Basic Physics of CT: Axial, Helical and MultiDetector

Michael McNitt-Gray, PhD, DABR Professor Department of Radiology David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA mmcnittgray@mednet.ucla.edu

What Will We Cover?

Review of basic CT physics For axial, helical and Multi-Detector CT scanners (MDCT)

Descriptions of CT
"CT marries modern computer technology with traditional methods of measuring transmission of xrays to provide a radically new form of imaging. Measurements are made from many directions within a plane through the body. From these measurements a cross-sectional image of the body is then reconstructed mathematically" LM Zatz in chapter 109 "Basic principles of computed tomography" in Radiology of the brain and skull: Technical aspects of computed tomography, Newton and Potts, eds., Mosby Publishing, St. Louis, 1981.

Summary
Narrow Beam X-ray Source Multiple rays at a given Angle to form a projection Multiple Projections (each from different Angle) Measure transmission/attenuation with Detectors Computer Reconstruction of data from Projections Create a cross-sectional image of anatomy where CT #s represent linear attenuation coefficients

1st 2nd

5th 4th

3rd

X-Ray Tube
X-ray production just as in radiography: Boil electrons off cathode, aim at anode; produce bremsstrahlung and characteristics X-rays. Tube Continuously On - So Tube needs Heat Capacity and significant cooling system Rotate Tube around patient to create views. Power to the tube is an issue (how to power a rotating tube?).

Filtration/ Collimation
Filter X-rays to make beam harder (higher eff. energy) Bow Tie filter to flatten field (equalize exposure reaching detectors due to expected difference in thickness of attenuation path) Collimate in z direction to create slice thickness (using pre-patient or pre- and post-patient collimation)

Detector

X-Ray Beam

Z direction Pre-Patient Collimator

X-Ray Tube 8

Detectors

X-Ray Beam

Patient Cross-Section

Bow-Tie or Equalizing Filter

X-Ray Tube

Detectors
Solid State/Photodetector - Detector material is typically a doped ceramic based material. Detector scintillates and resulting light is collected by silicon based photodetectors to produce voltage. Each produces a voltage which is converted to digital value through analog to digital converter (ADC)

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To DAS X-ray Scintillator Photodiode Detector Integrator

A/D Converter Digital Value to Reconstruction

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Basic Measurement: X-Ray Attenuation

For a monoenergetic beam in homogeneous tissue: I=I0e- _ L Where: I = intensity of beam after passing through tissue I0 = initial intensity of beam _ = linear attenuation coefficient of tissue L = length of path in tissue Thus: ln(I0/I) = _ L

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Basic Measurement: X-Ray Attenuation

For slab of homogeneous tissue: ln(I0/I) = _ L I0 _ L I

For blocks of tissue: ln(I0/I) = _ 1w + _ 2w + _ 3w ++ _ nw (1/w) ln(I0/I) = _ 1 + _ 2 + _ 3 ++ _ n I0 _1

w

_2

_3

_n

I
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Basic Measurement: X-Ray Attenuation

3 1 3 6 3 Sum = 9 2 Sum = 9 Need a large number of independent measurements to uniquely determine each _. Also, linear attenuation coefficient is a function of energy, even in monoenergetic (ideal) setting

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How to Find _s
Large Number of Projections; from Different Angles P(t) is the projection value occurring at view angle at position t. Take Projection values and Filter, then Backproject (called Filtered Backprojection)

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P_ (t1)
1

t1
_1

P_(t) = ray path _(x,y)

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y X-ra

P_ (t)
1

P_ (t1)
1

P_ (t)
2

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Simple Backprojection

Filtered Backprojection Convolve with a filter that: weights the center and underweights the periphery

Effect of Reconstruction Filter

The exact shape of the mathematical reconstruction filter can affect: in plane spatial resolution noise

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Water Phantom Std Algorithm 40 mAs .625 mm

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Water Phantom Bone Algorithm 40 mAs .625 mm

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Water Phantom Bone Algorithm 80 mAs .625 mm

Standard

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Water Phantom Bone Algorithm 200 mAs .625 mm

Standard

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STANDARD ALGORITHM

Bone ALGORITHM

STANDARD ALGORITHM

LUNG ALGORITHM

Spatial Frequency

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Spatial Frequency

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Image Formation
Once _s are calculated, normalize to water.

tissue water )* 1000 CT number = ( water

Units are Hounsfield Units (HU) Water (_ = _ water ) ---> 0 HU Air (_ ~ 0 ) ---> -1000 HU Bone (_ ~ 2* _ water ) ---> +1000 HU

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Image Formation
Voxel (volume element) - for each image slice, there is an x, y and z dimension. These are coming close to isotropic (the same in each dimension). A typical voxel would be created from a 35 cm FOV, 512 x 512 matrix and 0.6 -10.0 mm thick slice.

.68 mm

.68 mm

.6 mm .68 mm

.68 mm

10 mm

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Single and Multi-Slice Spiral CT

From:Principles of Spiral CT, M. Vannier, G. Wang, in Spiral CT of the Chest,M.Remy-Jardin, J. Remy,Eds.Springer Verlag

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Single Detector Spiral

Spiral CT Decouples Image Acquisition and Image Reconstruction. Still tightly linked, but not the same thing (as they were in axial imaging). 1. 2. 3. Acquire a volume of data Interpolate to Synthesize Projections Filter Back Projection to Reconstruct axial images

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Data Acquisition
Pitch = Table Movement per Rotation Beam Collimation Contiguous Spiral Pitch = 1 (10 mm / 10 mm) Extended (Non-Contiguous) Spiral Pitch = 2 (20 mm/ 10 mm) Overlapping Spiral Pitch = 1/2 ( 5 mm / 10 mm)

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Pitch=1; Contiguous Spiral

Width of Spiral Path (From Collimation) Center of Spiral Path

Direction of Continuous Patient Transport z, mm t, sec 0

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Pitch=2; Extended Spiral

Width of Spiral Path (From Collimation) Center of Spiral Path

Direction of Continuous Patient Transport z, mm t, sec 0

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Path of Continuously Rotating X-ray Tube (and Projection Data)

Selected Image Plane (Arbitrary)

Direction of Continuous Patient Transport z, mm t, sec 0

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Path of Continuously Rotating X-ray Tube (and Projection Data)

Selected Image Plane (Arbitrary)

Pitch = 1

Direction of Continuous Patient Transport z, mm t, sec 0

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Path of Continuously Rotating X-ray Tube (and Projection Data)

Selected Image Plane (Arbitrary)

Pitch = 2

Direction of Continuous Patient Transport z, mm t, sec 0

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Image Formation
Because a VOLUME of Data is Acquired and Interpolation is used, then Images can be formed ANYWHERE >> Slice Location is Arbitrary Therefore, Overlapping Images can be created (e.g. 10 mm thick, 5 mm apart).

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Contiguous Reconstruction
Object(lesion)
Width of Image Center of Image

Each image Volume Averaged

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Overlapping Reconstruction Additional Images

Better Z-sampling No Additional Radiation

Better Alignment
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MultiDetector Scanners
These scanners typically now have: 16 detectors Submillimeter resolution in z direction
Which results in actual or nearly isotropic voxels

Fast scan times

Sensation 64 down to 0.33 seconds/full 360 rotation Partial scan times of ~ 0.20 seconds

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Siemens Sensation 16 Asymmetric Detector

} } } }
(Longitudinal or Z direction)

4 x 1.5 mm

8 x .75 mm 8 x .75 mm

4 x 1.5 mm

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Siemens Sensation 16 Asymmetric Detector

16 x .75mm 1.5mm

} } } }

4 x 1.5 mm

8 x .75 mm 8 x .75 mm

4 x 1.5 mm

(Longitudinal or Z direction)
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Siemens Sensation 64
}
4 x 1.2 mm 16 x .6 mm 16 x .6 mm 4 x 1.2 mm

}
32 x 0.6mm (inner) 24 x 1.2mm (outer)

}
}

(Longitudinal or Z direction)
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Siemens Sensation 64 How do you get 64 slices from this?

Flying Focal Spot Double Z sampling

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What Does This Mean?

Get closer to Isotropic Voxels .6 x .6 x .6 mm With (Nearly) Isotropic Voxels, Scan in Axial Plane Reconstruct and View Images in Any Plane: Coronal, Sagittal, Arbirtary 3-D Visualizations

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1.5mm slice thickness Axial images

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Large, 10mm slices

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MPR sag & coron, 1.5mm

Coronal

Saggital
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MPR sag & coron, 10mm

Coronal

Saggital
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Coronal Views

Reconstructed from 2mm Thick slices

Reconstructed from 0.6 mm Thick slices

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Radiation Dose
Typical Head CT scan Radiation dose is approximately 40 mGy (4 rad) Head does not contain many radiation sensitive organs Brain is not among top radiosensitive organs Is listed with remainder organs which have a weight of .025 of total effective dose Lens of the eye? Concern there is not carcinogenesis, but of cataracts. However, this is a deterministic effect Requires at least 2000 mGy directly to the eye in a single exposure; more (perhaps much more?) if given over multiple exposures (some repair occurs)
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Future of CT
Volumetric coverage (entire organ) Perfusion applications

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Summary
Basic Physics of CT X-ray based Move X-ray Source and Make lots of measurements Mathematically Reconstruct Images Image Data element (voxel) has Hounsfield Unit value (HU) Extended to Helical and MDCT Scanners Faster Rotation Times (down to 0.33 s) Greater Coverage per unit time More Detectors, Thinner Slices, Isotropic Resolution Scan in one plane reconstruct in any plane

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