Dam

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This article is about structures for water impoundment. For other uses, see Dam (disambiguation).

Hoover Dam, a concrete arch-gravity dam in Black Canyon of the Colorado River. Lake Mead in the ackgro!nd i" impo!nded y the dam.

#len Canyon Dam

$ dam i" a arrier that impo!nd" %ater or !ndergro!nd "tream". Dam" generally "erve the primary p!rpo"e of retaining %ater, %hile other "tr!ct!re" "!ch a"floodgate" or levee" &al"o kno%n a" dike"' are !"ed to manage or prevent %ater flo% into "pecific land region". Hydropo%er and p!mped-"torage hydroelectricity are often !"ed in con(!nction %ith dam" to generate electricity. $ dam can al"o e !"ed to collect %ater or for "torage of %ater %hich can e evenly di"tri !ted et%een location".

Contents
[hide]

1 History 2 Types of dams 2.1 By structure

2.1.1 Arch dams 2.1.2 Gravity dams 2.1.3 Arch-gravity dams 2.1.4 Barrages 2.1. !m"a#$me#t dams 2.1. .1 %oc$-fi&& dams 2.1. .1.1 'o#crete-face roc$-fi&&

dams

o o o o o o
2.2 By si(e 2.3 By use

2.1. .2 !arth-fi&& dams 2.1. .3 Aspha&t-co#crete core

2.3.1 )add&e dam 2.3.2 *eir 2.3.3 'hec$ dam 2.3.4 +ry dam 2.3. +iversio#ary dam 2.3., Tai&i#gs dam 2.4 By materia& 2.4.1 )tee& dams 2.4.2 Tim"er dams 2. -ther types 2. .1 'offerdams 2. .2 Beaver dams

3 'o#structio# e&eme#ts 3.1 .o/er ge#eratio# p&a#t 3.2 )pi&&/ays 4 +am creatio#

o o o

4.1 'ommo# purposes 4.2 0ocatio# 4.3 1mpact assessme#t 4.3.1 !#viro#me#ta& impact 4.3.2 Huma# socia& impact 4.3.3 !co#omics

+am fai&ure , )ee a&so 2 %efere#ces 3 )ources 4 !5ter#a& &i#$s

)edit*Hi"tory

+he "i,a le Roman Har a-a Dam in .yria i" /0 m &12 ft' high and 314 m &0,025 ft' long.

+he Roman dam at Cornalvo in .pain ha" een in !"e for almo"t t%o millennia.

#rand $nic!t dam on river 6averi in +amil 7ad!, .o!th 8ndia &02th cent!ry on 0"t-/nd cent!ry fo!ndation'

+he %ord dam can e traced ack to Middle 9ngli"h,)0* and efore that, from Middle D!tch, a" "een in the name" of many old citie".)/* 9arly dam !ilding took place inMe"opotamia and the Middle 9a"t. Dam" %ere !"ed to control the %ater level, for Me"opotamia:" %eather affected the +igri" and 9!phrate" river", and co!ld e -!ite !npredicta le. +he earlie"t kno%n dam i" the ;a%a Dam in ;ordan, 0<< kilometre" &1/ mi' northea"t of the capital $mman. +hi" gravity dam feat!red a =.4 m &04 ft' high and 0 m &3 ft 3 in' %ide "tone %all, "!pported y a 4< m &01< ft' %ide earth rampart. +he "tr!ct!re i" dated to 3<<< BC.)3*)=* +he $ncient 9gyptian .add-el-6afara Dam at Wadi $l-#ara%i, located a o!t /4 km &01 mi' "o!th of Cairo, %a" 0</ m &334 ft' long at it" a"e and 5> m &/54 ft' %ide. +he "tr!ct!re %a" !ilt aro!nd /5<<)4* or /1<< B.C.)1* a" a diver"ion dam for flood control, !t %a" de"troyed y heavy rain d!ring con"tr!ction or "hortly after%ard".)4*)1* By the mid-late third cent!ry BC, an intricate %ater-management "y"tem %ithin Dholavira in modern day 8ndia, %a" !ilt. +he "y"tem incl!ded 01 re"ervoir", dam" and vario!" channel" for collecting %ater and "toring it.)>* Roman dam con"tr!ction %a" characteri,ed y ?the Roman": a ility to plan and organi,e engineering con"tr!ction on a grand "cale?.)5* Roman planner" introd!ced the then novel concept of large re"ervoir dam" %hich co!ld "ec!re a permanent%ater "!pply for !r an "ettlement" al"o over the dry "ea"on.)2* +heir pioneering !"e of %ater-proof hydra!lic mortar and partic!larly Roman concrete allo%ed for m!ch larger dam "tr!ct!re" than previo!"ly !ilt,)5* "!ch a" the Lake Hom" Dam, po""i ly the large"t %ater arrier to that date,
)0<*

and the Har a-a Dam, oth in Roman .yria. +he highe"t Roman dam %a" the .! iaco Dam near Rome@ it"

record height of 4< m &01< ft' remained !n"!rpa""ed !ntil it" accidental de"tr!ction in 03<4.)00* Roman engineer" made ro!tine !"e of ancient "tandard de"ign" like em ankment dam" and ma"onry gravity dam".)0/* $part from that, they di"played a high degree of inventivene"", introd!cing mo"t of the other a"ic dam de"ign" %hich had een !nkno%n !ntil then. +he"e incl!de arch-gravity dam",)03* arch dam",)0=* !ttre"" dam")04* and m!ltiple arch !ttre"" dam",)01* all of %hich %ere kno%n and employed y the /nd cent!ry $D

&"ee Li"t of Roman dam"'. Roman %orkforce" al"o %ere the fir"t to !ild dam ridge", "!ch a" the Bridge of Aalerian in 8ran.)0>* 9flat!n BCnar i" a Hittite dam and "pring temple near 6onya, +!rkey. 8t:" tho!ght to e from the time of the Hittite empire et%een the 04th and 03 cent!ry BC. +he 6allanai i" con"tr!cted of !nhe%n "tone, over 3<< m &25< ft' long, =.4 m &04 ft' high and /< m &11 ft' %ide, acro"" the main "tream of the 6averi river in +amil 7ad!,.o!th 8ndia. +he a"ic "tr!ct!re date" to the 0"t cent!ry $D.)05* and i" con"idered one of the olde"t %ater-diver"ion or %ater-reg!lator "tr!ct!re" in the %orld, %hich i" "till in !"e.)02* +he p!rpo"e of the dam %a" to divert the %ater" of the 6averi acro"" the fertile Delta region for irrigation via canal".8t i" con"idered to e the olde"t dam "till in !"e. D! ;iang Dan i" the olde"t "!rviving irrigation "y"tem in China that incl!ded a dam that directed %aterflo%. 8t %a" fini"hed in /40 B.C. $ large earthen dam, made y the Brime Mini"ter of Ch! &"tate', .!n"h! $o, flooded a valley in modern-day northern $nh!i province that created an enormo!" irrigation re"ervoir 0<< km &1/ mi' in circ!mference', a re"ervoir that i" "till pre"ent today.)/<* 8n 8ran, ridge dam" "!ch a" the Band-e 6ai"ar %ere !"ed to provide hydropo%er thro!gh %ater %heel", %hich often po%ered %ater-rai"ing mechani"m". Ene of the fir"t %a" the Roman- !ilt dam ridge in De,f!l,)/0* %hich co!ld rai"e %ater 4< c! it" in height for the %ater "!pply to all ho!"e" in the to%n. $l"o diver"ion dam" %ere kno%n.)//* Milling dam" %ere introd!ced %hich the M!"lim engineer" called the Pul-i-Bulaiti. +he fir"t %a" !ilt at .h!"tar on the River 6ar!n, 8ran, and many of the"e %ere later !ilt in other part" of the 8"lamic %orld.
)//* )/3*

Water %a" cond!cted from the ack of the dam thro!gh a large pipe to drive a %ater %heel and %atermill. 8n the 0<th cent!ry, $l-M!-adda"i de"cri ed "everal dam" in Ber"ia. He reported that one in $h%a, %a"

more than 20< m &3,<<< ft' long,)/=* and that and it had many %ater-%heel" rai"ing the %ater into a-!ed!ct" thro!gh %hich it flo%ed into re"ervoir" of the city.)/4* $nother one, the Band-i-Amir dam, provided irrigation for 3<< village".)/=* 8n the 7etherland", a lo%-lying co!ntry, dams %ere often applied to lock river" in order to reg!late the %ater level and to prevent the "ea from entering the mar"h land". .!ch dam" often marked the eginning of a to%n or city eca!"e it %a" ea"y to cro"" the river at "!ch a place, and often gave ri"e to the re"pective place:" name" in D!tch. For in"tance the D!tch capital $m"terdam &old name $m"telredam' "tarted %ith a dam thro!gh the river $m"tel in the late 0/th cent!ry, and Rotterdam "tarted %ith a dam thro!gh the river Rotte, a minor tri !tary of the7ie!%e Maa". +he central "-!are of $m"terdam, covering the original place of the 5<< year old dam, "till carrie" the name Dam !uare or "imply the Dam. French engineer BenoFt Fo!rneyron developed the fir"t "!cce""f!l %ater t!r ine in 053/. +he era of large dam" %a" initiated after Hoover Dam%a" completed on the Colorado River near La" Aega" in 0231. By 022>, there %ere an e"timated 5<<,<<< dam" %orld%ide, "ome =<,<<< of them over 04 m &=2 ft' high.)/1*

)edit*+ype"

of dam"

Dam" can e formed y h!man agency, nat!ral ca!"e", or even y the intervention of %ildlife "!ch a" eaver". Man-made dam" are typically cla""ified according to their "i,e &height', intended p!rpo"e or "tr!ct!re.

)edit*By

structure

Ba"ed on "tr!ct!re and material !"ed, dam" are cla""ified a" tim er dam", arch-gravity dam", em ankment dam" or ma"onry dam", %ith "everal "! type".

)edit*Arch dams

#ordon Dam, +a"mania i" an arch dam.

"ain article# Arch dam 8n the arch dam, "ta ility i" o tained y a com ination of arch and gravity action. 8f the !p"tream face i" vertical the entire %eight of the dam m!"t e carried to the fo!ndation y gravity, %hile the di"tri !tion of the normal hydro"tatic pre""!re et%een vertical cantilever and arch action %ill depend !pon the "tiffne"" of the dam in a vertical and hori,ontal direction. When the !p"tream face i" "loped the di"tri !tion i" more complicated. +he normal component of the %eight of the arch ring may e taken y the arch action, %hile the normal hydro"tatic pre""!re %ill e di"tri !ted a" de"cri ed a ove. For thi" type of dam, firm relia le "!pport" at the a !tment" &either !ttre"" or canyon "ide %all' are more important. +he mo"t de"ira le place for an arch dam i" a narro% canyon %ith "teep "ide %all" compo"ed of "o!nd rock.)/>* +he "afety of an arch dam i" dependent on the "trength of the "ide %all a !tment", hence not only "ho!ld the arch e %ell "eated on the "ide %all" !t al"o the character of the rock "ho!ld e caref!lly in"pected.

Daniel-;ohn"on Dam, G!e ec, i" a m!ltiple-arch !ttre"" dam.

+%o type" of "ingle-arch dam" are in !"e, namely the con"tant-angle and the con"tant-radi!" dam. +he con"tant-radi!" type employ" the "ame face radi!" at all elevation" of the dam, %hich mean" that a" the channel gro%" narro%er to%ard" the ottom of the dam the central angle "! tended y the face of the dam ecome" "maller. ;one" Fall" Dam, in Canada, i" a con"tant radi!" dam. 8n a con"tant-angle dam, al"o kno%n a" a varia le radi!" dam, thi" "! tended angle i" kept a con"tant and the variation in di"tance et%een the a !tment" at vario!" level" are taken care of y varying the radii. Con"tant-radi!" dam" are m!ch le"" common than con"tant-angle dam". Barker Dam i" a con"tant-angle arch dam. $ "imilar type i" the do! le-c!rvat!re or thin-"hell dam. Wildhor"e Dam near Mo!ntain City, 7evada in the Hnited .tate" i" an eIample of the type. +hi" method of con"tr!ction minimi,e" the amo!nt of concrete nece""ary for con"tr!ction !t tran"mit" large load" to the fo!ndation and a !tment". +he appearance i" "imilar to a "ingle-arch dam !t %ith a di"tinct vertical c!rvat!re to it a" %ell lending it the vag!e appearance of a concave len" a" vie%ed from do%n"tream. +he m!ltiple-arch dam con"i"t" of a n!m er of "ingle-arch dam" %ith concrete !ttre""e" a" the "!pporting a !tment", a" for eIample theDaniel-;ohn"on Dam, G!J ec, Canada. +he m!ltiple-arch dam doe" not re-!ire a" many !ttre""e" a" the hollo% gravity type, !t re-!ire" good rock fo!ndation eca!"e the !ttre"" load" are heavy.

)edit*Gravity dams This sectio# does not cite any references or sources. .&ease he&p improve this sectio# "y addi#g citatio#s to re&ia"&e sources. 6#sourced materia& may "e cha&&e#ged a#d removed. (March 2011)

+he #rand Co!lee Dam i" an eIample of a "olid gravity dam.

8n a gravity dam, the force that hold" the dam in place again"t the p!"h from the %ater i" 9arth" gravity p!lling do%n on the %eight of the dam it"elf. )/5* 8n a gravity dam, "ta ility i" "ec!red y making it of "!ch a "i,e and "hape that it %ill re"i"t overt!rning, "liding and cr!"hing at the toe. +he dam %ill not overt!rn provided that the moment aro!nd the t!rning point, ca!"ed y the %ater pre""!re, i" "maller than the moment ca!"ed y the %eight of the dam)clarification needed*. +hi" i" the ca"e if the re"!ltant force of %ater pre""!re and %eight fall" %ithin the a"e of the dam. Ho%ever, in order to prevent ten"ile "tre"" at the !p"tream face and eIce""ive compre""ive "tre"" at the do%n"tream face, the dam cro"" "ection i" !"!ally de"igned "o that the re"!ltant fall" %ithin the middle at all elevation" of the cro"" "ection &the core'. For thi" type of dam, impervio!" fo!ndation" %ith high bearing "trength are e""ential. When "it!ated on a "!ita le "ite, gravity dam" can prove to e a etter alternative to other type" of dam". When !ilt on a caref!lly "t!died fo!ndation, the gravity dam pro a ly repre"ent" the e"t developed eIample of dam !ilding. .ince the fear of flood i" a "trong motivator in many region", gravity dam" are eing !ilt in "ome in"tance" %here an arch dam %o!ld have een more economical. #ravity dam" are cla""ified a" ?"olid? or ?hollo%? and are generally made of either concrete or ma"onry. +hi" i" called ?,oning?. +he core of the dam i" ,oned depending on the availa ility of locally availa le material", fo!ndation condition" and the material attri !te". +he "olid form i" the more %idely !"ed of the t%o, tho!gh the hollo% dam i" fre-!ently more economical to con"tr!ct. #ravity dam" can al"o e cla""ified a" ?overflo%? &"pill%ay' and ?non-overflo%.? #rand Co!lee Dam i" a "olid gravity dam and 8taip! Dam i" a hollo% gravity dam.

)edit*Arch-gravity dams

+he Hoover Dam i" an eIample of an arch-gravity dam.

"ain article# Arch-gra$it% dam

This sectio# re7uires e5pa#sio#.

$ gravity dam can e com ined %ith an arch dam into an arch-gravity dam for area" %ith ma""ive amo!nt" of %ater flo% !t le"" material availa le for a p!rely gravity dam.

)edit*Barrages

+he 6o"hi Barrage

"ain article# Barrage dams $ arrage dam i" a "pecial kind of dam %hich con"i"t" of a line of large gate" that can e opened or clo"ed to control the amo!nt of %ater pa""ing the dam. +he gate" are "et et%een flanking pier" %hich are re"pon"i le for "!pporting the %ater load. +hey are often !"ed to control and "ta ili,e %ater flo% for irrigation "y"tem". Barrage" that are !ilt at the mo!th of river" or lagoon" to prevent tidal inc!r"ion" or !tili,e the tidal flo% for tidal po%er are kno%n a" tidal arrage".)/2*

)edit*Embankment dams
"ain article# &mban'ment dam 9m ankment dam" are made from compacted earth, and have t%o main type", rock-fill and earth-fill dam". 9m ankment dam" rely on their %eight to hold ack the force of %ater, like the gravity dam" made from concrete.

)edit*Rock-fill dams
Rock-fill dam" are em ankment" of compacted free-draining gran!lar earth %ith an impervio!" ,one. +he earth !tili,ed often contain" a large percentage of large particle" hence the term roc'-fill. +he impervio!" ,one may e on the !p"tream face and made of ma"onry, concrete, pla"tic mem rane, "teel "heet pile", tim er or other material. +he impervio!" ,one may al"o e %ithin the em ankment in %hich ca"e it i" referred to a" a core. 8n the in"tance" %here clay i" !tili,ed a" the impervio!" material the dam i" referred to a" a composite dam. +o prevent internal ero"ion of clay into the rock fill d!e to "eepage force", the core i" "eparated !"ing a filter. Filter" are "pecifically graded "oil de"igned to prevent the migration of fine grain "oil particle". When "!ita le material i" at hand, tran"portation i" minimi,ed leading to co"t "aving" d!ring con"tr!ction. Rock-fill dam" are re"i"tant to damage from earth-!ake". Ho%ever, inade-!ate -!ality control d!ring con"tr!ction can lead to

poor compaction and "and in the em ankment %hich can lead to li-!efaction of the rock-fill d!ring an earth-!ake. Li-!efaction potential can e red!ced y keeping "!"cepti le material from eing "at!rated, and y providing ade-!ate compaction d!ring con"tr!ction. $n eIample of a rock-fill dam i" 7e% Melone" Dam in California.

)edit*Concrete-face rock-fill dams

$ concrete-face rock-fill dam &CFRD' i" a rock-fill dam %ith concrete "la " on it" !p"tream face. +hi" de"ign offer" the concrete "la a" an impervio!" %all to prevent leakage and al"o a "tr!ct!re %itho!t concern for !plift pre""!re. 8n addition, the CFRD de"ign i" fleIi le for topography, fa"ter to con"tr!ct and le"" co"tly than earthfill dam". +he CFRD originated d!ring the California #old R!"h in the 051<" %hen miner" con"tr!cted rock-fill tim er-face dam" for "l!ice operation". +he tim er %a" later replaced y concrete a" the de"ign %a" applied to irrigation and po%er "cheme". $" CFRD de"ign" gre% in height d!ring the 021<", the fill %a" compacted and the "la :" hori,ontal and vertical (oint" %ere replaced %ith improved vertical (oint". 8n the la"t fe% decade", the de"ign ha" ecome pop!lar.)3<* C!rrently, the talle"t CFRD in the %orld i" the /33 m &>1= ft' tall .h!i !ya Dam in China %hich %a" completed in /<<5.)30*

)edit*Earth-fill dams

+he #athright Dam in Airginia i" a rock-fill em ankment dam.

9arth-fill dam", al"o called earthen, rolled-earth or "imply earth dam", are con"tr!cted a" a "impleem ankment of %ell compacted earth. $ homogeneous rolled-earth dam i" entirely con"tr!cted of one type of material !t may contain a drain layer to collect seep %ater. $ (oned-earth dam ha" di"tinct part" or (ones of di""imilar material, typically a locally plentif!l shell %ith a %atertight clay core. Modern ,oned-earth em ankment" employ filter and drain ,one" to collect and remove "eep %ater and pre"erve the integrity of the do%n"tream "hell ,one. $n o!tdated method of ,oned earth dam con"tr!ction !tili,ed a hydra!lic fill to prod!ce a %atertight core. )olled-earth dam" may al"o employ a %atertight facing or core in the manner of a rock-fill dam. $n intere"ting type of temporary earth dam occa"ionally !"ed in high latit!de" i" the fro(en-core dam, in %hich a coolant i" circ!lated thro!gh pipe" in"ide the dam to maintain a %atertight region of permafro"t %ithin it.

+ar ela Dam i" a large dam on the 8nd!" River in Baki"tan. 8t i" located a o!t 4< km &30 mi' north%e"t of 8"lama ad, and a height of =54 ft &0=5 m' a ove the river ed and a re"ervoir "i,e of 24 "- mi &/4< km/' make" it the large"t earth filled dam in the %orld. +he principal element of the pro(ect i" an em ankment 2,<<< feet &/>=3 meter"' long %ith a maIim!m height of =14 feet &0=3 meter"'. +he total vol!me of earth and rock !"ed for the pro(ect i" approIimately /<< million c! ic yard" &04/.5 million c!. Meter"' %hich make" it the large"t man made "tr!ct!re in the %orld , eIcept for the #reat Chine"e Wall %hich con"!med "ome%hat more material. Beca!"e earthen dam" can e con"tr!cted from material" fo!nd on-"ite or near y, they can e very co"teffective in region" %here the co"t of prod!cing or ringing in concrete %o!ld e prohi itive.

)edit*Asphalt-concrete core
$ third type of em ankment dam i" !ilt %ith a"phalt concrete core. +he ma(ority of "!ch dam" are !ilt %ith rock andKor gravel a" the main fill material. $lmo"t 0<< dam" of thi" de"ign have no% een !ilt %orld%ide "ince the fir"t "!ch dam %a" completed in 021/. $ll a"phalt-concrete core dam" !ilt "o far have an eIcellent performance record. +he type of a"phalt !"ed i" a vi"coela"tic-pla"tic material that can ad(!"t to the movement" and deformation" impo"ed on the em ankment a" a %hole, and to "ettlement" in the fo!ndation. +he fleIi le propertie" of the a"phalt make "!ch dam" e"pecially "!ited in earth-!ake region".)3/*

)edit*By

size

8nternational "tandard" &incl!ding 8nternational Commi""ion on Large Dam", IC !"' define large dams a" higher than 04 meter" and ma*or dams a" over 04< meter" in height.)33* +he )eport of the +orld ,ommission on Dams al"o incl!de" in the large category, dam", "!ch a" arrage", %hich are et%een 4 and 04 meter" high %ith a re"ervoir capacity of more than 3 million c! ic meter".)/2* +he talle"t dam in the %orld i" the 3<<-meter-high 7!rek Dam in +a(iki"tan.)3=*

)edit*By

use

)edit*#addle dam
$ "addle dam i" an a!Iiliary dam con"tr!cted to confine the re"ervoir created y a primary dam either to permit a higher %ater elevation and "torage or to limit the eItent of a re"ervoir for increa"ed efficiency. $n a!Iiliary dam i" con"tr!cted in a lo% "pot or saddle thro!gh %hich the re"ervoir %o!ld other%i"e e"cape. En occa"ion, a re"ervoir i" contained y a "imilar "tr!ct!re called a dike to prevent in!ndation of near y land. Dike" are commonly !"ed for reclamation of ara le land from a "hallo% lake. +hi" i" "imilar to a levee, %hich i" a %all or em ankment !ilt along a river or "tream to protect ad(acent land from flooding.

)edit*$eir
"ain article# +eir

$ %eir &al"o "ometime" called an o$erflow dam' i" a type of "mall overflo% dam that i" often !"ed %ithin a river channel to create an impo!ndment lake for %ater a "traction p!rpo"e" and %hich can al"o e !"ed for flo% mea"!rement.

)edit*Check dam
"ain article# ,hec' dam $ check dam i" a "mall dam de"igned to red!ce flo% velocity and control "oil ero"ion. Conver"ely, a wing dam i" a "tr!ct!re that only partly re"trict" a %ater%ay, creating a fa"ter channel that re"i"t" the acc!m!lation of "ediment.

)edit*"ry dam
"ain article# Dr% dam $ dry dam al"o kno%n a" a flood retarding "tr!ct!re, i" a dam de"igned to control flooding. 8t normally hold" ack no %ater and allo%" the channel to flo% freely, eIcept d!ring period" of inten"e flo% that %o!ld other%i"e ca!"e flooding do%n"tream.

)edit*"iversionary dam
"ain article# Di$ersionar% dam $ diver"ionary dam i" a "tr!ct!re de"igned to divert all or a portion of the flo% of a river from it" nat!ral co!r"e. +he %ater may e redirected into a canal or t!nnel for irrigation andKor hydroelectric po%er prod!ction.

)edit*%ailings dam
$ tailing" dam i" typically an earth-fill em ankment dam !"ed to "tore tailing" L %hich are prod!ced d!ring mining operation" after "eparating the val!a le fraction from the !neconomic fraction of an ore. Conventional %ater retention dam" can "erve thi" p!rpo"e !t d!e to co"t, a tailing" dam i" more via le. Hnlike %ater retention dam", a tailing" dam i" rai"ed in "!cce""ion thro!gho!t the life of the partic!lar mine. +ypically, a a"e or "tarter dam i" con"tr!cted and a" it fill" %ith a miIt!re of tailing" and %ater, it i" rai"ed. Material !"ed to rai"e the dam can incl!de the tailing" &depending on their "i,e' along %ith dirt.)34* +here are three rai"ed tailing" dam de"ign", the upstream, downstream and centerline, named according to the movement of the cre"t d!ring rai"ing. +he "pecific de"ign !"ed it dependent !pon topography, geology, climate, the type of tailing" and co"t. $n !p"tream tailing" dam con"i"t" of trape,oidal em ankment" eing con"tr!cted on top !t toe to cre"t of another, moving the cre"t f!rther !p"tream. +hi" create" a relatively flat do%n"tream "ide and a (agged !p"tream "ide %hich i" "!pported y tailing" "l!rry in the impo!ndment. +he do%n"tream de"ign refer" to the "!cce""ive rai"ing of the em ankment that po"ition" the fill and cre"t f!rther do%n"tream. $ centerlined dam ha" "e-!ential em ankment dam" con"tr!cted directly on top of another %hile fill i" placed on the do%n"tream "ide for "!pport and "l!rry "!pport" the !p"tream "ide.)31*)3>*

Beca!"e tailing" dam" often "tore toIic chemical" from the mining proce"", they have an impervio!" liner to prevent "eepage. WaterK"l!rry level" in the tailing" pond m!"t e managed for "ta ility and environmental p!rpo"e" a" %ell.)3>*

)edit*By

material

)edit*#teel dams
"ain article# teel dam

Red Ridge "teel dam, . 02<4, Michigan.

$ "teel dam i" a type of dam riefly eIperimented %ith in aro!nd the t!rn of the 02th-/<th Cent!ry %hich !"e" "teel plating &at an angle' and load earing eam" a" the "tr!ct!re. 8ntended a" permanent "tr!ct!re", "teel dam" %ere an &arg!a ly failed' eIperiment to determine if a con"tr!ction techni-!e co!ld e devi"ed that %a" cheaper than ma"onry, concrete or earth%ork", !t "t!rdier than tim er cri dam".

)edit*%imber dams

$ tim er cri dam in Michigan, photographed in 02>5.

+im er dam" %ere %idely !"ed in the early part of the ind!"trial revol!tion and in frontier area" d!e to ea"e and "peed of con"tr!ction. Rarely !ilt in modern time" eca!"e of relatively "hort life"pan and limited height to %hich they can e !ilt, tim er dam" m!"t e kept con"tantly %et in order to maintain their %ater retention propertie" and limit deterioration y rot, "imilar to a arrel. +he location" %here tim er dam" are mo"t economical to !ild are tho"e %here tim er i" plentif!l, cement i" co"tly or diffic!lt to tran"port, and either a lo%

head diver"ion dam i" re-!ired or longevity i" not an i""!e. +im er dam" %ere once n!mero!", e"pecially in the 7orth $merican %e"t, !t mo"t have failed, een hidden !nder earth em ankment" or een replaced %ith entirely ne% "tr!ct!re". +%o common variation" of tim er dam" %ere the crib and the plan'. Timber crib dams %ere erected of heavy tim er" or dre""ed log" in the manner of a log ho!"e and the interior filled %ith earth or r! le. +he heavy cri "tr!ct!re "!pported the dam:" face and the %eight of the

%ater. .pla"h dam" %ere tim er cri dam" !"ed to help float log" do%n"tream in the late 02th and early /<th cent!rie". Timber plan' dams %ere more elegant "tr!ct!re" that employed a variety of con"tr!ction method" !tili,ing heavy tim er" to "!pport a %ater retaining arrangement of plank".

)edit*

ther types

)edit*Cofferdams
"ain article# ,offerdam

$ cofferdam d!ring the con"tr!ction of lock" at the Montgomery Boint Lock and Dam.

$ cofferdam i" a &!"!ally temporary' arrier con"tr!cted to eIcl!de %ater from an area that i" normally "! merged. Made commonly of %ood, concrete or "teel "heet piling, cofferdam" are !"ed to allo% con"tr!ction on the fo!ndation of permanent dam", ridge", and "imilar "tr!ct!re". When the pro(ect i" completed, the cofferdam may e demoli"hed or removed. .ee al"o ca!"e%ay and retaining %all. Common !"e" for cofferdam" incl!de con"tr!ction and repair of off "hore oil platform". 8n "!ch ca"e" the cofferdam i" fa ricated from "heet "teel and %elded into place !nder %ater. $ir i" p!mped into the "pace, di"placing the %ater allo%ing a dry %ork environment elo% the "!rface. Hpon completion the cofferdam i" !"!ally decon"tr!cted !nle"" the area re-!ire" contin!o!" maintenance.

)edit*Beaver dams
"ain article# Bea$er dam Beaver" create dam" primarily o!t of m!d and "tick" to flood a partic!lar ha ita le area. By flooding a parcel of land, eaver" can navigate elo% or near the "!rface and remain relatively %ell hidden or protected from predator". +he flooded region al"o allo%" eaver" acce"" to food, e"pecially d!ring the %inter.

)edit*Con"tr!ction )edit*&o'er

element"

generation plant

Hydra!lic t!r ine and electrical generator.

"ain article# -%droelectricit% $" of /<<4, hydroelectric po%er, mo"tly from dam", "!pplie" "ome 02M of the %orld:" electricity, and over 13M of rene%a le energy.)35* M!ch of thi" i" generated y large dam", altho!gh China !"e" "mall "cale hydro generation on a %ide "cale and i" re"pon"i le for a o!t 4<M of %orld !"e of thi" type of po%er.)35* Mo"t hydroelectric po%er come" from the potential energy of dammed %ater driving a %ater t!r ine andgenerator@ to oo"t the po%er generation capa ilitie" of a dam, the %ater may e r!n thro!gh a large pipe called a pen"tock efore the t!r ine. $ variant on thi" "imple model !"e" p!mped "torage hydroelectricityto prod!ce electricity to match period" of high and lo% demand, y moving %ater et%een re"ervoir" at different elevation". $t time" of lo% electrical demand, eIce"" generation capacity i" !"ed to p!mp %ater into the higher re"ervoir. When there i" higher demand, %ater i" relea"ed ack into the lo%er re"ervoir thro!gh a t!r ine. &For eIample "ee Dinor%ic Bo%er .tation.'

Hydroelectric dam in cro"" "ection.

)edit*#pill'ays

.pill%ay on Llyn Brianne dam,Wale" "oon after fir"t fill.

"ain article# pillwa% $ spillwa% i" a "ection of a dam de"igned to pa"" %ater from the !p"tream "ide of a dam to the do%n"tream "ide. Many "pill%ay" have floodgate" de"igned to control the flo% thro!gh the "pill%ay. +ype" of "pill%ay incl!deN $ ser$ice spillwa% orprimar% spillwa% pa""e" normal flo%. $n au.iliar% spillwa%relea"e" flo% in eIce"" of the capacity of the "ervice "pill%ay. $n emergenc% spillwa% i" de"igned for eItreme condition", "!ch a" a "erio!" malf!nction of the "ervice "pill%ay. $ fuse plugspillwa% i" a lo% em ankment de"igned to e over topped and %a"hed a%ay in the event of a large flood. F!"egate element" are independent free-"tanding lock "et "ide y "ide on the "pill%ay %hich %ork %itho!t any remote control. +hey allo% to increa"e the normal pool of the dam %itho!t compromi"ing the "ec!rity of the dam eca!"e they are de"igned to e grad!ally evac!ated for eIceptional event". +hey %ork a" fiIed %eir mo"t of the time allo%ing over"pilling for the common flood". +he "pill%ay can e grad!ally eroded y %ater flo%, incl!ding cavitation or t!r !lence of the %ater flo%ing over the "pill%ay, leading to it" fail!re. 8t %a" the inade-!ate de"ign of the "pill%ay %hich led to the 0552 overtopping of the .o!th Fork Dam in ;ohn"to%n, Benn"ylvania, re"!lting in the infamo!" ;ohn"to%n Flood&the ?great flood of 0552?'. 9ro"ion rate" are often monitored, and the ri"k i" ordinarily minimi,ed, y "haping the do%n"tream face of the "pill%ay into a c!rve that minimi,e" t!r !lent flo%, "!ch a" an ogee c!rve.

)edit*Dam

creation
purposes
Example

)edit*Common Function

Power generation

Hydroe&ectric po/er is a ma8or source of e&ectricity i# the /or&d. 9a#y cou#tries that have rivers /ith ade7uate /ater f&o/: that ca# "e dammed for po/er ge#eratio# purposes. ;or e5amp&e: the 1taipu +am o# the .ara#< %iver i# )outh Americage#erates 14 G* a#d supp&ied 43= of the e#ergy co#sumed "y .araguay a#d 2>= of that co#sumed "y Bra(i& as of 2>> .

9a#y ur"a# areas of the /or&d are supp&ied /ith /ater a"stracted from rivers pe#t up "ehi#d &o/ dams or /eirs. !5amp&es i#c&ude 0o#do# - /ith /ater from the %iver Thames a#d 'hester /ith Water supply /ater ta$e# from the %iver +ee. -ther ma8or sources i#c&ude deep up&a#d reservoirs co#tai#ed "y high dams across deep va&&eys such as the '&aer/e# series of dams a#d reservoirs.

+ams are ofte# used to co#tro& a#d sta"i&i(e /ater flow: ofte# for agricu&tura& purposes Stabilize water a#d irrigatio#.[34] -thers such as theBerg )trait dam ca# he&p to sta"i&i(e or restore the flow / irrigation /ater levels of i#&a#d &a$es a#d seas: i# this case the Ara& )ea.[4>]

Flood prevention

+ams such as the B&ac$/ater dam of *e"ster: ?e/ Hampshire a#d the +e&ta *or$s are created /ith f&ood co#tro& i# mi#d.[41]

Land reclamation

+ams @ofte# ca&&ed dy$es or &evees i# this co#te5tA are used to preve#t i#gress of /ater to a# area that /ou&d other/ise "e su"merged: a&&o/i#g its rec&amatio# for huma# use.

Water diversion

A typica&&y sma&& dam used to divert /ater for irrigatio#: po/er ge#eratio#: or other uses: /ith usua&&y #o other fu#ctio#. -ccasio#a&&y: they are used to divert /ater to a#other drai#age or reservoir to i#crease f&o/ there a#d improve /ater use i# that particu&ar area. )eeB diversio# dam.

avigation

+ams create deep reservoirs a#d ca# a&so vary the f&o/ of /ater do/#stream. This ca# i# retur# affect upstream a#d do/#stream #avigatio# "y a&teri#g the riverCs depth. +eeper /ater i#creases or creates freedom of moveme#t for /ater vesse&s. 0arge dams ca# serve this purpose "ut most ofte# /eirs a#d &oc$s are used.

+ams "ui&t for a#y of the a"ove purposes may fi#d themse&ves disp&aced "y time of their origi#a& !ecreation and uses. ?everthe&ess the &oca& commu#ity may have come to e#8oy the reservoir for recreatio#a& a#d a"uatic beauty aesthetic reaso#s. -fte# the reservoir /i&& "e p&acid a#d surrou#ded "y gree#ery: a#d co#vey to visitors a #atura& se#se of rest a#d re&a5atio#. )edit*!ocation

+he di"charge of +akato Dam

Ene of the e"t place" for !ilding a dam i" a narro% part of a deep river valley@ the valley "ide" can then act a" nat!ral %all". +he primary f!nction of the dam:" "tr!ct!re i" to fill the gap in the nat!ral re"ervoir line left y the "tream channel. +he "ite" are !"!ally tho"e %here the gap ecome" a minim!m for the re-!ired "torage capacity. +he mo"t economical arrangement i" often a compo"ite "tr!ct!re "!ch a" a ma"onry dam flanked y earth em ankment". +he c!rrent !"e of the land to e flooded "ho!ld e di"pen"a le. .ignificant other engineering and engineering geology con"ideration" %hen !ilding a dam incl!deN

permea ility of the "!rro!nding rock or "oil earth-!ake fa!lt" land"lide" and "lope "ta ility %ater ta le peak flood flo%" re"ervoir "ilting environmental impact" on river fi"herie", fore"t" and %ildlife &"ee al"o fi"h ladder' impact" on h!man ha itation" compen"ation for land eing flooded a" %ell a" pop!lation re"ettlement removal of toIic material" and !ilding" from the propo"ed re"ervoir area

)edit*Impact

assessment

8mpact i" a""e""ed in "everal %ay"N the enefit" to h!man "ociety ari"ing from the dam &agric!lt!re, %ater, damage prevention and po%er', harm or enefit to nat!re and %ildlife, impact on the geology of an area %hether the change to %ater flo% and level" %ill increa"e or decrea"e "ta ility, and the di"r!ption to h!man live" &relocation, lo"" of archeological or c!lt!ral matter" !nder%ater'.

)edit*Environmental impact

Wood and gar age acc!m!lated eca!"e of a dam

"ain article# &n$ironmental impacts of reser$oirs Re"ervoir" held ehind dam" affect many ecological a"pect" of a river. River" topography and dynamic" depend on a %ide range of flo%" %hil"t river" elo% dam" often eIperience long period" of very "ta le flo% condition" or "a% tooth flo% pattern" ca!"ed y relea"e" follo%ed y no relea"e". Water relea"e" from a re"ervoir incl!ding that eIiting a t!r ine !"!ally contain" very little "!"pended "ediment, and thi" in t!rn can lead to "co!ring of river ed" and lo"" of river ank"@ for eIample, the daily cyclic flo% variation ca!"ed y the #len Canyon Dam %a" a contri !tor to "and ar ero"ion. Elder dam" often lack a fi"h ladder, %hich keep" many fi"h from moving !p "tream to their nat!ral reeding gro!nd", ca!"ing fail!re of reeding cycle" or locking of migration path".)=/*9ven the pre"ence of a fi"h ladder doe" not al%ay" prevent a red!ction in fi"h reaching the"pa%ning gro!nd" !p"tream. 8n "ome area", yo!ng fi"h &?"molt?' are tran"ported do%n"tream y arge d!ring part" of the year. +!r ine and po%er-plant de"ign" that have a lo%er impact !pon a-!atic life are an active area of re"earch. $ large dam can ca!"e the lo"" of entire eco"phere", incl!ding endangered and !ndi"covered "pecie" in the area, and the replacement of the original environment y a ne% inland lake. Large re"ervoir" formed ehind dam" have een indicated in the contri !tion of "ei"mic activity, d!e to change" in %ater load andKor the height of the %ater ta le.

)edit*(uman social impact

+he impact on h!man "ociety i" al"o "ignificant. 7ick C!llather arg!e" in -ungr% +orld# America/s ,old +ar Battle Against Po$ert% in Asiathat dam con"tr!ction re-!ire" the "tate to di"place individ!al people in the name of the common good, and that it often lead" to a !"e" of the ma""e" y planner". He cite" Morar(i De"ai, 8nterior Mini"ter of 8ndia, in 021< "peaking to villager" !p"et a o!t the Bong Dam, %ho threatened to ?relea"e the %ater"? and dro%n the villager" if they did not cooperate.)=3*

For eIample, the +hree #orge" Dam on the Dangt,e River in China i" more than five time" the "i,e of the Hoover Dam &H...', and %ill create a re"ervoir 1<< km long to e !"ed for hydro-po%er generation. 8t" con"tr!ction re-!ired the lo"" of over a million people:" home" and their ma"" relocation, the lo"" of many val!a le archaeological and c!lt!ral "ite", a" %ell a" "ignificant ecological change.)==* 8t i" e"timated that to date, =<-5< million people %orld%ide have een phy"ically di"placed from their home" a" a re"!lt of dam con"tr!ction.)=4*

)edit*Economics
Con"tr!ction of a hydroelectric plant re-!ire" a long lead-time for "ite "t!die", hydrological "t!die", and environmental impact a""e""ment, and are large "cale pro(ect" y compari"on to traditional po%er generation a"ed !pon fo""il f!el". +he n!m er of "ite" that can e economically developed for hydroelectric prod!ction i" limited@ ne% "ite" tend to e far from pop!lation center" and !"!ally re-!ire eIten"ivepo%er tran"mi""ion line". Hydroelectric generation can e v!lnera le to ma(or change" in the climate, incl!ding variation of rainfall, gro!nd and "!rface %ater level", and glacial melt, ca!"ing additional eIpendit!re for the eItra capacity to en"!re "!fficient po%er i" availa le in lo% %ater year". Ence completed, if it i" %ell de"igned and maintained, a hydroelectric po%er "o!rce i" !"!ally comparatively cheap and relia le. 8t ha" no f!el and lo% e"cape ri"k, and a" an alternative energy "o!rce it i" cheaper than oth n!clear and %ind po%er.)citation needed* 8t i" more ea"ily reg!lated to "tore %ater a" needed and generate high po%er level" on demand compared to %ind po%er, altho!gh dam" have life eIpectancie" %hile rene%a le energie" do not.

)edit*Dam

fail!re

"ain article# Dam failure

+he re"ervoir emptying thro!gh the failed+eton Dam.

8nternational "pecial "ign for %ork" and in"tallation" containing dangero!" force"

Dam fail!re" are generally cata"trophic if the "tr!ct!re i" reached or "ignificantly damaged. Ro!tine deformation monitoring and monitoring of "eepage from drain" in and aro!nd larger dam" i" !"ef!l to anticipate any pro lem" and permit remedial action to e taken efore "tr!ct!ral fail!re occ!r". Mo"t dam" incorporate mechani"m" to permit the re"ervoir to e lo%ered or even drained in the event of "!ch pro lem". $nother "ol!tion can e rock gro!ting - pre""!re p!mping portland cement "l!rry into %eak fract!red rock. D!ring an armed conflict, a dam i" to e con"idered a" an ?in"tallation containing dangero!" force"? d!e to the ma""ive impact of a po""i le de"tr!ction on the civilian pop!lation and the environment. $" "!ch, it i" protected y the r!le" of 8nternational H!manitarian La% &8HL' and "hall not e made the o (ect of attack if that may ca!"e "evere lo""e" among the civilian pop!lation. +o facilitate the identification, a protective "ign con"i"ting of three right orange circle" placed on the "ame aIi" i" defined y the r!le" of 8HL. +he main ca!"e" of dam fail!re incl!de inade-!ate "pill%ay capacity, piping thro!gh the em ankment, fo!ndation or a !tment", "pill%ay de"ign error &.o!th Fork Dam', geological in"ta ility ca!"ed y change" to %ater level" d!ring filling or poor "!rveying &Aa(ont Dam,Malpa""et, +e"talinden Creek Dam', poor maintenance, e"pecially of o!tlet pipe" &La%n Lake Dam, Aal di .tava Dam collap"e', eItreme rainfall &.hakidor Dam', and h!man, comp!ter or de"ign error &B!ffalo Creek Flood, Dale Dike Re"ervoir, +a!m .a!k p!mped "torage plant'. $ nota le ca"e of deli erate dam fail!re &prior to the a ove r!ling' %a" the Royal $ir Force :Dam !"ter": raid on #ermany in World War 88&codenamed 01peration ,hastise0', in %hich three #erman dam" %ere "elected to e reached in order to have an impact on #erman infra"tr!ct!re and man!fact!ring and po%er capa ilitie" deriving from the R!hr and 9der river". +hi" raid later ecame the a"i" for "everal film". .ince /<<>, the D!tch 8;kdi(k fo!ndation i" developing, %ith an open innovation model and early %arning "y"tem for leveeKdike fail!re". $" a part of the development effort, f!ll "cale dike" are de"troyed in the 8;kdi(k fieldla . +he de"tr!ction proce"" i" monitored y "en"or net%ork" from an international gro!p of companie" and "cientific in"tit!tion".