ANTET (de regula se scrie numele scolii) 2010

Contents

Contents..................................................................................................................................... 1 Introduction................................................................................................................................ 2 Chapter I..................................................................................................................................... 3 Origins........................................................................................................................................ 3 I.1 Origins (14971583)........................................................................................................... 3 I.1.1 Plantations of Ireland.......................................................................................................4 Chapter II.................................................................................................................................... 5 First and Second British Empire .............................................................................................5 I.1 First British E !ire (15831783).........................................................................................5 I." #e$ond British E !ire (17831815)...................................................................................% II.2.1 War with Napoleonic France........................................................................................6 Chapter III................................................................................................................................... 7 Britain's imperial centur ......................................................................................................... 7 III.1 East India &o !an' in (sia..............................................................................................8 III." )i*alr' +ith ),ssia............................................................................................................ 9 Chapter I!................................................................................................................................... " #orld $ars ................................................................................................................................ " I-. First .orld .ar................................................................................................................... 9 I-." Inter/+ar !eriod..............................................................................................................10 I-.3 #e$ond .orld .ar..........................................................................................................1" Chapter !.................................................................................................................................. 13 End o% empire........................................................................................................................... 13 Conclusion............................................................................................................................... 1& Bi'liograph ............................................................................................................................. 1( )ppendi* ................................................................................................................................. 17 fo,rteen British o*erseas territories.......................................................................................17

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Introduction

British Empire comprised

dominions, colonies, protectorates, mandates, and or

territories ruled or administered by United ingdom, that had originated !ith o"erseas colonies and trading posts established by England in late 1#th and early 1$th centuries% At its height it !as largest empire in history and, &or o"er a century, !as &oremost global po!er% 'uring Age o& 'isco"ery in 1(th and 1#th centuries, )ortugal and *pain pioneered European e+ploration o& globe and in process, established large o"erseas empires% En"ious o& great !ealth se empires besto!ed, England, ,rance and Nerlands began to establish colonies and trade net!or-s o& ir o!n in Americas and Asia% A series o& !ars in 1$th and 1.th centuries !ith Nerlands and ,rance le&t England (Britain, &ollo!ing 1$0$ Act o& Union !ith *cotland) dominant colonial po!er in North America and /ndia% 0o!e"er, loss o& Thirteen 1olonies in North America in 1$.2 a&ter a !ar o& independence !as a blo! to Britain, depri"ing it o& its most populous colonies% 'espite this setbac-, British attention soon turned to!ards A&rica, Asia and )aci&ic% ,ollo!ing de&eat o& Napoleonic ,rance in 1.1(, Britain en3oyed a century o& e&&ecti"ely unchallenged dominance, and e+panded its imperial holdings across reclassi&ied as dominions% gro!th o& 4ermany and United *tates eroded Britain5s economic lead by end o& 16th century% *ubse7uent military and economic tensions bet!een Britain and 4ermany !ere ma3or causes o& ,irst 8orld 8ar, during !hich Britain relied hea"ily upon its Empire% con&lict placed enormous &inancial strain on Britain, and although Empire achie"ed its largest territorial e+tent immediately a&ter !ar, it !as no longer a peerless industrial or military po!er% *econd 8orld 8ar sa! Britain5s colonies in *outh9East Asia occupied by :apan, !hich damaged British prestige and accelerated decline o& Empire, in spite o& British "ictory% 8ithin t!o years o& end o& !ar, Britain granted independence to its most populous and "aluable colony, /ndia% 'uring remainder o& 20th century, most o& territories o& Empire became independent as part o& a larger global decoloni;ation mo"ement by European po!ers, ending !ith return o& 0ong ong to )eople5s <epublic o& 1hina in 166$% A&ter independence, many &ormer British globe% /ncreasing degrees o& autonomy !ere granted to its !hite settler colonies, some o& !hich !ere

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colonies 3oined 1ommon!ealth o& Nations, a &ree association o& independent states% *i+teen 1ommon!ealth nations share ir head o& state, =ueen Eli;abeth //, as 1ommon!ealth realms% ,ourteen territories remain under British so"ereignty, British o"erseas territories%

Chapter I Origins
I.1 Origins (14971583)

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&oundation &or British Empire !as laid !hen England and *cotland !ere separate -ingdoms% /n 1>6# ing 0enry ?// o& England, &ollo!ing successes o& )ortugal and *pain in o"erseas e+ploration, commissioned :ohn 1abot to lead a "oyage to disco"er a route to Asia "ia North Atlantic% 1abot sailed in 1>6$, and though he success&ully made land&all on coast o& Ne!&oundland (mista-enly belie"ing, li-e 1hristopher 1olumbus &i"e years earlier, that he had reached Asia), re !as no attempt to &ound a colony% 1abot led anor "oyage to Americas &ollo!ing year but nothing !as heard &rom his ships again% No &urr attempts to establish English colonies in Americas !ere made until !ell into reign o& Eli;abeth /, during last decades o& 1#th century% )rotestant <e&ormation had made enemies o& England and 1atholic *pain% /n 1(#2, English 1ro!n sanctioned pri"ateers :ohn 0a!-ins and ,rancis 'ra-e to engage in sla"e9raiding attac-s against A&rican to!ns and )ortuguese ships o&& coast o& 8est A&rica !ith aim o& brea-ing into Atlantic trade system% This e&&ort !as rebu&&ed and later, as Anglo9*panish 8ars intensi&ied, Eli;abeth lent her blessing to &urr piratical raids against *panish ports in Americas and shipping that !as returning across Atlantic, laden !ith treasure &rom Ne! 8orld% At same time, in&luential !riters such as <ichard 0a-luyt and :ohn 'ee (!ho !as &irst to use term @British Empire@) !ere beginning to press &or establishment o& England5s o!n empire, to ri"al those o& *pain and )ortugal% By this time, *pain !as &irmly entrenched in Americas, )ortugal had established a string o& trading posts and &orts &rom coasts o& A&rica and Bra;il to 1hina, and ,rance had begun to settle *aint Aa!rence <i"er, later to become Ne! ,rance% I.1.1 Plantations o Ireland

Though a relati"e late comer in comparison to *pain and )ortugal, England had been engaged in colonial settlement in /reland, dra!ing on precedents dating bac- to Norman

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in"asion in 11$1% 1#th century )lantations o& /reland, run by English colonists, !ere a precursor to colonies established on North Atlantic seaboard, and se"eral people in"ol"ed in se pro3ects also had a hand in early coloni;ation o& North America, particularly a group -no!n as @8est 1ountry men@, !hich included 0umphrey 4ilbert, 8alter <aleigh, ,rancis 'ra-e, :ohn 0a!-ins, <ichard 4ren"ille and <alph Aane%

Chapter II !irst and "econd #ritish $%pire

I.1 ,irst British Empire (15831783)

/n 1($., =ueen Eli;abeth / granted a patent to 0umphrey 4ilbert &or disco"ery and o"erseas e+ploration% That year, 4ilbert sailed &or 8est /ndies !ith intention o& engaging in piracy and establishing a colony in North America, but e+pedition !as aborted be&ore it had crossed Atlantic% /n 1(.2 he embar-ed on a second attempt, on this occasion to island o& Ne!&oundland !hose harbor he &ormally claimed &or England, though no settlers !ere le&t behind% 4ilbert did not sur"i"e return 3ourney to England, and !as succeeded by his hal&9bror, 8alter <aleigh, !ho !as granted his o!n patent by Eli;abeth in 1(.>% Aater that year, <aleigh &ounded colony o& <oano-e on coast o& present9day North 1arolina, but lac- o& supplies caused colony to &ail% /n 1#02, ing :ames ?/ o& *cotland ascended to English throne and in 1#0> negotiated Treaty o& Aondon, ending hostilities !ith *pain% No! at peace !ith its main ri"al, English attention shi&ted &rom preying on or nations5 colonial in&rastructure to business o& establishing its o!n o"erseas colonies% British Empire began to ta-e shape during early 1$th century, !ith English settlement o& North America and smaller islands o& 1aribbean, and establishment o& a pri"ate company, English East /ndia 1ompany, to trade !ith Asia% This period, until loss o& Thirteen 1olonies a&ter American 8ar o& /ndependence to!ards end o& 1.th century, has subse7uently been re&erred to as @,irst British Empire@%

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I.& "econd #ritish $%pire (17831815)

*ince 1$1., transportation to American colonies had been a penalty &or "arious criminal o&&ences in Britain, !ith appro+imately one thousand con"icts transported per year across Atlantic% ,orced to &ind an alternati"e location a&ter loss o& Thirteen 1olonies in 1$.2, British go"ernment turned to ne!ly disco"ered lands o& Australia% !estern coast o& Australia had been disco"ered &or Europeans by 'utch e+plorer 8illem :ans; in 1#0# and !as later named by 'utch East /ndia 1ompany Ne! 0olland, but re !as no attempt to colonies it% /n 1$$0 :ames 1oo- disco"ered eastern coast o& Australia !hile on a scienti&ic "oyage to *outh )aci&ic Bcean, claimed continent &or Britain, and named it Ne! *outh 8ales% /n 1$$., :oseph Ban-s, 1oo-5s botanist on "oyage, presented e"idence to go"ernment on suitability o& Botany Bay &or establishment o& a penal settlement, and in 1$.$ &irst shipment o& con"icts set sail, arri"ing in 1$..% Britain continued to transport con"icts to Ne! *outh 8ales until 1.>0, at !hich time colony5s population numbered (#,000, ma3ority o& !hom !ere con"icts, e+9con"icts or ir descendants% Australian colonies became pro&itable e+porters o& !ool and gold% 'uring his "oyage, 1oo- also "isited Ne! Cealand, &irst disco"ered by 'utch e+plorer Abel Tasman in 1#>2, and claimed North and *outh islands &or British cro!n in 1$#6 and 1$$0 respecti"ely% /nitially, interaction bet!een nati"e Daori population and Europeans !as limited to trading o& goods% European settlement increased through early decades o& 16th century, !ith numerous trading stations established, especially in North% /n 1.26, Ne! Cealand 1ompany announced plans to buy large tracts o& land and establish colonies in Ne! Cealand% Bn # ,ebruary 1.>0, 1aptain 8illiam 0obson and around >0 Daori chie&s signed Treaty o& 8aitangi% This treaty is considered by many to be Ne! Cealand5s &ounding document, but di&&ering interpretations o& Daori and English "ersions o& te+t ha"e meant that it continues to be a source o& dispute% II.2.1 War with Napoleonic France

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Britain !as challenged again by ,rance under Napoleon, in a struggle that, unli-e pre"ious !ars, represented a contest o& ideologies bet!een t!o nations% /t !as not only Britain5s position on !orld stage that !as threatenedE Napoleon threatened to in"ade Britain itsel&, 3ust as his armies had o"errun many countries o& continental Europe% Napoleonic 8ars !ere re&ore ones in !hich Britain in"ested large amounts o& capital and resources to !in% ,rench ports !ere bloc-aded by <oyal Na"y, !hich !on a decisi"e "ictory o"er a ,ranco9*panish &leet at Tra&algar in 1.0(% B"erseas colonies !ere attac-ed and occupied, including those o& Nerlands, !hich !as anne+ed by Napoleon in 1.10% ,rance !as &inally de&eated by a coalition o& European armies in 1.1(% Britain !as again bene&iciary o& peace treatiesE ,rance ceded /onian /slands, Dalta (!hich it had occupied in 1$6$ and 1$6. respecti"ely), *eychelles, Dauritius, *t Aucia, and TobagoF *pain ceded TrinidadF Nerlands 4uyana, and 1ape 1olony% Britain returned 4uadeloupe, Dartini7ue, 4oree, ,rench 4uiana, and <Gunion to ,rance, and :a"a, and *uriname to Nerlands%

Chapter III #ritain's i%perial centur(

Bet!een 1.1( and 161>, a period re&erred to as Britain5s @imperial century@ by some historians, around 10,000,000 s7uare miles (2(,.66,..1 -m2) o& territory and roughly >00 million people !ere added to British Empire% ?ictory o"er Napoleon le&t Britain !ithout any serious international ri"al, or than <ussia in central Asia% Unchallenged at sea, Britain adopted role o& global policeman, a state o& a&&airs later -no!n as )a+ Britannica, and a &oreign policy o& @splendid isolation@% Alongside &ormal control it e+erted o"er its o!n colonies, Britain5s dominant position in !orld trade meant that it e&&ecti"ely controlled economies o& many nominally independent countries, such as 1hina, Argentina and *iam, !hich has been characteri;ed by some historians as @in&ormal empire@%

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British imperial strength !as underpinned by steamship and telegraph, ne! technologies in"ented in second hal& o& 16th century, allo!ing it to control and de&end Empire% By 1602, British Empire !as lin-ed toger by a net!or- o& telegraph cables, so9called All <ed Aine% III.1 $ast India Co%pan( in )sia

British policy in Asia during

16th century !as chie&ly

concerned !ith protecting and e+panding /ndia, "ie!ed as its most important colony and -ey to rest o& Asia% East /ndia 1ompany dro"e e+pansion o& British Empire in Asia% 1ompany5s army had &irst 3oined &orces !ith <oyal Na"y during *e"en Hears5 8ar, and t!o continued to cooperate in arenas outside /ndiaE e"iction o& Napoleon &rom Egypt (1$66), capture o& :a"a &rom Nerlands (1.11), ac7uisition o& *ingapore (1.16) and Dalacca (1.2>) and de&eat o& Burma (1.2#)% ,rom its base in /ndia, 1ompany had also been engaged in an increasingly pro&itable opium e+port trade to 1hina since 1$20s% This trade, illegal since it !as outla!ed by =ing dynasty in 1$26, helped re"erse trade imbalances resulting &rom British imports o& tea, !hich sa! large out&lo!s o& sil"er &rom Britain to 1hina% /n 1.26, con&iscation by 1hinese authorities at 1anton o& 20,000 chests o& opium led Britain to attac- 1hina in ,irst Bpium 8ar, and sei;ure by Britain o& island o& 0ong ong, at that time a minor settlement% end o& 1ompany !as precipitated by a mutiny o& sepoys against ir British commanders, due in part to tensions caused by British attempts to 8esternise /ndia% /ndian <ebellion too- si+ months to suppress, !ith hea"y loss o& li&e on both sides% A&ter!ards British go"ernment assumed direct control o"er /ndia, ushering in period -no!n as British <a3, !here an appointed go"ernor9general administered /ndia and =ueen ?ictoria !as cro!ned Empress o& /ndia% East /ndia 1ompany !as dissol"ed &ollo!ing year, in 1.(.% /ndia su&&ered a series o& serious crop &ailures in late 16th century, leading to !idespread &amines in !hich at least 10 million people died%

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III.& *i+alr( ,ith *ussia

'uring 16th century, Britain and <ussia "ied to &ill po!er "acuums that had been le&t by declining Bttoman, )ersian and =ing 1hinese empires% This ri"alry in Eurasia came to be -no!n as @4reat 4ame@% As &ar as Britain !as concerned, de&eats in&licted by <ussia on )ersia and Tur-ey in <usso9)ersian 8ar (1.2#91.2.) and <usso9Tur-ish 8ar (1.2.I1.26) demonstrated its imperial ambitions and capabilities, and sto-ed &ears in Britain o& an o"erland in"asion o& /ndia% /n 1.26, Britain mo"ed to pre9empt this by in"ading A&ghanistan, but ,irst Anglo9A&ghan 8ar !as a disaster &or Britain% 8hen <ussia in"aded Tur-ish Bal-ans in 1.(2, &ears o& <ussian dominance in Dediterranean and Diddle East led Britain and ,rance to in"ade 1rimean )eninsula in order to destroy <ussian na"al capabilities% ensuing 1rimean 8ar (1.(>I(#), !hich in"ol"ed ne! techni7ues o& modern !ar&are, and !as only global !ar &ought bet!een Britain and anor imperial po!er during )a+ Britannica, !as a resounding de&eat &or <ussia% situation remained unresol"ed in 1entral Asia &or t!o more decades, !ith Britain anne+ing Baluchistan in 1.$# and <ussia irghi;ia, a;a-hstan and Tur-menistan% ,or a !hile it appeared that anor !ar !ould be ine"itable, but t!o countries reached an agreement on ir respecti"e spheres o& in&luence in region in 1.$., and on all outstanding matters in 160$ !ith signing o& Anglo9<ussian Entente% destruction o& <ussian Na"y at Battle o& )ort Arthur during <usso9:apanese 8ar o& 160>I0( also limited its threat to British%

Chapter I.orld ,ars

I-. !irst .orld .ar

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Britain5s &ears o& !ar !ith 4ermany !ere reali;ed in 161> !ith outbrea- o& ,irst 8orld 8ar% British declaration o& !ar on 4ermany and its allies also committed colonies and 'ominions, !hich pro"ided in"aluable military, &inancial and material support% B"er 2%( million men ser"ed in armies o& 'ominions, as !ell as many thousands o& "olunteers &rom 1ro!n colonies% Dost o& 4ermany5s o"erseas colonies in A&rica !ere 7uic-ly in"aded and occupied, and in )aci&ic, Australia and Ne! Cealand occupied 4erman Ne! 4uinea and *amoa respecti"ely% contributions o& Australian and Ne! Cealand troops during 161( 4allipoli 1ampaign against Bttoman Empire had a great impact on national consciousness at home, and mar-ed a !atershed in transition o& Australia and Ne! Cealand &rom colonies to nations in ir o!n right% countries continue to commemorate this occasion on ANCA1 'ay% 1anadians "ie!ed Battle o& ?imy <idge in a similar light% important contribution o& 'ominions to !ar e&&ort !as recogni;ed in 161$ by British )rime Dinister 'a"id Aloyd 4eorge !hen he in"ited each o& 'ominion )rime Dinisters to 3oin an /mperial 8ar 1abinet to coordinate imperial policy% Under terms o& concluding Treaty o& ?ersailles signed in 1616, Empire reached its greatest e+tent !ith addition o& 1,.00,000 s7uare miles (>,##2,000 -m2) and 12 million ne! sub3ects% colonies o& 4ermany and Bttoman Empire !ere distributed to Allied po!ers as Aeague o& Nations Dandates% Britain gained control o& )alestine, Trans3ordan, /ra7, parts o& 1ameroon and Togo, and Tanganyi-a% 'ominions msel"es also ac7uired mandates o& ir o!nE *outh98est A&rica (modern9day Namibia) !as gi"en to Union o& *outh A&rica, Australia gained 4erman Ne! 4uinea, and Ne! Cealand 8estern *amoa% Nauru !as made a combined mandate o& Britain and t!o )aci&ic 'ominions% I-.& Inter/,ar period

changing !orld order that !ar had brought about, in particular gro!th o& United *tates and :apan as na"al po!ers, and rise o& independence mo"ements in /ndia and /reland, caused a ma3or reassessment o& British imperial policy% ,orced to choose bet!een alignment !ith United

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*tates or :apan, Britain opted not to :apanese alliance and instead signed 8ashington Na"al Treaty, !here accepted na"al parity !ith This decision !as United source o& much rene! 1622 Britain *tates% debate 4ermany &or it !as in its

Britain during 1620s as militaristic go"ernments too- hold in :apan and helped in part by 4reat 'epression,

&eared that Empire could not sur"i"e a simultaneous attac- by both nations% Although issue o& Empire5s security !as a serious concern in Britain, at same time Empire !as "ital to British economyE during inter9!ar period, e+ports to colonies and 'ominions increased &rom 22 to 26 percent o& all e+ports o"erseas, and imports increased &rom 2> to 2$ percent% /n 1616, &rustrations caused by delays to /rish home rule led members o& *inn ,Gin, a pro9independence party that had !on a ma3ority o& /rish seats at 8estminster in 161. British general election, to establish an /rish assembly in 'ublin, at !hich /rish independence !as declared% /rish <epublican Army simultaneously began a guerrilla !ar against British administration% Anglo9/rish 8ar ended in 1621 !ith a stalemate and signing o& Anglo9/rish Treaty, creating /rish ,ree *tate, a 'ominion !ithin British Empire, !ith e&&ecti"e internal independence but still constitutionally lin-ed !ith British 1ro!n% Norrn /reland, consisting o& si+ o& 22 /rish counties !hich had been established as a de"ol"ed region under 1620 4o"ernment o& /reland Act, immediately e+ercised its option under treaty to retain its e+isting status !ithin United ingdom% A similar struggle began in /ndia !hen 4o"ernment o& /ndia Act 1616 &ailed to satis&y demand &or independence% 1oncerns o"er communist and &oreign plots &ollo!ing 4hadar 1onspiracy ensured that !ar9time strictures !ere rene!ed by <o!latt Acts, creating tension, particularly in )un3ab, !here repressi"e measures culminated in Amritsar Dassacre% /n Britain public opinion !as di"ided o"er morality o& e"ent, bet!een those !ho sa! it as ha"ing sa"ed /ndia &rom anarchy, and those !ho "ie!ed it !ith re"ulsion% continued to simmer &or ne+t 2( years% subse7uent non9cooperation mo"ement !as called o&& in Darch 1622 &ollo!ing 1hauri 1haura incident, and discontent

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/n 1622, Egypt, !hich had been declared a British protectorate at outbrea- o& ,irst 8orld 8ar, !as granted &ormal independence, though it continued to be a British client state until 16(>% British troops remained stationed in Egypt until signing o& Anglo9Egyptian Treaty in 162#, under !hich it !as agreed that troops !ould !ithdra! but continue to occupy and de&end *ue; 1anal ;one% /n return, Egypt !as assisted to 3oin Aeague o& Nations% /ra7, a British mandate since 1616, also gained membership o& independence &rom Britain in 1622% ability o& recogni;ed at 'ominions to set ir o!n &oreign policy, independent o& Britain, !as 1622 /mperial 1on&erence% Britain5s re7uest &or military assistance &rom Aeague in its o!n right a&ter achie"ing

'ominions at outbrea- o& 1hana- crisis pre"ious year had been turned do!n by 1anada and *outh A&rica, and 1anada had re&used to be bound by 1622 Treaty o& Aausanne% A&ter pressure &rom /reland and *outh A&rica, 162# /mperial 1on&erence issued Bal&our 'eclaration, declaring 'ominions to be @autonomous 1ommunities !ithin British Empire, e7ual in status, in no !ay subordinate one to anor@ !ithin a @British 1ommon!ealth o& Nations@% This declaration !as gi"en legal substance under 1621 *tatute o& 8estminster% Ne! Cealand, Union o& *outh A&rica, parliaments o& 1anada, Australia, /rish ,ree *tate and Ne!&oundland !ere no!

independent o& British legislati"e control, y could nulli&y British la!s and Britain could no longer pass la!s &or m !ithout ir consent%

I-.3 "econd .orld .ar

Britain5s declaration o& !ar against Na;i 4ermany in *eptember 1626 included 1ro!n colonies and /ndia but did not automatically commit 'ominions% 1anada, *outh A&rica, Australia and Ne! Cealand all soon declared !ar on 4ermany, but /rish ,ree *tate chose to remain legally neutral throughout !ar% A&ter 4erman occupation o& ,rance in 16>0, Britain and Empire !ere le&t standing alone against 4ermany, until entry o& *o"iet Union to !ar in 16>1% British )rime Dinister 8inston 1hurchill success&ully lobbied )resident ,ran-lin '% <oose"elt

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&or military aid &rom United *tates, but <oose"elt !as not yet ready to as- 1ongress to commit country to !ar% /n August 16>1, 1hurchill and <oose"elt met and signed Atlantic 1harter, !hich included statement that @ rights o& all peoples to choose &orm o& go"ernment under !hich y li"e@ should be respected% /n 'ecember 16>1, :apan launched in 7uic- succession attac-s on British Dalaya, United *tates na"al base at )earl 0arbor, and 0ong ong% :apan had steadily been gro!ing as an imperial po!er in ,ar East since its de&eat o& 1hina in ,irst *ino9:apanese 8ar in 1.6(, en"isioning a 4reater East Asia 1o9)rosperity *phere under its leadership% :apanese attac-s on British and American possessions in )aci&ic had an immediate and long9lasting impact on British Empire% 1hurchill5s reaction to entry o& United *tates into !ar !as that Britain !as no! assured o& "ictory and &uture o& Empire !as sa&e, but manner in !hich British rapidly surrendered in some o& its colonies irre"ersibly altered Britain5s standing and prestige as an imperial po!er% Dost damaging o& all !as &all o& *ingapore, !hich had pre"iously been hailed as an impregnable &ortress and eastern e7ui"alent o& 4ibraltar% reali;ation that Britain could not de&end entire Empire pushed Australia and Ne! Cealand, !hich no! appeared threatened by :apanese &orces, into closer ties !ith United *tates, !hich a&ter !ar e"entually resulted in 16(1 ANCU* )act bet!een Australia, Ne! Cealand and United *tates o& America%

Chapter $nd o e%pire

granting o& independence to <hodesia (as Cimbab!e) and Ne! 0ebrides (as ?anuatu) in 16.0, and Beli;e in 16.1 meant that, aside &rom a scattering o& islands and outposts (and ac7uisition in 16(( o& an uninhabited roc- in Atlantic Bcean, <oc-all), process o& decoloni;ation that had begun a&ter *econd 8orld 8ar !as largely complete% /n 16.2, Britain5s resol"e to de&end its remaining o"erseas territories !as tested !hen Argentina in"aded ,al-land /slands, acting on a long9standing claim that dated bac- to *panish Empire% Britain5s ultimately success&ul military response to reta-e islands during ensuing

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,al-lands 8ar !as "ie!ed by many to ha"e contributed to re"ersing do!n!ard trend in U 5s status as a !orld po!er% same year, 1anadian go"ernment se"ered its last legal lin- !ith Britain by patriating 1anadian constitution &rom Britain% 16.2 1anada Act passed by British parliament ended need &or British in"ol"ement in changes to 1anadian constitution% E7ui"alent acts !ere passed &or Australia and Ne! Cealand in 16.#% /n *eptember 16.2, )rime Dinister Dargaret Thatcher tra"elled to Bei3ing to negotiate !ith 1hinese go"ernment on &uture o& Britain5s last ma3or and most populous o"erseas territory, 0ong ong% Under terms o& 1.>2 Treaty o& Nan-ing, 0ong ong /sland itsel& had been ceded to Britain @in perpetuity@, but "ast ma3ority o& colony !as constituted by Ne! Territories, !hich had been ac7uired under a 66 year lease in 1.6., due to e+pire in 166$% Thatcher, seeing parallels !ith ,al-land /slands, initially !ished to hold 0ong in 16.>Junder terms o& *ino9British :oint 'eclaration, 0ong ong and proposed British ong !ould become a *pecial administration !ith 1hinese so"ereignty, though this !as re3ected by 1hina% A deal !as reached Administrati"e <egion o& )eople5s <epublic o& 1hina, maintaining its !ay o& li&e &or at least (0 years% hando"er ceremony in 166$ mar-ed &or many, including 1harles, )rince o& 8ales !ho !as in attendance, @ end o& Empire@%

Conclusion
U retains so"ereignty o"er 1> territories outside British /sles, !hich !ere renamed

British o"erseas territories in 2002% *ome are uninhabited e+cept &or transient military or scienti&ic personnelF remainders are sel&9go"erning to "arying degrees and are reliant on U &or &oreign relations and de&ense% British go"ernment has stated its !illingness to assist any B"erseas Territory that !ishes to proceed to independence, !here that is an option% British so"ereignty o& se"eral o& o"erseas territories is disputed by ir geographical neighborsE 4ibraltar is claimed by *pain, ,al-land /slands and *outh 4eorgia and *outh *and!ich /slands are claimed by Argentina, and British /ndian Bcean Territory is claimed by Dauritius and

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ANTET (de regula se scrie numele scolii) 2010

*eychelles% British Antarctic Territory is sub3ect to o"erlapping claims by Argentina and 1hile, !hile many nations do not recogni;e any territorial claims to Antarctica% Dost &ormer British colonies are members o& 1ommon!ealth o& Nations, a non9political, "oluntary association o& e7ual members, in !hich U has no pri"ileged status% ,i&teen members o& 1ommon!ealth continue to share ir head o& state !ith U , as 1ommon!ealth realms% 'ecades, and in some cases centuries, o& British rule and emigration ha"e le&t ir mar- on independent nations that arose &rom British Empire% English language is primary language o& o"er 200 million people and secondary language o& o"er >00 million, helped in part by cultural in&luence o& United *tates, itsel& a product o& British Empire% English parliamentary system ser"ed as template &or go"ernments &or many &ormer colonies, and English common la! &or legal systems% British :udicial 1ommittee o& )ri"y 1ouncil, one o& U 5s highest courts o& appeal, still ser"es as highest court o& appeal &or se"eral &ormer colonies in 1aribbean and )aci&ic% British )rotestant missionaries !ho &anned out across globe o&ten in ad"ance o& soldiers and ci"il ser"ants spread Anglican 1ommunion to all continents% British colonial architecture, such as in churches, rail!ay stations and go"ernment buildings, continues to stand in many cities that !ere once part o& British Empire% Ball games that !ere de"eloped in ?ictorian BritainJ &ootball, cric-et, rugby, la!n tennis and gol&J!ere e+ported, as !ere British choice o& system o& measurement, imperial system, and British con"ention o& dri"ing on le&t hand side o& road% )olitical boundaries dra!n by British did not al!ays re&lect homogeneous ethnicities or religions, contributing to con&licts in ashmir, )alestine, *udan, Nigeria and *ri Aan-a% British Empire !as also responsible &or large migrations o& peoples% Dillions le&t British /sles, !ith &ounding settler populations o& United *tates, 1anada, Australia and Ne! Cealand coming mainly &rom Britain and /reland% Tensions remain bet!een !hite settler populations o& se countries and ir indigenous minorities, and bet!een settler minorities and indigenous ma3orities in *outh A&rica and Cimbab!e% British settlement o& /reland has le&t its mar- in &orm o& di"ided 1atholic and )rotestant communities in Norrn /reland% Dillions o& people mo"ed to and &rom British colonies, !ith large numbers o& /ndians immigrating to or parts o& Empire% 1hinese emigration, primarily &rom *ourn 1hina, led to creation o& 1hinese9ma3ority *ingapore and small 1hinese minorities in 1aribbean% ma-eup o& Britain itsel& !as changed a&ter *econd 8orld 8ar !ith immigration to United independence% ingdom &rom colonies to !hich it !as granting

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ANTET (de regula se scrie numele scolii) 2010

#i0liograph(

Bur-e,

athleen (200.)% Bld 8orld, Ne! 8orldE 4reat Britain and America &rom

Beginning% Atlantic Donthly )ress 1anny, Nicholas (166.)% Brigins o& Empire, B+&ord 0istory o& British Empire ?olume /% B+&ord Uni"ersity )ress% )arsons, Timothy 0 (1666)% British /mperial 1entury, 1.1(9161>E A 8orld 0istory )erspecti"e% <o!man K Aittle&ield% 0yam, <onald (2002)% Britain5s /mperial 1entury, 1.1(9161>E A *tudy o& Empire and E+pansion

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:ames, Aa!rence (2001)% <ise and ,all o& British Empire% Abacus%

)ppendi1
ourteen #ritish o+erseas territories

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