar*e number of men

out of emp(o!ment8 "t i# manife#t, therefore, that here, too, the #!#tem of indu#tria( production ha# made it# entrance, b! mean# of farmin* on a (ar*e #ca(e, b! the abo(ition of the patriarcha( re(ation, &hich i# of the *reate#t importance Du#t here, b! the introduction of machiner!, #team, and the (abour of &omen and chi(dren8 "n #o doin*, it ha# #&ept the (a#t and mo#t #tationar! portion of &or1in* humanit! into the re o(utionar! mo ement8 <ut the (on*er a*ricu(ture had remained #tationar!, the hea ier no& became the burden upon the &or1er, the more io(ent(! bro1e forth the re#u(t# of the di#or*ani#ation of the o(d #ocia( fabric8 +heCo er$popu(ationT came to (i*ht a(( at once, and cou(d not, a# in the manufacturin* di#trict#, be ab#orbed b! the need# of an increa#in* production8 /e& factorie# cou(d a(&a!# be bui(t, if there &ere con#umer# for their product#, but ne& (and cou(d not be created8 +he cu(ti ation of &a#te common (and &a# too darin* a #pecu(ation for the bad time# fo((o&in* the conc(u#ion of peace8 +he nece##ar! con#eBuence &a# that the competition of the &or1er# amon* each other reached the hi*he#t point of inten#it!, and &a*e# fe(( to the minimum8 So (on* a# the ?(d Poor %a& exi#ted, the &or1er# recei ed re(ief from the rate#; &a*e# natura((! fe(( #ti(( (o&er, becau#e the farmer# forced the (ar*e#t po##ib(e number of (abourer# to c(aim re(ief8 +he hi*her poor$rate, nece##itated b! the #urp(u# popu(ation, &a# on(! increa#ed b! thi# mea#ure, and the /e& Poor %a&, of &hich &e #ha(( ha e more to #a! (ater, &a# no& enacted a# a remed!8 <ut thi# did not impro e matter#8 Wa*e# did not ri#e, the #urp(u# popu(ation cou(d not be *ot rid of, and the crue(t! of the ne& (a& did but #er e to embitter the peop(e to the utmo#t8 E en the poor$rate, &hich dimini#hed at fir#t after the pa##a*e of the ne& (a&, attained it# o(d hei*ht after a fe& !ear#8 "t# on(! effect &a# that &herea# pre iou#(! three to four mi((ion ha(f$pauper# had exi#ted, a mi((ion of tota( pauper# no& appeared, and the re#t, #ti(( ha(f$pauper#, mere(! &ent &ithout re(ief8 +he po ert! in the a*ricu(tura( di#trict# ha# increa#ed e er! !ear8 +he peop(e (i e in the *reate#t &ant, &ho(e fami(ie# mu#t #tru**(e a(on* &ith 6, ., or 8 #hi((in*# a &ee1, and at time# ha e nothin*8 %et u# hear a de#cription of thi# popu(ation *i en b! a %ibera( member of Par(iament a# ear(! a# 18>7: T+hat i# an En*(i#h pea#ant or pauper; for the &ord# are #!non!mou#8 5i# #ire &a# a pauper, and hi# motherN# mi(1 &anted nouri#hment8 'rom infanc! hi# food ha# been bad a# &e(( a# in#ufficient; and he no& fee(# the pain# of un#ati#fied hun*er near(! &hene er he i# a&a1e8 <ut ha(f$c(othed, and ne er #upp(ied &ith more &armth than #uffice# to coo1 hi# #cant! mea(#, co(d and &et come to him, and #ta! b! him &ith the &eather8 5e i# married, but he ha# not ta#ted the hi*he#t Do!# of hu#band and father8 5i# partner, and (itt(e one# bein*, (i1e him#e(f, often hun*r!, #e(dom &arm, #ometime# #ic1 &ithout aid, and a(&a!# #orro&fu( &ithout hope, are *reed!,

#e(fi#h, and exin*; #o, to u#e hi# o&n expre##ion, he Nhate# the #i*ht of themN, and re#ort# to hi# ho e(, on(! becau#e a hed*e afford# (e## #he(ter from the &ind and rain8T 5e mu#t #upport hi# fami(!, thou*h he cannot do #o8C+hi# brin*# be**in*, tric1er!, and Buarre((in*; and end# in #ett(ed craft8 +hou*h he ha e the inc(ination, he &ant# the coura*e to become, (i1e more ener*etic men of hi# c(a##, a poacher or #mu**(er on a (ar*e #ca(e; but he pi(fer# occa#iona((!, and teache# hi# chi(dren to (ie and #tea(8 5i# #ubdued and #(a i#h manner to&ard hi# *reat nei*hbour# #ho&# that the! treat him &ith #u#picion and har#hne##8 ;on#eBuent(!, he at once dread# and hate# them; but he &i(( ne er harm then b! io(ent mean#8 +oo de*raded to be de#perate, he i# thorou*h(! depra ed8 5i# mi#erab(e career &i(( be #hort; rheumati#m and a#thma are conductin* him to the &or1hou#e, &here he &i(( breathe hi# (a#t &ithout one p(ea#ant reco((ection, and #o ma1e room for another &retch &ho ma! (i e and die in the #ame &a!8T ?ur author add# that be#ide# thi# c(a## of a*ricu(tura( (abourer#, there i# #ti(( another, #ome&hat more ener*etic and better endo&ed ph!#ica((!, menta((!, and mora((!; tho#e, name(!, &ho (i e a# &retched(!, but &ere not born to thi# condition8 +he#e he repre#ent# a# better in their fami(! (ife, but #mu**(er# and poacher# &ho *et into freBuent b(ood! conf(ict# &ith the *ame1eeper# and re enue officer# of the coa#t, become more embittered a*ain#t #ociet! durin* the pri#on (ife &hich the! often under*o, and #o #tand abrea#t of the fir#t c(a## in their hatred of the propert!$ ho(der#8

T<! courte#!,T he #a!#, in c(o#in*,Cthe entire bod! i# ca((ed Nthe bo(d pea#antr! of En*(andN8T 4o&n to the pre#ent time, thi# de#cription app(ie# to the *reater portion of the a*ricu(tura( (abourer# of En*(and8 "n Lune, 1844, the !imes #ent a corre#pondent into the a*ricu(tura( di#trict# to report upon the condition of thi# c(a##, and the report &hich he furni#hed a*reed &ho((! &ith the fore*oin*8 "n certain di#trict# &a*e# &ere not more than #ix #hi((in*# a &ee1; not more, that i#, than in man! di#trict# in :erman!, &hi(e the price# of a(( the nece##arie# of (ife are at (ea#t t&ice a# hi*h8 What #ort of (ife the#e peop(e (ead ma! be ima*ined; their food #cant! and bad, their c(othin* ra**ed, their d&e((in*# cramped and de#o(ate, #ma((, &retched hut#, &ith no comfort# &hat#oe er; and, for !oun* peop(e, (od*in*$hou#e#, &here men and &omen are #carce(! #eparated, and i((e*itimate intercour#e thu# pro o1ed8 ?ne or t&o da!# &ithout &or1 in the cour#e of a month mu#t ine itab(! p(un*e #uch peop(e into the dire#t &ant8 Moreo er, the! cannot combine to rai#e &a*e#, becau#e the! are #cattered, and if one a(one refu#e# to &or1 for (o& &a*e#, there are do)en# out of &or1, or #upported b! the rate#, &ho are than1fu( for the mo#t trif(in* offer, &hi(e to him &ho dec(ine# &or1, e er! other form of re(ief than the hated &or1hou#e i# refu#ed b! the Poor %a& *uardian# a# to a (a)! a*abond; for the *uardian# are the er! farmer# from &hom or from &ho#e nei*hbour# and acBuaintance# a(one he can *et &or18 9nd not from one or t&o #pecia( di#trict# of En*(and do #uch report# come8 ?n the contrar!, the di#tre## i# *enera(, eBua((! *reat in the /orth and South, the Ea#t and We#t8 +he condition of the (abourer# in Suffo(1 and /orfo(1 corre#pond# &ith that of 4e on#hire, 5amp#hire, and Su##ex8 Wa*e# are a# (o& in 4or#et#hire and ?xford#hire a# in Hent and Surre!, <uc1in*ham#hire and ;ambrid*e#hire8 ?ne e#pecia((! barbaric crue(t! a*ain#t the &or1in*$c(a## i# embodied in the :ame %a&#, &hich are more #trin*ent than in an! other countr!, &hi(e the *ame i# p(entifu( be!ond a(( conception8 +he En*(i#h pea#ant &ho, accordin* to the o(d En*(i#h cu#tom and tradition, #ee# in poachin* on(! a natura( and nob(e expre##ion of coura*e and darin*, i# #timu(ated #ti(( further b! the contra#t bet&een hi# o&n po ert! and the car tel est notre plaisir 86 of the (ord, &ho pre#er e# thou#and# of hare# and *ame bird# for hi# pri ate enDo!ment8 +he (abourer (a!# #nare#, or #hoot# here and there a piece of *ame8 "t doe# not inDure the (and(ord a# a matter of fact, for he ha# a a#t #uperf(uit!, and it brin*# the poacher a mea( for him#e(f and hi# #tar in* fami(!8 <ut if he i# cau*ht he *oe# to Dai(, and for a #econd offence recei e# at the (ea#t #e en !ear# tran#portation8 'rom the #e erit! of the#e (a&# ari#e the freBuent b(ood! conf(ict# &ith the *ame1eeper#, &hich (ead to a number of murder# e er! !ear8 5ence the po#t of *ame1eeper i# not on(! dan*erou#, but of i(($repute and de#pi#ed8 %a#t !ear, in t&o ca#e#, *ame1eeper# #hot them#e( e# rather than continue their &or18 Such i# the moderate price at &hich the (anded ari#tocrac! purcha#e# the nob(e #port of #hootin*; but &hat doe# it matter to the (ord# of the #oi(K Whether one or t&o more or (e## of theC#urp(u#T (i e or die matter# nothin*, and e en if in con#eBuence of the :ame %a&# ha(f the #urp(u# popu(ation cou(d be put out of the &a!, it &ou(d be a(( the better for the other ha(f E accordin* to the phi(anthrop! of the En*(i#h (and(ord#8 9(thou*h the condition# of (ife in the countr!, the i#o(ated d&e((in*#, the #tabi(it! of the #urroundin*# and occupation#, and con#eBuent(! of the thou*ht#, are decided(! unfa ourab(e to a(( de e(opment, !et po ert! and &ant bear their fruit# e en here8 +he manufacturin* and minin* pro(etariat emer*ed ear(! from the fir#t #ta*e of re#i#tance to our #ocia( order, the direct rebe((ion of the indi idua( b! the perpetration of crime; but the pea#ant# are #ti(( in thi# #ta*e at the pre#ent time8 +heir fa ourite method of #ocia( &arfare i# incendiari#m, "n the &inter &hich fo((o&ed the =e o(ution of Lu(!, in 18>7$>1, the#e incendiari#m# fir#t became *enera(8 4i#turbance# had ta1en p(ace, and the &ho(e re*ion of Su##ex and the adDacent countie# had been brou*ht into a #tate of

excitement in ?ctober, in con#eBuence of an increa#e of the coa#t*uard ,&hich made #mu**(in* much more difficu(t andCruined the coa#tT E in the &ord# of a farmer-, chan*e# in the Poor %a&, (o& &a*e#, and the introduction of machiner!8 "n the &inter the farmer#N ha! and corn$#tac1# &ere burnt in the fie(d#, and the er! barn# and #tab(e# under their &indo&#8 /ear(! e er! ni*ht a coup(e of #uch fire# b(a)ed up, and #pread terror amon* the farmer# and (and(ord#8 +he offender# &ere rare(! di#co ered, and the &or1er# attributed the incendiari#m to a m!thica( per#on &hom the! namedCS&in*T8 Men pu))(ed their brain# to di#co er &ho thi# S&in* cou(d be and &hence thi# ra*e amon* the poor of the countr! di#trict#8 ?f the *reat moti e po&er, Want, ?ppre##ion, on(! a #in*(e per#on here and there thou*ht, and certain(! no one in the a*ricu(tura( di#trict#8 Since that !ear the incendiari#m# ha e been repeated e er! &inter, &ith each recurrin* unemp(o!ed #ea#on of the a*ricu(tura( (abourer#8 "n the &inter of 184>$44, the! &ere once more extraordinari(! freBuent8 +here (ie# before me a #erie# of number# of the Northern 1tar of that time, each one of &hich contain# a report of #e era( incendiari#m#, #tatin* in each ca#e it# authorit!8 +he number# &antin* in the fo((o&in* (i#t " ha e not at hand; but the!, too, doubt(e## contain a number of ca#e#8 Moreo er, #uch a #heet cannot po##ib(! a#certain a(( the ca#e# &hich occur8 /o ember 65th, 184>, t&o ca#e#; #e era( ear(ier one# are di#cu##ed8 4ecember 16th, in <edford#hire, *enera( excitement for a fortni*ht pa#t in con#eBuence of freBuent incendiari#m#, of &hich #e era( ta1e p(ace e er! ni*ht8 +&o *reat farm$hou#e# burnt do&n &ithin the (a#t fe& da!#; in ;ambrid*e#hire four *reat farm$hou#e#, 5ertford#hire one, and be#ide# the#e, fifteen other incendiari#m# in different di#trict#8 4ecember >7th, in /orfo(1 one, Suffo(1 t&o, E##ex t&o, ;he#hire one, %anca#hire one, 4erb!, %inco(n, and the South t&e( e8 Lanuar! 6th, 1844, in a(( ten8 Lanuar! 1>th, #e en8 Lanuar! 67th, four incendiari#m#8 'rom thi# time for&ard, three of four incendiari#m# per &ee1 are reported, and not a# former(! unti( the #prin* on(!, but far into Lu(! and 9u*u#t8 9nd that crime# of thi# #ort are expected to increa#e in the approachin* hard #ea#on of 1844$45, the En*(i#h paper# a(read! indicate8 What do m! reader# thin1 of #uch a #tate of thin*# in the Buiet, id!((ic countr! di#trict# of En*(andK "# thi# #ocia( &ar, or i# it notK "# it a natura( #tate of thin*# &hich can (a#tK 0et here the (and(ord# and farmer# are a# du(( and #tupefied, a# b(ind to e er!thin* &hich doe# not direct(! put mone! into their poc1et#, a# the manufacturer# and the bour*eoi#ie in *enera( in the manufacturin* di#trict#8 "f the (atter promi#e their emp(o!ee# #a( ation throu*h the repea( of the ;orn %a&#, the (and(ord# and a *reat part of the farmer# promi#e their# 5ea en upon earth from the maintenance of the #ame (a&#8 <ut in neither ca#e do the propert!$ho(der# #ucceed in &innin* the &or1er# to the #upport of their pet hobb!8 %i1e the operati e#, the a*ricu(tura( (abourer# are thorou*h(! indifferent to the repea( or non$repea( of the ;orn %a&#8 0et the Bue#tion i# an important one for both8 +hat i# to #a! E b! the repea( of the ;orn %a&#, free competition, the pre#ent #ocia( econom! i# carried to it# extreme point; a(( further de e(opment &ithin the pre#ent order come# to an end, and the on(! po##ib(e #tep farther i# a radica( tran#formation of the #ocia( order8 'or the a*ricu(tura( (abourer# the Bue#tion ha#, further, the fo((o&in* important bearin*: 'ree importation of corn in o( e# ,ho&, " cannot exp(ain here- the emancipation of the farmer# from the (and(ord#, their tran#formation into %ibera(#8 +o&ard# thi# con#ummation the 9nti$;orn %a& %ea*ue ha# a(read! (ar*e(! contributed, and thi# i# it# on(! rea( #er ice8 When the farmer# become %ibera(#, i8e8, con#ciou# bour*eoi#, the a*ricu(tura( (abourer# &i(( ine itab(! become ;harti#t# and Socia(i#t#; the fir#t chan*e in o( e# the #econd8 9nd that a ne& mo ement i# a(read! be*innin* amon* the a*ricu(tura( (abourer# i# pro ed b! a meetin* &hich Ear( =adnor, a %ibera( (and(ord, cau#ed to be he(d in ?ctober, 1844, near 5i*h&orth, &here hi# e#tate# (ie, to pa## re#o(ution# a*ain#t the ;orn %a&#8 9t thi# meetin*, the (abourer#, perfect(! indifferent a# to the#e (a&#, demanded #omethin* &ho((! different, name(! #ma(( ho(din*#, at (o& rent, for them#e( e#, te((in* Ear( =adnor a(( #ort# of bitter truth# to hi# face8 +hu# the mo ement of the &or1in*$c(a## i# findin* it# &a! into the remote, #tationar!, menta((! dead a*ricu(tura( di#trict#;

and, than1# to the *enera( di#tre##, &i(( #oon be a# firm(! rooted and ener*etic a# in the manufacturin* di#trict#8 9# to the re(i*iou# #tate of the a*ricu(tura( (abourer#, the! are, it i# true, more piou# than the manufacturin* operati e#; but the!, too, are *reat(! at odd# &ith the ;hurch E for in the#e di#trict# member# of the E#tab(i#hed ;hurch a(mo#t exc(u#i e(! are to be found8 9 corre#pondent of the +orning Chronicle, &ho, o er the #i*nature,C?ne &ho ha# &hi#t(ed at the p(ou*hT Q9(exander Somer i((eR, report# hi# tour throu*h the a*ricu(tura( di#trict#, re(ate#, amon* other thin*#, the fo((o&in* con er#ation &ith #ome (abourer# after #er ice: I" inBuired if the c(er*!man &ho had preached &a# the one &ho u#ua((! mini#tered thereK M0e#, b(a#t him@ he be our o&n par#on #ure enou*h E he be a(&a!# a$be**in*; he be a(&a!#, #inA e er " 1no&ed him8A PrdBou; ,+he #ermon had been upon a mi##ion to the heathen8- M9nd #inA " 1no&ed him,A #aid another, M" ne er 1no&ed a par#on a# &a#nAt a$be**in* for #ummat or tother8A M9h@A #a!# a &oman &ho came Du#t out of the church: M9nd (oo1 at &a*e# a cominA do&n, (oo1 at them rich &a*erbond# a# the par#on# hunt and dine and drin1 &ith@ So he(p me :od, &e be# more fitter to be ta1en into the union and #tar ed, than pa! for par#on# to *o abroad8A MWh! donNt the!,A #aid another, M#end them par#on# a# be chanterin* e er! da! in Sa(i#bur! ;athedra( to nobod! but the bare #tone#, &h! donNt the! *oKA M+he! donAt *o,A #aid the o(d man &ho #po1e fir#t, Mbecau#e the! be #o rich a# to ha e #o much (and a(( o er, the! &ant# the mone! to #end a&a! the poor un#; " 1no&# &hat the! &ant; " been 1no&in* them too (on* not to 1no& that8A M<ut m! *ood friend#,A #aid ", M!ou #ure(! donAt *o to church a(&a!# and

come out of it &ith #uch bitter di#(i1e to the par#on#8 "f !ou do, &h! *o at a((KA MWh! *o at a((KA #aid the &oman, M&e be (i1e to *o, and &e &ou(dnAt (o#e e er!thin*, &or1 and a((; &e be (i1e to *o8A " (earned (ater that the! Mcou(d *et a fe& pri i(e*e# in re*ard to fue( and *round for potatoe#A ,to be paid for@- if the! &ent to church8T 9fter de#cribin* their po ert! and i*norance, the corre#pondent c(o#e# b! #a!in*: I/o& " a##ert fear(e##(! that the condition of the#e peop(e, their po ert!, their hatred of the churche#, their out&ard comp(iance &ith, but in&ard bitterne## to&ard#, it# di*nitarie#, i# the ru(e throu*hout rura( En*(and; and that an!thin* to the contrar! i# the exception8C "f the pea#antr! of En*(and #ho&# the con#eBuence# &hich a numerou# a*ricu(tura( pro(etariat in connection &ith (ar*e farmin* in o( e# for the countr! di#trict#, Wa(e# i((u#trate# the ruin of the #ma(( ho(der#8 "f the En*(i#h countr! pari#he# reproduce the anta*oni#m bet&een capita(i#t and pro(etarian, the #tate of the We(#h pea#antr! corre#pond# to the pro*re##i e ruin of the #ma(( bour*eoi#ie in the to&n#8 "n Wa(e# are to be found, a(mo#t exc(u#i e(!, #ma(( ho(der#, &ho cannot &ith (i1e profit #e(( their product# a# cheap(! a# the (ar*er, more fa ourab(! #ituated En*(i#h farmer#, &ith &hom, ho&e er, the! are ob(i*ed to compete8 Moreo er, in #ome p(ace# the Bua(it! of the (and admit# of the rai#in* of (i e#toc1 on(!, &hich i# but #(i*ht(! profitab(e8 +hen, too, the#e We(#h farmer#, b! rea#on of their #eparate nationa(it!, &hich the! retain pertinaciou#(!, are much more #tationar! than the En*(i#h farmer#8 <ut the competition amon* them#e( e# and &ith their En*(i#h nei*hbour# ,and the increa#ed mort*a*e# upon their (and con#eBuent upon thi#- ha# reduced them to #uch a #tate that the! can #carce(! (i e at a((; and becau#e the! ha e not reco*ni#ed the true cau#e of their &retched condition, the! attribute it to a(( #ort# of #ma(( cau#e#, #uch a# hi*h to((#, etc8, &hich do chec1 the de e(opment of a*ricu(ture and commerce, but are ta1en into account a# #tandin* char*e# b! e er! one &ho ta1e# a ho(din*, and are therefore rea((! u(timate(! paid b! the (and(ord8 5ere, too, the /e& Poor %a& i# cordia((! hated b! the tenant#, &ho ho er in perpetua( dan*er of comin* under it# #&a!8 "n 184>, the famou#C=ebeccaC di#turbance# bro1e out amon* the We(#h pea#antr!; the men dre##ed in &omenA# c(othin*, b(ac1ened their face#, and fe(( in armed cro&d# upon the to(($*ate#, de#tro!ed them amid#t *reat reDoicin* and firin* of *un#, demo(i#hed the to(($1eeper#A hou#e#, &rote threatenin* (etter# in the name of the ima*inar!C=ebeccaC, and once &ent #o far a# to #torm the &or1hou#e of ;armarthen8 %ater, &hen the mi(itia &a# ca((ed out and the po(ice #tren*thened, the pea#ant# dre& them off &ith &onderfu( #1i(( upon fa(#e #cent#, demo(i#hed to(($*ate# at one point &hi(e the mi(itia, (ured b! fa(#e #i*na( bu*(e#, &a# marchin* in #ome oppo#ite direction; and betoo1 them#e( e# fina((!,

&hen the po(ice &a# too thorou*h(! reinforced, to #in*(e incendiari#m# and attempt# at murder8 9# u#ua(, the#e *reater crime# &ere the end of the mo ement8 Man! &ithdre& from di#appro a(, other# from fear, and peace &a# re#tored of it#e(f8 +he :o ernment appointed a commi##ion to in e#ti*ate the affair and it# cau#e#, and there &a# an end of the matter8 +he po ert! of the pea#antr! continue#, ho&e er, and &i(( one da!, #ince it cannot under exi#tin* circum#tance# *ro& (e##, but mu#t *o on inten#if!in*, produce more #eriou# manife#tation# than the#e humorou# =ebecca ma#Buerade#8 "f En*(and i((u#trate# the re#u(t# of the #!#tem of farmin* on a (ar*e #ca(e and Wa(e# on a #ma(( one, "re(and exhibit# the con#eBuence# of o erdi idin* the #oi(8 +he *reat ma## of the popu(ation of "re(and con#i#t# of #ma(( tenant# &ho occup! a #orr! hut &ithout partition#, and a potato patch Du#t (ar*e enou*h to #upp(! them mo#t #canti(! &ith potatoe# throu*h the &inter8 "n con#eBuence of the *reat competition &hich pre ai(# amon* the#e #ma(( tenant#, the rent ha# reached an unheard$of hei*ht, doub(e, treb(e, and Buadrup(e that paid in En*(and8 'or e er! a*ricu(tura( (abourer #ee1# to become a tenant$farmer, and thou*h the di i#ion of (and ha# *one #o far, there #ti(( remain number# of (abourer# in competition for p(ot#8 9(thou*h in :reat <ritain >4,777,777 acre# of (and are cu(ti ated, and in "re(and but 14,777,777; a(thou*h :reat <ritain produce# a*ricu(tura( product# to the a(ue of U157,777,777, and "re(and of but U>6,777,777, there are in "re(and .5,777 a*ricu(tura( pro(etarian# more than in the nei*hbourin* i#(and8 5o& *reat the competition for (and in "re(and mu#t be i# e ident from thi# extraordinar! di#proportion, e#pecia((! &hen one ref(ect# that the (abourer# in :reat <ritain are (i in* in the utmo#t di#tre##8 +he con#eBuence of thi# competition i# that it i# impo##ib(e for the tenant# to (i e much better than the (abourer#, b! rea#on of the hi*h rent# paid8 +he "ri#h peop(e i# thu# he(d in cru#hin* po ert!, from &hich it cannot free it#e(f under our pre#ent #ocia( condition#8 +he#e peop(e (i e in the mo#t &retched c(a! hut#, #carce(! *ood enou*h for catt(e$pen#, ha e #cant food a(( &inter (on*, or, a# the report abo e Buoted expre##e# it, the! ha e potatoe# ha(f enou*h thirt! &ee1# in the !ear, and the re#t of the !ear nothin*8 When the time come# in the #prin* at &hich thi# pro i#ion reache# it# end, or can no (on*er be u#ed becau#e of it# #proutin*, &ife and chi(dren *o forth to be* and tramp the countr! &ith their 1ett(e in their hand#8 Mean&hi(e the hu#band, after p(antin* potatoe# for the next !ear, *oe# in #earch of &or1 either in "re(and or En*(and, and return# at the potato har e#t to hi# fami(!8 +hi# i# the condition in &hich nine$tenth# of the "ri#h countr! fo(1# (i e8 +he! are poor a# church mice, &ear the mo#t &retched ra*#, and #tand upon the (o&e#t p(ane of inte((i*ence po##ib(e in a ha(f$ci i(i#ed countr!8 9ccordin* to the report Buoted, there are, in a popu(ation of 8 126 mi((ion#, 585,777 head# of fami(ie# in a #tate of tota( de#titution; and accordin* to other authoritie#, cited b! Sheriff 9(i#on, there are in "re(and 6,>77,777 per#on# &ho cou(d not (i e &ithout pub(ic or pri ate a##i#tance E or 6. per cent of the &ho(e popu(ation pauper#@ +he cau#e of thi# po ert! (ie# in the exi#tin* #ocia( condition#, e#pecia((! in competition here found in the form of the #ubdi i#ion of the #oi(8 Much effort ha# been #pent in findin* other cau#e#8 "t ha# been a##erted that the re(ation of the tenant to the (and(ord &ho (et# hi# e#tate in (ar*e (ot# to tenant#, &ho a*ain ha e their #ub$tenant#, and #ub$#ub$tenant#, in turn, #o that often ten midd(emen come bet&een the8 (and(ord and the actua( cu(ti ator E it ha# been a##erted that the #hamefu( (a& &hich *i e# the (and(ord the ri*ht of expropriatin* the cu(ti ator &ho ma! ha e paid hi# rent du(!, if the fir#t tenant fai(# to pa! the (and(ord, that thi# (a& i# to b(ame for a(( thi# po ert!8 <ut a(( thi# determine# on(! the form in &hich the po ert! manife#t# it#e(f8 Ma1e the #ma(( tenant a (ando&ner him#e(f and &hat fo((o&#K +he maDorit! cou(d not (i e upon their ho(din*# e en if the! had no rent to pa!, and an! #(i*ht impro ement &hich mi*ht ta1e p(ace &ou(d be (o#t a*ain in a fe& !ear# in con#eBuence of the rapid increa#e of popu(ation8 +he chi(dren &ou(d then (i e to *ro& up under the impro ed condition# &ho no& die in con#eBuence of po ert! in ear(! chi(dhood8 'rom another #ide come# the a##ertion that the #hame(e##

oppre##ion inf(icted b! the En*(i#h i# the cau#e of the troub(e8 "t i# the cau#e of the #ome&hat ear(ier appearance of thi# po ert!, but not of the po ert! it#e(f8 ?r the b(ame i# (aid on the Prote#tant ;hurch forced upon a ;atho(ic nation; but di ide amon* the "ri#h &hat the ;hurch ta1e# from them, and it doe# not reach #ix #hi((in*# a head8 <e#ide#, tithe# are a tax upon (anded propert!, not upon the tenant, thou*h he ma! nomina((! pa! them; no&, #ince the ;ommutation <i(( of 18>8, the (and(ord pa!# the tithe# direct(! and rec1on# #o much hi*her rent, #o that the tenant i# none the better off8 9nd in the #ame &a! a hundred other cau#e# of thi# po ert! are brou*ht for&ard, a(( pro in* a# (itt(e a# the#e8 +hi# po ert!8i# the re#u(t of our #ocia( condition#; apart from the#e, cau#e# ma! be found for the manner in &hich it manife#t# it#e(f, but not for the fact of it# exi#tence8 +hat po ert! manife#t# it#e(f in "re(and thu# and not other&i#e, i# o&in* to the character of the peop(e, and to their hi#torica( de e(opment8 +he "ri#h are a peop(e re(ated in their &ho(e character to the %atin nation#, to the 'rench, and e#pecia((! to the "ta(ian#8 +he bad feature# of their character &e ha e a(read! had depicted b! ;ar(!(e8 %et u# no& hear an "ri#hman, &ho at (ea#t come# nearer to the truth than ;ar(!(e, &ith hi# preDudice in fa our of the +eutonic character: T+he! are re#t(e## !et indo(ent, #hre&d and indi#creet, impetuou#, impatient and impro ident, in#tincti e(! bra e, thou*ht(e##(! *enerou#; Buic1 to re#ent and for*i e offence#, to form and renounce friend#hip#8 With *eniu# the! are profu#e(! *ifted; &ith Dud*ment #parin*(!8T 8> With the "ri#h, fee(in* and pa##ion predominate; rea#on mu#t bo& before them8 +heir #en#uou#, excitab(e nature pre ent# ref(ection and Buiet, per#e erin* acti it! from reachin* de e(opment E #uch a nation i# utter(! unfit for manufacture a# no& conducted8 5ence the! he(d fa#t to a*ricu(ture, and remained upon the (o&e#t p(ane e en of that8 With the #ma(( #ubdi i#ion# of (and, &hich &ere not here artificia((! created, a# in 'rance and on the =hine, b! the di i#ion of *reat e#tate#, 84 but ha e exi#ted from time immemoria(, an impro ement of the #oi( b! the in e#tment of capita( &a# not to be thou*ht of; and it &ou(d, accordin* to 9(i#on, reBuire 167 mi((ion pound# #ter(in* to brin* the #oi( up to the not er! hi*h #tate of ferti(it! a(read! attained in En*(and8 +he En*(i#h immi*ration, &hich mi*ht ha e rai#ed the #tandard of "ri#h ci i(i#ation, ha# contented it#e(f &ith the mo#t bruta( p(underin* of the "ri#h peop(e; and &hi(e the "ri#h, b! their immi*ration into En*(and, ha e furni#hed En*(and a (ea en &hich &i(( produce it# o&n re#u(t# in the future, the! ha e (itt(e for &hich to be than1fu( to the En*(i#h immi*ration8 +he attempt# of the "ri#h to #a e them#e( e# from their pre#ent ruin, on the one hand, ta1e the form of crime#8 +he#e are the order of the da! in the a*ricu(tura( di#trict#, and are near(! a(&a!# directed a*ain#t the mo#t immediate enemie#, the (and(ord#A; a*ent#, or their obedient #er ant#, the Prote#tant intruder#, &ho#e (ar*e farm# are made up of the potato patche# of hundred# of eDected fami(ie#8 Such crime# are e#pecia((! freBuent in the South and We#t8 ?n the other hand, the "ri#h hope for re(ief b! mean# of the a*itation for the repea( of the %e*i#(ati e Fnion &ith En*(and8 'rom a(( the fore*oin*, it i# c(ear that the uneducated "ri#h mu#t #ee in the En*(i#h their &or#t enemie#; and their fir#t hope of impro ement in the conBue#t of nationa( independence8 <ut Buite a# c(ear i# it, too, that "ri#h di#tre## cannot be remo ed b! an! 9ct of =epea(8 Such an 9ct &ou(d, ho&e er, at once (a! bare the fact that the cau#e of "ri#h mi#er!, &hich no& #eem# to

come from abroad, i# rea((! to be found at home8 Mean&hi(e, it i# an open Bue#tion &hether the accomp(i#hment of repea( &i(( be nece##ar! to ma1e thi# c(ear to the "ri#h8 5itherto, neither ;harti#m nor Socia(i#m ha# had mar1ed #ucce## in "re(and8 " c(o#e m! ob#er ation# upon "re(and at thi# point the more readi(!, a# the =epea( 9*itation of 184> and ?N;onne((N# tria( ha e been the mean# of ma1in* the "ri#h di#tre## more and more 1no&n in :erman!8 We ha e no& fo((o&ed the pro(etariat of the <riti#h "#(and# throu*h a(( branche# of it# acti it!, and found it e er!&here (i in* in &ant and mi#er! under tota((! inhuman condition#8 We ha e #een di#content ari#e &ith the ri#e of the pro(etariat, *ro&, de e(op, and or*ani#e; &e ha e #een open b(ood(e## and b(ood! batt(e# of the pro(etariat a*ain#t the bour*eoi#ie8 We ha e in e#ti*ated the princip(e# accordin* to &hich the fate, the hope#, and fear# of the pro(etariat are determined, and &e ha e found that there i# no pro#pect of impro ement in their condition8 We ha e had an opportunit!, here and there, of ob#er in* the conduct of the bour*eoi#ie to&ard# the pro(etariat, and &e ha e found that it con#ider# on(! it#e(f, ha# on(! it# o&n ad anta*e in ie&8 5o&e er, in order not to be unDu#t, (et u# in e#ti*ate it# mode of action #ome&hat more exact(!8

The Attit'de of the %o'rgeoisie To(ards the Proletariat

"n #pea1in* of the bour*eoi#ie " inc(ude the #o$ca((ed ari#tocrac!, for thi# i# a pri i(e*ed c(a##, an ari#tocrac!, on(! in contra#t &ith the bour*eoi#ie, not in contra#t &ith the pro(etariat8 +he pro(etarian #ee# in both on(! the propert!$ho(der E i8e8, the bour*eoi#8 <efore the pri i(e*e of propert! a(( other pri i(e*e# ani#h8 +he #o(e difference i# thi#, that the bour*eoi# proper #tand# in acti e re(ation# &ith the manufacturin*, and, in a mea#ure, &ith the minin* pro(etarian#, and, a# farmer, &ith the a*ricu(tura( (abourer#, &herea# the #o$ca((ed ari#tocrat come# into contact &ith the a*ricu(tura( (abourer on(!8 " ha e ne er #een a c(a## #o deep(! demora(i#ed, #o incurab(! deba#ed b! #e(fi#hne##, #o corroded &ithin, #o incapab(e of pro*re##, a# the En*(i#h bour*eoi#ie; and " mean b! thi#, e#pecia((! the bour*eoi#ie proper, particu(ar(! the %ibera(, ;orn %a& repea(in* bour*eoi#ie8 'or it nothin* exi#t# in thi# &or(d, except for the #a1e of mone!, it#e(f not exc(uded8 "t 1no&# no b(i## #a e that of rapid *ain, no pain #a e that of (o#in* *o(d8 "n the pre#ence of thi# a arice and (u#t of *ain, it i# not po##ib(e for a #in*(e human #entiment or opinion to remain untainted8 +rue, the#e En*(i#h bour*eoi# are *ood hu#band# and fami(! men, and ha e a(( #ort# of other pri ate irtue#, and appear, in ordinar! intercour#e, a# decent and re#pectab(e a# a(( other bour*eoi#; e en in bu#ine## the! are better to dea( &ith than the :erman#; the! do not hi**(e and ha**(e #o much a# our o&n pettifo**in* merchant#; but ho& doe# thi# he(p matter#K F(timate(! it i# #e(f$intere#t, and e#pecia((! mone! *ain, &hich a(one determine# them8 " once &ent into Manche#ter &ith #uch a bour*eoi#, and #po1e to him of the bad, un&ho(e#ome method of bui(din*, the fri*htfu( condition of the &or1in*$peop(e# Buarter#, and a##erted that " had ne er #een #o i(($bui(t a cit!8 +he man (i#tened Buiet(! to the end, and #aid at the corner &here &e parted:C9nd !et there i# a *reat dea( of mone! made here, *ood mornin*, #ir8T "t i# utter(! indifferent to the En*(i#h bour*eoi# &hether hi# &or1in*$men #tar e or not, if on(! he ma1e# mone!8 9(( the condition# of (ife are mea#ured b! mone!, and &hat brin*# no mone! i# non#en#e, unpractica(, idea(i#tic bo#h8 5ence, Po(itica( Econom!, the Science of Wea(th, i# the fa ourite #tud! of the#e barterin* Le&#8 E er! one of them i# a Po(itica( Economi#t8 +he re(ation of the manufacturer to hi# operati e# ha# nothin* human in it; it i# pure(! economic8 +he manufacturer i# ;apita(, the operati e %abour8 9nd if the operati e &i(( not be forced into thi# ab#traction, if he in#i#t# that he i# not %abour, but a man, &ho po##e##e#, amon* other thin*#, the attribute of (abour$po&er, if he ta1e# it into hi# head that he need not a((o& him#e(f to be #o(d and bou*ht in the mar1et, a# the commodit!C%abourT, the bour*eoi# rea#on come# to a #tand#ti((8 5e cannot comprehend that he ho(d# an! other re(ation to the operati e# than that of purcha#e and #a(e; he #ee# in them not human bein*#, but hand#, a# he con#tant(! ca((# them to their face#; he in#i#t#, a# ;ar(!(e #a!#, thatC;a#h Pa!ment i# the on(! nexu# bet&een man and man8T E en the re(ation bet&een him#e(f and hi# &ife i#, in ninet!$nine ca#e# out of a hundred, mereC;a#h Pa!mentT8 Mone! determine# the &orth of the man; he i#C&orth ten thou#and pound#T8 5e &ho ha# mone! i# ofCthe better #ort of peop(eT, i#Cinf(uentia(T, and &hat he doe# count# for #omethin* in hi# #ocia( circ(e8 +he huc1#terin* #pirit penetrate# the &ho(e (an*ua*e, a(( re(ation# are expre##ed in bu#ine## term#, in economic cate*orie#8 Supp(! and demand are the formu(a# accordin* to &hich the (o*ic of the En*(i#h bour*eoi# Dud*e# a(( human (ife8 5ence free competition in e er! re#pect, hence the re*ime of laisse35faire, laisse35aller in *o ernment, in medicine, in education, and #oon to be in re(i*ion, too, a# the State ;hurch co((ap#e# more and more8 'ree competition &i(( #uffer no (imitation, no State #uper i#ion; the

&ho(e State i# but a burden to it8 "t &ou(d reach it# hi*he#t perfection in a &ho((! un*o erned anarchic #ociet!, &here each mi*ht exp(oit the other to hi# heart# content8 Since, ho&e er, the bour*eoi#ie cannot di#pen#e &ith *o ernment, but mu#t ha e it to ho(d the eBua((! indi#pen#ab(e pro(etariat in chec1, it turn# the po&er of *o ernment a*ain#t the pro(etariat and 1eep# out of it# &a! a# far a# po##ib(e8 %et no one be(ie e, ho&e er, that theCcu(ti atedT En*(i#hman open(! bra*# &ith hi# e*oti#m8 ?n the contrar!, he concea(# it under the i(e#t h!pocri#!8 WhatK +he &ea(th! En*(i#h fai( to remember the poorK +he! &ho ha e founded phi(anthropic in#titution#, #uch a# no other countr! can boa#t of@ Phi(anthropic in#titution# for#ooth@ 9# thou*h !ou rendered the pro(etarian# a #er ice in fir#t #uc1in* out their er! (ife$b(ood and then practi#in* !our #e(f$comp(acent, Phari#aic phi(anthrop! upon them, p(acin* !our#e( e# before the &or(d a# mi*ht! benefactor# of humanit! &hen !ou *i e bac1 to the p(undered ictim# the hundredth part of &hat be(on*# to them@ ;harit! &hich de*rade# him &ho *i e# more than him &ho ta1e#; charit! &hich tread# the do&ntrodden #ti(( deeper in the du#t, &hich demand# that the de*raded, the pariah ca#t out b! #ociet!, #ha(( fir#t #urrender the (a#t that remain# to him, hi# er! c(aim to manhood, #ha(( fir#t be* for merc! before !our merc! dei*n# to pre##, in the #hape of an a(m#, the brand of de*radation upon hi# bro&8 <ut (et u# hear the En*(i#h bour*eoi#ieN# o&n &ord#8 "t i# not !et a !ear #ince " read in the +anchester *uardian the fo((o&in* (etter to the editor, &hich &a# pub(i#hed &ithout comment a# a perfect(! natura(, rea#onab(e thin*: TM=8 E4"+?=,E 'or #ome time pa#t our main #treet# are haunted b! #&arm# of be**ar#, &ho tr! to a&a1en the pit! of the pa##er#$b! in a mo#t #hame(e## and anno!in* manner, b! expo#in* their tattered c(othin*, #ic1(! a#pect, and di#*u#tin* &ound# and deformitie#8 " #hou(d thin1 that &hen one not on(! pa!# the poor$rate, but a(#o contribute# (ar*e(! to the charitab(e in#titution#, one had done enou*h to earn a ri*ht to be #pared #uch di#a*reeab(e and impertinent mo(e#tation#8 9nd &h! e(#e do &e pa! #uch hi*h rate# for the maintenance of the municipa( po(ice, if the! do not e en protect u# #o far a# to ma1e it po##ib(e to *o to or out of to&n in peaceK " hope the pub(ication of the#e (ine# in !our &ide(!$ circu(ated paper ma! induce the authoritie# to remo e thi# nui#ance; and

" remain,E 0our

obedient

#er ant,

;- $ady.; +here !ou ha e it@ +he En*(i#h bour*eoi#ie i# charitab(e out of #e(f$intere#t; it *i e# nothin* outri*ht, but re*ard# it# *ift# a# a bu#ine## matter, ma1e# a bar*ain &ith the poor, #a!in*:C"f " #pend thi# much upon bene o(ent in#titution#, " thereb! purcha#e the ri*ht not to be troub(ed an! further, and !ou are bound thereb! to #ta! in !our du#1! ho(e# and not to irritate m! tender ner e# b! expo#in* !our mi#er!8 0ou #ha(( de#pair a# before, but !ou #ha(( de#pair un#een, thi# " reBuire, thi# " purcha#e &ith m! #ub#cription of t&ent! pound# for the infirmar!@T "t i# infamou#, thi# charit! of a ;hri#tian bour*eoi#@ 9nd #o &rite#C9 %ad!T; #he doe# &e(( to #i*n her#e(f #uch, &e(( that #he ha# (o#t the coura*e to ca(( her#e(f a &oman@ <ut if theC%adie#T are #uch a# thi#, &hat mu#t theC:ent(emenT beK "t &i(( be #aid that thi# i# a #in*(e ca#e; but no, the fore*oin* (etter expre##e# the temper of the *reat maDorit! of the En*(i#h bour*eoi#ie, or the editor &ou(d not ha e accepted it, and #ome rep(! &ou(d ha e been made to it, &hich " &atched for in ain in the #ucceedin* number#8 9nd a# to the efficienc! of thi# phi(anthrop!, ;anon Par1in#on him#e(f #a!# that the poor are re(ie ed much more b! the poor than b! the bour*eoi#ie; and #uch re(ief *i en b! an hone#t pro(etarian &ho 1no&# him#e(f &hat it i# to be hun*r!, for &hom #harin* hi# #cant! mea( i# rea((! a #acrifice, but a #acrifice borne &ith p(ea#ure, #uch he(p ha# a &ho((! different rin* to it from the care(e##(!$to##ed a(m# of the (uxuriou# bour*eoi#8 "n other re#pect#, too, the bour*eoi#ie a##ume# a h!pocritica(, bound(e## phi(anthrop!, but on(! &hen it# o&n intere#t# reBuire it; a# in it# Po(itic# and Po(itica( Econom!8 "t ha# been at &or1 no& &e(( on to&ard# fi e !ear# to pro e to the &or1in*$men that it #tri e# to abo(i#h the ;orn %a&# #o(e(! in their intere#t8 <ut the (on* and #hort of the matter i# thi#: the ;orn %a&# 1eep the price of bread hi*her than in other countrie#, and thu# rai#e &a*e#; but the#e hi*h &a*e# render difficu(t competition of the manufacturer# a*ain#t other nation# in &hich bread, and con#eBuent(! &a*e#, are cheaper8 +he ;orn %a&# bein* repea(ed, the price of bread fa((#, and &a*e# *radua((! approach tho#e of other European countrie#, a# mu#t be c(ear to e er! one from our pre iou# expo#ition of the princip(e# accordin* to &hich &a*e# are determined8 +he manufacturer can compete more readi(!, the demand for En*(i#h *ood# increa#e#, and, &ith it, the demand for (abour8 "n con#eBuence of thi# increa#ed demand &a*e# &ou(d actua((! ri#e #ome&hat, and the unemp(o!ed &or1er# be re$emp(o!ed; but for ho& (on*K +heC#urp(u# popu(ationC of En*(and, and e#pecia((! of "re(and, i# #ufficient to #upp(! En*(i#h manufacture &ith the nece##ar! operati e#, e en if it &ere doub(ed; and, in a fe& !ear#, the #ma(( ad anta*e of the repea( of the ;orn %a&# &ou(d be ba(anced, a ne& cri#i# &ou(d fo((o&, and &e #hou(d be bac1 at the point from &hich &e #tarted, &hi(e the fir#t #timu(u# to manufacture &ou(d ha e increa#ed popu(ation mean&hi(e8 9(( thi# the pro(etarian# under#tand er! &e((, and ha e to(d the manufacturer# to their face#; but, in #pite of that, the manufacturer# ha e in ie& #o(e(! the immediate ad anta*e &hich the repea( of the ;orn %a&# &ou(d brin* them8 +he! are too narro&$minded to #ee that, e en for them#e( e#, no permanent ad anta*e can ari#e from thi# mea#ure, becau#e their competition &ith each other &ou(d #oon force the profit of the indi idua( bac1 to it# o(d (e e(; and thu# the! continue to #hrie1 to the &or1in*$men that it i# pure(! for the #a1e of the #tar in* mi((ion# that the rich member# of the %ibera( part! pour hundred# and thou#and# of pound# into the trea#ur! of the 9nti$;orn %a& %ea*ue, &hi(e e er! one 1no&# that the! are on(! #endin* the butter after the chee#e, that the! ca(cu(ate upon earnin* it a(( bac1 in the fir#t ten !ear# after the repea( of the ;orn %a&#8 <ut the &or1er# are no (on*er to be mi#(ed b! the bour*eoi#ie, e#pecia((! #ince the in#urrection of 18468 +he! demand of e er! one &ho pre#ent# him#e(f a# intere#ted in their &e(fare, that he #hou(d dec(are him#e(f in fa our of the Peop(e# ;harter a# proof of the #incerit! of hi# profe##ion#, and in #o doin*, the! prote#t a*ain#t a(( out#ide he(p, for the ;harter i# a demand for the po&er to he(p them#e( e#8 Whoe er dec(ine# #o to dec(are him#e(f

the! pronounce their enem!, and are perfect(! ri*ht in #o doin*, &hether he be a dec(ared foe or a fa(#e friend8 <e#ide#, the 9nti$;orn %a& %ea*ue ha# u#ed the mo#t de#picab(e fa(#ehood# and tric1# to &in the #upport of the &or1er#8 "t ha# tried to pro e to them that the mone! price of (abour i# in in er#e proportion to the price of corn; that &a*e# are hi*h &hen *rain i# cheap, and ice er#a, an a##ertion &hich it pretend# to pro e &ith the mo#t ridicu(ou# ar*ument#, and one &hich i#, in it#e(f, more ridicu(ou# than an! other that ha# proceeded from the mouth of an Economi#t8 When thi# fai(ed to he(p matter#, the &or1er# &ere promi#ed b(i## #upreme in con#eBuence of the increa#ed demand in the (abour mar1et; indeed, men &ent #o far a# to carr! throu*h the #treet# t&o mode(# of (oa e# of bread, on one of &hich, b! far the (ar*er, &a# &ritten:C9merican Ei*htpenn! %oaf, Wa*e# 'our Shi((in*# per 4a!C, and upon the much #ma((er one:CEn*(i#h Ei*htpenn! %oaf, Wa*e# +&o Shi((in*# a 4a!C8 <ut the &or1er# ha e not a((o&ed them#e( e# to be mi#(ed8 +he! 1no& their (ord# and ma#ter# too &e((8 <ut ri*ht(! to mea#ure the h!pocri#! of the#e promi#e#, the practice of the bour*eoi#ie mu#t be ta1en into account8 We ha e #een in the cour#e of our8report ho& the bour*eoi#ie exp(oit# the pro(etariat in e er! concei ab(e &a! for it# o&n benefit@ We ha e, ho&e er, hitherto #een on(! ho& the8#in*(e bour*eoi# ma(treat# the pro(etariat upon hi# o&n account8 %et u# turn no& to the manner in &hich the bour*eoi#ie a# a part!, a# the po&er of the State, conduct# it#e(f to&ard# the pro(etariat8 %a&# are nece##ar! on(! becau#e there are per#on# in exi#tence &ho o&n nothin*; and a(thou*h thi# i# direct(! expre##ed in but fe& (a&#, a#, for in#tance, tho#e a*ain#t a*abond# and tramp#, in &hich the pro(etariat a# #uch i# out(a&ed, !et enmit! to the pro(etariat i# #o emphatica((! the ba#i# of the (a& that the Dud*e#, and e#pecia((! the Lu#tice# of the Peace, &ho are bour*eoi# them#e( e#, and &ith &hom the pro(etariat come# mo#t in contact, find thi# meanin* in the (a&# &ithout further con#ideration8 "f a rich man i# brou*ht up, or rather #ummoned, to appear before the court, the Dud*e re*ret# that he i# ob(i*ed to impo#e #o much troub(e, treat# the matter a# fa ourab(! a# po##ib(e, and, if he i# forced to condemn the accu#ed, doe# #o &ith extreme re*ret, etc8, etc8, and the end of it a(( i# a mi#erab(e fine, &hich the bour*eoi# thro&# upon the tab(e &ith contempt and then depart#8 <ut if a poor de i( *et# into #uch a po#ition a# in o( e# appearin* before the Lu#tice of the Peace E he ha# a(mo#t a(&a!# #pent the ni*ht in the #tation$ hou#e &ith a cro&d of hi# peer# E he i# re*arded from the be*innin* a# *ui(t!; hi# defence i# #et a#ide &ith a contemptuou#C?h@ &e 1no& the excu#eC, and a fine impo#ed &hich he cannot pa! and mu#t &or1 out &ith #e era( month# on the treadmi((8 9nd if nothin* can be pro ed a*ain#t him, he i# #ent to the treadmi((, none the (e##,Ca# a ro*ue and a a*abondC8 +he parti#an#hip of the Lu#tice# of the Peace, e#pecia((! in the countr!, #urpa##e# a(( de#cription, and it i# #o much the order of the da! that a(( ca#e# &hich are not too utter(! f(a*rant are Buiet(! reported b! the ne&#paper#, &ithout comment8 /or i# an!thin* e(#e to be expected8 'or on the one hand, the#e 4o*berrie# do mere(! con#true the (a& accordin* to the intent of the farmer#, and, on the other, the! are them#e( e# bour*eoi#, &ho #ee the foundation of a(( true order in the intere#t# of their c(a##8 9nd the conduct of the po(ice corre#pond# to that of the Lu#tice# of the Peace8 +he bour*eoi# ma! do &hat he &i(( and the po(ice remain e er po(ite, adherin* #trict(! to the (a&, but the pro(etarian i# rou*h(!, bruta((! treated; hi# po ert! both ca#t# the #u#picion of e er! #ort of crime upon him and cut# him off from (e*a( redre## a*ain#t an! caprice of the admini#trator# of the (a&; for him, therefore, the protectin* form# of the (a& do not exi#t, the po(ice force their &a! into hi# hou#e &ithout further ceremon!, arre#t and abu#e him; and on(! &hen a &or1in*$menN# a##ociation, #uch a# the miner#, en*a*e# a =obert#, doe# it become e ident ho& (itt(e the protecti e #ide of the (a& exi#t# for the &or1in*$man, ho& freBuent(! he ha# to bear a(( the burden# of the (a& &ithout enDo!in* it# benefit#8 4o&n to the pre#ent hour, the propert!$ho(din* c(a## in Par(iament #ti(( #tru**(e# a*ain#t the better fee(in*# of tho#e not !et fa((en a pre! to e*oti#m, and #ee1# to #ubDu*ate the pro(etariat #ti(( further8 ?ne piece of common (and after another i# appropriated and p(aced under cu(ti ation, a

proce## b! &hich the *enera( cu(ti ation i# furthered, but the pro(etariat *reat(! inDured8 Where there &ere #ti(( common#, the poor cou(d pa#ture an a##, a pi*, or *ee#e, the chi(dren and !oun* peop(e had a p(ace &here the! cou(d p(a! and (i e out of door#; but thi# i# *radua((! comin* to an end8 +he earnin*# of the &or1er are (e##, and the !oun* peop(e, depri ed of their p(a!$*round, *o to the beer$#hop#8 9 ma## of act# for enc(o#in* and cu(ti atin* common# i# pa##ed at e er! #e##ion of Par(iament8 When the :o ernment determined durin* the #e##ion of 1844 to force the a(( monopo(i#in* rai(&a!# to ma1e tra e((in* po##ib(e for the &or1er# b! mean# of char*e# proportionate to their mean#, a penn! a mi(e, and propo#ed therefore to introduce #uch a third c(a## train upon e er! rai(&a! dai(!, theC=e erend 'ather in :odT, the <i#hop of %ondon, propo#ed that Sunda!, the on(! da! upon &hich &or1in*$men in &or1 can tra e(, be exempted from thi# ru(e, and tra e((in* thu# be (eft open to the rich and #hut off from the poor8 +hi# propo#ition &a#, ho&e er, too direct, too undi#*ui#ed to pa## throu*h Par(iament, and &a# dropped8 " ha e no room to enumerate the man! concea(ed attac1# of e en one #in*(e #e##ion upon the pro(etariat8 ?ne from the #e##ion of 1844 mu#t #uffice8 9n ob#cure member of Par(iament, a Mr8 Mi(e#, propo#ed a bi(( re*u(atin* the re(ation of ma#ter and #er ant &hich #eemed comparati e(! unobDectionab(e8 +he :o ernment became intere#ted in the bi((, and it &a# referred to a committee8 Mean&hi(e the #tri1e amon* the miner# in the /orth bro1e out, and =obert# made hi# triumpha( pa##a*e throu*h En*(and &ith hi# acBuitted &or1in*$men8 When the bi(( &a# reported b! the committee, it &a# di#co ered that certain mo#t de#potic pro i#ion# had been interpo(ated in it, e#pecia((! one conferrin* upon the emp(o!er the po&er to brin* before an! Lu#tice of the Peace e er! &or1in*$man &ho had contracted erba((! or in &ritin* to do an! &or1 &hat#oe er, in ca#e of refu#a( to &or1 or other mi#beha iour, and ha e him condemned to pri#on &ith hard (abour for t&o month#, upon the oath of the emp(o!er or hi# a*ent or o er(oo1er, i8e8, upon the oath of the accu#er8 +hi# bi(( arou#ed the &or1in*$men to the utmo#t fur!, the more #o a# the +en 5our# <i(( &a# before Par(iament at the #ame time, and had ca((ed forth a con#iderab(e a*itation8 5undred# of meetin*# &ere he(d, hundred# of &or1in*$menN# petition# for&arded to %ondon to +homa# 4uncombe, the repre#entati e of the intere#t# of the pro(etariat8 +hi# man &a#, except 'errand, the repre#entati e ofC0oun* En*(andT, the on(! i*orou# opponent of the bi((; but &hen the other =adica(# #a& that the peop(e &ere dec(arin* a*ain#t it, one after the other crept for&ard and too1 hi# p(ace b! 4uncombeN# #ide; and a# the %ibera( bour*eoi#ie had not the coura*e to defend the bi(( in the face of the excitement amon* the &or1in*$men, it &a# i*nominiou#(! (o#t8 Mean&hi(e the mo#t open dec(aration of &ar of the bour*eoi#ie upon the pro(etariat i# Ma(thu#A %a& of Popu(ation and the /e& Poor %a& framed in accordance &ith it8 We ha e a(read! a((uded #e era( time# to the theor! of Ma(thu#8 We ma! #um up it# fina( re#u(t in the#e fe& &ord#, that the earth i# perennia((! o er$popu(ated, &hence po ert!, mi#er!, di#tre##, and immora(it! mu#t pre ai(; that it i# the (ot, the eterna( de#tin! of man1ind, to exi#t in too *reat number#, and therefore in di er#e c(a##e#, of &hich #ome are rich, educated, and mora(, and other# more or (e## poor, di#tre##ed, i*norant, and immora(8 5ence it fo((o&# in practice, and Ma(thu# him#e(f dre& thi# conc(u#ion, that charitie# and poor$rate# are, proper(! #pea1in*, non#en#e, #ince the! #er e on(! to maintain, and #timu(ate the increa#e of, the #urp(u# popu(ation &ho#e competition cru#he# do&n &a*e# for the emp(o!ed; that the emp(o!ment of the poor b! the Poor %a& :uardian# i# eBua((! unrea#onab(e, #ince on(! a fixed Buantit! of the product# of (abour can be con#umed, and for e er! unemp(o!ed (abourer thu# furni#hed emp(o!ment, another hitherto emp(o!ed mu#t be dri en into enforced id(ene##, &hence pri ate underta1in*# #uffer at co#t of Poor %a& indu#tr!; that, in other &ord#, the &ho(e prob(em i# not ho& to #upport the #urp(u# popu(ation, but ho& to re#train it a# far a# po##ib(e8 Ma(thu# dec(are# in p(ain En*(i#h that the ri*ht to (i e, a ri*ht pre iou#(! a##erted in fa our of e er! man in the &or(d, i# non#en#e8 5e Buote# the &ord# of a poet, that the poor man come# to the fea#t of /ature and find# no co er (aid for him, and add#

thatC#he bid# him be*oneC, for he did not before hi# birth a#1 of #ociet! &hether or not he i# &e(come8 +hi# i# no& the pet theor! of a(( *enuine En*(i#h bour*eoi#, and er! natura((!, #ince it i# the mo#t #peciou# excu#e for them, and ha#, moreo er, a *ood dea( of truth in it under exi#tin* condition#8 "f, then, the prob(em i# not to ma1e theC#urp(u# popu(ationC u#efu(, to tran#form it into a ai(ab(e popu(ation, but mere(! to (et it #tar e to death in the (ea#t obDectionab(e &a! and to pre ent it# ha in* too man! chi(dren, thi#, of cour#e, i# #imp(e enou*h, pro ided the #urp(u# popu(ation percei e# it# o&n #uperf(uou#ne## and ta1e# 1ind(! to #tar ation8 +here i#, ho&e er, in #pite of the io(ent exertion# of the humane bour*eoi#ie, no immediate pro#pect of it# #ucceedin* in brin*in* about #uch a di#po#ition amon* the &or1er#8 +he &or1er# ha e ta1en it into their head# that the!, &ith their bu#! hand#, are the nece##ar!, and the rich capita(i#t#, &ho do nothin*, the #urp(u# popu(ation8 Since, ho&e er, the rich ho(d a(( the po&er, the pro(etarian# mu#t #ubmit, if the! &i(( not *ood$ tempered(! percei e it for them#e( e#, to ha e the (a& actua((! dec(are them #uperf(uou#88 +hi# ha# been done b! the /e& Poor %a&8 +he ?(d Poor %a& &hich re#ted upon the 9ct of 1671 ,the 4>rd of E(i)abeth-, nai e(! #tarted from the notion that it i# the dut! of the pari#h to pro ide for the maintenance of the poor8 Whoe er had no &or1 recei ed re(ief, and the poor man re*arded the pari#h a# p(ed*ed to protect him from #tar ation8 5e demanded hi# &ee1(! re(ief a# hi# ri*ht, not a# a fa our, and thi# became, at (a#t, too much for the bour*eoi#ie8 "n 18>>, &hen the bour*eoi#ie had Du#t come into po&er throu*h the =eform <i((, and pauperi#m in the countr! di#trict# had Du#t reached it# fu(( de e(opment, the bour*eoi#ie be*an the reform of the Poor %a& accordin* to it# o&n point of ie&8 9 commi##ion &a# appointed, &hich in e#ti*ated the admini#tration of the Poor %a&#, and re ea(ed a mu(titude of abu#e#8 "t &a# di#co ered that the &ho(e &or1in*$c(a## in the countr! &a# pauperi#ed and more or (e## dependent upon the rate#, from &hich the! recei ed re(ief &hen &a*e# &ere (o&; it &a# found that thi# #!#tem b! &hich the unemp(o!ed &ere maintained, the i(($paid and the parent# of (ar*e fami(ie# re(ie ed, father# of i((e*itimate chi(dren reBuired to pa! a(imon!, and po ert!, in *enera(, reco*ni#ed a# needin* protection, it &a# found that thi# #!#tem &a# ruinin* the nation, &a# E Ia chec1 to indu#tr!, a re&ard for impro ident marria*e#, a #timu(ant to popu(ation, and a b(ind to it# effect# on &a*e#; a nationa( in#titution for di#countenancin* the indu#triou# and hone#t, and for protectin* the id(e, the impro ident and the iciou#; the de#tro!er of the bond# of fami(! (ife; a #!#tem for pre entin* the accumu(ation of capita(, for de#tro!in* that &hich exi#t#, and for reducin* the rate$pa!er to pauperi#m; and a premium for i((e*itimate chi(drenT in the pro i#ion of a(iment8C ,Word# of the =eport of the Poor %a& ;ommi##ioner#8-

+hi# de#cription of the action of the ?(d Poor %a& i# certain(! correct; re(ief fo#ter# (a)ine## and increa#e ofC#urp(u# popu(ationC8 Fnder pre#ent #ocia( condition# it i# perfect(! c(ear that the poor man i# compe((ed to be an e*oti#t, and &hen he can choo#e, (i in* eBua((! &e(( in either ca#e, he prefer# doin* nothin* to &or1in*8 <ut &hat fo((o&# therefromK +hat our pre#ent #ocia( condition# are *ood for nothin*, and not a# the Ma(thu#ian ;ommi##ioner# conc(ude, that po ert! i# a crime, and, a# #uch, to be i#ited &ith heinou# pena(tie# &hich ma! #er e a# a &arnin* to other#8 <ut the#e &i#e Ma(thu#ian# &ere #o thorou*h(! con inced of the infa((ibi(it! of their theor! that the! did not for one moment he#itate to ca#t the poor into the Procru#tean bed of their economic notion# and treat them &ith the mo#t re o(tin* crue(t!8 ;on inced &ith Ma(thu# and the re#t of the adherent# of free competition that it i# be#t to (et each one ta1e care of him#e(f, the! &ou(d ha e preferred to abo(i#h the Poor %a&# a(to*ether8 Since, ho&e er, the! had neither the coura*e nor the authorit! to do thi#, the! propo#ed a Poor %a& con#tructed a# far a# po##ib(e in harmon! &ith the doctrine of Ma(thu#, &hich i# !et more barbarou# than that of laisse35faire, becau#e it interfere# acti e(! in ca#e# in &hich the (atter i# pa##i e8 We ha e #een ho& Ma(thu# characteri#e# po ert!, or rather the &ant of emp(o!ment, a# a crime under the tit(eC#uperf(uit!T, and recommend# for it puni#hment b! #tar ation8 +he commi##ioner# &ere not Buite #o barbarou#; death outri*ht b! #tar ation &a# #omethin* too terrib(e e en for a Poor %a& ;ommi##ioner8C:ood,T #aid the!,C&e *rant !ou poor a ri*ht to exi#t, but on(! to exi#t; the ri*ht to mu(tip(! !ou ha e not, nor the ri*ht to exi#t a# befit# human bein*#8 0ou are a pe#t, and if &e cannot *et rid of !ou a# &e do of other pe#t#, !ou #ha(( fee(, at (ea#t, that !ou are a pe#t, and !ou #ha(( at (ea#t be he(d in chec1, 1ept from brin*in* into the &or(d other #urp(u#, either direct(! or throu*h inducin* in other# (a)ine## and &ant of emp(o!ment8 %i e !ou #ha((, but (i e a# an a&fu( &arnin* to a(( tho#e &ho mi*ht ha e inducement# to become #uperf(uou#8T +he! accordin*(! brou*ht in the /e& Poor %a&, &hich &a# pa##ed b! Par(iament in 18>4, and continue# in force do&n to the pre#ent da!8 9(( re(ief in mone! and pro i#ion# &a# abo(i#hed; the on(! re(ief a((o&ed &a# admi##ion to the &or1hou#e# immediate(! bui(t8 +he re*u(ation# for the#e &or1hou#e#, or, a# the peop(e ca(( them, Poor %a& <a#ti((e#, i# #uch a# to fri*hten a&a! e er! one &ho ha# the #(i*hte#t pro#pect of (ife &ithout thi# form of pub(ic charit!8 +o ma1e #ure that re(ief be app(ied for on(! in the mo#t extreme ca#e# and after e er! other effort had fai(ed, the &or1hou#e ha# been made the mo#t repu(#i e re#idence &hich the refined in*enuit! of a Ma(thu#ian can in ent8 +he food i# &or#e than that of the mo#t i(($paid &or1in*$man &hi(e emp(o!ed, and the &or1 harder, or the! mi*ht prefer the &or1hou#e to their &retched exi#tence out#ide8 Meat, e#pecia((! fre#h meat, i# rare(! furni#hed, chief(! potatoe#, the &or#t po##ib(e bread and oatmea( porrid*e, (itt(e or no beer8 +he food of crimina( pri#oner# i# better, a# a ru(e, #o that the pauper# freBuent(! commit #ome offence for the purpo#e of *ettin* into Dai(8 'or the &or1hou#e i# a Dai( too; he &ho doe# not fini#h hi# ta#1 *et# nothin* to eat; he &ho &i#he# to *o out mu#t a#1 permi##ion, &hich i# *ranted or not, accordin* to hi# beha iour or the in#pector# &him; tobacco i# forbidden, a(#o the receipt of *ift# from re(ati e# or friend# out#ide the hou#e; the pauper# &ear a &or1hou#e uniform, and are handed o er, he(p(e## and &ithout redre##, to the caprice of the in#pector#8 +o pre ent their (abour from competin* &ith that of out#ide concern#, the! are #et to rather u#e(e## ta#1#: the men brea1 #tone#,Ca# much a# a #tron* man can accomp(i#h &ith effort in a da!C; the &omen, chi(dren, and a*ed men pic1 oa1um, for " 1no& not &hat in#i*nificant u#e8 +o pre ent theC#uperf(uou#C from mu(tip(!in*, andCdemora(i#edC parent# from inf(uencin* their chi(dren, fami(ie# are bro1en up; the hu#band i# p(aced in one &in*, the &ife in another, the chi(dren in a third, and the! are permitted to #ee one another on(! at #tated time# after (on* inter a(#, and then on(! &hen the! ha e, in the opinion of the officia(#, beha ed &e((8 9nd in order to #hut off the externa( &or(d from contamination b! pauperi#m &ithin the#e ba#ti((e#, the inmate# are permitted to recei e i#it# on(! &ith the con#ent of the officia(#, and in

the reception$room#; to communicate in *enera( &ith the &or(d out#ide on(! b! (ea e and under #uper i#ion8 0et the food i# #uppo#ed to be &ho(e#ome and the treatment humane &ith a(( thi#8 <ut the intent of the (a& i# too (oud(! out#po1en for thi# reBuirement to be in an! &i#e fu(fi((ed8 +he Poor %a& ;ommi##ioner# and the &ho(e En*(i#h bour*eoi#ie decei e them#e( e# if the! be(ie e the admini#tration of the (a& po##ib(e &ithout the#e re#u(t#8 +he treatment, &hich the (etter of the (a& pre#cribe#, i# in direct contradiction of it# #pirit8 "f the (a& in it# e##ence proc(aim# the poor crimina(#, the &or1hou#e# pri#on#, their inmate# be!ond the pa(e of the (a&, be!ond the pa(e of humanit!, obDect# of di#*u#t and repu(#ion, then a(( command# to the contrar! are una ai(in*8 "n practice, the #pirit and not the (etter of the (a& i# fo((o&ed in the treatment of the poor, a# in the fo((o&in* fe& examp(e#: "n the &or1hou#e at :reen&ich, in the #ummer of 184>, a bo! fi e !ear# o(d &a# puni#hed b! bein* #hut into the dead$room, &here he had to #(eep upon the (id# of the coffin#8 "n the &or1hou#e at 5erne, the #ame puni#hment &a# inf(icted upon a (itt(e *ir( for &ettin* the bed at ni*ht, and thi# method of puni#hment #eem# to be a fa ourite one8 +hi# &or1hou#e, &hich #tand# in one of the mo#t beautifu( re*ion# of Hent, i# pecu(iar, in #o far a# it# &indo&# open on(! upon the court, and but t&o, ne&(! introduced, afford the inmate# a *(imp#e of the outer &or(d8 +he author &ho re(ate# thi# in the <lluminated +aga3ine, c(o#e# hi# de#cription &ith the &ord#: T"f :od puni#hed men for crime# a# man puni#he# man for po ert!, then &oe to the #on# of 9dam@T "n /o ember, 184>, a man died at %eice#ter, &ho had been di#mi##ed t&o da!# before from the &or1hou#e at ;o entr!8 +he detai(# of the treatment of the poor in thi# in#titution are re o(tin*8 +he man, :eor*e =ob#on, had a &ound upon the #hou(der, the treatment of &hich &a# &ho((! ne*(ected; he &a# #et to &or1 at the pump, u#in* the #ound arm; &a# *i en on(! the u#ua( &or1hou#e fare, &hich he &a# utter(! unab(e to di*e#t b! rea#on of the unhea(ed &ound and hi# *enera( debi(it!; he natura((! *re& &ea1er, and the more he comp(ained, the more bruta((! he &a# treated8 When hi# &ife tried to brin* him her drop of beer, #he &a# reprimanded, and forced to drin1 it her#e(f in the pre#ence of the fema(e &arder8 5e became i((, but recei ed no better treatment8 'ina((!, at hi# o&n reBue#t, and under the mo#t in#u(tin* epithet#, he &a# di#char*ed, accompanied b! hi# &ife8 +&o da!# (ater he died at %eice#ter, in con#eBuence of the ne*(ected &ound and of the food *i en him, &hich &a# utter(! indi*e#tib(e for one in hi# condition, a# the #ur*eon pre#ent at the inBue#t te#tified8 When he &a# di#char*ed, there &ere handed to him (etter# containin* mone!, &hich had been 1ept bac1 #ix &ee1#, and opened, accordin* to a ru(e of the e#tab(i#hment, b! the in#pector@ "n <irmin*ham #uch #canda(ou# occurrence# too1 p(ace, that fina((!, in 184>, an officia( &a# #ent to in e#ti*ate the ca#e8 5e found that four tramp# had been #hut up na1ed under a #tair$ca#e in a b(ac1 ho(e, ei*ht to ten da!#, often depri ed of food unti( noon, and that at the #e ere#t #ea#on of the !ear8 9 (itt(e bo! had been pa##ed throu*h a(( *rade# of puni#hment 1no&n to the in#titution; fir#t (oc1ed up in a damp, au(ted, narro&, (umber$ room; then in the do*$ho(e t&ice, the #econd time three da!# and three ni*ht#; then the #ame (en*th of time in the o(d do*$ho(e, &hich &a# #ti(( &or#e; then the tramp$room, a #tin1in*, di#*u#tin*(! fi(th! ho(e, &ith &ooden #(eepin* #ta((#, &here the officia(, in the cour#e of hi# in#pection, found t&o other tattered bo!#, #hri e((ed &ith co(d, &ho had been #pendin* three da!# there8 "n the do*$ ho(e there &ere often #e en, and in the tramp$room, t&ent! men hudd(ed to*ether8 Women, a(#o, &ere p(aced in the do*$ho(e, becau#e the! refu#ed to *o to church and one &a# #hut four da!# into the tramp$room, &ith :od 1no&# &hat #ort of compan!, and that &hi(e #he &a# i(( and recei in* medicine#8 9nother &oman &a# p(aced in the in#ane department for puni#hment, thou*h #he &a#

perfect(! #ane8 "n the &or1hou#e at <acton, in Suffo(1, in Lanuar!, 1844, a #imi(ar in e#ti*ation re ea(ed the fact that a feeb(e$minded &oman &a# emp(o!ed a# nur#e, and too1 care of the patient# accordin*(!, &hi(e #ufferer#, &ho &ere often re#t(e## at ni*ht, or tried to *et up, &ere tied fa#t &ith cord# pa##ed o er the co erin* and under the bed#tead, to #a e the nur#e# the troub(e of #ittin* up at ni*ht8 ?ne patient &a# found dead, bound in thi# &a!8 "n the St8 Pancra# &or1hou#e in %ondon ,&here the cheap #hirt# a(read! mentioned are made-, an epi(eptic died of #uffocation durin* an attac1 in bed, no one comin* to hi# re(ief; in the #ame hou#e, four to #ix, #ometime# ei*ht chi(dren, #(ept in one bed8 "n Shoreditch &or1hou#e a man &a# p(aced, to*ether &ith a fe er patient io(ent(! i((, in a bed teemin* &ith ermin8 "n <ethna( :reen &or1hou#e, %ondon, a &oman in the #ixth month of pre*nanc! &a# #hut up in the reception$room &ith her t&o$!ear$ o(d chi(d, from 'ebruar! 68th to March 19th, &ithout bein* admitted into the &or1hou#e it#e(f, and &ithout a trace of a bed or the mean# of #ati#f!in* the mo#t natura( &ant#8 5er hu#band, &ho &a# brou*ht into the &or1hou#e, be**ed to ha e hi# &ife re(ea#ed from thi# impri#onment, &hereupon he recei ed t&ent!$four hour# impri#onment, &ith bread and &ater, a# the pena(t! of hi# in#o(ence8 "n the &or1hou#e at S(ou*h, near Wind#or, a man (a! d!in* in September, 18448 5i# &ife Dourne!ed to him, arri in* at midni*ht; and ha#tenin* to the &or1hou#e, &a# refu#ed admi##ion8 She &a# not permitted to #ee her hu#band unti( the next mornin*, and then on(! in the pre#ence of a fema(e &arder, &ho forced her#e(f upon the &ife at e er! #ucceedin* i#it, #endin* her a&a! at the end of ha(f$an$hour8 "n the &or1hou#e at Midd(eton, in %anca#hire, t&e( e, and at time# ei*hteen, pauper#, of both #exe#, #(ept in one room8 +hi# in#titution i# not embraced b! the /e& Poor %a&, but i# admini#tered under an o(d #pecia( act ,:i(bert# 9ct-8 +he in#pector had in#tituted a bre&er! in the hou#e for hi# o&n benefit8 "n Stoc1port, Lu(! >1#t, 1844, a man, #e ent!$t&o !ear# o(d, &a# brou*ht before the Lu#tice of the Peace for refu#in* to brea1 #tone#, and in#i#tin* that, b! rea#on of hi# a*e and a #tiff 1nee, he &a# unfit for thi# &or18 "n ain did he offer to underta1e an! &or1 adapted to hi# ph!#ica( #tren*th; he &a# #entenced to t&o &ee1# upon the treadmi((8 "n the &or1hou#e at <a#ford, an in#pectin* officia( found that the #heet# had not been chan*ed in thirteen &ee1#, #hirt# in four &ee1#, #toc1in*# in t&o to ten month#, #o that of fort!$fi e bo!# but three had #toc1in*#, and a(( their #hirt# &ere in tatter#8 +he bed# #&armed &ith ermin, and the tab(e&are &a# &a#hed in the #(op$pai(#8 "n the &e#t of %ondon &or1hou#e, a porter &ho had infected four *ir(# &ith #!phi(i# &a# not di#char*ed, and another &ho had concea(ed a deaf and dumb *ir( four da!# and ni*ht# in hi# bed &a# a(#o retained8 9# in (ife, #o in death8 +he poor are dumped into the earth (i1e infected catt(e8 +he pauper buria($ *round of St8 <ride#, %ondon, i# a bare mora##, in u#e a# a cemeter! #ince the time of ;har(e# ""8, and fi((ed &ith heap# of bone#; e er! Wedne#da! the pauper# are thro&n into a ditch fourteen feet deep; a curate ratt(e# throu*h the %itan! at the top of hi# #peed; the ditch i# (oo#e(! co ered in, to be reopened the next Wedne#da!, and fi((ed &ith corp#e# a# (on* a# one more can be forced in8 +he putrefaction thu# en*endered contaminate# the &ho(e nei*hbourhood8 "n Manche#ter, the pauper buria($*round (ie# oppo#ite to the ?(d +o&n, a(on* the "r1; thi#, too, i# a rou*h, de#o(ate p(ace8 9bout t&o !ear# a*o a rai(road &a# carried throu*h it8 "f it had been a re#pectab(e cemeter!, ho& the bour*eoi#ie and the c(er*! &ou(d ha e #hrie1ed o er the de#ecration@ <ut it &a# a pauper buria($*round, the re#tin*$p(ace of the outca#t and #uperf(uou#, #o no one concerned him#e(f about the matter8 "t &a# not e en thou*ht &orth &hi(e to con e! the partia((! deca!ed bodie# to the other #ide of the cemeter!; the! &ere heaped up Du#t a# it happened, and pi(e# &ere dri en into ne&(! made *ra e#, #o that the &ater oo)ed out of the #&amp! *round, pre*nant &ith putref!in* matter, and fi((ed the nei*hbourhood &ith the mo#t re o(tin* and inDuriou# *a#e#8 +he di#*u#tin* bruta(it! &hich accompanied thi# &or1 " cannot de#cribe in further detai(8 ;an an! one &onder that the poor dec(ine to accept pub(ic re(ief under the#e condition#K +hat the! #tar e rather than enter the#e ba#ti((e#K " ha e the report# of fi e ca#e# in &hich per#on# actua((! #tar in*, &hen the *uardian# refu#ed them outdoor re(ief, &ent bac1 to their mi#erab(e

home# and died of #tar ation rather than enter the#e he((#8 +hu# far ha e the Poor %a& ;ommi##ioner# attained their obDect8 9t the #ame time, ho&e er, the &or1hou#e# ha e inten#ified, more than an! other mea#ure of the part! in po&er, the hatred of the &or1in*$c(a## a*ain#t the propert!$ho(der#, &ho er! *enera((! admire the /e& Poor %a&8 'rom /e&ca#t(e to 4o er, there i# but one oice amon* the &or1er# E the oice of hatred a*ain#t the ne& (a&8 +he bour*eoi#ie ha# formu(ated #o c(ear(! in thi# (a& it# conception of it# dutie# to&ard# the pro(etariat, that it ha# been appreciated e en b! the du((e#t8 So fran1(!, #o bo(d(! ha# the conception ne er !et been formu(ated, that the non$po##e##in* c(a## exi#t# #o(e(! for the purpo#e of bein* exp(oited, and of #tar in* &hen the propert!$ ho(der# can no (on*er ma1e u#e of it8 5ence it i# that thi# /e& Poor %a& ha# contributed #o *reat(! to acce(erate the (abour mo ement, and e#pecia((! to #pread ;harti#m; and, a# it i# carried out mo#t exten#i e(! in the countr!, it faci(itate# the de e(opment of the pro(etarian mo ement &hich i# ari#in* in the a*ricu(tura( di#trict#8 %et me add that a #imi(ar (a& in force in "re(and #ince 18>8, afford# a #imi(ar refu*e for ei*ht! thou#and pauper#8 5ere, too, it ha# made it#e(f di#(i1ed, and &ou(d ha e been inten#e(! hated if it had attained an!thin* (i1e the #ame importance a# in En*(and8 <ut &hat difference doe# the i(($ treatment of ei*ht! thou#and pro(etarian# ma1e in a countr! in &hich there are t&o and a ha(f mi((ion# of themK "n Scot(and there are, &ith (oca( exception#, no Poor %a&#8 " hope that after thi# picture of the /e& Poor %a& and it# re#u(t#, no &ord &hich " ha e #aid of the En*(i#h bour*eoi#ie &i(( be thou*ht too #tern8 "n thi# pub(ic mea#ure, in &hich it act# in corpore a# the ru(in* po&er, it formu(ate# it# rea( intention#, re ea(# the animu# of tho#e #ma((er tran#action# &ith the pro(etariat, of &hich the b(ame apparent(! attache# to indi idua(#8 9nd that thi# mea#ure did not ori*inate &ith an! one #ection of the bour*eoi#ie, but enDo!# the appro a( of the &ho(e c(a##, i# pro ed b! the Par(iamentar! debate# of 18448 +he %ibera( part! had enacted the /e& Poor %a&; the ;on#er ati e part!, &ith it# Prime Mini#ter Pee( at the head, defend# it, and on(! a(ter# #ome pettifo**in* trif(e# in the Poor %a& 9mendment <i(( of 18448 9 %ibera( maDorit! carried the bi((, a ;on#er ati e maDorit! appro ed it, and theC/ob(e %ord#T *a e their con#ent each time8 +hu# i# the expu(#ion of the pro(etariat from State and #ociet! out#po1en, thu# i# it pub(ic(! proc(aimed that pro(etarian# are not human bein*#, and do not de#er e to be treated a# #uch8 %et u# (ea e it to the pro(etarian# of the <riti#h Empire to reconBuer their human ri*ht#8 85 Such i# the #tate of the <riti#h &or1in*$c(a## a# " ha e come to 1no& it in the cour#e of t&ent!$ one month#, throu*h the medium of m! o&n e!e#, and throu*h officia( and other tru#t&orth! report#8 9nd &hen " ca(( thi# condition, a# " ha e freBuent(! enou*h done in the fore*oin* pa*e#, an utter(! unbearab(e one, " am not a(one in #o doin*8 9# ear(! a# 18>>, :a#1e(( dec(ared that he de#paired of a peacefu( i##ue, and that a re o(ution can hard(! fai( to fo((o&8 1n 18>8, ;ar(!(e exp(ained ;harti#m and the re o(utionar! acti it! of the &or1in*$men a# ari#in* out of the mi#er! in &hich the! (i e, and on(! &ondered that the! ha e #at #o Buiet(! ei*ht (on* !ear# at the <armecide fea#t, at &hich the! ha e been re*a(ed b! the %ibera( bour*eoi#ie &ith empt! promi#e#8 9nd in 1844 he dec(ared that the &or1 of or*ani#in* (abour mu#t be be*un at once Tif Europe, at an! rate if En*(and, i# to continue inhabitab(e much (on*er8T 9nd the !imes, theCfir#t Dourna( of EuropeC, #aid in Lune, 1844: IWar to the man#ion, peace to the cotta*e E i# a &atch&ord of terror &hich

ma! !et rin* throu*h the (and8 %et the &ea(th! be&are@C Mean&hi(e, (et u# re ie& once more the chance# of the En*(i#h bour*eoi#ie8 "n the &or#t ca#e, forei*n manufacture, e#pecia((! that of 9merica, ma! #ucceed in &ith#tandin* En*(i#h competition, e en after the repea( of the ;orn %a&#, ine itab(e in the cour#e of a fe& !ear#8 :erman manufacture i# no& ma1in* *reat effort#, and that of 9merica ha# de e(oped &ith *iant #tride#8 9merica, &ith it# inexhau#tib(e re#ource#, &ith it# unmea#ured coa( and iron fie(d#, &ith it# unexamp(ed &ea(th of &ater$po&er and it# na i*ab(e ri er#, but e#pecia((! &ith it# ener*etic, acti e popu(ation, in compari#on &ith &hich the En*(i#h are ph(e*matic da&d(er#,E 9merica ha# in (e## than ten !ear# created a manufacture &hich a(read! compete# &ith En*(and in the coar#er cotton *ood#, ha# exc(uded the En*(i#h from the mar1et# of /orth and South 9merica, and ho(d# it# o&n in ;hina, #ide b! #ide &ith En*(and8 "f an! countr! i# adapted to ho(din* a monopo(! of manufacture, it i# 9merica8 Shou(d En*(i#h manufacture be thu# anBui#hed E and in the cour#e of the next t&ent! !ear#, if the pre#ent condition# remain unchan*ed, thi# i# ine itab(e E the maDorit! of the pro(etariat mu#t become fore er #uperf(uou#, and ha# no other choice than to #tar e or to rebe(8 4oe# the En*(i#h bour*eoi#ie ref(ect upon thi# contin*enc!K ?n the contrar!; it# fa ourite economi#t, Mc;u((och, teache# from hi# #tudentA# de#1, that a countr! #o !oun* a# 9merica, &hich i# not e en proper(! popu(ated, cannot carr! on manufacture #ucce##fu((! or dream of competin* &ith an o(d manufacturin* countr! (i1e En*(and8 "t &ere madne## in the 9merican# to ma1e the attempt, for the! cou(d on(! (o#e b! it; better far for them to #tic1 to their a*ricu(ture, and &hen the! ha e brou*ht their &ho(e territor! under the p(ou*h, a time ma! perhap# come for carr!in* on manufacture &ith a profit8 So #a!# the &i#e economi#t, and the &ho(e bour*eoi#ie &or#hip# him, &hi(e the 9merican# ta1e po##e##ion of one mar1et after another, &hi(e a darin* 9merican #pecu(ator recent(! e en #ent a #hipment of 9merican cotton *ood# to En*(and, &here the! &ere #o(d for re$exportation@ <ut a##umin* that En*(and retained the monopo(! of manufacture#, that it# factorie# perpetua((! mu(tip(!, &hat mu#t be the re#u(tK +he commercia( cri#e# &ou(d continue, and *ro& more io(ent, more terrib(e, &ith the exten#ion of indu#tr! and the mu(tip(ication of the pro(etariat8 +he pro(etariat &ou(d increa#e in *eometrica( proportion, in con#eBuence of the pro*re##i e ruin of the (o&er midd(e$c(a## and the *iant #tride# &ith &hich capita( i# concentratin* it#e(f in the hand# of the fe&; and the pro(etariat &ou(d #oon embrace the &ho(e nation, &ith the exception of a fe& mi((ionaire#8 <ut in thi# de e(opment there come# a #ta*e at &hich the pro(etariat percei e# ho& ea#i(! the exi#tin* po&er ma! be o erthro&n, and then fo((o&# a re o(ution8 /either of the#e #uppo#ed condition# ma!, ho&e er, be expected to ari#e8 +he commercia( cri#e#, the mi*htie#t (e er# for a(( independent de e(opment of the pro(etariat, &i(( probab(! #horten the proce##, actin* in concert &ith forei*n competition and the deepenin* ruin of the (o&er midd(e$ c(a##8 " thin1 the peop(e &i(( not endure more than one more cri#i#8 +he next one, in 1846 or 184., &i(( probab(! brin* &ith it the repea( of the ;orn %a&# and the enactment of the ;harter8 What re o(utionar! mo ement# the ;harter ma! *i e ri#e to remain# to be #een8 <ut, b! the time of the next fo((o&in* cri#i#, &hich, accordin* to the ana(o*! of it# predece##or#, mu#t brea1 out in 1856 or 185>, un(e## de(a!ed perhap# b! the repea( of the ;orn %a&# or ha#tened b! other inf(uence#, #uch a# forei*n competition E b! the time thi# cri#i# arri e#, the En*(i#h peop(e &i(( ha e had enou*h of bein* p(undered b! the capita(i#t# and (eft to #tar e &hen the capita(i#t# no (on*er reBuire their #er ice#8 "f, up to that time, the En*(i#h bour*eoi#ie doe# not pau#e to ref(ect E and to a(( appearance it certain(! &i(( not do #o E a re o(ution &i(( fo((o& &ith &hich none hitherto 1no&n can be compared8 +he pro(etarian#, dri en to de#pair, &i(( #ei)e the torch &hich Stephen# ha# preached to them; the en*eance of the peop(e &i(( come do&n &ith a &rath of &hich the ra*e of 1.95 *i e# no true idea8 +he &ar of the poor a*ain#t the rich &i(( be the b(oodie#t e er

&a*ed8 E en the union of a part of the bour*eoi#ie &ith the pro(etariat, e en a *enera( reform of the bour*eoi#ie, &ou(d not he(p matter#8 <e#ide#, the chan*e of heart of the bour*eoi#ie cou(d on(! *o a# far a# a (u1e&arm 7uste5milieu; the more determined, unitin* &ith the &or1er#, &ou(d on(! form a ne& :ironde, and #uccumb in the cour#e of the mi*ht! de e(opment8 +he preDudice# of a &ho(e c(a## cannot be (aid a#ide (i1e an o(d coat: (ea#t of a((, tho#e of the #tab(e, narro&, #e(fi#h En*(i#h bour*eoi#ie8 +he#e are a(( inference# &hich ma! be dra&n &ith the *reate#t certaint!: conc(u#ion#, the premi#e# for &hich are undeniab(e fact#, part(! of hi#torica( de e(opment, part(! fact# inherent in human nature8 Prophec! i# no&here #o ea#! a# in En*(and, &here a(( the component e(ement# of #ociet! are c(ear(! defined and #harp(! #eparated8 +he re o(ution mu#t come; it i# a(read! too (ate to brin* about a peacefu( #o(ution; but it can be made more *ent(! than that prophe#ied in the fore*oin* pa*e#8 +hi# depend#, ho&e er, more upon the de e(opment of the pro(etariat than upon that of the bour*eoi#ie8 "n proportion, a# the pro(etariat ab#orb# #ocia(i#tic and communi#tic e(ement#, &i(( the re o(ution dimini#h in b(ood#hed, re en*e, and #a a*er!8 ;ommuni#m #tand#, in princip(e, abo e the breach bet&een bour*eoi#ie and pro(etariat, reco*ni#e# on(! it# hi#toric #i*nificance for the pre#ent, but not it# Du#tification for the future: &i#he#, indeed, to brid*e o er thi# cha#m, to do a&a! &ith a(( c(a## anta*oni#m# 5ence it reco*ni#e# a# Du#tified, #o (on* a# the #tru**(e exi#t#, the exa#peration of the pro(etariat to&ard# it# oppre##or# a# a nece##it!, a# the mo#t important (e er for a (abour mo ement Du#t be*innin*; but it *oe# be!ond thi# exa#peration, becau#e ;ommuni#m i# a Bue#tion of humanit! and not of the &or1er# a(one8 <e#ide#, it doe# not occur to an! ;ommuni#t to &i#h to re en*e him#e(f upon indi idua(#, or to be(ie e that, in *enera(, the #in*(e bour*eoi# can act other&i#e, under exi#tin* circum#tance#, than he doe# act8 En*(i#h Socia(i#m, i8e8, ;ommuni#m, re#t# direct(! upon the irre#pon#ibi(it! of the indi idua(8 +hu# the more the En*(i#h &or1er# ab#orb communi#tic idea#, the more #uperf(uou# become# their pre#ent bitterne##, &hich, #hou(d it continue #o io(ent a# at pre#ent, cou(d accomp(i#h nothin*; and the more their action a*ain#t the bour*eoi#ie &i(( (o#e it# #a a*e crue(t!8 "f, indeed, it &ere po##ib(e to ma1e the &ho(e pro(etariat communi#tic before the &ar brea1# out, the end &ou(d be er! peacefu(; but that i# no (on*er po##ib(e, the time ha# *one b!8 Mean&hi(e, " thin1 that before the outbrea1 of open, dec(ared &ar of the poor a*ain#t the rich, there &i(( be enou*h inte((i*ent comprehen#ion of the #ocia( Bue#tion amon* the pro(etariat, to enab(e the communi#tic part!, &ith the he(p of e ent#, to conBuer the bruta( e(ement of the re o(ution and pre ent aC/inth +hermidorT8 "n an! ca#e, the experience of the 'rench &i(( not ha e been under*one in ain, and mo#t of the ;harti#t (eader# are, moreo er, a(read! ;ommuni#t#8 9nd a# ;ommuni#m #tand# abo e the #trife bet&een bour*eoi#ie and pro(etariat, it &i(( be ea#ier for the better e(ement# of the bour*eoi#ie ,&hich are, ho&e er, dep(orab(! fe&, and can (oo1 for recruit# on(! amon* the ri#in* *eneration- to unite &ith it than &ith pure(! pro(etarian ;harti#m8 "f the#e conc(u#ion# ha e not been #ufficient(! e#tab(i#hed in the cour#e of the pre#ent &or1, there ma! be other opportunitie# for demon#tratin* that the! are nece##ar! con#eBuence# of the hi#torica( de e(opment of En*(and8 <ut thi# " maintain, the &ar of the poor a*ain#t the rich no& carried on in detai( and indirect(! &i(( become direct and uni er#a(8 "t i# too (ate for a peacefu( #o(ution8 +he c(a##e# are di ided more and more #harp(!, the #pirit of re#i#tance penetrate# the &or1er#, the bitterne## inten#ifie#, the *uerri((a #1irmi#he# become concentrated in more important batt(e#, and #oon a #(i*ht impu(#e &i(( #uffice to #et the a a(anche in motion8 +hen, indeed, &i(( the &ar$cr! re#ound throu*h the (and:CWar to the man#ion, peace to the cotta*e@T E but then it &i(( be too (ate for the rich to be&are8

An English T'rno't
"n m! boo1 on the abo e #ubDect " &a# unab(e to *i e factua( proof of indi idua( point#8 "n order not to ma1e the boo1 too thic1 and indi*e#tib(e, " had to con#ider m! #tatement# #ufficient(! pro en &hen " had confirmed them b! Buotation# from officia( document#, impartia( &riter# or the &ritin*# of the partie# &ho#e intere#t# " &a# attac1in*8 +hi# #ufficed to *uard me a*ain#t contradiction in tho#e ca#e# &here " &a# unab(e to #pea1 from per#ona( ob#er ation &hen de#cribin* particu(ar (i in* condition#8 <ut it &a# not #ufficient to produce in the reader the inconte#tab(e certaint! &hich can on(! be *i en b! #tri1in*, irrefutab(e fact#, and &hich, e#pecia((! in an a*e in &hich &e are ob(i*ed b! the infiniteC&i#dom of the father#T to be #ceptica(, can ne er be *enerated b! mere rea#onin*, no matter ho& *ood the authoritie#8 9bo e a(( &hen it i# a Bue#tion of important con#eBuence#, of fact# coa(e#cin* into princip(e#, &hen it i# not the condition of #eparate, #ma(( #ection# of the peop(e that ha# to be de#cribed, but the po#ition of &ho(e c(a##e# in re(ation to each other, then fact# are ab#o(ute(! e##entia(8 'or the rea#on# Du#t mentioned, " &a# unab(e to pro ide the#e in a(( ca#e# in m! boo18 " &i(( no& ma1e *ood thi# una oidab(e deficienc! and, from time to time, &i(( pre#ent fact# a# " find them in the #ource# a ai(ab(e to me8 "n order, at the #ame time, to demon#trate that m! account i# #ti(( correct toda!, " &i(( on(! u#e fact# &hich ha e ta1en p(ace #ince " (eft En*(and (a#t !ear, and ha e become 1no&n to me on(! #ince m! boo1 &a# pub(i#hed8 =eader# of m! boo1 &i(( remember that " &a# chief(! concerned to de#cribe the po#ition of the bour*eoi#ie and the pro(etariat in re(ation to each other and the nece##it! of #tru**(e bet&een the#e t&o c(a##e#; and that " attached e#pecia( importance to pro in* ho& comp(ete(! Du#tified the pro(etariat &a# in &a*in* thi# #tru**(e, and to rebuttin* the En*(i#h bour*eoi#ieN# fine phra#e# b! mean# of their u*(! deed#8 'rom the fir#t pa*e to the (a#t, " &a# &ritin* a bi(( of indictment a*ain#t the En*(i#h bour*eoi#ie8 " &i(( no& pro ide a fe& more choice piece# of e idence8 5o&e er, #ince " ha e a(read! di#p(a!ed enou*h pa##ion o er the#e En*(i#h bour*eoi# it i# not m! intention to &or1 m!#e(f up o er them once a*ain and, #o far a# " can, " &i(( 1eep m! temper8 +he fir#t *ood citi)en and &orth! paterfamilias &e are *oin* to meet i# an o(d friend, or rather there are t&o of them8 <! 184> Me##r#8 Pau(in* P 5enfre! had a(read! had %ord 1no&# ho& man! conf(ict# &ith their &or1er#, &ho, refu#in* to be di##uaded e en b! the be#t of ar*ument# from their demand that the! #hou(d recei e increa#ed &a*e# for increa#ed &or1, #topped &or18 Pau(in* P 5enfre!, &ho are important bui(din* contractor# and emp(o! man! bric1ma1er#, carpenter#, and #o on, too1 on other &or1er#; thi# (ed to a conf(ict and in the end to a b(ood! batt(e &ith *un# and cud*e(# in Pau(in* P 5enfre!N# bric1!ard, &hich re#u(ted in the tran#portation of ha(f a do)en &or1er# to Jan 4iemenN# %and, a(( of &hich i# dea(t &ith at (en*th in m! boo18 <ut Me##r#8 Pau(in* P 5enfre! ha e to tr! #omethin* on &ith their &or1er# e er! !ear, other&i#e the! are not happ!; #o the! be*an baitin* them a*ain in ?ctober 18448 +hi# time it &a# the carpenter# &ho#e &e(($bein* the phi(anthropic bui(din* contractor# &ere anxiou# to promote8 'rom time immemoria( the cu#tom had pre ai(ed amon* the carpenter# of Manche#ter and the #urroundin* area of notC#tri1in* a (i*htT from ;and(ema# to /o ember 1., i8e8, of &or1in* from #ix in the mornin* ti(( #ix in the e enin* durin* the (on* da!#, and of #tartin* a# #oon a# it &a# (i*ht and fini#hin* a# #oon a# it be*an to *et dar1 durin* the #hort da!#8 +hen from /o ember 1. on&ard# the (i*ht# &ere (it and &or1 carried on for the fu(( time8 Pau(in* P 5enfre!, &ho had (on* had enou*h of thi#CbarbaricT cu#tom, decided to put an end to thi# re(ic of theC4ar1 9*e#T &ith the he(p of *a# (i*htin*, and &hen one e enin* before #ix oNc(oc1 the carpenter# cou(d not #ee an! (on*er and put a&a! their too(# and &ent for their coat#, the foreman

(it the *a# and #aid that the! had to &or1 ti(( #ix oNc(oc18 +he carpenter#, &hom thi# did not #uit, ca((ed a *enera( meetin* of the &or1er# in their trade8 Mr8 Pau(in*, much a#toni#hed, a#1ed hi# &or1er# if the! &ere di##ati#fied about #omethin* #ince the! had ca((ed a meetin*8 Some of the &or1er# #aid that it &a# not the! &ho &ere direct(! re#pon#ib(e for ca((in* the meetin*, but the committee of the craft union, to &hich Mr8 Pau(in* rep(ied that he didnNt care a fi* for the craft union, but he &ou(d (i1e to put a propo#ition to them: if the! &ou(d a*ree to the (i*ht# bein* (it he &ou(d be prepared in return to *i e them three hour# off on Saturda!#, and E *enerou# fe((o& E a(#o to a((o& them to &or1 an extra Buarter of an hour e er! da! for &hich the! &ou(d *et extra pa!@ +he! on their part #hou(d &or1 ha(f an hour (on*er &hen a(( other &or1#hop# be*an to put on their (i*ht#8 +he &or1er# con#idered thi# propo#a( and ca(cu(ated that a# a re#u(t Me##r#8 Pau(in* P 5enfre! &ou(d *ain a &ho(e &or1in* hour e er! da! durin* the #hort da!#, that each &or1er &ou(d ha e to &or1 a(to*ether 96 hour#, i8e8, 9 124 da!# extra &ithout *ettin* a farthin* in return, and that ta1in* into account a(( the &or1er# emp(o!ed b! the firm, the abo e$named *ent(emen &ou(d #a e U477 ,6,177 ta(er- in &a*e# durin* the &inter month#8 So the &or1er# he(d their meetin* and exp(ained to their fe((o&$&or1er# that if one firm #ucceeded in puttin* thi# throu*h, a(( the other firm# &ou(d fo((o& #uit and, a# a re#u(t, there &ou(d be a *enera( indirect reduction in &a*e# &hich &ou(d rob the carpenter# in the di#trict of about U4,777 a !ear8 "t &a# decided that on the fo((o&in* Monda! a(( the carpenter# emp(o!ed b! Pau(in* P 5enfre! #hou(d hand in their >$month#N notice and if their emp(o!er# did not chan*e their mind#, #hou(d #top &or1 &hen thi# notice expired8 +he union on it# part promi#ed to #upport them b! a *enera( (e ! in the e ent of a #toppa*e of &or18 ?n Monda!, ?ctober 14, the &or1er# &ent and *a e in their notice, &hereupon the! &ere to(d that the! cou(d (ea e ri*ht a&a!, &hich of cour#e the! did8 +he #ame e enin* another meetin* of a(( the bui(din* &or1er# too1 p(ace, at &hich a(( cate*orie# of bui(din* &or1er# p(ed*ed their #upport to the #tri1er#8 ?n the Wedne#da! and +hur#da! fo((o&in*, a(( the carpenter# in the icinit! emp(o!ed b! Pau(in* P 5enfre! a(#o #topped &or1 and the #tri1e &a# thu# in fu(( #&in*8 +he bui(din* emp(o!er#, (eft #o #udden(! hi*h and dr!, immediate(! #ent peop(e out in a(( direction#, e en a# far a# Scot(and, to recruit &or1er# #ince in the &ho(e icinit! there &a# not a #ou( &i((in* to &or1 for them8 "n a fe& da!# thirteen men did arri e from Stafford#hire8 <ut a# #oon a# the #tri1er# found an opportunit! of ta(1in* to them and exp(ainin* the di#pute and the rea#on# &h! the! had #topped &or1, #e era( of the ne& arri a(# refu#ed to continue &or1in*8 <ut the ma#ter# had an effecti e &a! of dea(in* &ith thi#: the! had the reca(citrant#, a(on* &ith tho#e &ho (ed them a#tra!, brou*ht before 4anie( Maude, E#Buire, Lu#tice of the Peace8 <ut before &e fo((o& them there, &e mu#t fir#t put the irtue# of 4anie( Maude, E#B8, in their proper (i*ht8 4anie( Maude, E#B8, i# theC#tipendiar! ma*i#trateTN or paid Lu#tice of the Peace in Manche#ter8 +he En*(i#h ma*i#trate# are u#ua((! rich bour*eoi# or (ando&ner#, occa#iona((! a(#o c(er*!men, &ho are appointed b! the Mini#tr!8 <ut #ince the#e 4o*berrie# under#tand nothin* about the (a&, the! ma1e the mo#t f(a*rant b(under#, brin* the bour*eoi#ie into ridicu(e and do it harm, #ince, e en &hen faced &ith a &or1er, the! are freBuent(! reduced to a #tate of confu#ion if he i# defended b! a #1i(fu( (a&!er, and either ne*(ect #ome (e*a( form &hen #entencin* him, &hich re#u(t# in a #ucce##fu( appea(, or (et them#e( e# be mi#(ed into acBuittin* him8 <e#ide#, the rich manufacturer# in the bi* to&n# and indu#tria( area# ha e no time to #pare for pa##in* da!# of boredom in a court of (a& and prefer to in#ta(( a rep(acement8 9# a re#u(t in the#e to&n#, on the initiati e of the to&n# them#e( e#, paid ma*i#trate# are u#ua((! appointed, men er#ed in (a&, &ho are ab(e to ta1e ad anta*e of a(( the t&i#t# and #ubt(e di#tinction# of En*(i#h (a&, and &hen nece##ar! to #upp(ement and impro e it for the benefit of the bour*eoi#ie8 +heir effort# in thi# re#pect are i((u#trated b! the fo((o&in* examp(e8 4anie( Maude, E#B8, i# one of tho#e (ibera( Du#tice# of the peace &ho &ere appointed in (ar*e number# under the Whi* :o ernment8 9mon* hi# heroic exp(oit#, in#ide and out#ide the arena of

the Manche#ter <orou*h ;ourt, &e &i(( mention t&o8 When in 1846 the manufacturer# #ucceeded in forcin* the &or1er# of South %anca#hire into an in#urrection, &hich bro1e out in Sta(!brid*e and 9#hton at the be*innin* of 9u*u#t, #ome 17,777 &or1er#, &ith =ichard Pi((in*, the ;harti#t, at their head, marched on 9u*u#t 9 from there to Manche#ter Tto meet their ma#ter# on the Exchan*e and to #ee ho& the Manche#ter mar1et &a#8T When the! reached the out#1irt# of the to&n, the! &ere met b! 4anie( Maude, E#B8, &ith the &ho(e e#timab(e po(ice force, a detachment of ca a(r! and a compan! of rif(emen8 <ut thi# &a# a(( on(! for the #a1e of appearance# #ince it &a# in the intere#t of the manufacturer# and (ibera(# that the in#urrection #hou(d #pread and force the repea( of the ;orn %a&#8 "n thi# 4anie( Maude, E#B8, &a# in comp(ete a*reement &ith hi# &orth! co((ea*ue#, and he be*an to come to term# &ith the &or1er# and a((o&ed them to enter the to&n on their promi#e toC1eep the peaceC and fo((o& a pre#cribed route8 5e 1ne& er! &e(( that the in#ur*ent# &ou(d not do thi# nor did he in the (ea#t &i#h them to E he cou(d ha e nipped the &ho(e contri ed in#urrection in the bud &ith a (itt(e ener*! but, had he done #o, he &ou(d not ha e been actin* in the intere#t of hi# 9nti$;orn %a& friend# but in the intere#t of Sir =obert Pee(8 So he &ithdre& the #o(dier# and a((o&ed the &or1er# to enter the to&n, &here the! immediate(! brou*ht a(( the factorie# to a #tand#ti((8 <ut a# #oon a# the in#urrection pro ed to be definite(! directed a*ain#t the (ibera( bour*eoi#ie and comp(ete(! i*nored theChe((i#h ;orn %a&#C, 4anie( Maude, E#B8, once more a##umed hi# Dudicia( office and had &or1er# arre#ted b! the do)en and marched off to pri#on &ithout merc! forCbreach of the peaceC E #o that he fir#t cau#ed the breache# and then puni#hed them8 9nother characteri#tic feature in the career of thi# Manche#ter So(omon i# re ea(ed b! the fo((o&in*8 Since the 9nti$ ;orn %a& %ea*ue &a# #e era( time# beaten up in pub(ic in Manche#ter, it ho(d# pri ate meetin*#, admi##ion to &hich i# b! tic1et on(! E but the deci#ion# and petition# of &hich are pre#ented to the pub(ic a# tho#e of pub(ic meetin*#, and a# manife#tation# of Manche#terCpub(ic opinionC8 "n order to put a #top to thi# fraudu(ent boa#tin* b! the (ibera( manufacturer#, three or four ;harti#t#, amon* them m! *ood friend Lame# %each, #ecured tic1et# for them#e( e# and &ent to one of the#e meetin*#8 When Mr8 ;obden ro#e to #pea1, Lame# %each a#1ed the ;hairman &hether thi# &a# a pub(ic meetin*8 "n#tead of an#&erin*, the ;hairman ca((ed the po(ice and had %each arre#ted &ithout more ado8 9 #econd ;harti#t a#1ed the Bue#tion a*ain, then a third, and a fourth, a(( &ere #et upon one after the other b! theCb(uebott(e#C ,po(ice- &ho #tood ma##ed at the door, and pac1ed off to the +o&n 5a((8 +he! appeared the next mornin* before 4anie( Maude, E#B8, &ho &a# a(read! fu((! informed about e er!thin*8 +he! &ere char*ed &ith ha in* cau#ed a di#turbance at a meetin*, &ere hard(! a((o&ed to #a! a &ord, and then had to (i#ten to a #o(emn #peech b! 4anie( Maude, E#B8, &ho to(d them that he 1ne& them, that the! &ere po(itica( a*abond# &ho did nothin*, but cau#e uproar at meetin*# and di#turb decent, (a&$abidin*, citi)en# and a #top mu#t be put to thi# 1ind of thin*8 +herefore E and 4anie( Maude, E#B8, 1ne& er! &e(( that he cou(d not impo#e an! rea( puni#hment on them E therefore, he &ou(d #entence them to pa! the co#t# thi# time8 "t &a# before thi# #ame 4anie( Maude, E#B8, &ho#e bour*eoi# irtue# &e ha e Du#t de#cribed, that the reca(citrant &or1er# from Pau(in* P 5enfre!N# &ere hau(ed8 <ut the! had brou*ht a (a&!er &ith them a# a precaution8 'ir#t to be heard &a# the &or1er ne&(! arri ed from Stafford#hire &ho had refu#ed to continue &or1in* at a p(ace &here other# had #topped &or1 in #e(f$defence8 Me##r#8 Pau(in* P 5enfre! had a &ritten contract #i*ned b! the &or1er# from Stafford#hire, and thi# &a# #ubmitted to the ma*i#trate8 86 +he defendin* (a&!er interDected that thi# a*reement had been #i*ned on a Sunda! and &a# therefore in a(id8 With much di*nit! 4anie( Maude, E#B8, admitted thatCbu#ine## tran#action#C conc(uded on a Sunda! &ere not a(id, but #aid that he cou(d

not be(ie e that Me##r#8 Pau(in* P 5enfre! re*arded thi# a# aCbu#ine## tran#actionC@ So &ithout #pendin* er! much time a#1in* the &or1er &hether heCre*ardedC the document a# aCbu#ine## tran#actionC, he to(d the poor de i( that he mu#t either continue &or1in* or amu#e him#e(f on the treadmi(( for three month#8E ? So(omon of Manche#ter@ E 9fter thi# ca#e had been dea(t &ith, Me##r#8 Pau(in* P 5enfre! brou*ht for&ard the #econd accu#ed8 5i# name &a# Sa(mon, and he &a# one of the firmN# o(d &or1er# &ho had #topped &or18 5e &a# accu#ed of ha in* intimidated the ne& &or1er# into ta1in* part in the #tri1e8 +he &itne## E one of the#e (atter E #tated that Sa(mon had ta1en him b! the arm and #po1en to him8 4anie( Maude, E#B8, a#1ed &hether the accu#ed had perhap# u#ed threat# or beaten himK E /o, #aid the &itne##8 4anie( Maude, E#B8, de(i*hted at ha in* found an opportunit! to demon#trate hi# impartia(it! E after ha in* Du#t fu(fi((ed hi# dut! to the bour*eoi#ie E dec(ared that there &a# nothin* in the ca#e incriminatin* the accu#ed8 5e had e er! ri*ht to ta1e a &a(1 on the pub(ic hi*h&a! and to ta(1 to other peop(e a# (on* a# he did not indu(*e in intimidatin* &ord# or action# E he &a# therefore acBuittin* him8 <ut Me##r#8 Pau(in* P 5enfre! had at (ea#t had the #ati#faction, b! pa!in* the co#t# of the ca#e, of ha in* the #aid Sa(mon #ent to the (oc1$up for a ni*ht E and that &a# #omethin* after a((8 /or did Sa(monN# happine## (a#t (on*8 'or after ha in* been di#char*ed on +hur#da!, ?ctober >1, he &a# up a*ain before 4anie( Maude, E#B8, on +ue#da!, /o ember 5th, char*ed &ith ha in* a##au(ted Me##r#8 Pau(in* P 5enfre! in the #treet8 ?n that #ame +hur#da! on &hich Sa(mon had been acBuitted, a number of Scot#men arri ed in Manche#ter, deco!ed b! fa(#e #tatement# that the di#pute# &ere o er and that Pau(in* P 5enfre! cou(d not find enou*h &or1er# in their di#trict to cope &ith their exten#i e contract#8 ?n the 'rida! a number of Scotti#h Doiner# &ho had been &or1in* for #ome time in Manche#ter, came to exp(ain the cau#e of the #toppa*e to their countr!men8 9 (ar*e number of their fe((o&$&or1er# E #ome 477 E *athered around the inn &here the Scot# &ere Buartered8 <ut the#e Scot#men &ere 1ept there (i1e pri#oner# &ith a foreman on *uard at the door8 9fter #ome time, Me##r#8 Pau(in* P 5enfre! arri ed in order to e#cort in per#on their ne& &or1er# to their p(ace of &or18 When the *roup came out, tho#e *athered out#ide ca((ed to the Scot# not to ta1e &or1 a*ain#t the Manche#ter ru(e# of the trade and not to di#*race their fe((o&$countr!men8 +&o of the Scot# did in fact (a* behind a (itt(e and Mr8 Pau(in* him#e(f ran bac1 to dra* them for&ard8 +he cro&d remained Buiet, on(! pre ented the *roup from mo in* too Buic1(! and ca((ed to the Scot# not to interfere in other peop(eN# bu#ine##, to *o bac1 home, etc8 Mr8 5enfre! fina((! (o#t hi# temper; he #a& #e era( of hi# o(d &or1er# in the cro&d, 8amon* them Sa(mon, and in order to put an end to the affair, he *ripped the (atter b! the arm8 Mr8 Pau(in* #ei)ed him b! the other arm and both #houted for the po(ice &ith a(( their mi*ht8 +he po(ice in#pector came up and a#1ed &hat char*e &a# bein* made a*ain#t the man, at &hich both partner# &ere *reat(! embarra##ed@ <ut the! #aid,CWe 1no& the man8CI?h,C #aid the in#pector,CthatN# enou*h then, &e can (et him *o for the time bein*8C Me##r#8 Pau(in* P 5enfre!, needin* to brin* #ome 1ind of char*e a*ain#t Sa(mon, con#idered the matter for #e era( da!# unti( fina((!, on the ad ice of their (a&!er, the! (od*ed the abo e char*e8 9fter a(( the &itne##e# a*ain#t Sa(mon had been heard, W8 P8 =obert#, theCMiner#N 9ttorne! :enera(C, the terror of a(( ma*i#trate#, #udden(! ro#e up on beha(f of the accu#ed and a#1ed &hether he #hou(d #ti(( ca(( hi# &itne##e#, #ince nothin* had been brou*ht a*ain#t Sa(mon8 4anie( Maude, E#B8, (et him Bue#tion hi# &itne##e#, &ho te#tified that Sa(mon had beha ed ca(m(! unti( Mr8 5enfre! too1 ho(d of him8 When the proceedin*# for and a*ain#t had been conc(uded, 4anie( Maude, E#B8, #aid that he &ou(d pa## #entence on Saturda!8 ;(ear(!, the pre#ence ofC9ttorne! :enera(C =obert# (ed him to thin1 t&ice before he #po1e once8 ?n Saturda!, Me##r#8 Pau(in* P 5enfre! brou*ht an additiona( crimina( char*e of con#pirac! and intimidation a*ain#t three of their o(d &or1er# E Sa(mon, Scott and Me((or8 <! thi# the! hoped to de(i er a morta( b(o& to the craft union and, in order to be #ecure a*ain#t the dreaded =obert#, the! ca((ed in a di#tin*ui#hed barri#ter from %ondon, Mr8 Mon18 9# hi# fir#t &itne##, Mr8 Mon1

produced :ib#on, one of the ne&(! en*a*ed Scot#men, &ho had a(#o acted a# &itne## a*ain#t Sa(mon the pre iou# +ue#da!8 5e dec(ared that on 'rida!, /o ember 1, a# he and hi# companion# came out of the inn, the! &ere #urrounded b! a cro&d of peop(e &ho pu#hed and pu((ed them and that the three accu#ed &ere amon* the cro&d8 =obert# no& be*an to cro##$Bue#tion thi# &itne##, confronted him &ith another &or1er, and a#1ed &hether he, :ib#on, had not to(d thi# &or1er the pre iou# ni*ht that he had not 1no&n he was under oath &hen he &a# *i in* hi# e idence the pre iou# +ue#da! and that he had not rea((! under#tood &hat he &a# #uppo#ed to do and #a! in court8 :ib#on rep(ied that he did not 1no& the man, he had been &ith t&o men the pre iou# e enin* but cou(d not #a! &hether thi# man &a# one of them a# it had been dar18 <t was possi,le that he said something of the sort #ince the form of oath in Scot(and &a# different from that in En*(and; he cou(dnNt Buite remember8 Mr8 Mon1 then ro#e and dec(ared that Mr8 =obert# had no ri*ht to put Bue#tion# (i1e that, to &hich Mr8 =obert# rep(ied that obDection# of that 1ind &ere Buite in p(ace &hen one &a# repre#entin* a bad cau#e, but that he had the ri*ht to a#1 &hat he &anted, not on(! &here the &itne## &a# born but a(#o &here he had #ta!ed e er! da! #ince that time, and &hat he had had to eat e er! da!8 4anie( Maude, E#B8, confirmed that Mr8 =obert# had thi# ri*ht but *a e him the father(! ad ice to 1eep to the point a# much a# po##ib(e8 +hen, after Mr8 =obert# had obtained from the &itne## a #tatement that he on(! rea((! be*an &or1in* for Pau(in* P 5enfre! on the da! after the incident on &hich the char*e &a# ba#ed, that i#, on /o ember 6, he di#mi##ed him8 +hen Mr8 5enfre! him#e(f appeared a# a &itne## and repeated &hat :ib#on had #aid about the incident8 9t thi#, Mr8 =obert# a#1ed him: 9re !ou not (oo1in* for an unfair ad anta*e o er !our competitor#K Mr8 Mon1 a*ain obDected to thi# Bue#tion8 Jer! &e((, #aid Mr8 =obert#, " &i(( put it more c(ear(!8 Mr8 5enfre!, do !ou 1no& that the &or1in* hour# of the carpenter# in Manche#ter are fixed b! certain ru(e#K +r. Henfrey: " ha e nothin* to do &ith tho#e ru(e#, " ha e the ri*ht to ma1e m! o&n ru(e#8 +r. Ro,erts: Ouite #o8 ?n oath, Mr8 5enfre!, do !ou not demand (on*er &or1in* hour# from !our &or1er# than other bui(din* contractor# and ma#ter carpenter#K +r. Henfrey: 0e#8 +r. Ro,erts: 5o& man! hour#, approximate(!K +r. Henfrey did not 1no& exact(! and too1 out hi# noteboo1 in order to ca(cu(ate8 .aniel +aude, Es6.: 0ou need not #pend a (on* time &or1in* it out, Du#t te(( u# rou*h(! ho& man!8 +r. Henfrey: We((, about an hour in the mornin*# and an hour in the e enin*# for #ix &ee1# before the time &hen the (i*ht# are u#ua((! turned on, and the #ame for #ix &ee1# after the da! &hen it i# u#ua( to #top puttin* on the (i*ht#8 .aniel +aude, Es6.: So e er! one of !our &or1er# ha# to &or1 an extra .6 hour# before the (i*ht# are turned on and .6 hour# after, that i#, 144 hour# in 16 &ee1#K +r. Henfrey0 0e#8 +hi# #tatement &a# recei ed &ith #i*n# of *reat indi*nation b! the pub(ic8 Mr8 Mon1 (oo1ed an*ri(! at Mr8 5enfre! and Mr8 5enfre! (oo1ed at hi# barri#ter in confu#ion and Mr8 Pau(in* tu**ed at Mr8 5enfre!N# coat$tai(# E but it &a# too (ate; 4anie( Maude, E#B8, &ho ob iou#(! #a& that he &ou(d ha e to p(a! at bein* impartia( a*ain that da!, had heard the admi##ion and made it pub(ic8 9fter t&o unimportant &itne##e# had been heard, Mr8 Mon1 #aid that hi# e idence a*ain#t the accu#ed &a# no& conc(uded8 4anie( Maude, E#B8, then #aid that the p(aintiff had not made out an! ca#e for a crimina( in e#ti*ation a*ain#t the accu#ed, not ha in* #ho&n that the threatened Scot# had been ta1en on

b! Pau(in* P 5enfre! before /o ember 1, #ince there &a# no proof of a hire contract or emp(o!ment of the men concerned before /o ember 6, &hi(e char*e had been (od*ed on /o ember 1#t8 +hu# on thi# date the men &ere not !et emp(o!ed b! Pau(in* P 5enfre! and the accu#ed had e er! ri*ht to tr! and deter them b! e er! (e*a( mean# from *oin* to &or1 for Pau(in* P 5enfre!8 "n rep(! to thi#, Mr8 Mon1 #aid that the defendant# had been en*a*ed from the moment the! (eft Scot(and and boarded the #teamer8 4anie( Maude, E#B8, remar1ed that it had indeed been #tated that #uch hire contract had been made out but thi# document had not been produced8 Mr8 Mon1 rep(ied that the document &a# in Scot(and and he a#1ed Mr8 Maude to adDourn the ca#e unti( it cou(d be (aid before the court8 Mr8 =obert# inter ened here to #a!: thi# &a# #omethin* ne& to him8 E idence for the p(aintiff had been dec(ared conc(uded and no& the p(aintiff &a# demandin* that the ca#e be adDourned in order to introduce ne& e idence8 5e in#i#ted that the ca#e proceed8 4anie( Maude, E#B8, decided that both p(ea# &ere #uperf(uou# #ince no #ub#tantiated char*e &a# before the court E upon &hich the accu#ed &ere di#mi##ed8 Mean&hi(e the &or1er# had (i1e&i#e not been inacti e8 Wee1 after &ee1 the! he(d meetin*# in the ;arpenter#C 5a(( or the Socia(i#t 5a((, ca((ed for aid from the different craft union#, &hich &a# *i en in p(ent!, ne er cea#ed to ma1e 1no&n e er!&here the beha iour of Pau(in* P 5enfre! and fina((! #ent de(e*ate# in a(( direction# in order to inform their fe((o& craft#men in a(( the area# &here Pau(in* P 5enfre! &ere recruitin* &or1er#, of the rea#on# for thi# recruitment and to pre ent them ta1in* &or1 &ith thi# firm8 ?n(! a fe& &ee1# after the #tri1e be*an there &ere #e en de(e*ate# on their &a! and po#ter# on the #treet corner# in a(( the bi* to&n# in the countr! &arned unemp(o!ed carpenter# about Pau(in* P 5enfre!8 ?n /o ember 9 #ome of the de(e*ate# &ho had returned reported on their mi##ion8 ?ne of the#e, named Lohn#on, &ho had been in Scot(and, de#cribed ho& Pau(in* P 5enfre!N# repre#entati e had recruited thirt! &or1er# in Edinbur*h but a# #oon a# the! heard from him the rea( fact# of the ca#e the! decided the! &ou(d #ooner #tar e than *o to Manche#ter in #uch circum#tance#8 9 #econd de(e*ate had been in %i erpoo( 1eepin* &atch on the arri in* #teamer#, but not a #in*(e man had arri ed and #o he found that he had nothin* to do8 9 third man had been in ;he#hire but &here er he &ent he found he had nothin* more to do, for the /orthern Star, the &or1er#N paper, had broadca#t the rea( #tate of affair# far and &ide and had put an end to an! de#ire peop(e had of *oin* to Manche#ter8 "ndeed in one to&n, Macc(e#fie(d, the carpenter# had a(read! ta1en a co((ection in #upport of the #tri1er# and promi#ed to contribute a further #hi((in* per man #hou(d the nece##it! ari#e8 "n other p(ace# he &a# ab(e to #timu(ate the (oca( craft#men to initiate #uch contribution#8 "n order to pro ide Me##r#8 Pau(in* P 5enfre! &ith another opportunit! of comin* to an a*reement &ith the &or1er#, a(( the craft#men emp(o!ed in the bui(din* trade *athered at the ;arpenter#N 5a(( on Monda!, /o ember 18th, e(ected a deputation to pre#ent an addre## to the#e *ent(emen and marched in proce##ion &ith f(a*# and emb(em# to the premi#e# of Pau(in* P 5enfre!8 'ir#t came the deputation fo((o&ed b! the #tri1e committee, then the carpenter#, the bric1$mou(der# and 1i(n$&or1er#, the da! (abourer#, bric1(a!er#, #a&!er#, *(a)ier#, p(a#terer#, painter#, a band, #tonema#on#, cabinetma1er#8 +he! pa##ed the hote( &here theirC9ttorne! :enera(C, =obert#, &a# #ta!in* and *reeted him &ith (oud hurrah# a# the! marched b!8 9rri ed at the premi#e#, the deputation fe(( out &hi(e the cro&d marched on to Ste en#on SBuare &here the! &ere to ho(d a pub(ic meetin*8 +he deputation &a# recei ed b! the po(ice &ho demanded their name# and addre##e# before a((o&in* them to proceed an! further8 When the! had entered the office, the partner# Sharp# P Pau(in* to(d them that the! &ou(d accept no &ritten addre## from a cro&d of &or1er# brou*ht to*ether mere(! for the purpo#e of intimidation8 +he deputation denied that thi# &a# their aim, #ince the proce##ion had not e en #topped, but had at once *one on it# &a!8 Whi(e thi# proce##ion of 5,777 &or1er# continued it# march, the deputation &a# fina((! recei ed and ta1en into a room in &hich &ere pre#ent the ;hief ;on#tab(e, an officer and three ne&#paper reporter#8 Mr8 Sharp#, a partner in Pau(in* P 5enfre!, u#urped the ;hairmanN# #eat,

remar1in* that the deputation #hou(d be carefu( &hat it #aid a# e er!thin* &ou(d be du(! recorded and, in certain circum#tance#, &ou(d be u#ed a*ain#t them in court8E +he! no& be*an to a#1 the deputation &hat the! &ere comp(ainin* about, etc8, and #aid that the! &anted to *i e the men &or1 accordin* to the ru(e# cu#tomar! in Manche#ter8 +he deputation a#1ed if the men pic1ed up in Stafford#hire and Scot(and &ere &or1in* accordin* to the re*u(ation# for craft#men pre ai(in* in Manche#ter8 /o, &a# the an#&er, &e ha e a #pecia( arran*ement &ith the#e men8 +hen !our peop(e are to be *i en &or1 a*ain, and on the u#ua( condition#K ?h, &e are not *oin* to ne*otiate &ith an! deputation but Du#t (et the men come and the! &i(( find out on &hat condition# &e are &i((in* to *i e them &or18 Mr8 Sharp# added that a(( firm# &ith &hich he &a# connected had a(&a!# treated their &or1er# &e(( and paid them the hi*he#t &a*e#8 +he deputation rep(ied that if, a# the! had heard, he &a# a##ociated &ith the firm of Pau(in* P 5enfre!, thi# firm had fierce(! oppo#ed the be#t intere#t# of the &or1er#8E 9 bric1ma1er, a member of the deputation, &a# a#1ed &hat the member# of hi# craft had to comp(ain about8E ?h, nothin* Du#t no&, but &eN e had enou*h8 ?h, !ouN e had enou*h, ha e !ouK an#&ered Mr8 Pau(in* &ith a #neer, and then too1 the opportunit! of de(i erin* them a (on* (ecture about craft union#, #tri1e#, etc8, and the mi#er! to &hich the! brou*ht the &or1er# E &hereupon one of the deputation remar1ed the! &ere not b! an! mean# di#po#ed to a((o& their ri*ht# to be ta1en a&a! from them bit b! bit, and, for examp(e, to &or1 144 hour# a !ear for nothin*, a# &a# no& bein* demanded8E Mr8 Sharp# remar1ed that the! ou*ht a(#o to ta1e into account the (o## incurred b! tho#e ta1in* part in the proce##ion becau#e the! &ere not &or1in* that da!, a# &e(( a# the co#t of the #tri1e, the (o## of &a*e# #uffered b! the #tri1er#, etc8 ?ne of the deputation #aid: +hatN# nobod!N# bu#ine## but our# and &e &onNt a#1 !ou to contribute a farthin* from !our poc1et8 With that the deputation (eft and reported to the a##emb(ed &or1er# in the ;arpenter#N 5a((, &here it &a# re ea(ed that not on(! had a(( tho#e in the area &or1in* for Pau(in* P 5enfre! ,tho#e &ho &ere not carpenter# and &ere therefore not on #tri1e- come to ta1e part in the proce##ion, but that man! of the ne&(! imported Scot#men had a(#o #truc1 that er! mornin*8 9 painter a(#o dec(ared that Pau(in* P 5enfre! had made the #ame unDu#t demand# on the painter# a# the! had on the Doiner# but that the! too intended to re#i#t8 "n order to #imp(if! the &ho(e bu#ine## and #horten the #tru**(e it &a# decided that a(( bui(din* &or1er# emp(o!ed b! Pau(in* P 5enfre! #hou(d #top &or18 +hi# the! did8 +he painter# #topped &or1 on the fo((o&in* Saturda! and the *(a)ier# on the Monda!, and on the ne& theatre for &hich Pau(in* P 5enfre! had recei ed the contract on(! t&o bric1(a!er# and four da! (abourer# &ere &or1in* after a fe& da!# in#tead of 677 men8 Some of the ne& arri a(# a(#o #topped &or18

Pau(in* P 5enfre! foamed &ith ra*e8 When three more of the ne& arri a(# #topped &or1 the! &ere hau(ed before 4anie( Maude, E#B8, on 'rida!, /o ember 668 +he pre iou# re er#e# had had no effect8 9 &or1er ca((ed =eed &a# the fir#t to be dea(t &ith, char*ed &ith breach of contract; a contract &hich the accu#ed had #i*ned in 4erb! &a# (aid before the court8 =obert#, &ho &a# a*ain defendin*, #tated at once that there &a# not the #(i*hte#t connection bet&een the contract and the char*e, the! &ere t&o Buite different thin*#8 4anie( Maude, E#B8, #a& the point ri*ht a&a! once the formidab(e =obert# had made it, but it too1 him a (on*, hara##in* time to ma1e it c(ear to the ;oun#e( for the other #ide8 'ina((!, the (atter a#1ed permi##ion to a(ter the char*e and after a &hi(e he came bac1 &ith one that &a# much &or#e than the fir#t8 When he #a& that thi# &ou(d not do either, he a#1ed for a further adDournment of the ca#e and 4anie( Maude, E#B8, *a e him unti( 'rida!, /o ember 69, that i#, a &ho(e &ee1, to con#ider the matter8 " ha e not been ab(e to find out &hether or not he #ucceeded becau#e the one i##ue of the paper &hich mu#t ha e contained a report of the erdict i# mi##in* from m! fi(e#8 Mean&hi(e, =obert# &ent o er to the offen#i e and had #e era( of the recruited &or1er# and one of Pau(in* P 5enfre!N# foremen brou*ht before the court for forcin* their &a! into the hou#e of one of the #tri1er# and a##au(tin* hi# &ife; in t&o other ca#e# #ome of the &or1er# on #tri1e had been attac1ed8 +o hi# *reat re*ret, 4anie( Maude, E#B8, had to find a(( the accu#ed *ui(t! but he dea(t &ith them a# (enient(! a# he po##ib(! cou(d and on(! bound them o er to 1eep the peace them#e( e# in future8 'ina((!, at the end of 4ecember, Me##r#8 Pau(in* P 5enfre! #ucceeded in *ettin* #entence a*ain#t t&o of their opponent#, (i1e&i#e on char*e# of a##au(t a*ain#t one of their &or1er#8 <ut thi# time the court &a# not #o (enient8 Without more ado, it #entenced them to a monthN# impri#onment and bound them o er to 1eep the peace after their re(ea#e8 'rom here on ne&# about the #tri1e become# mea*re8 "t &a# #ti(( in fu(( #&in* on Lanuar! 188 " ha e found no (ater report#8 "t ha# probab(! come to an end (i1e mo#t other#; in the cour#e of time Pau(in* P 5enfre! &i(( ha e #ecured a #ufficient number of &or1er# from di#tant part# and from a fe& turncoat# from the &or1er#N #ide; after a (on*er or #horter #tri1e and it# accompan!in* mi#er!, for &hich the #tri1er# &i(( ha e been con#o(ed b! the con#ciou#ne## that the! ha e nothin* to reproach them#e( e# &ith and that the! ha e he(ped to maintain the (e e( of &a*e# of their fe((o& &or1er#, the maDorit! of them &i(( ha e found Dob# e(#e&here8 9nd a# for the point# in di#pute, Me##r#8 Pau(in* P 5enfre! &i(( ha e (earnt that the! cannot impo#e their &i(( #o ri*orou#(!, #ince for them a(#o the #tri1e in o( ed con#iderab(e (o##, and the other emp(o!er#, after #uch a fierce #tru**(e, &i(( not thin1 of chan*in* the o(d ru(e# of the craft#men carpenter# #o #oon8 <ru##e(# Written in the #ummer and autumn 1845 'ir#t pub(i#hed in .as Westph=lische .ampf,oot,<ie(efe(d, 18468 " and "" Si*ned: #. Engels

188, A))endi- to the American Edition

+he boo1 &hich i# here&ith #ubmitted to the En*(i#h$#pea1in* pub(ic in it# o&n (an*ua*e, &a# &ritten rather more than fort! !ear# a*o8 +he author, at the time, &a# !oun*, t&ent!$four !ear# of a*e, and hi# production bear# the #tamp of hi# !outh &ith it# *ood and it# fau(t! feature#, of neither of &hich he fee(# a#hamed8 +hat it i# no& tran#(ated into En*(i#h, i# not in an! &a! due to hi# initiati e8 Sti(( he ma! be a((o&ed to #a! a fe& &ord#,Cto #ho& cau#eC &h! thi# tran#(ation #hou(d not be pre ented from #eein* the (i*ht of da!8 +he #tate of thin*# de#cribed in thi# boo1 be(on*# to$da! in man! re#pect# to the pa#t, a# far a# En*(and i# concerned8 +hou*h not expre##(! #tated in our reco*ni)ed treati#e#, it i# #ti(( a (a& of modern Po(itica( Econom! that the (ar*er the #ca(e on &hich ;apita(i#tic Production i# carried on, the (e## can it #upport the pett! de ice# of #&ind(in* and pi(ferin* &hich characteri)e it# ear(! #ta*e#8 +he pettifo**in* bu#ine##$tric1# of the Po(i#h Le&, the repre#entati e in Europe of commerce in it# (o&e#t #ta*e, tho#e tric1# that #er e him #o &e(( in hi# o&n countr!, and are *enera((! practiced there, he find# to be out of date and out of p(ace &hen he come# to 5ambur* or <er(in; and a*ain the ;ommi##ion 9*ent, &ho hai(# from <er(in or 5ambur*, Le& or ;hri#tian, after freBuentin* the Manche#ter Exchan*e for a fe& month#, find# out that in order to bu! cotton$!arn or c(oth cheap, he, too, had better drop tho#e #(i*ht(! more refined but #ti(( mi#erab(e &i(e# and #ubterfu*e# &hich are con#idered the acme of c(e erne## in hi# nati e countr!8 +he fact i#, tho#e tric1# do not pa! an! (on*er in a (ar*e mar1et, &here time i# mone!, and &here a certain #tandard of commercia( mora(it! i# una oidab(! de e(oped, pure(! a# a mean# of #a in* time and troub(e8 9nd it i# the #ame &ith the re(ation bet&een the manufacturer and hi#Chand#8C +he repea( of the ;orn$(a&#, the di#co er! of the ;a(ifornian and 9u#tra(ian *o(d$fie(d#, the a(mo#t comp(ete cru#hin*$out of dome#tic hand&ea in* in "ndia, the increa#in* acce## to the ;hine#e mar1et, the rapid mu(tip(ication of rai(&a!# and #team$#hip# a(( o er the &or(d, and other minor cau#e# ha e *i en to En*(i#h manufacturin* indu#tr! #uch a co(o##a( de e(opment, that the #tatu# of 1844 no& appear# to u# a# comparati e(! primiti e and in#i*nificant8 9nd in proportion a# thi# increa#e too1 p(ace, in the #ame proportion did manufacturin* indu#tr! become apparent(! mora(i)ed8 +he competition of manufacturer a*ain#t manufacturer b! mean# of pett! theft# upon the &or1peop(e did no (on*er pa!8 +rade had out*ro&n #uch (o& mean# of ma1in* mone!; the! &ere not &orth &hi(e practicin* for the manufacturin* mi((ionaire, and #er ed mere(! to 1eep a(i e the competition of #ma((er trader#, than1fu( to pic1 up a penn! &here er the! cou(d8 +hu# the truc1$ #!#tem &a# #uppre##ed; the +en 5our#A <i(( &a# enacted, and a number of other #econdar! reform# introduced E much a*ain#t the #pirit of 'ree +rade and unbrid(ed competition, but Buite a# much in fa or of the *iant$capita(i#t in hi# competition &ith hi# (e## fa ored brother8 Moreo er, the (ar*er the concern, and &ith it the number of hand#, the *reater the (o## and incon enience cau#ed b! e er! conf(ict bet&een ma#ter and men; and thu# a ne& #pirit came o er the ma#ter#, e#pecia((! the (ar*e one#, &hich tau*ht them to a oid unnece##ar! #Buabb(e#, to acBuie#ce in the exi#tence and po&er of +rade# Fnion#, and fina((! e en to di#co er in #tri1e# E at opportune time# E a po&erfu( mean# to #er e their o&n end#8 +he (ar*e#t manufacturer#, former(! the (eader# of the &ar a*ain#t the &or1in*$c(a##, &ere no& the foremo#t to preach peace and harmon!8 9nd for a er! *ood rea#on, +he fact i#, that a(( the#e conce##ion# to Du#tice and phi(anthrop! &ere nothin* e(#e but mean# to acce(erate the concentration of capita( in the hand# of the fe&, for &hom the ni**ard(! extra extortion# of former !ear# had (o#t a(( importance and had become actua( nui#ance#; and to cru#h a(( the Buic1er and a(( the #afer their #ma((er competitor# &ho cou(d not ma1e both end# meet &ithout #uch perBui#ite#8 +hu# the de e(opment of production on the ba#i# of the capita(i#tic #!#tem ha# of it#e(f #ufficed E at (ea#t in the (eadin*

indu#trie#, for in the more unimportant branche# thi# i# far from bein* the ca#e E to do a&a! &ith a(( tho#e minor *rie ance# &hich a**ra ated the &or1manA# fate durin* it# ear(ier #ta*e#8 9nd thu# it render# more and more e ident the *reat centra( fact, that the cau#e of the mi#erab(e condition of the &or1in* c(a## i# to be #ou*ht, not in the#e minor *rie ance#, but in the ;apita(i#tic S!#tem it#e(f8 +he &a*e$&or1er #e((# to the capita(i#t hi# (abor$force for a certain dai(! #um8 9fter a fe& hour#A &or1 he ha# reproduced the a(ue of that #um; but the #ub#tance of hi# contract i#, that he ha# to &or1 another #erie# of hour# to comp(ete hi# &or1in* da!; and the a(ue he produce# durin* the#e additiona( hour# of #urp(u# (abor i# #urp(u# a(ue &hich co#t# the capita(i#t nothin* but !et *oe# into hi# poc1et8 +hat i# the ba#i# of the #!#tem &hich tend# more and more to #p(it up ci i(i)ed #ociet! into a fe& Janderbi(t#, the o&ner# of a(( the mean# of production and #ub#i#tence, on the one hand, and an immen#e number of &a*e$&or1er#, the o&ner# of nothin* but their (abor$force, on the other8 9nd that thi# re#u(t i# cau#ed, not b! thi# or that #econdar! *rie ance, but b! the #!#tem it#e(f E thi# fact ha# been brou*ht out in bo(d re(ief b! the de e(opment of ;apita(i#m in En*(and #ince 184.8 9*ain, the repeated i#itation# of cho(era, t!phu#, #ma(($pox and other epidemic# ha e #ho&n the <riti#h bour*eoi# the ur*ent nece##it! of #anitation in hi# to&n# and citie#, if he &i#he# to #a e him#e(f and fami(! from fa((in* ictim# to #uch di#ea#e#8 9ccordin*(!, the mo#t cr!in* abu#e# de#cribed in thi# boo1 ha e either di#appeared or ha e been made (e## con#picuou#8 4raina*e ha# been introduced or impro ed, &ide a enue# ha e been opened out ath&art man! of the &or#tC#(um#C " had to de#cribe8C%itt(e "re(andC ha# di#appeared and theCSe en 4ia(#,C are next on the (i#t for #&eepin* a&a!8 <ut &hat of thatK Who(e di#trict# &hich in 1844 " cou(d de#cribe a# a(mo#t id!((ic ha e no&, &ith the *ro&th of the to&n#, fa((en into the #ame #tate of di(apidation, di#comfort and mi#er!8 ?n(! the pi*# and the heap# of refu#e are no (on*er to(erated8 +he bour*eoi#ie ha e made further pro*re## in the art of hidin* the di#tre## of the &or1in* c(a##8 <ut that, in re*ard to their d&e((in*#, no #ub#tantia( impro ement ha# ta1en p(ace, i# amp(! pro ed b! the =eport of the =o!a( ;ommi##ionCon the 5ou#in* of the Poor,C 18858 9nd thi# i# the ca#e, too, in other re#pect#8 Po(ice re*u(ation# ha e been p(entifu( a# b(ac1berrie#; but the! can on(! hed*e in the di#tre## of the &or1er#, the! cannot remo e it8 <ut &hi(e En*(and ha# thu# out*ro&n the Du eni(e #tate of capita(i#t exp(oitation de#cribed b! me, other countrie# ha e on(! Du#t attained it8 'rance, :erman!, and e#pecia((! 9merica, are the formidab(e competitor# &ho at thi# moment E a# fore#een b! me in 1844 E are more and more brea1in* up En*(andA# indu#tria( monopo(!8 +heir manufacture# are !oun* a# compared &ith tho#e of En*(and, but increa#in* at a far more rapid rate than the (atter; but curiou# enou*h, the! ha e at thi# moment arri ed at about the #ame pha#e of de e(opment a# En*(i#h manufacture in 18448 With re*ard to 9merica, the para((e( i# indeed mo#t #tri1in*8 +rue, the externa( #urroundin*# in &hich the &or1in* c(a## i# p(aced in 9merica are er! different, but the #ame economica( (a&# are at &or1, and the re#u(t#, if not identica( in e er! re#pect, mu#t #ti(( be of the #ame order8 5ence &e find in 9merica the #ame #tru**(e# for a #horter &or1in*$da!, for a (e*a( (imitation of the &or1in* time, e#pecia((! of &omen and chi(dren in factorie#; &e find the truc1 #!#tem in fu(( b(o##om, and the cotta*e$#!#tem, in rura( di#trict#, made u#e of b! theCbo##e#C a# a mean# of domination o er the &or1er#8 9t thi# er! moment " am recei in* the 9merican paper# &ith account# of the *reat #tri1e of 16,777 Penn#!( anian coa($miner# in the ;onne((# i((e di#trict, and " #eem but to read m! o&n de#cription of the /orth of En*(and co((ier#A #tri1e of 18448 +he #ame cheatin* of the &or1$peop(e b! fa(#e mea#ure; the #ame truc1 #!#tem; the #ame attempt to brea1 the miner#A re#i#tance b! the ;apita(i#t#A (a#t, but cru#hin*, re#ource, the e iction of the men out of their d&e((in*#, the cotta*e# o&ned b! the companie#8 +here &ere t&o circum#tance# &hich for a (on* time pre ented the una oidab(e con#eBuence# of the ;apita(i#t #!#tem from #ho&in* them#e( e# in the fu(( *(are of da! in 9merica8 +he#e &ere the ea#! acce## to the o&ner#hip of cheap (and, and the inf(ux of immi*ration8 +he! a((o&ed, for

man! !ear#, the *reat ma## of the nati e 9merican popu(ation toCretireC in ear(! manhood from &a*e$(abor and to become farmer#, dea(er#, or emp(o!er# of (abor, &hi(e the hard &or1 for &a*e#, the po#ition of a pro(etarian for (ife, mo#t(! fe(( to the (ot of immi*rant#8 <ut 9merica ha# out*ro&n thi# ear(! #ta*e8 +he bound(e## bac1&ood# ha e di#appeared, and the #ti(( more bound(e## prairie# are fa#t and fa#ter pa##in* from the hand# of the /ation and the State# into tho#e of pri ate o&ner#8 +he *reat #afet!$ a( e a*ain#t the formation of a permanent pro(etarian c(a## ha# practica((! cea#ed to act8 9 c(a## of (ife$(on* and e en hereditar! pro(etarian# exi#t# at thi# hour in 9merica8 9 nation of #ixt! mi((ion# #tri in* hard to become E and &ith e er! chance of #ucce##, too E the (eadin* manufacturin* nation of the &or(d E #uch a nation cannot permanent(! import it# o&n &a*e$&or1in* c(a##; not e en if immi*rant# pour in at the rate of ha(f a mi((ion a !ear8 +he tendenc! of the ;apita(i#t #!#tem to&ard# the u(timate #p(ittin*$up of #ociet! into t&o c(a##e#, a fe& mi((ionaire# on the one hand, and a *reat ma## of mere &a*e$ &or1er# on the other, thi# tendenc!, thou*h con#tant(! cro##ed and counteracted b! other #ocia( a*encie#, &or1# no&here &ith *reater force than in 9merica; and the re#u(t ha# been the production of a c(a## of nati e 9merican &a*e$&or1er#, &ho form, indeed, the ari#tocrac! of the &a*e$&or1in* c(a## a# compared &ith the immi*rant#, but &ho become con#ciou# more and more e er! da! of their #o(idarit! &ith the (atter and &ho fee( a(( the more acute(! their pre#ent condemnation to (ife$(on* &a*e$toi(, becau#e the! #ti(( remember the b!*one da!#, &hen it &a# comparati e(! ea#! to ri#e to a hi*her #ocia( (e e(8 9ccordin*(! the &or1in* c(a## mo ement, in 9merica, ha# #tarted &ith tru(! 9merican i*or, and a# on that #ide of the 9t(antic thin*# march &ith at (ea#t doub(e the European #peed, &e ma! !et (i e to #ee 9merica ta1e the (ead in thi# re#pect too8 " ha e not attempted, in thi# tran#(ation, to brin* the boo1 up to date, to point out in detai( a(( the chan*e# that ha e ta1en p(ace #ince 18448 9nd for t&o rea#on#: 'ir#t(!, to do thi# proper(!, the #i)e of the boo1 mu#t be about doub(ed, and the tran#(ation came upon me too #udden(! to admit of m! underta1in* #uch a &or18 9nd #econd(!, the fir#t o(ume ofC4a# Hapita(,C b! Har( Marx, an En*(i#h tran#(ation of &hich i# about to appear, contain# a er! amp(e de#cription of the #tate of the <riti#h &or1in* c(a##, a# it &a# about 1865, that i# to #a!, at the time &hen <riti#h indu#tria( pro#perit! reached it# cu(minatin* point8 " #hou(d, then, ha e been ob(i*ed a*ain to *o o er the *round a(read! co ered b! MarxA# ce(ebrated &or18 "t &i(( be hard(! nece##ar! to point out that the *enera( theoretica( #tandpoint of thi# boo1 E phi(o#ophica(, economica(, po(itica( E doe# not exact(! coincide &ith m! #tandpoint of to$da!8 Modern internationa( Socia(i#m, #ince fu((! de e(oped a# a #cience, chief(! and a(mo#t exc(u#i e(! throu*h the effort# of Marx, did not a# !et exi#t in 18448 M! boo1 repre#ent# one of the pha#e# of it# embr!onic de e(opment; and a# the human embr!o, in it# ear(! #ta*e#, #ti(( reproduce# the *i(($arche# of our fi#h ance#tor#, #o thi# boo1 exhibit# e er!&here the trace# of the de#cent of Modern Socia(i#m from one of it# ance#tor#, :erman phi(o#oph!8 +hu# *reat #tre## i# (aid on the dictum that ;ommuni#m i# not a mere part! doctrine of the &or1in* c(a##, but a theor! compa##in* the emancipation of #ociet! at (ar*e, inc(udin* the ;apita(i#t c(a##, from it# pre#ent narro& condition#8 +hi# i# true enou*h in the ab#tract, but ab#o(ute(! u#e(e##, and &or#e, in practice8 So (on* a# the &ea(th! c(a##e# not on(! do not fee( the &ant of an! emancipation, but #trenuou#(! oppo#e the #e(f$emancipation of the &or1in* c(a##, #o (on* the #ocia( re o(ution &i(( ha e to be prepared and fou*ht out b! the &or1in* c(a## a(one8 +he 'rench bour*eoi# of 1.89, too, dec(ared the emancipation of the bour*eoi#ie to be the emancipation of the &ho(e human race; but the nobi(it! and c(er*! &ou(d not #ee it; the propo#ition E thou*h for the time bein*, &ith re#pect to feuda(i#m, an ab#tract hi#torica( truth E #oon became a mere #entimenta(i#m, and di#appeared from ie& a(to*ether in the fire of the re o(utionar! #tru**(e8 9nd to$da!, the er! peop(e &ho, from the impartia(it! of theirC#uperior #tand$pointC preach to the &or1er# a Socia(i#m #oarin* hi*h abo e their c(a## intere#t# and c(a## #tru**(e#, and tendin* to reconci(e in

a hi*her humanit! the intere#t# of both the contendin* c(a##e# E the#e peop(e are either neoph!te#, &ho ha e #ti(( to (earn a *reat dea(, or the! are the &or#t enemie# of the &or1er# E &o( e# in #heep#A c(othin*8 +he recurrin* period of the *reat indu#tria( cri#e# i# #tated in the text a# fi e !ear#8 +hi# &a# the period apparent(! indicated b! the cour#e of e ent# from 1865 to 18468 <ut the indu#tria( hi#tor! from 1846 to 1868 ha# #ho&n that the rea( period i# one of ten !ear#; that the intermediate re o(ution# &ere #econdar! and tended more and more to di#appear8 Since 1868 the #tate of thin*# ha# chan*ed a*ain, of &hich more anon8 " ha e ta1en care not to #tri1e out of the text the man! prophecie#, amon*#t other# that of an imminent #ocia( re o(ution in En*(and, &hich m! !outhfu( ardor induced me to enture upon8 +he &onder i#, not that a *ood man! of them pro ed &ron*, but that #o man! of them ha e pro ed ri*ht, and that the critica( #tate of En*(i#h trade, to be brou*ht on b! :erman and e#pecia((! 9merican competition, &hich " then fore#a& E thou*h in too #hort a period E ha# no& actua((! come to pa##8 "n thi# re#pect " can, and am bound to, brin* the boo1 up to date, b! p(acin* here an artic(e &hich " pub(i#hed in the %ondonC;ommon&ea(C of March 1, 1885, under the headin*:CEn*(and in 1845 and in 18858C "t *i e# at the #ame time a #hort out(ine of the hi#tor! of the En*(i#h &or1in* c(a## durin* the#e fort! !ear#8 %ondon, 'ebruar! 65, 1886 #rederick Engels

+he 9ppendix to the 9merican edition of +he ;ondition of the Wor1in* ;(a## in En*(and &a#, except for the para*raph Buoted in the next footnote, u#ed b! En*e(# a# the ba#i# of hi# Preface to the En*(i#h edition of 18968 6 "n the 9ppendix En*e(# &rote: I+here &ere t&o circum#tance# &hich for a (on* time pre ented the una oidab(e con#eBuence# of the ;apita(i#t #!#tem from #ho&in* them#e( e# in the fu(( *(are of da! in 9merica8 +he#e &ere the ea#! acce## to the o&ner#hip of cheap (and, and the inf(ux of immi*ration8 +he! a((o&ed, for man! !ear#, the *reat ma## of the nati e 9merican popu(ation toCretireC in ear(! manhood from &a*e$(abour and to becomeA farmer#, dea(er#, or emp(o!er# of (abour, &hi(e the hard &or1 for &a*e#, the po#ition of a pro(etarian for (ife, mo#t(! fe(( to the (ot of immi*rant#8 <ut 9merica ha# out*ro&n thi# ear(! #ta*e8 +he bound(e## bac1&ood# ha e di#appeared, and the #ti(( more bound(e## prairie# are fa#ter and fa#ter pa##in* from the hand# of the /ation and the State# into tho#e of pri ate o&ner#8 +he *reat #afet!$ a( e a*ain#t the formation of a permanent pro(etarian c(a## ha# practica((! cea#ed to act8 9 c(a## of (ife$(on* and e en hereditar! pro(etarian# exi#t# at thi# hour in 9merica8 9 nation of #ixt! mi((ion# #tri in* hard to become E and &ith e er! chance of #ucce##, too E the (eadin* manufacturin* nation of the &or(d E #uch a nation cannot permanent(! import it# o&n &a*e$&or1in* c(a##; riot e en if immi*rant# pour in at the rate of ha(f a mi((ion a !ear8 +he tendenc! of the ;apita(i#t #!#tem to&ard# the u(timate #p(ittin*$up of #ociet! into t&o c(a##e#, a fe& mi((ionaire# on the one hand, and a *reat ma## of mere &a*e$&or1er# on the other, thi# tendenc!, thou*h con#tant(! cro##ed and counteracted b! other #ocia( a*encie#, &or1# no&here &ith *reater force than in 9merica; and the re#u(t ha# been the production of a c(a## of nati e 9merican &a*e$&or1er#, &ho form, indeed, the ari#tocrac! of the &a*e$&or1in* c(a## a# compared &ith the immi*rant#, but &ho become con#ciou# more and more e er! da! of their #o(idarit! &ith the (atter and &ho fee( a(( the more acute(! their pre#ent condemnation to (ife$(on* &a*e$toi(, becau#e the! #ti(( remember the b!*one da!#, &hen it &a# comparati e(! ea#! to ri#e to a hi*her #ocia( (e e(8C > +he /ob(e ?rder of the Hni*ht# of %abour: 9 &or1in*$c(a## or*ani#ation founded in Phi(ade(phia in 18698 Exi#tin* i((e*a((! unti( 18.8 it ob#er ed a #emi$m!#teria( ritua(8 +hat !ear the or*ani#ation emer*ed from the under*round, retainin* #ome of it# #ecret feature#8 +he Hni*ht# of %abour aimed at the (iberation of the &or1er# b! mean# of co$operati e#8 +he! too1 in a(( #1i((ed and e en un#1i((ed trade#, &ithout di#crimination on account of #ex, race, nationa(it! or re(i*ion8 +he or*ani#ation reached the hi*he#t point of it# acti it! durin* the ei*htie#, &hen, under the pre##ure of the ma##e#, the (eader# of the ?rder &ere compe((ed to con#ent to an exten#i e #tri1e mo ement8 "t# member#hip at that time &a# o er .77,777, inc(udin* 67,777 /e*roe#8 5o&e er, on account of the opportuni#t tactic# of the (eader#, &ho &ere oppo#ed to re o(utionar! c(a## #tru**(e, the order forfeited it# pre#ti*e amon* the ma##e#8 "t# acti it! expired the next decade8 4 +he Socia(i#t %abour Part! came into exi#tence in 18.6 a# a re#u(t of the union of the 9merican #ection# of the 'ir#t "nternationa( &ith other &or1in*$c(a## #ocia(i#t or*ani#ation# in the Fnited State#8 +hi# part! con#i#ted main(! of immi*rant#, particu(ar(! :erman#8 "t# acti itie# &ere #ectarian and it# (eader# &ere incapab(e of headin* the ma## mo ement of the 9merican &or1er#, a# the! refu#ed to &or1 in the trade union#8 5 ;orn %a&#: 5i*h *rain tariff# adopted b! the <riti#h Par(iament in 1815 in the intere#t of the (and(ord#8 +he (a&# prohibited the importation of *rain if it# price &ithin the countr! &a# (e## than 87 #hi((in*# a Buarter8 9n extreme(! hea ! burden on the poor, the ;orn %a&# &ere a di#ad anta*e a(#o to the indu#tria( bour*eoi#ie #ince the! made (abour$po&er c(earer, #hran1 the home mar1et and hampered the de e(opment of forei*n trade8 +he! &ere repea(ed in 18468 6 +en$5our#A <i((: 9dopted b! the <riti#h Par(iament on Lune 8, 184.8 "t app(ied on(! to Du eni(e# 1>$18 !ear# o(d and to &omen &or1er#8 . %itt(e "re(and: 9 &or1in*$c(a## di#trict in Manche#ter durin* the fortie# of the pa#t centur!8 8 Se en 4ia(#: 9 &or1in*$c(a## di#trict in the centre of %ondon8 9 +he ;harti#t ;on ent ca((ed for 9pri( 17, 1848 a ma## meetin* in %ondon and a demon#tration of the &or1er# for the purpo#e of #ubmittin* a ne& petition to Par(iament8 Shou(d the (atter refu#e to endor#e the Peop(eA#8 ;harter, a demand rai#ed in the petition, the ;on ent intended to #tart an upri#in*8 5o&e er, a# a re#u(t of the mea#ure# ta1en b! the :o ernment E it had inundated the capita( &ith po(ice, troop# and armed bour*eoi#8 detachment# E a# &e(( a# the unpreparedne## of the ;harti#t# for deci#i e action and the irre#o(ution of their (eader#, the demon#tration &a# a fai(ure8 +he petition &hich the ;harti#t (eader ?N;onnor had ordered tran#ported to Par(iament &a# not e en di#cu##ed b! the 5ou#e of ;ommon#8 17 +he fir#t e(ectora( reform bi(( &a# introduced in Par(iament in March 18>1 and adopted in Lune 18>68 "t put an end to the po(itica( monopo(! of the (anded ari#tocrac!, ban1er# and u#urer#8 "n con#eBuence of the treacher! of the bour*eoi# =adica(#, &ho made u#e of the ma## (abour mo ement for the uni er#a( franchi#e mere(! to promote their o&n intere#t#, the (a& of 18>6 fixed hi*h propert! Bua(ification# in the to&n# ,17 pound#- and countie# ,57 pound#-, thu# fir#t openin* the door# of Par(iament on(! to repre#entati e# of the indu#tria( bour*eoi#ie8 +he pro(etariat and the pett! bour*eoi#ie remained di#franchi#ed8

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"n #pite of the ma## mo ement of the &or1er# for uni er#a( #uffra*e the #econd e(ectora( reform (a&, o&in* to the treacher! of the opportuni#t trade$union (eader#, *ranted the franchi#e on(! to hou#e$o&ner#, hou#eho(der# and tenant# of f(at# &ho paid an annua( rent of no (e## than U178 +hu#, on(! the (abour ari#tocrac! &a# enfranchi#ed; the ma## of urban &or1er#, the #ma(( farmer# and the rura( pro(etariat did not recei e the ri*ht to ote under thi# mea#ure, &hich &a# adopted on 9u*u#t 15, 186.8 9 third 8e(ection reform, carried out in 1884 under ma## pre##ure in the rura( area#, mere(! extended the 186. (a& to rura( di#trict# &ithout #ati#f!in* the demand# of the farm &or1er#8 9bout t&o mi((ion men and a(( &omen &ere #ti(( barred from the po((# after the third reform8 16 +he <riti#h 9##ociation for the 9d ancement of Science: 9 #ociet! founded in <ritain at the be*innin* of the nineteenth centur! and #ti(( exi#tin*8 +he tran#action# of it# annua( #e##ion# are pub(i#hed in the form of report#8 "n the nineteenth centur! it counted no fe& pro*re##i e fi*ure# but at pre#ent it# po#ition i# reactionar! in both po(itic# and #cience8 1> "n hi# Preface to the #econd :erman edition of +he ;ondition of the Wor1in*$;(a## in En*(and En*e(# Buoted a pa##a*e from the abo e En*(i#h Preface and then added the fo((o&in* in conc(u#ion: ISince " &rote the abo e, #ix month# a*o, the En*(i#h &or1in*$c(a## mo ement ha# a*ain made a bi* #tep for&ard8 +he par(iamentar! e(ection# &hich too1 p(ace the other da! ha e *i en forma( notice to both officia( partie#, the ;on#er ati e# and the %ibera(#, that both of them &ou(d thereafter ha e to rec1on &ith a third part!, the &or1er#A part!8 +hi# &or1er#A part! i# on(! Du#t bein* formed; it# e(ement# are #ti(( occupied &ith ca#tin* off traditiona( preDudice# of e er! #ort E bour*eoi#, o(d trade$unioni#t and e en doctrinaire$#ocia(i#t E #o that the! ma! fina((! be ab(e to *et to*ether on a ba#i# common to a(( of them8 9nd !et the in#tinct to unite &hich the! fo((o&ed &a# a(read! #o *reat that it produced e(ection re#u(t# hitherto unheard$of in En*(and8 "n %ondon t&o &or1er# #tood for e(ection, and open(! a# Socia(i#t# at that; the %ibera(# did not dare to put up their o&n men a*ain#t them and the t&o Socia(i#t# &on b! o er&he(min* and unexpected maDoritie#8 "n Midd(e#brou*h a &or1er#A candidate conte#ted a #eat &ith a %ibera( and a ;on#er ati e and &a# e(ected "n #pite of the t&o; on the other hand, the ne& &or1er#A candidate# &ho bad made compact# &ith the %ibera(# fai(ed hope(e##(! of e(ection, &ith the exception of a #in*(e one8 9mon* the former #o$ca((ed &or1er#A repre#entati e#, that i#, tho#e peop(e &ho are for*i en their bein* member# of the &or1in*$c(a## becau#e the! them#e( e# &ou(d (i1e to dra&n their Bua(it! of bein* &or1er# in the ocean of their (ibera(i#m, 5enr! <roadhur#t, the mo#t important repre#entati e of the o(d unioni#m, &a# comp(ete(! #no&ed under becau#e he came out a*ain#t the ei*ht$hour da!8 "n t&o :(a#*o&, one Sa(ford and #e era( other con#tituencie#, independent &or1er#A candidate# ran a*ain#t candidate# of both the o(d partie#8 +he! &ere beaten, but #o &ere the %ibera( candidate#8 "n #hort, in a number of bi* cit! and indu#tria( e(ection di#trict# the &or1er# ha e definite(! #e ered a(( tie# &ith the t&o o(d partie# and thu# achie ed direct or indirect #ucce##e#, be!ond an!thin* &itne##ed in an! pre iou# e(ection8 9nd bound(e## i# the Do! thereof amon* the &or1in* peop(e8 'or the fir#t time the! ha e #een and fe(t &hat the! can achie e b! u#in* their #uffra*e in the intere#t of their c(a##8 +he #pe(( &hich the #uper#titiou# be(ief in the M*reat %ibera( Part!A ca#t o er the En*(i#h &or1er# for a(mo#t 47 !ear# i# bro1en8 +he! ha e #een b! dint of #tri1in* examp(e# that the!, the &or1er#, are the deci#i e po&er in En*(and if the! on(! &ant to and 1no& &hat the! &ant; and the e(ection# of 1896 mar1ed the be*innin* of #uch 1no&in* and &antin*8 +he ;ontinenta( &or1er#A mo ement &i(( ta1e care of the re#t8 <! their further #ucce##e# the :erman# and the 'rench, &ho are a(read! #o numerou#(! repre#ented in their Par(iament# and (oca( counci(#, &i(( 1eep the #pirit of emu(ation of the En*(i#h *oin* at a Buite adeBuate pace8 9nd if in the not er! di#tant future it appear# that thi# ne& Par(iament cannot *et an!&here &ith Mr8 :(ad#tone, and Mr8 :(ad#tone cannot *et an!&here &ith thi# Par(iament, the En*(i#h &or1er#A part! &i(( #ure(! be #ufficient(! con#tituted to put an ear(! end to the #ee#a& of the t&o o(d partie#, &ho ha e been #ucceedin* each other in office and b! thi# er! mean# perpetuatin* the ru(e of the bour*eoi#ie8 14 9ccordin* to PorterN# Pro*re## of the /ation, %ondon, 1856, Jo(8 "; 1858, Jo(8 ""; 184>, Jo(8 """ ,officia( data-, and other #ource#, chief(! officia(8$$ /ote b! En*e(#8 ,1896-8 +he hi#torica( out(ine of the indu#tria( re o(ution *i en abo e i# not exact in certain detai(#; but in 184>$44 no better #ource# &ere a ai(ab(e8$$ 9dded b! En*e(# in the :erman edition of 18968 15 ;ompare on thi# point m!C?ut(ine# of a ;ritiBue of Po(itica( Econom!T in the 4eut#ch$'ran)Z#i#che Lahrb[cher8 "n thi# e##a!Cfree competitionT i# the #tartin*$point; but indu#tr! i# on(! the practice of free competition and the (atter i# on(! the princip(e on &hich indu#tr! i# ba#ed 16 +hi# app(ie# to the time of #ai(in* e##e(#8 +he +hame# no& i# a drear! co((ection of u*(! #teamer#8E '8 E8E /ote b! En*e(# to the 9merican edition of 188. ,1896- +hi# &a# &ritten near(! fift! !ear# a*o, in the da!# of the picture#Bue #ai(in* e##e(#8 "n #o far a# #uch #hip# #ti(( p(! to and from %ondon the! are no& to be found on(! in the doc1#, &hi(e the ri er it#e(f i# co ered &ith u*(!, #oot! #teamer#8E /ote b! En*e(# to the :erman edition of 18968 1. +he de#cription *i en be(o& had a(read! been &ritten &hen " came acro## an artic(e in the "((uminated Ma*a)ine ,?ctober 1844- dea(in* &ith the &or1in*$c(a## di#trict# in %ondon &hich coincide# E in man! p(ace#

a(mo#t (itera((! and e er!&here in *enera( tenor E &ith &hat " had #aid8 +he artic(e &a# entit(edC+he 4&e((in*# of the Poor, from the noteboo1 of an M848T E /ote b! En*e(# 18 +ime#, ?ct8 16th, 184>8E /ote b! En*e(#8 19 Ouoted b! 4r8 W8 P8 9(i#on8 '8=8S8E8, 'e((o& and (ate Pre#ident of the =o!a( ;o((e*e of Ph!#ician#, etc8, etc8 ?b#er ation# on the Mana*ement of the Poor in Scot(and and it# Effect# on the 5ea(th of :reat +o&n#, Edinbur*h8 18478 +he author i# a re(i*iou# +or!, brother of the hi#torian, 9rchiba(d 9(i#on8E /ote b! En*e(#8 67 =eport to the 5ome Secretar! from the Poor$%a& ;ommi##ioner, on an "nBuir! into the Sanitar! ;ondition of the %abourin* ;(a##e# in :reat <ritain, &ith 9ppendix8 Pre#ented to both 5ou#e# of Par(iament in Lu(!, 1846, > o(#, 'o(io8 9##emb(ed and arran*ed from medica( report# b! Ed&in ;had&ic1, Secretar! of the Poor$%a& ;ommi##ioner#8 E /ote b! En*e(# 61 -rts and -rtisans at Home and -,road , b! L8 ;8 S!mon#, Edinbur*h, 18>98 +he author, a# it #eem#, him#e(f a Scotchman, i# a %ibera(, and con#eBuent(! fanatica((! oppo#ed to e er! independent mo ement of &or1in*$men8 +he pa##a*e# here cited are to be found p8 116 et #eB8E/ote b! En*e(#8 66 "t mu#t be borne in mind that the#e ce((ar# are not mere #torin*$room# for rubbi#h, but d&e((in*# of human bein*#8E /ote b! En*e(#8 6> +he Mora( and Ph!#ica( ;ondition of the Wor1in* ;(a##e# emp(o!ed in the ;otton Manufacture in Manche#ter8 <! Lame# Ph8 Ha!, M848 6nd Ed8 18568 4r8 Ha! confu#e# the &or1in*$c(a## in *enera( &ith the factor! &or1er#, other&i#e an exce((ent pamph(et8E /ote b! En*e(#8 64 9nd !et an En*(i#h %ibera( &i#eacre a##ert#, in the =eport of the ;hi(drenN# Emp(o!ment ;ommi##ion, that the#e court# are the ma#terpiece of municipa( architecture, becau#e, (i1e a mu(titude of (itt(e par1#, the! impro e enti(ation, the circu(ation of air@ ;ertain(!, if each court had t&o or four broad open entrance# facin* each other, throu*h &hich the air cou(d pour; but the! ne er ha e t&o, rare(! one, and u#ua((! on(! a narro& co ered pa##a*e8E /ote b! En*e(#8 65 /a##au W8 Senior, %etter# on the 'actor! 9ct to the =t8 5on8, the Pre#ident of the <oard of +rade ,;ha#8 Pou(ett +hom#on, E#B8-, %ondon, 18>., p8 648E /ote b! En*e(#8 66 P8 :a#1e((, +he Manufacturin* Popu(ation of En*(and: it# Mora(, Socia( and Ph!#ica( ;ondition, and the ;han*e# &hich ha e ari#en from the F#e of Steam Machiner!; &ith an Examination of "nfant %abour8 'iat Lu#titia, 18558E 4epictin* chief(! the #tate of the &or1in*$c(a## in %anca#hire8 +he author i# a %ibera(, but &rote at a time &hen it &a# not a feature of %ibera(i#m to chant the happine## of the &or1er#8 5e i# therefore unpreDudiced, and can afford to ha e e!e# for the e i(# of the pre#ent #tate of thin*#, and e#pecia((! for the factor! #!#tem8 ?n the other hand, he &rote before the 'actorie# EnBuir! ;ommi##ion, and adopt# from untru#t&orth! #ource# man! a##ertion# after&ard# refuted b! the report of the ;ommi##ion8 +hi# &or1, a(thou*h on the &ho(e a a(uab(e one, can therefore on(! be u#ed &ith di#cretion, e#pecia((! a# the author, (i1e Ha!, confu#e# the &ho(e &or1in*$c(a## &ith the mi(($hand#8 +he hi#tor! of the de e(opment of the pro(etariat contained in the introduction to the pre#ent &or1, i# chief(! ta1en from thi# &or1 of :a#1e((N#8E /ote b! En*e(#8 6. +homa# ;ar(!(e, ;harti#m, %ondon, 1847, p8688 ;oncernin* +homa# ;ar(!(e #ee be(o&8E /ote b! En*e(#8 68 Wee1(! 4i#patch, 9pri( or Ma!, 1844, accordin* to a report b! 4r,8 South&ood Smith on the condition of the poor in %ondon8 E /ote b! En*e(#8 69 9 fa ourite expre##ion of the En*(i#h manufacturer#8E /ote b! En*e(#8 >7 9dam Smith, Wea(th of /ation#, "8, Mc;u((ochN# edition in one o(ume, #ect8 8, p8 >6:C+he &ear and tear of a #(a e, it ha# been #aid, i# at the expen#e of hi# ma#ter, but that of a free #er ant i# at hi# o&n expen#e8 +he &ear and tear of the (atter, ho&e er, i#, in rea(it!, a# much at the expen#e of hi# ma#ter a# that of the former8 +he &a*e# paid to Dourne!men and #er ant# of e er! 1ind, mu#t be #uch a# ma! enab(e them, one &ith another, to continue the race of Dourne!men and #er ant#, accordin* a# the increa#in*, dimini#hin*, or #tationar! demand of the #ociet! ma! happen to reBuire8 <ut thou*h the &ear and tear of a free #er ant be eBua((! at the expen#e of hi# ma#ter, it *enera((! co#t# him much (e## than that of a #(a e8 +he fund for rep(acin* or repairin*, if " ma! #a! #o, the &ear and tear of the #(a e, i# common(! mana*ed b! the ne*(i*ent ma#ter or care(e## o er#eer8T E /ote b! En*e(#8 >1 +&o coo(in* effer e#cent drin1#, the former made of &ater, #u*ar and #ome *in*er, the (atter of &ater, #u*ar and nett(e#8 +he! are much (i1ed b! the &or1er#, e#pecia((! the teetota((er#8E /ote b! En*e(#8 >6 9rchiba(d 9(i#on, +he Princip(e# of Popu(ation, and their ;onnection &ith 5uman 5appine##, t&o o(#8, 18478 +hi# 9(i#on i# the hi#torian of the 'rench =e o(ution, and, (i1e hi# brother, 4r8 W8 P8 9(i#on, a re(i*iou# +or!8$$ /ote b! En*e(#8 >> Chartism, pp8 68, >1, etc8$$ Note ,y Engels. >4 Mi(e#ian $$ the name of an ancient fami(! of ;e(tic 1in*# of "re(and8$$ /ote b! En*e(#

>5

When a# here and e(#e&here " #pea1 of #ociet! a# a re#pon#ib(e &ho(e, ha in* ri*ht# and dutie#, " mean, of cour#e, the ru(in* po&er of #ociet!, the c(a## &hich at pre#ent ho(d# #ocia( and po(itica( contro(, and bear#, therefore, the re#pon#ibi(it! for the condition of tho#e to &hom it *rant# no #hare in #uch contro(8 +hi# ru(in* c(a## in En*(and, a# in a(( other ci i(i#ed countrie#, i# the bour*eoi#ie8 <ut that thi# #ociet!, and e#pecia((! the bour*eoi#ie, i# char*ed &ith the dut! of protectin* e er! member of #ociet!, at (ea#t, in hi# (ife, to #ee to it, for examp(e, that no one #tar e#, " need not no& pro e to m! :erman reader#8 "f " &ere &ritin* for the En*(i#h bour*eoi#ie, the ca#e &ou(d be different8E /ote b! En*e(# to the :erman edition of 18458 9nd #o it i# no& in :erman!8 ?ur :erman capita(i#t# are fu((! up to the En*(i#h (e e(, in thi# re#pect at (ea#t, in the !ear of *race, 18868E 9dded b! En*e(# to the 9merican edition of 188.8 ,1896- 5o& thin*# ha e chan*ed in the (a#t fift! !ear#@ +oda! there are member# of the En*(i#h midd(e$ c(a##e# &ho reco*ni#e that #ociet! ha# dutie# to the indi idua( citi)en E but a# for the :erman midd(e$c(a##e#K@K E 9dded b! En*e(# to the :erman edition of 18968 >6 4r8 9(i#on, +anagement of the 9oor in 1cotland8E /ote b! En*e(#8 >. 4r8 9(i#on in an artic(e read before the <riti#h 9##ociation for the 9d ancement of Science8 ?ctober, 1844, in 0or18E /ote b! En*e(#8 >8 9(i#on, 9rinciples of 9opulation, o(8 ii8E /ote b! En*e(# to the 9merican edition of 188.8 >9 4r8 9(i#on, +anagement of the 9oor in 1cotland8E /ote b! En*e(#8 47 +he Manufacturin* Popu(ation of En*(and, ch8 88 E /ote b! En*e(#8 41 =eport of Commission of <n6uiry into the Employment of Children and >oung 9ersons in +ines and Collieries and in the !rades and +anufactures in which num,ers of them work together, not ,eing included under the terms of the #actories: Regulation -ct. #irst and 1econd Reports , :rain*erN# =eport8 Second =eport, u#ua((! cited a# ;hi(drenN# Emp(o!ment ;ommi##ionN# =eport, i# one of the be#t officia( report# of it# 1ind and contain# an immen#e Buantit! of e idence &hich i# both a(uab(e and horrif!in*8 'ir#t =eport, 1841; Second =eport, 184>8E /ote b! En*e(#8 46 #ifth -nnual Report of the Reg. *en. of ?irths, .eaths, and +arriages 8E /ote b! En*e(#8 4> 4r8 ;o&an, @ital 1tatistics of *lasgow8 E /ote b! En*e(# to the 9merican edition of 188. 44 Report of Commission of <n6uiry into the 1tate of $arge !owns and 9opulous .istricts 8 'ir#t =eport, 18448 9ppendix8E /ote b! En*e(#8 45 #actories: <n6uiry Commission:s Reports, >rd o(8 =eport of 4r8 5a&1in# on %anca#hire, in &hich 4r8 =oberton i# cited E theC;hief 9uthorit! for Stati#tic# in Manche#terT E /ote b! En*e(#8 46 Ouoted b! 4r8 Wade from the =eport of the Par(iamentar! 'actorie#N ;ommi##ion of 18>6, in hi# 5i#tor! of the Midd(e and Wor1in*$;(a##e#, %ondon, 18>5, >rd ed8 E /ote b! En*e(# to the 9merican edition of 188. 4. Children:s Employment Commission:s Report 8 9pp8 Part ""8 O8 18, /o#8 616, 61., 666, 6>5, etc8 5orne8E /ote b! En*e(# to the 9merican edition of 188.8 48 "bid8, e idence, pp8 9, 59; 1558E /ote b! En*e(# to the 9merican edition of 188. 49 "bid8, pp8 9, 56; 1468E/ote b! En*e(# to the 9merican edition of 188.8 57 "bid8, pp8 54; 1588E /ote b! En*e(# to the 9merican edition of 188.8 51 S!mon#N =ep8 9pp8 Part ", pp8 E,66, et #eB8E /ote b! En*e(# to the 9merican edition of 188.8 56 -rts and -rtisans8E /ote b! En*e(#8 5> 9rinciples of 9opulation, o(8 ii, pp8 196, 19.8E /ote b! En*e(#8 54 We #ha(( #ee (ater ho& the rebe((ion of the &or1in*$c(a## a*ain#t the bour*eoi#ie in En*(and i# (e*a(i#ed b! the ri*ht of coa(ition8E /ote b! En*e(#8 55 ;harti#m, p8 54, et #eB8E /ote b! En*e(#8 56 "bid8, p8 478E /ote b! En*e(# to the 9merican edition of 188.8 5. Sha(( " ca(( bour*eoi# &itne##e# to bear te#timon! for me here, tooK " #e(ect one on(!, &hom e er! one ma! read, name(!, 9dam Smith, Wea(th of /ation# ,Mc;u((ochN# four o(ume edition-, o(8 iii, boo1 5, chap8 (, p8 69.8E /ote b! En*e(#8 58 Princip(e# of Popu(ation, o(8 ii, p8 .6, et #eB8, p8 86, p8 1558E /ote b! En*e(# 59 Pure$b(ooded8E Ed8 67 Phi(o#oph of Manufacture#, %ondon, 1855, p8 476, et #eB8 We #ha(( ha e occa#ion to refer further to thi# reputab(e &or18E /ote b! En*e(#8 61 ,1896- +he idea that (ar*e$#ca(e indu#tr! ha# #p(it the En*(i#h into t&o different nation# ha#, a# i# &e(( 1no&n, been carried out about the #ame time a(#o b! 4i#rae(i in hi# no e(, S!bi(, or the t&o /ation#8E /ote b! En*e(# to

the :erman edition of 18968 66 ?n the Pre#ent ;ondition of the %abourin* Poor in Manche#ter, etc8 <! the =e 8 =d8 Par1in#on, ;anon of Manche#ter, >rd ed8, %ondon and Manche#ter, 18418 Pamph(et8E /ote b! En*e(#8 6> Princip(e# of Popu(ation, pa##im8E /ote b! En*e(#8 64 Sittin* of the %o&er 5ou#e on 'eb8 68, 18458E /ote b! En*e(#8 65 +he Manufacturin* Popu(ation of En*(and, chap8 178E /ote b! En*e(#8 66 +he tota( of popu(ation, about fifteen mi((ion#, di ided b! the number of con icted crimina(# ,66,.>>-8E /ote b! En*e(#8 6. +he ;otton Manufacture of :reat <ritain, b! 4r8 98 Fre, 18568E /ote b! En*e(#8 68 5i#tor! of the ;otton Manufacture of :reat <ritain b! E8 <aine#, E#B8E /ote b! En*e(#8 69 Stubborn 'act# from the 'actorie# b! a Manche#ter ?perati e8 Pub(i#hed and dedicated to the &or1in*$c(a##e#8 b! Wm8 =a#h(ei*h, M8 P8, %ondon, ?((i ier, 18448 p8 68, et #eB8$$ /ote b! En*e(#8 .7 ;ompare 'actorie#A "nBuir! ;ommi##ionA# =eport8E /ote b! En*e(# to the 9merican edition of 188.8 .1 +hi# i# the Bue#tion po#ed b! L8 ;8 S!mon#, in 9rt# and 9rti#an#8E /ote b! En*e(#8 .6 =eport of 'actor! "n#pector, %8 5orner8 ?ctober, 1845:C+here i# at pre#ent a er! anoma(ou# #tate of thin*# in re*ard to &a*e# in #ome department# of cotton mi((# in %anca#hire; for there are hundred# of !oun* men, bet&een 67 and >7 !ear# of a*e, emp(o!ed a# piecer# and other&i#e, &ho are recei in* not more than ei*ht or nine #hi((in*# a &ee1; &hi(e under the #ame roof, chi(dren of 1> !ear# of a*e are *ettin* fi e #hi((in*#, and !oun* &omen bet&een 16 and 67 are *ettin* from ten to t&e( e #hi((in*# a &ee18C E /ote b! En*e(#8 .> =eport of 'actorie#A "nBuir! ;ommi##ion8 +e#timon! of 4r8 5a&1in#, p8 >8E /ote b! En*e(# to the 9merican edition of 188.8 .4 "n 1846, amon* the accident# brou*ht to the "nfirmar! in Manche#ter, one hundred and ei*ht!$nine &ere from burnin*8 5o& man! &ere fata( i# not #tated8 /ote b! En*e(# .5 5o& numerou# married &omen are in the factorie# i# #een from information furni#hed b! a manufacturer8 "n 416 factorie# in %anca#hire, 17,.61 of them &ere emp(o!ed; of the hu#band# of the#e &omen, but 5,>14 &ere a(#o emp(o!ed in the factorie#, >896. &ere other&i#e emp(o!ed, 861 &ere unemp(o!ed, and information &a# &antin* a# to 659; or t&o, if not three men for each factor!, are #upported b! the &or1 of their &i e#8 E /ote b! En*e(#8 .6 +he #ur*eon# in En*(and are #cientifica((! educated a# &e(( a# the ph!#ician# and ha e, in *enera(, medica( a# &e(( a# #ur*ica( practice8 +he! are, in *enera(, for ariou# rea#on#, preferred to the ph!#ician#8 E /ote b! En*e(#8 .. %et u# hear another competent Dud*e:CWhen thi# examp(e Qi8e8, of the "ri#hR i# con#idered in connexion &ith the unremitted (abour of the &ho(e popu(ation en*a*ed in the ariou# branche# of the cotton manufacture, our &onder &i(( be (e## excited b! their fata( demora(i#ation8 Pro(on*ed and exhau#tin* (abour, continued from da! to da!, and from !ear to !ear, i# not ca(cu(ated to de e(op the inte((ectua( or mora( facu(tie# of man8 +he du(( routine of a cea#e(e## drud*er!, in &hich the #ame mechanica( proce## i# ince##ant(! repeated, re#emb(e# the torment of Si#!phu# E the toi(, (i1e the roc1, recoi(# perpetua((! on the &earied operati e8 +he mind *ather# neither #tore# nor #tren*th from the con#tant exten#ion and retraction of the #ame mu#c(e#8 +he inte((ect #(umber# in #upine inertne##; but the *ro##er part# of our nature attain a ran1 de e(opment8 +o condemn man to #uch #e erit! of toi( i#, in #ome mea#ure, to cu(ti ate in him the habit# of an anima(8 5e become# rec1(e##8 5e di#re*ard# the di#tin*ui#hin* appetite# and habit# of hi# #pecie#8 5e ne*(ect# the comfort# and de(icacie# of (ife8 5e (i e# in #Bua(id &retchedne##, on mea*re food, and expound# hi# #uperf(uou# *ain# in debaucher!8C E 4r8 L8 Ha!8E /ote b! En*e(#8

.8

+he :erman edition# of 1845 and 1896 ha e here:Cand #e(( not the (abour it#e(f, but the read! product8T Mention of the #a(e of (abour &a# perhap# omitted in the 9merican edition of 188. and the En*(i#h edition of 1896 in connection &ith the (ater opinion of Marxi#t po(itica( econom! that the &or1er #e((# hi# (abour$po&er, and not hi# (abour, to the capita(i#t8 .9 +homa# 5ood, the mo#t ta(ented of a(( the En*(i#h humori#t# no& (i in*, and, (i1e a(( humori#t#, fu(( of human fee(in*, but &antin* in menta( ener*!, pub(i#hed at the be*innin* of 1844 a beautifu( poem, +he Son* of the Shirt, &hich dre& #!mpathetic but una ai(in* tear# from the e!e# of the dau*hter# of the bour*eoi#ie8 ?ri*ina((! pub(i#hed in Punch, it made the round of a(( the paper#8 9# di#cu##ion# of the condition of the #e&in*$&omen fi((ed a(( the paper# at the time, #pecia( extract# are need(e##8E /ote b! En*e(#8 87 IWhat 1ind of &i(d Du#tice mu#t it be in the heart# of the#e men that prompt# them, &ith co(d de(iberation, in conc(a e a##emb(ed, to doom their brother &or1man, a# the de#erter of hi# order and hi# orderN# cau#e8 to die a# a

traitor and de#erter; and ha e him executed, #ince not b! an! pub(ic Dud*e and han*man, then b! a pri ate one; E (i1e !our o(d ;hi a(r! 'em*ericht, and Secret$+ribuna(, #udden(! in thi# #tran*e *ui#e become ne&; #udden(! ri#in* once more on the a#toni#hed e!e, dre##ed no& not in mai($#hirt#, but in fu#tian Dac1et#, meetin* not in We#tpha(ian fore#t# but in the pa ed :a((o&*ate of :(a#*o&@888 Such temper mu#t be &ide#pread, iru(ent amon* the man!, &hen e en in it# &or#t acme, it can ta1e #uch a form in a fe&8C E ;ar(!(e, ;harti#m, p8 478E /ote b! En*e(#8 81 9ccordin* to the cen#u# of 1841, the number of &or1in*$men emp(o!ed in mine# in :reat <ritain, &ithout "re(and, &a#:

;oa( mine#8>,478>6,4.51,1851,165118,6>>;opper mine#9,866>,46891>1,67715,47.%ead9,46.1,9>6476711,419"ron.,..>6,6.9464.>17,949+in4,6761,>4968866,17 1Jariou#64,1666,5914.6491>1,.16+?+9%1>9,6>848,454>,176>,7>119>,8659# the coa( and iron mine# are u#ua((! &or1ed b! the #ame peop(e, a part of the miner# attributed to the coa($mine#, and a er! con#iderab(e part of tho#e mentioned under the (a#t headin* are to be attributed to the iron mine#8 E /ote b! En*e(#8
86 8>

'or #uch i# our p(ea#ure8E Ed8 I+he State of "re(andT %ondon 187.; 6nd edition 18618Qanon!mou# pamph(etR 84 Mi#ta1e8 Sma(($#ca(e a*ricu(ture had been the pre ai(in* form of farmin* e er #ince the Midd(e 9*e#8 +hu# the #ma(( pea#ant farm# exi#ted e en before the =e o(ution8 +he on(! thin* the (atter chan*ed &a# their o&ner#hip; that it too1 a&a! from the feuda( (ord# and tran#ferred, direct(! or indirect(!, to the pea#ant#8E /ote b! En*e(# to the :erman edition of 18968 85 +o pre ent mi#con#truction# and con#eBuent obDection#, " &ou(d ob#er e that " ha e #po1en of the bour*eoi#ie a# a c(a##, and that a(( #uch fact# a# refer to indi idua(# #er e mere(! a# e idence of the &a! of thin1in* and actin* of a c(a##8 5ence " ha e not entered upon the di#tinction# bet&een the di er#e #ection#, #ubdi i#ion# and partie# of the bour*eoi#ie, &hich ha e a mere hi#torica( and theoretica( #i*nificance8 9nd " can, for the #ame rea#on, mention but ca#ua((! the fe& member# of the bour*eoi#ie &ho ha e #ho&n them#e( e# honourab(e exception#8 +he#e are, on the one hand, the pronounced =adica(#, &ho are a(mo#t ;harti#t#, #uch a# a fe& member# of the 5ou#e of ;ommon#, the manufacturer# 5ind(e! of 9#hton, and 'ie(den of +odmorden ,%anca#hire-, and, on the other hand, the phi(anthropic +orie#, &ho ha e recent(! con#tituted them#e( e#C0oun* En*(andT, amon* &hom are the Member# of Par(iament, 4i#rae(i, <orth&ic1, 'errand, %ord Lohn Manner#, etc8, %ord 9#h(e!, too, i# in #!mpath! &ith them8 +he hope ofC0oun* En*(andT i# a re#toration of the o(dCmerr! En*(andT &ith it# bri((iant feature# and it# romantic feuda(i#m8 +hi# obDect i# of cour#e unattainab(e and ridicu(ou#, a #atire upon a(( hi#toric de e(opment; but the *ood intention, the coura*e to re#i#t the exi#tin* #tate of thin*# and pre a(ent preDudice#, and to reco*ni#e the i(ene## of our pre#ent condition, i# &orth #omethin* an!ho&8 Who((! i#o(ated i# the ha(f$:erman En*(i#hman, +homa# ;ar(!(e, &ho, ori*ina((! a +or!, *oe# be!ond a(( tho#e hitherto mentioned8 5e ha# #ounded the #ocia( di#order more deep(! than an! other En*(i#h bour*eoi#, and demand# the or*ani#ation of (abour8 86 +hi# contract contained the fo((o&in*: the &or1er p(ed*ed him#e(f to &or1 for Pau(in* P 5enfre! for #ix month# and to be #ati#fied &ith the &a*e# &hich the! &ou(d *i e him; but Pau(in* P 5enfre! &ere not bound to 1eep him for #ix month# and cou(d di#mi## him at an! moment &ith a &ee1N# notice, and a(thou*h Pau(in* P 5enfre! &ou(d pa! hi# tra e((in* expen#e# from Stafford#hire to Mancbe#ter, the! &ere to reco er them b! a &ee1(! deduction of 6 #hi((in*# ,67 #i( er *ro#chen- from hi# &a*e#8 5o& do !ou (i1e that rea((! mar e((ou# contractK E /ote b! En*e(#8