HANDBOOK FOR PROTECTION ENGINEERS

Authored by M.V.S. BIRINCHI, BE., FIE E".D#re$tor %Te$h&#$'() C.VENKATESHWAR !, M.E, PGDIEM Su*er#&te&d#&+ E&+#&eer,Prote$t#o&

APTRANSCO

APGENCO

HANDBOOK FOR PROTECTION ENGINEERS

ACKNOW EDGEMENTS The Hand Book covers the Code of Practice in Protection Circuitry including standard lead and device num ers! mode of connections at terminal stri"s! colour codes in multicore ca les! #os and #onts in e$ecution% &lso "rinci"les of various "rotective relays and schemes including s"ecial "rotection schemes like differential! restricted! directional and distance relays are e$"lained 'ith sketches% The norms of "rotection of generators! transformers! lines ( Ca"acitor Banks are also given% The "rocedures of testing s'itchgear! instrument transformers and relays are e$"lained in detail% The close and tri"! indication and alarm circuits for variety of Circuit reakers indicating ferrule num ers are also included% &ll relevant information and circuit diagrams necessary fro trou le shooting are also given% )e have more than 2* years e$"erience! each in "rotective relaying and included a lot of information y 'ay of original contri ution a"art from collection of useful information from a large num er of reference ooks!
*

manuals of manufacturers! etc% and it is ho"ed that this Hand Book 'ill serve as a useful guide for all "racticing +ngineers% )e thank ,ri -%.o"al /ao! Chief +ngineer and ,ri 0%-%,astry! ,u"erintending +ngineer! &PT/&1,C2 for their valua le advise in "re"aration of this ook% )e also thank ,arvasri 3% #akshina -urthy ( .% ,eshagiri /ao! #ivisional +ngineers! -%3agan -ohan /ao! &ssistant #ivisional +ngineer ( -rs%,hil"a! &ssistant +ngineer of &PT/&1,C2! ,ri 4%/%/ao and ,ri #iganta of P.C50 for "atiently going through the Hand Book and for their valua le suggestions in ringing out this Book% 2ur s"ecial thanks to ,ri -% ,reenivasa /eddy! 3%P%2 'ho has "rovided com"uter aided assistance in ringing out this Hand Book%

M.V.S. BIRINCHI

C. VENKATESWAR !

INDE1% Code of Practice 1%1 1%2 1%3 1%4 1%* 1%6 1%9 1%: 2% 3% 4% *% ,tandard num er for devices Ty"es of Panels Protective /elay 7 Connection ( 8ones of Protection 1orms of Protection for .enerator! Transformers ( 0ines Current Transformers 4oltage Transformers +nergy -eters ,ynchronising Panel

.enerator and their Protection Transformers and their Protection #istance /elays in &%P%,ystem! relay indications ( their -eanings Bus ars 7 &rrangements ( Protection
9

6% 9% :% =% 1>% 11%

H4#C Transmission /ail'ay Traction 2;0 ( +;< relays Circuit Breakers ,tation Battery +arthing Practices

1>

PROTECTION
OB.ECTIVE ? To @uickly isolate a faulty section from oth ends so that the rest of the ,ystem can function satisfactorily%

THE F!NCTIONA RE/!IREMENTS OF THE RE A01 iA /elia ility ? The most im"ortant re@uisite of "rotective relay is relia ility since they su"ervise the circuit for a long time efore a fault occursB if a fault then occurs! the relays must res"ond instantly and correctly% ,electivity ? The relay must e a le to discriminateCselectA et'een those conditions for 'hich "rom"t o"eration is re@uired and those for 'hich no o"eration! or time delayed o"eration is re@uired% ? The relaying e@ui"ment must e sufficiently sensitive so that it o"erates relia ly 'hen re@uired under the actual conditions that "roduces least o"erating tendency% ? The relay must o"erate at the re@uired s"eed% 5t should neither e too slo' 'hich may result in damage to the e@ui"ment nor should it e too fast 'hich may result in undesired o"eration% 11

iiA

iiiA

,ensitivity

ivA

,"eed

HEA TH0 TRIP CIRC!T

High Resistance

Push Button Lamp

+ Ve Relay Contact Battery

Trip Coil

- Ve

12

IMPORTANT E EMENTS ? S2#t$h +e'r? Circuit reaker Bulk oil! -inimum oil! ,<6! &ir last! 4acuum etc% de"ending on medium used for @uenching the arc% #ifferent o"erating mechanisms such as solenoid! s"ring! "neumatic! hydraulic etc% are em"loyed% /elays Ccurrent! voltage! im"edance! "o'er! fre@uency! etc% ased on o"erating "arameter! definite time! inverse time! ste""ed etc% as "er o"erating characteristic! logic 'ise such as differential! over flu$ing etc% & ,tation attery containing a num er of cells accumulate energy during the "eriod of availa ility of &%C su""ly and discharge at the time 'hen relays o"erate so that relevant circuit reaker is tri""ed%

Prote$t#3e +e'r1

St't#o& B'ttery1

13

14

C2#+ 2< P/&CT5C+

1*

CODE OF PRACTICE 1 PROTECTION 1%>> 1%>1 1%>2 1%>3 1%>4 1%>* 1%>6 1%>9 1%>: 1%>= 1%1> 1%11 1%12 16 Circuitry The entire 'iring of circuitry for indications! alarms! metering and "rotection should e "ermanent 'iring There is no "lace for tem"orary 'iring or adhocism in /elay circuitry The leads should e identified y ferrules near terminals% +very lead should end at a terminal "oint and no Dunctions y t'isting is allo'ed% 5f t'o 'ires are to e terminated at same terminal they may e connected at t'o different terminals and a loo" "rovided% The 'iring should e y co""er leads for C%T secondaries for all cores Ci%e%A metering as 'ell as "rotection% The 'iring should e y co""er leads for PT secondaries also 'herever they are intended for "rotection% The co""er lead for 1%>* ( 1%>6 a ove should e stranded ut not single lead ty"e% &luminum leads can e used for indication! alarms and PT secondaries for metering ut stranded 'ires only are to e used% Ho'ever 'here PTs are em"loyed for commercial metering! stranded co""er 'ires are to e used% The terminations should e lugged y ring sha"e 2 lugs% E sha"e lugs should e avoided% <or CT ,econdary terminations! t'o nuts 'ith one s"ring 'asher and t'o flat 'ashers to e com"ulsorily used% The terminal stri"s should e stud ty"e 'ith nuts and not scre'FinFty"e% )herever t'o atteries are availa le! the "rimary "rotection and ackFu" "rotection should e from different atteries%

1%13

)here there is only one attery at a Po'er ,u station! the "rimary and ackFu" "rotections should e given #%C su""ly through t'o individual circuits 'ith inde"endent fuses run from #%C us% 1%13& )hen CBs have t'o tri" coils! oth main "rotection and acku" "rotection 'ill energise oth the tri" coils% 1%14 #%C and &%C su""lies should not e taken through different cores of the same ca le% 1%1* 5nde"endent #%C ca les should e run to every e@ui"ment in the yard and loo"ing of #%C su""ly either in the yard or in the control room from one e@ui"ment to the other is not "ermitted% 1%16 The #%C yard lighting for emergency lighting should e through inde"endent ca les and not mi$ed u" 'ith "rotection and other circuitry% 1%19 <or indications! alarms! annunciations! controls Cclosing coil! tri" coil! etc% negative CFveA is al'ays given direct and "ositive CGveA is su""lied only on commands like close! tri"! relay tri"! etc% 1%1: )here #%C "rotection su""ly is at 24 volts or 32 volts! the attery units should e very near the e@ui"ment and not in the control rooms% 1%1= 5n cases of 1%1: a ove! each tri""ing units C24 volts or 32 volts attery 'ith chargerA should not e used for more than t'o circuit reakers or e@ui"ment% 1%2> ,tandard colour codes for leads in control ca le of different siHes should e as denoted on the cover "age% 1%21 The lead num ers are also standardised as follo's so that any -/T +ngineer can easily identify the "ur"ose for 'hich the lead is connected y noting the lead num er% 3 ,eries #%C 5ncoming 31! 32! etc% 19

I ,eries 0 ,eries + ,eries H ,eries & ,eries B ,eries C ,eries # ,eries 1%22 1%23 1%24 1%2* 1%26 1%29 1%2:

Control F Closing! Tri""ing! etc% &larms! indications and annunciations Potential transformer secondaries 0T &%C ,u""ly C%T secondary for s"ecial "rotection Bus ar "rotection Protection Circuits -etering Circuits

I1! I2! I3 etc% 01! 02! 03! etc% +1! +2! +3! etc% H1! H2! H3! etc% &1! &2! &3! etc% B1! B2! B3! etc% C1! C2! C3! etc% #1! #2! #3! etc%

CTs 'ith 1 am" secondary rating should e used com"ulsorily 'here meters! "rotective devices etc% are remotely situated 'ith reference to e@ui"ment% The CT ratios availa le and ado"ted 'ith num er of cores shall e dis"layed on each "anel as follo's? C'ith underlined "osition as ado"tedA 4>> F 2>> F 1>> ; 1F1F1 )herever CT cores are not used J,H2/T51. 022P,K should e "rovided near CT secondary terminals and not in marshaling o$es or at "anels The Ca le entries near e@ui"ment! marshaling o$es and "anels should e y use of a""ro"riate siHe glands% The )iring inside the "anels should e clear and neatly fastened avoiding loose 'ires% &ll 'ires not in use should not only e disconnected ut removed from "anels% PT secondaries should have grou" -2CBs 'ith #%C alarm% <uses at different "anels should not e used%

1:

1%2=

<e' cells from a attery of cells should not e used for se"arate lo' voltage #%C circuits% #%C F #%C converters only should e em"loyed utilising full #%C voltage of the entire attery as in"ut% STANDARD EAD N!MBERS Certain lead num ers are standardised as follo's and should e com"ulsorily ado"ted 'ith ferrules at terminations of leads% 31 F Positive 32 F 1egative Controls ( &larms /emote Close ? /emote Tri" ? 0ocal Close ? 0ocal Tri" ? I1*/ I*/ I1*0 I*0

2%>>

1=

2>

Re('y F'4#(y
Re('y E(e$tro M'+&et#$
B'5ed o& Ch'r'$ter#5t#$ 1% #efinite time /elays 2% 5nverse time /elays 'ith definite minimum time C1 #-TA 3% 5nstantaneous /elays 4% 5#-T 'ith inst% *% ,te""ed Characteristic 6% Programme ,'itches 9% 4oltage restraint overcurrent relay B'5ed o& '$tu't#&+ *'r'4eter 1%Current /elays 2% 4oltage /elays 3% <re@uency /elays 4% Po'er /elays etc%

St't#$
B'5ed o& o6 (o+#$ 1% #ifferential 2% En alance 3% 1eutral #is"lacement 4% #irectional *% /estricted +arth <ault 6% 2ver <lu$ing 9% #istance ,chemes :% Bus ar Protection =% /everse Po'er /elays 1>%0oss of e$citation 11%1egative Phase ,e@uence /elays etc%

Me$h'&#$'(

1% Thermal CaA 2T Tri" C A )T Tri" CCA Bearing Tem" Tri" etc% 2% <loat Ty"e CaA BuchholH C A 2,/ CcA P/4 CdA )ater level Controls etc% 3% Pressure ,'itches 4% -echanical 5nterlocks *% Pole discre"ancy /elay

21

Ty*e5 o6 Co&tro( P'&e(5

1 2 3 4 * 6 9 : = 1> 11 Control Panels /elay Panels Control ( /elay Panels ,ynchronising Panel or Trolley Communication Panels &nnunciation Panels #%C% dn% Board &%C dn% Board Charger Panels /elay .alleries &u$iliary Control Panels 12 13 14 1* 16 19 1: 1= 2> 21 -arshalling Bo$es &-. Panels -achine Panels #u"le$CH4!04A Panels Bus 8one Protection Panels /TC Panels C20TCA /T5 Panels Ctem"A 5ndoor Panels 2utdoor Panels Panels 'ith dra'n u" mimics ( isolator cum reaker status indication C,emi"horsA etc%

22

DEVICE N!MBERS AND THEIR NOMEMC AT!RE 2 3 21 2* 29 3> 32 39 4> 46 4= *> *1 *2 *2a *2 ** *6 *= 6> Time delay relay Checking or 5nterlocking relay #istance relay Check synchroniHing relay Endervoltage relay &nnunciator relay #irectional "o'er C/everse "o'erA relay 0o' for'ard "o'er relay <ield failure Closs of e$citationA relay 1egative "hase se@uence relay -achine or Transformer Thermal relay 5nstantaneous 2vercurrent relay &%C 5#-T overcurrent relay Circuit reaker Circuit reaker &u$iliary s'itch J1ormally o"enK Ca contactA Circuit reaker &u$iliary s'itch J1ormally closedK C contactA Po'er <actor relay <ield &""lication relay 2vervoltage relay 4oltage or current alance relay 23

64 69 6: 94 96 9: 9= :>% :1 :1E :12 :3 :* :6 :9 :9. :9.T :9E :91T =* == 1:6& 1:6B 24

+arth fault relay #irectional relay 0ocking relay &larm relay #%C 2vercurrent relay Phase angle measuring or out of ste" relay &C &uto reclose relay -onitoring loss of #C su""ly <re@uency relay Enderfre@uency relay 2verfre@uency relay &utomatic selective control or transfer relay Carrier or "ilot 'ire receive relay Tri""ing /elay #ifferential relay .enerator differential relay 2verall differential relay E&T differential relay /estricted earth fault relay Tri" circuit su"ervision relay 2verflu$ relay &uto reclose lockout relay &uto reclose lockout relay

2ver Current tri" +;f% Tri" #iffl%Tri" 2,/;20TC tri" BucholH tri" 2%T tri" )%T tri" 2ver flu$ing tri" P%/%4 tri" Ter%&la Tri" BucholH &larm )%T &larm 2%T &larm Ter%&larm Bus ar "rot% Tri" Pole discre"ancy tri"

L L /elay tri" ? I3 -aster tri" L ? 163T ? 63T ? 26T ? 4=T ? == ? ? 14=T ? 63& ? 4=& ? 26& ? 14=& ? =6 ? 162

2*

5ndication Gve ? 01 2<< ? 03 21 ? 0* ,ema"hor 2<< ? 09 ,ema"hor 21 ? 0= C%B tri" alarm ? 021 Bus &%B ,'itch remote 2<< ?011 Bus indication 21 ? 013 0ine;e@ui"mentF2<< ? 01* 21 ? 019 21 ? 01= 2<< ? 021

NORMS OF PROTECTION TO BE FO 26

OWED AS PER APERC ORDERS

<or Transmission ( #istri ution 0ines S.No. 1% 2% Vo(t'+e 4>> I4 0ine 22> I4 0ine Prote$t#o& S$he4e -ainF5? 1on s'itched or 1umerical #istance ,cheme -ainF55? 1on s'itched or 1umerical #istance ,cheme -ainF5 ? 1on s'itched distance scheme C<ed from Bus PTsA -ainF55? ,'itched distance scheme C<ed from line C4TsA )ith a changeover facility from us PT to line C4T and viceFversa% -ain Protection ? ,'itched distance scheme Cfed from us PTA Backu" Protection? 3 1os% directional 5#-T 2;0 /elays and 1 1o% directional 5#-T +;0 relay% 1onFdirectional 5#-T 3 2;0 and 1 +;0 relays% 1onFdirectional 5#-T 2 2;0 and 1 +;0 relays%

3%

132 I4 lines

4% *% 1otes

33 I4 lines 11 I4 lines

i% 2n some of the old 22>I4 lines one distance scheme 'ith acku" directional 5#-T 3 2;0 ( +;0 relays 'ere "rovided% ii% 2n some of the 132I4 grid lines! only distance scheme is availa le iii% 4ery fe' 66I4 lines are in service C'hich are also eing "hased outA Bus ars ? &ll 22> I4 us ars 'ill have us ar "rotection scheme 'ith main and check Hone 29

2:

NORMS OF PROTECTION FOR 7,EHV C ASS POWER TRANSFORMERS

POWER STATIONS
Vo(t'+e r't#o 8 $'*'$#ty i% 11;132 I4 .T HV S#de 3F1onFdir 2;0 G 1F1onFdir +;0 relay and;or stand y+;< G /+< 3F1onFdir 2;0 G 1F1onFdir +;0 relay and;or stand y +;< G /+< 3F1onFdir 2;0 G 1F1onFdir +;0 relay and;or stand y + ;< G /+< 3F1onFdir% 2;0 relays FF V S#de Co44o& re('y5 #ifferential or 2verall differential! 2verflu$! BuchholH! 20TC BuchholH P/4! 2T! )T #ifferential or 2verall differential ! 2verflu$! BuchholH! 20TC BuchholH P/4! 2T! )T #ifferential! 2verflu$! BuchholH! 20TC BuchholH P/4! 2T! )T #ifferential! 2verflu$! BuchholH! 20TC BuchholH P/4! 2T! )T 2=

ii% 13%:;22> I4 1*%9*;22> I4 1:;4>> I4 21;4>> I4 .enerator T;<s iii% 22> ;6%6I4 ,tation T;<s

FF

3F1onFdir% 2;0 relays

iv% .enFvolt;6%6I4 E&T

3F1onFdir% 2;0 relays

S!BSTATIONS
iv% 32;33;11I4 u"to : -4& v% 132;33;11I4 a ove : -4& and elo' 31%* -4& vi% 132;33I4! 31%* -4& ( a ove vii% 22>;33 I4! 31%*-4& ( *>-4& 22>;132I4! 1>> -4& viii% 4>>;22>I4 31*-4& 3 2;0 relays G 1 +;0 relay 3 2;0 relays G 1 dir% +;0 relay 3 2;0 relays G 1 dir% +;0 relay 3 2;0 relays G 1 dir% +;0 relay 2 2;0 relays G 1 +;0 relay 3 2;0 relays G 1 +;0 relay 3 2;0 relays G 1 +;0 relay 3 2;0 relays G 1 dir% relay BuchholH! 20TC BuchholH! 2T! )T #ifferential! BuchholH! 20TC BuchholH! 2T! )T #ifferential! 2verflu$! BuchholH! 20TC P/4! 2T! )T #ifferential! 2verflu$! BuchholH! 20TC P/4! 2T! )T #ifferential! 2verflu$! BuchholH! 20TC P/4! 2T! )T and overload CalarmA relay

3 directional 2;0 relays C'ith dir%highsetA G1 directional +;0 relays% /estricted +;< relay G 3 #irectional 2;0 relays for action

3 directional 2;0 relays C'ith dir%highsetAG1 directional +;0 relays% /estricted +;< relay

3>

Breaker failure "rotection? Transformers i% ii%

The 0BB "rotection scheme 'ill e "rovided for all 22>I4 stations Calong 'ith us ar "rotection schemeA

1o BuchholH relay for transformers elo' *>> I4& ca"acity Transformers u"to 1*>> I4& shall have only Horn ga" "rotection grou" control reaker on H4 side and individual 04 reakers if there is more than one transformer%

iii% Transformers a ove 1*>> I4& and u"to :>>> I4& of 33;11I4 ratio shall have one

iv% Transformers a ove :>>> I4& shall have individual H4 and 04 circuit reakers% v% The relays indicate a ove shall e "rovided on H4 and 04 vi% 0&s to e "rovided on H4 ( 04 for transformers of all ca"acities and voltage class% vii% 20TC out of ste" "rotection is to e "rovided 'here -aster follo'er scheme is in o"eration viii% <ans failure and "um"s failure alarms to e connected% i$% &larms for 2%T%! )%T%! BuchholH C-ain tank ( 20TCA should e connected%

31

Po#&t5 to be $he$9ed 2h#(e dr'2#&+ CT5

1% 4oltage class 2% 5ndoor ;2utdoor 3% 2il filledM/esin castM /ing ty"eM 4% ,hort Circuit rating *% &vaila le ratios 6% ,econdary Current values 9% &vaila le cores :% Burden =% Class of &ccuracy 1>% Terminal Connections
11% 2ver all dimensions etc%

32

Po#&t5 to be 3er#6#ed 2h#(e dr'2#&+ C#r$u#t Bre'9er5

1% 4oltage class 2% 5ndoor ;2utdoor 3% Nuencing ? Bulk oil or -in% 2il or ,<6 or 4acuum or &ir last 4% #%C Control voltage or 244 or 324 or 11>4 or 22>4 *% /ated current Cmake ( reakA 6% /u"turing ca"acity 9% 2"erating mechanism ? ,"ringM ,olenoidM PneumaticM HydraulicM &ir lastM :% Terminal connections =% 2verall dimensions 1>% #etails of CTs if "rovided 'ith reaker 11% Protective devices along 'ith reaker 12% #etails of PT! etc% if "rovided 'ith reaker etc% 13% Tri";Break time! closing time limit
33

C.T. RATIOS AND RE A0 SETTINGS TO BE ADOPTED The C%T ratios and relay settings for all e@ui"ment at +HT su station u"to 0%4 reakers of Po'er transformers shall e a""roved y ,+;Protection% The C%T ratios and relay settings for all 33I4! 11I4 ( 6%6 I4 feeder reakers at +HT su stations shall e finalised y #+;+- ( -/T% The relay settings so finalised y any other officer% y ,+;Protection or the concerned #+ shall not e altered

The officers a ove are res"onsi le for relay CoFordination and gradation%

34

IMITS OF ERRORS IN CT5

Class>%1to1%>? The Current +rror and "hase dis"lacement +rror at the rated fre@uency shall not e$ceed the values given elo' 'hen the secondary urden is any value from 2*O to 1>>O to the rated urden% #4#t5 o6 : error 't : o6 r'ted Curre&t C('55 ;< =< ;<< ;=< >%1 P>%2* P>%2> P>%1> P>%1 >%2 P>%*> P>%3* P>%2> P>%2 >%* P1%>> P>%9* P>%9* P>%* 1%> P2%>> P1%*> P1%*> P1%> Ph'5e d#5*('$e4e&t #& 4#&ute5 't : o6 r.$t ;< =< ;<< ;=< P1> P: P* P* P2> P1* P1> P1> P6> P4* P3> P3> P12> P=> P6> P6>

C('55 >8? 3 *

?<: P3 P*

;<<: P3 P*

3*

36

A**(#$'t#o& Precession -etering Comml% or 5ndl%metering &mmeters! "o'er meter /elays ,elective "rotection

St'&d'rd5 IS BS >%1or >%2 B0 B0 >%* or 1%> &- B- C1%> or 3%> C# *P1> or *P2> ,TE P,

Com"osite +rror for Protection 5,, 29>* Part%555 A$$ur'$y C('55 *P 1> P 1* P Curre&t error 't r'ted *r#4. $urre&t 1 3 * Ph'5e d#5*('$e4e&t 't r'ted *r#4 $urre&t @M#&. 6> F F Co4*o5#te error 't r'ted *r#4. $urre&t @ * 1> 1*

INE CTA5 SECONDAR0 CONNECTIONS 39

TRANSFORMER CTA5 SECONDAR0 CONNECTIONS

3:

C.T. SECONDAR0 CONNECTIONS <or "rotection of various e@ui"ment of +HT class! the ,tar "oint on secondaries of CT should e made as follo's for ensuring correct directional sensitivity of the "rotection scheme 1% 2% 3% 4% <or Transmission 0ines <or Transformers <or Bus ar .enerator Protection F 0ine side F Transformer side F Bus side F .enerator ,ide

The a ove method has to e follo'ed irres"ective of "olarity of CTs on "rimary side% <or e$am"le! in line "rotection! if P1 is to'ards us then ,2s are to e shorted and if P2 is to'ards us then ,1s are to e shorted% The C%T secondary connections for Transmission line! Transformer and Bus ar are indicated in the figures%

3=

B!SBAR CTA5 CONNECTIONS

4>

GENERATOR CTA5 CONNECTIONS

P%
S%

P&
S&

GENER T!R ST T!R "#N$#NGS

P&
S&

P%
S%

Generator Protection Scheme

Generator Protection Scheme

41

C.T PO ARIT0 TEST +ach current transformer should e individually tested to verify that the "olarity markings on the "rimary and secondary 'indings are correct% The follo'ing figure sho's the test unit for this%

The ammemeter & is a ro ust! moving coil! "ermanent magnet centre Hero ty"e instrument% & lo' voltage attery is used to energise the "rimary 'indings through a single "ole "ush utton% 2n closing the "ushF utton! 'ith a ove C%T ammeter markings! the ammeter should give a "ositive flick! indicating correct "olarity of the C%T 42

PRIMAR0 IN.ECTION TEST This test is carried out to ensure the C%T ratio of current transformers% 5f this test is carried out after C%T secondary 'iring is com"leted it ensures not only the correct ratio of C%Ts ut also the correctness of the entire C%T secondary 'iring com"rising "rotection and metering "ortions% The testing e@ui"ment consists of a loading CinDectionA transformer! controlled y a varia le transformer to get the re@uired current on the "rimary side of the C%T under test% <or carrying out the ratio test on C%Ts! the follo'ing circuit is made use of%

Current is "assed through the "rimary 'indings of the standard C%T and C%T under test% The ratio of the C%T can e determined y com"aring the currents in ammeters &1 and &2%

43

VO TAGE TRANSFORMERS
C('55 o6 A$$ur'$y A**(#$'t#o& IMITS OF ERROR At 7<: to ;<<: o6 r'ted burde& 8 B< to ;<<: o6 r'ted burde& !PG R't#o & B C # ,u Fstandard 5ndication meters 1st grade indicating in"uts 'att meter! 5ndl ( ,ynchronising 1st grade voltmeter )here ratio is of less im"ortance &! B ( C not re@uired >%* 1%> 2%> *%> At 7<C;<<: o6 burde& ;< to PF Ph.d#5*('$eC 4e&t

Ph.d#5*(' $eC4e&t
2> 3> 6> F

R't#o >%* 1%> F F 2> 9> F F

44

PERIODICA TESTINGS
1% The relays should e tested aA &nnually A )henever time lever settings are altered% cA )henever malFo"eration of relay is sus"ected dA )henever directed y #+;+-(-/T Concerned eA )henever directed y Chief +ngineer;,u"erintending +ngineer;Protection ; 4idyut ,oudha ; Hydera ad% 2% 5t is the res"onsi ility of &sst%#ivisional +ngineer CProtection to maintain a Calendar and ensure testing of relaysA 3% The &sst%+ngineer CProtectionA is res"onsi le for the accuracy of test results noted in the Test /ecord% 4% Breaker o"ening and closing times should e checked% aA at the time of commissioning A annually during service cA )henever tri" or closing coils are changed dA )henever maDor re"airs to o"erating mechanism are done eA )henever reaker contacts are changed% *% ,tation earth resistance of earth "its and com ined value should e taken aA annually A )henever directed y #+C+-(-/TA 6% The &ssistant #ivisional +ngineer C-aintenanceA in charge of the ,u station is res"onsi le for measurement and record of ,u station earth resistances and carrying out im"rovements 'here necessary% 4*

46

GENERATOR PROTECTION

49

4:

GENERATOR AND ITS PROTECTION The core of an electrical "o'er system is the generator% There are "o'er units ased on steam! gas! na"htha! 'ater "o'er! diesel engine drive and 'ind mills% The range of siHe e$tends from a fe' hundred I4& Cor even lessA for engineFdriven and hydro sets u" to tur ine driven sets e$ceeding *>>-4& in rating% ,mall and medium siHed sets may e directly connected to the distri ution system% & larger unit is usually associated 'ith an individual transformer! transmission system% 1o s'itchgear is "rovided et'een the generator and transformer may e ta""ed off the interconnection for the su""ly of "o'er to au$iliary "lant% Provision of a reaker in et'een .enerator and Transformer makes it "ossi le to dra' "o'er for the au$iliaries through the E&T from the +H4 us! even 'hen machine is not in service% Ty"ical arrangements are given in figure%%%%%%%%%%%%

4=

*>

Protection of 6%6 I4 system in generating stations?

-aDor Thermal ,tations au$iliaries are fed from 6%6 I4 us 'hich is connected y a 22>;6%6I4 ,tation Transformers and .eneration voltage;6%6 I4 Enit &u$iliary Transformers%

,tation Transformers?
The vector grou" of these transformers is ,tarF#elta i%e% the 6%6 I4 system is delta connected% 2r The vector grou" of these transformers is ,tarF,tar 'ith the 6%6I4 side grounded through a high resistance%

Enit &u$ilary Transformers ?

The vector grou" of these transformers is #elta 7 ,tar Cungrounded ,tar on 6%6I4 ,ystemA

*1

*2

&ny earth fault on the 6%6 I4 system cannot e seen y any +;0 relay Csince the 6%6 I4 system is delta connected or high resistance grounded or ungrounded ,tarA%Ho'ever 3F2;0 relays are "rovided on the 6%6I4 side of the ,tation Transformers and Enit &u$ilary Transformers % &n o"enFdelta voltage of the 6%6 I4 us PT is connected to an over voltage relay 'ith a very lo' setting% &ny earth fault on the 6%6 I4 system 'ill cause the "resence of o"enFdelta voltage and make the voltage relay o"erate 'hich is connected to give alarm% The faulty 6%6 I4 feeder can e identified y tri""ing the 6%6 I4 outlets one after the other%

*3

*4

Ge&er'tor Prote$t#o& D V'r#ou5 Fu&$t#o&5

.enerating units are the source of the "o'er system and their security against any adverse conditions is most im"ortant in the system% The generator "rotection must ensure a fast and selective detection of any fault in order to minimiHe their dangerous effects% Protection of "assive elements like transmission lines and transformers is relatively sim"le 'hich involves isolation of faulty element from the system! 'hereas "rotection of generators involves tri""ing of generator field reaker! generator reaker and tur ine% .enerator Protections are roadly classified into three ty"es% C0&,, 7 & ?F This covers all electrical "rotections for faults 'ithin the generating unit in 'hich generator field reaker! generator reaker and tur ine should e tri""ed% this covers all mechanical "rotections of the tur ine in 'hich tur ine 'ill e tri""ed first and follo'ing this generator 'ill tri" on reverse "o'er ; lo' for'ard "o'er "rotections%

C0&,, 7 B?F

**

C0&,, 7 C?F

This covers electrical "rotection for faults in the system in 'hich generator 'ill e unloaded y tri""ing of generator reaker only% The unit 'ill come to house load o"eration and the E&T 'ill e in service% 4arious "rotections of this class are? iA iiA iiiA ivA vA 22> I4 CH4 side of .enerator TransformerA us ar "rotection% .enerator Transformer H4 side reaker "ole discre"ancy% .enerator negative "hase se@uence "rotection .enerator Transformer over current ; +arth fault "rotection /everse "o'er "rotection 'ithout tur ine tri"%

*6

1A

Ge&er'tor D#66ere&t#'( Prote$t#o& %BE G)1 C 5t is unit ty"e "rotection! covering the stator 'inding for "hase to "hase faults due to reakdo'n of insulation et'een stator "hase 'indings% This relay is not sensitive for single line to earth faults as the earth fault current is limited due to the high neutral earthing resistance% 5f CTs of identical ratios are used on neutral and line side of generator! an o"erating current setting of 2>O it can e ado"ted% 5t is instantaneous in o"eration and it tri"s the generator reaker CClass 7 &A to eliminate the system in 7 feed to the fault along 'ith field reaker and tur ines% <or all machines of ratings 1> -4& and a ove! this "rotection shall e "rovided%

*9

*:

2A

Ge&er'tor D Tr'&56or4er D#66ere&t#'( Prote$t#o& %BET)1C This is similar to .enerator #ifferential Protection! 'hich covers from the generator terminals u"to the H4 reaker of generator transformer% % ,ometimes this relay is not "rovided 'here .enerator and .enerator Transformer 2verall #ifferential relay C:92A is "rovided% :9. ( :9T functions should have the features of through fault restraint! magnetising inrush restraint%

3A Ge&er'tor 8 Ge&er'tor Tr'&56or4er O3er'(( D#66ere&t#'( Prote$t#o& %BEO)1 Besides generator differential and generator transformer differential! an overall differential relay can e "rovided et'een generator neutral side CTs and generator transformer Hv side CTs Cand H4 side CTs of E&T if "rovidedA covering oth generator and generator transformer% The "rinci"le of o"eration of a ove relay is similar to any differential relay and it is also termed as unit differential relay%

*=

OVERA CTs

DIFFERENTIA RE A0
ST T!R "#N$#NGS GEN' TR NS(!R)ER

CTs

!C !C RC RC RC !C

6>

4A

B'$9u* #4*ed'&$e Prote$t#o& %=;G)1C This o"erates for "hase faults in the unit! in the H4 yard or in the adDacent transmission lines! 'ith a suita le time delay% 5t o"erates as a acku" 'hen the corres"onding main "rotection fails% 5n &%P% ,ystem the reach is set as 12>O of generator transformer 'ith a time delay of a out 1%> to 1%* ,ec%

*A

Vo(t'+e re5tr'#&ed o3er$urre&t *rote$t#o& %?; , =E G)1C This 'ill o"erate 'hen the fault current from the generator terminals ecomes lo' due to e$citation system characteristic 'ith under voltage criteria% 5t o"erates as a acku" "rotection for system faults 'ith suita le time delay%

6A

Ne+'t#3e *h'5e 5eFue&$e *rote$t#o& %GH G)1C 5t safeguards the generator rotor against over heating caused y the induced dou le fre@uency C1>> HHA currents 'hen negative "hase se@uence currents are "resent in the stator% The negative "hase se@uence currentC52A can a""ear due to un alanced single "hase loads or transmission line unsymmetrical faults% 5t should e set according the 1egative Phase ,e@uence ca"a ility of the generator% 52RR2 $t S 3> for Thermal Enits 61

S 4>

for Hydro Enits

&larm stage can e set at *>O of continuous 'ithstand ca"a ility of the machine 'ith a time delay of 3 to * ,ec%

62

9A

Ge&er'tor o3er(o'd5 *rote$t#o& %?;G)IC 5t is used as an additional check of the stator 'inding tem"erature high "rotection% The relay can e connected <or alarm 'ith a setting of <or tri" 'ith a setting of 11>O % 12*O 'ith due time delay

:A

Ge&er'tor St'tor E'rth F'u(t Prote$t#o& %HGG)1C The high neutral earthing resistance arrangement limits the generator earth fault current! minimising the damage to core laminations% &lthough a single "hase earth fault is not critical! it re@uires clearance 'ithin a short time due to? iA iiA iiiA 5t may develo" into a "hase to "hase fault 5f a second earth fault occurs the current is not longer limited y the earthing resistor% <ire may result from earth fault arc%

63

aA 64

7?: 5t'tor e'rth 6'u(t *rote$t#o& %HGG;)1C

5t is an over voltage relay monitoring the voltage develo"ed across the secondary of the neutral grounding transformer in case of ground faults% 5t covers generator! 04 'inding of generator transformer and H4 'inding of E&T% & "icku" voltage setting of *O is ado"ted 'ith a time delay setting of a out 1%> ,ec% <or all machines of ratings 1> -4& and a ove this shall e "rovided% A ;<<: 5t'tor e'rth 6'u(t *rote$t#o& %HGG=)IC This is a 3rd harmonic E;4 relay% 5t "rotects 1>>O of stator 'inding% #uring the machine running condition there 'ill e certain third harmonic voltage at neutral side of the generator%This 3rd harmonic voltage 'ill come do'n 'hen a stator earth fault occurs causing this relay to o"erate% This shall have voltage check or current check unit! to "revent faulty o"eration of the relay at generator stand still or during the machine running do'n "eriod% =A o55 o6 E"$#t't#o& %G<G)1C 5n case of loss of e$citation! the generator goes out of synchronism and starts running asynchronously at a s"eed higher than the system! a sor ing reactive "o'er from the system% Ender these conditions! the stator end regions and "art of the rotor get over heated% This "rotection shall have? 6*

iA iiA iiiA

-ho characteristic lying in 3rd and 4th @uadrants of im"edance diagram 'ith adDusta le reach and offset% &n under voltage and ; or overcurrent relay as additional check% & timer 'ith adDusta le range of 1F1> ,seconds%

Re$o44e&ded Sett#&+51C F #iameter of -ho circle F 2ff set of -ho circuit from the origin F Time delay F Ender voltage relay 1>A o2 For2'rd Po2er Re('y %>EG)1C 5n thermal machines! 'hen the steam flo' through tur ine is interru"ted y closing the +,4s or the governor valves! the remaining steam in the tur ine generates Clo'A "o'er and the machine enters to motoring conditions dra'ing "o'er from the system% This "rotection detects lo' for'ard "o'er conditions of the generator and tri"s generator reaker after a time delay! avoiding motoring of generator% 66 STd S $d1;2 S 1 ,ec% S 11> 7 11*O of generator rated current

The lo' for'ard "o'er relay 'ill e "rovided 'ith tur ine tri" interlock in thermal machines% & setting of >%*O of rated active "o'er of generator 'ith a time delay of 2%> ,ec% shall e ado"ted% 11A Re3er5e Po2er re('y %>=G)1C /everse "o'er "rotection shall e used for all ty"es of generators% )hen the in"ut to the tur ine is interru"ted the machine enters into motoring condition dra'ing "o'er from the system% /everse "o'er relay "rotects the generators from motoring condition% 5n thermal machines! reverse "o'er condition a""ears su se@uent to lo' for'ard "o'er condition% <or reverse "o'er relay! a setting of >%*O of rated active "o'er of generator 'ith 2 stage timer as given elo'% iA iiA St'+e D I1 C St'+e D II1C )ith tur ine tri" interlock! a time delay of 2 ,ec% shall e ado"ted% )ithout tur ine tri" interlock! a time delay of a out 2> ,ec% can e ado"ted to avoid unnecessary tri""ing of unit during system distur ance causing sudden rise in fre@uency or "o'er s'ing conditions%

12A

Rotor e'rth 6'u(t *rote$t#o&1 C 69

This "rotection shall e "rovided for machines of all siHes% This "rotection shall e connected for alarm and the o"erator may take the machine at the earliest o""ortunity after the first earth fault has occurred% This "rotection 'ill have a sensitive voltage function o"erating on ridge measurement asis 'ith au$iliary e@ui"ment% 5t 'ill have t'o levels! one for alarm and one for tri"% The settings ado"ted in general are? iA iiA <or alarm <or tri" ? ? 2* I3 2hm! 1%> ,ec% * I 2hm! >%* ,ec%

6:

& modern generating unit is a com"le$ system com"rising the generator stator 'inding and associated transformer and unit transformer! the rotor 'ith its field 'inding and e$citers! and the tur ine and its associated condenser and oiler com"lete 'ith au$iliary fans and "um"s% <aults of many kinds can occur 'ithin this system for 'hich diverse "rotection a""lied 'ill e governed y economic considerations! taking into account the value of the machine and its im"ortance to the "o'er system as a 'hole 13A Pole ,li" /elay C=: .A?F The "ole sli""ing relay is designed to "rotect synchronous generators against the "ossi ility of the machine running unsta le region of the "o'er angle curve 'hich 'ould result in "o'er oscillations and "ole sli"% Pole sli""ing of generators 'ith res"ect to the system leading to an increase in rotor angular "osition eyond the generator transient sta ility limits% ,ome of the causes for "ole sli""ing are as follo's% iA 0arge net'ork distur ance iiA <aults on the net'ork close to the generator% iiiA 0oss of generator field% ivA 2"erating the generator in an e$cessive under e$cited mode% vA 0oss of evacuation%

6=

,etting recommendations?F aA 5f the source of oscillation lies et'een generator;transformer unit! the machine has to e isolated from the net'ork after the first sli"% <or'ard reach of relay characteristics shall cover generator;generator transformer% Tri""ing in this Hone shall e in the first "ole sli"% The reach of this Hone is S >%9 $ d A 5f the source of oscillation lies outside the unit in the net'ork! the generator should not e s'itched off until several "ole sli"s have recurred% 14A .enerator Ender <re@uency Protection C:1 .A? The Ender <re@uency Protection? F F F Prevents the steam tur ine and generator from e$ceeding the "ermissi le o"erating time at reduced fre@uencies% +nsures that the generating unit is se"arated from the net'ork at a "reset value of fre@uency% Prevent overflu$ing Cv;fA of the generator Clarge overflu$ing for short timesA% The stator under fre@uency relay measures the fre@uency of the stator terminal voltage% 9>

,etting /ecommendations?F <or &larm <or Tri" ? 4:%> HH! 2%> ,ec% time delay% ? 49%* HH! 1%> ,ec% CorA &s recommended y .enerator -anufacturers%

1*A

.enerator 2ver voltage Protection C*= .A? &n over voltage on the terminals of the generator can damage the insulator of the generator! us ducting! reakers! generator transformer and au$iliary e@ui"ment% Hence over voltage "rotection should e "rovided for machines of all siHes% ,ettings recommendations?F ,tageF5 ? 2ver voltage "icku" S 1%1* $ En Time delay S 1> ,ec% ,tateF55 ? 2ver voltage "icku" S 1%3 $ En Time delay S >%* ,ec%

16A

,tand y +arth <ault Protection C*1 1.TA? This relay monitors the current in the generator transformer neutral% 5t can detect earth faults in the Transformer H4 side or in the adDacent net'ork% 91

,etting recommendations?F &s this relay "icku" for faults in the system! it has to e time graded 'ith the transmission lines emanating from that generating station% 1ormally 5#-T relay is "rovided 2"erating Current ,etting 2"erating Time S 2>O 5n S 1%* to 2%> ,ec% CorA .reater than Cma$%A 8oneF3 time of adDacent Transmission 0ines%

The follo'ing haHards re@uire consideration% aA A cA dA eA fA gA hA iA DA kA lA 92 ,tator insulation faults 2verload 2vervoltage En alanced loading /otor faults 0oss of e$citation 0oss of synchronism <ailure of "rime mover 0o' vacuum 0u rication oil failure 0oss of oiler firing 2vers"eeding

mA /otor distortion nA #ifference in e$"ansion et'een rotating and stationary "arts oA +$cessive vi ration ,mall ca"acity induction generators also are in service! mostly mini hydel and 'indmills of ca"acity of 2>>I) to 2>>>I)! 'hich de"end on the system for e$citation% Their "rotection re@uirements are very sim"le such as overcurrent relays% The "rotective relays generally used for the synchronous generators are listed at in the follo'ing "age% 5nstead of inde"endent relays for each function! micro"rocessor ased numerical relay! 'hich can take care of the entire .enerator "rotections the latest entry%

93

Fu&$t#o&5

Ste'4 S4'(( %J;< MVA)

Q Q 1 Q 1 Q Q Q Q 1 1 Q Q 1 Q 1

G'5 Med#u4 %;<C;<< MVA)

Q Q Q;1 Q Q 1 Q Q Q 1 1 Q Q 1 Q Q

Turb#&e5 'r+e %K;<< MVA)

Q Q Q Q Q 1 Q Q Q Q 1 Q Q Q Q Q

Hydro S4'(( %J;< MVA)

Q Q 1 Q 1 Q Q Q Q 1 Q Q Q 1 Q 1

Turb#&e5 Med#u4 %;<C;<< MVA)

Q Q Q;1 Q Q 1 Q Q Q 1 Q Q Q 1 Q Q

'r+e %K;<< MVA)

Q Q Q Q Q 1 Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q

#ifferential =*O ,tator +;< 1>>O ,tator +;< 5nterturn <aults Backu" 5m"edance 4oltage controlled 2;C 1egative ,e@uence <ield <ailure /everse Po'er Pole ,li""ing 2verload 2ver voltage Ender fre@uency #ead machine /otor +arth <ault 2verflu$ing

94

9*

T/&1,<2/-+/ P/2T+CT521

96

99

TRANSFORMER PROTECTION The rating of Po'er transformers used in &%P ,ystem% 1% 4>>;22> I4 31* -4& &uto Transformers 2% 22>;132 I4 1>>-4& &uto Transformers 3% 22>;33 I4 *> ( 31%*-4& Transformers 4% 132;66 I4 4> ( 29%*-4& Transformers *% 132;33 I4 *>! 31%*! 2*! 16! 1* -4& Transformers 6% 132;11 I4 16! 1* ( 9%* -4& Transformers 9% 33;11 I4 :! *! 3%1* -4& Transformers -ost of the Po'er transformers of 132;11I4 and a ove are of ,tarF,tar vector grou"ing 'ith the neutral solidly earthed% There are a fe' transformers 'ith deltaFstar Cdelta on H4 sideA% The 33;11I4 and 11I4;41*4 Transformers are of deltaFstar Cdelta on H4 sideA% 9:

The ty"es of faults that the transformers are su Dected to are classified as?F 1A Through <aults?F These are due to overload conditions and e$ternal short circuits% Time graded 2;C ( +;< relays are em"loyed for e$ternal short circuit conditions% <uses are "rovided for #istri ution transformers% 2A 5nternal <aults?F aA +lectrical <aults? F <aults 'hich cause immediate serious damage such as "hase to earth or "hase to "hase faults! short circuits et'een turns of H4(04 'indings! etc% A 5nci"ient <aults? F )hich are initially minor faults! causing slo'ly develo"ing damage% ,uch as a "oor electrical connection of conductors of insulation! etc% reakdo'n of

9=

The follo'ing relays are em"loyed to "rotect the transformer against internal faults% iA BuchholH relays iiA #ifferential relays iiiA /+< relays% ivA 2verflu$ing relays iA Bu$hho(L Re('y51 C

)henever a fault in transformer develo"s slo'ly! heat is "roduced locally! 'hich egins to decom"ose solid of li@uid insulated materials and thus to "roduce inflamma le gas and oil flo'% This "henomenon has een used in the gas "rotection relay or "o"ularly kno'n as BucholH relay% This relay is a""lica le only to the soFcalled conservator ty"e transformer in 'hich the transformer tank is com"letely filled 'ith oil! and a "i"e connects the transformer tank to an au$iliary tank or U ConservatorU 'hich acts as an e$"ansion cham er% <igure sho'n as BucholH relay connected into the "i"e leading to the conservator tank and arrange to detect gas "roduced in the transformer tank% &s the gas accumulates for a minor fault the oil level falls and! 'ith it a float V<V 'hich o"erates a mercury s'itch sounding an alarm% )hen a more serious fault occurs 'ithin the transformer during 'hich intense heating takes "lace! an intense li eration of gases results% These gases rush to'ards the conservator and create a rise in "ressure in the transformer tank due to 'hich the oil is forced through the connecting "i"e to the conservator% The oil flo' develo"s a force on the lo'er float sho'n as U4U in the figure and overtri"s it causing it contacts to com"lete the tri" circuit of the transformer reaker% 2"eration of the u""er float indicates an inci"ient fault and that of the lo'er float a serious fault% :>

Conser,ator larm
(

Trans*ormer Tan+

Trip

:1

Bu$ho(L re('y O*er't#o& 1 Cert'#& Pre$'ut#o&51 The BucholH relay may ecome o"erative not only during faults 'ithin the transformer% <or instance! 'hen oil is added to a transformer! air may get in together 'ith oil! accumulate under the relay cover and thus cause a false o"eration of the gas relay% <or this reason 'hen the V.asV alarm signal is energiHed the o"erators must take a sam"le of the gas from the relay! for 'hich "ur"ose a s"ecial clock is "rovided% .ases due to faults al'ays have colour and an odour and are inflamma le% The lo'er float may also falsely o"erate if the oil velocity in the connection "i"e through not due to internal faults! is sufficient to tri" over the float% This can occur in the event of an e$ternal short circuit 'hen over currents flo'ing through the 'indings overFheat the co""er and the oil and cause the oil to e$"and% 5f malFo"eration of BucholH relay due to overloads or e$ternal short circuits is e$"erienced it may e necessary that the lo'er float is adDusted for o"eration for still higher velocities% 5n installing these relays the follo'ing re@uirements should e fulfilled% aA The conductor connection the contacts to the terminals on the cover must have "a"er insulation! as ru er insulation may e damaged y the oil% :2

:3

A The floats must e tested for air tightness y for e$am"le! su merging them in hot oil to create a sur"lus "ressure in them% cA The relay cover and the connection "i"e should have a slo"e of 1%* to 3 "ercent and not have any "rotruding surface to ensure unrestricted "assage of the gases into the conservator% D#66ere&t#'( Re('y51 & #ifferential relay com"ares the currents on oth sides of the transformer% &s long as there is no fault 'ithin the "rotected e@ui"ment CTransformerA! the current circulates et'een the t'o CTs and no current flo's through the differential element% But for internal faults the sum of the CTs secondary currents 'ill flo' through the differential relay making it to o"erate% T'o asic re@uirements that the differential relay connections are to satisfied are? aA 5t must not o"erate for load or e$ternal faults% A 5t must o"erate for internal faults% e

:4

Percentage Differential Relay in a Two Terminal Circuit TR NS(!R)ER #&

#%

R'C

!'C

:*

&s onFload ta" change facilities are invaria ly "rovided in the grid transformers! any de"arture from the nominal ta" "osition 'ill result in s"ill currents in the relay circuits% <urther! the CTs are often of different ty"es and have dissimilar magnetiHation characteristics! again resulting in s"ill current during heavy through fault conditions% To avoid un'anted relays o"eration under the a ove t'o conditions a UPercentage BiasU differential relays is used% The o"erating characteristics of "ercentage follo'ing figure ias differential relay is sho'n in

:6

Positive Tor@ue /egion

C51G52A;2

51F52 1egative Tor@ue /egion

C51G52A;2 51F52

1egative Tor@ue /egion :9

The current flo'ing through the o"erating coil of the relay should e nearly Hero during normal o"erating conditions and 'hen e$ternal short circuit occurs% )hile setting the differential relay on a transformer! the CmismatchA current through differential element at normal ta" and "ositive and negative e$treme ta"s are to e com"uted% #ifferential element "icku" setting and;or ias settings is ado"ted ased on ma$imum "ercentage mismatch adding some safety margin% #ifferential Current Bias ,etting S S W 51F52 W W51F52 W FFFFFFFFFFF C51G52A;2

C%T /atios and connections for differential relay 1% & sim"le rule of thum is that the CTs on any )ye C,tarA 'inding of a Po'er transformer should e connected in delta and the CTs on any delta 'inding should e connected in )ye C,tarA% 2% aA 5f the CTs are to e connected in ,tar! the C%T /atio 'ill e 5n;1& )here 5n is transformer full load current% A 5f the CTs are to e connected in #elta! the C%T /atio 'ill e 5n;>%*99* &% ::

:=

=>

=1

=2

=3

Re5tr#$ted E'rth F'u(t Prote$t#o& %REF)1 C This relay is o"erative only for the internal faults of the transformer and thus fast o"erating timer can e achieved% 1% &n e$ternal fault on the star side 'ill result in current flo'ing in the line CT of the affected "hase and a alancing current in the neutral CT and current in the relay is Hero and hence relay is sta le% #uring an internal fault! the line current on the line CT gets reversed and hence relay o"erates% 2% The arrangement of residually connected CTs on the delta side of a transformer is only sensitive to earth faults on the delta side ecause Hero se@uence currents are locked y the delta 'inding% <or e$ternal faults no current flo's through /+< unless a CT gets saturated% Hence minimum "icku" current setting is ado"ted C1>O or 2>O 5nA on /+< relay% Based on the through fault current! the sta ilising resistor is set such that the relay 'ill not o"erate for e$ternal fault 'hen a CT gets saturated%This relay o"erates only for internal earth faults!instantaneously% =4

<ault current for e$ternal fault 5f S 2*>> & CassumeA C%T%/atio Cline and neutralA ,econdary fault current /CT S C%T%/esistance T0 S 0ead /esistance S 9%41 2hms;Im C2%* s@ mm CuA S 3>>;1 & 2*>> S FFFFFF S :%33 & C,ec%A 3>>

4oltage develo"ed across CT C,aturatedA C4kA S 5f C/CT G 2/0A S :%33 C* G 3A S 66%64 4olts S 1 4& S >%2 & C,et valueA

/elay urden /elay 2"erating Current

=*

/elay 2"erating 4oltage /elay urden 4/ S FFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFF /elay 2"erating Current S 1;>%2 S * 4olts 4IF4/ ,ta ilising /esistor ,/ S S
FFFFFFFFFFFFF

5,et 66%64F*%> FFFFFFFFFFF >%2 3>:%2 2hms 31> 2hms

S ,et ,/ S

5f the calculated value of ,/ e$ceeds the e$isting range! the current settings can e raised accordingly and arrived at suita le ,/ value% =6

=9

2verflu$ing Protection 1% 2verflu$ing condition in a transformer can occur during system over voltage and;or under fre@uency conditions C4;<A% 2% The 2verflu$ing condition does not call for high s"eed tri""ing% The tri""ing can e delayed de"ending on the overflu$ 'ithstand ca"a ility of the transformer% 3% /elays 'ith definite time delay Cnearly 3>,ec%A and inverse characteristic are em"loyed% 2ther Protective devices em"loyed Pressure /elief 4alue CP/4A )inding Tem"erature 2il Tem"erature 20TC BuchholH eing

=:

==

TRANSMISSION INES PROTECTION

1>>

1>1

Tr'&54#55#o& #&e Prote$t#o& D#5t'&$e Re('y51 C 5ntroduction? The im"edance relays also called distance relays are em"loyed to "rovide "rotection to transmission lines connected in a net'ork as they are economic and "ossess several technical advantages% They are com"aratively sim"le to a""ly! o"erate 'ith e$tremely high s"eed! and oth "rimary and acku" "rotection features are inherent in them% -oreover! they can e easily modified to 'ork as unit schemes y coordinating them 'ith "o'er line carrier facilities and are suita le for high s"eed reclosing% The im"edance relay is made to res"ond to the im"edance et'een the relay location and the "oint 'here fault is incident% The im"edance is "ro"ortional to the distance to the fault! Chence the name Vdistance relayVA and is therefore inde"endent of the fault current levels% #istance /elaying Princi"le? & distance relay com"ares the currents and voltages at the relaying "oint 'ith Current "roviding the o"erating tor@ue and the voltage "rovides the restraining tor@ue% 5n other 'ords an im"edance relay is a voltage restrained overcurrent relay% The e@uation at the alance "oint in a sim"le im"edance relay is I 142 S I252 or 4;5 S I3 'here I1! I2 and I3 are constants% 5n other 'ords! the relay is on the verge of o"eration at a constant value of 4;5 ratio! 'hich may e e$"ressed as an im"edance% 1>2

1>3

,ince the o"erating characteristics of the relay de"end u"on the ratio of voltage and current and the "hase angle et'een them! their characteristics can e est re"resented on an /FT diagram 'here oth 4;5 ratio and the "hase angle can e "lotted in terms of an im"edance /GDT% <urther! the "o'er system im"edance like fault im"edance! "o'er s'ings! loads etc% can also e "lotted on the same /FT diagram% Therefore res"onse of a "articular relay during "o'er s'ing! faults and other system distur ances can easily e assessed% Ty"es of #istance /elays? C1A C2A C3A C4A C1A 5m"edance relay /eactance relay -ho relay -odified im"edance relay 5m"edance relay? Characteristics of an im"edance relay on /FT diagram is sho'n in fig

2"eration of the im"edance relay is inde"endent of the "hase angle et'een 4 and 5% The o"erating characteristic is a circle 'ith its center at the origin! and hence the relay is nonF directional% Characteristic of #irectional 5m"edance /elay? Characteristic of a directional im"edance relay in the com"le$ /FT "hase is sho'n in fig% 1>4

1>*

The directional unit of the relay causes se"aration of the regions of the relay characteristic sho'n in the figure y a line dra'n "er"endicular to the line im"edance locus% The net result is that tri""ing 'ill occur only for "oints that are oth 'ithin the circles and a ove the directional unit characteristic% The /eactanceFty"e #istance /elay? /eactance relay measures 4;5 ,in> Ci%e% 8 sin > F A% )henever the reactance measured y the relay is less than the set value! the relay o"erates% The o"erating characteristic on /FT diagram is sho'n in fig The resistance com"onent of im"edance has no effect on the o"eration of reactance relay! the relay res"onds solely to reactance com"onent of im"edance% This relay is inherently nonF directional% The relay is most suita le to detect earth faults 'here the effect of arc resistance is a""recia le% -ho relay? This is a directional im"edance relay! also kno'n as admittance relay% 5ts characteristic on /FT diagram is a circle 'hose circumference "asses through the origin as illustrated in figure sho'ing that the relay is inherently directional and it only o"erates for faults in the for'ard direction%

1>6

1>9

-odified im"edance relay? &lso kno'n as offset -ho relay 'hose characteristic encloses the origin on /FT diagram as sho'n in fig This offset mho relay has three main a""lications? F iA iiA iiiA Bus ar Hone acku" Carrier starting unit in distance;carrier locking schemes% Po'er ,'ing locking%

-ain <eatures in #istance ,cheme #istance schemes consist of the follo'ing maDor com"onents?F iA ,tarters% iiA -easuring units% iiiA Timers ivA &u$iliary relays iA ,tarters? F The starting relay Cor starterA initiates the distance scheme in the event of a fault 'ithin the re@uired reach Cmore than HoneF3A% 2ther functions of the starter are? F aA ,tarting of timer relays for second and third Hones% 1>:

,tarting of measuring elements%

The starters are generally of -ho or im"edance ty"e% )ith -ho ty"e starters? F -easuring units for "hase and earth faults can e either directional or nonF directional as -ho starter is inherently directional% )ith im"edance ty"e starters? F -easuring units have to e directional as im"edance starters are non 7 directional% The under im"edance relay can e used in conDunction 'ith the directional relay as starter 'hich 'ill then function similar to the -ho starter% iiA -easuring units? F They are generally of a mho or reactance or a com ination of mho! reactance and resistance ty"es% Phase <ault Enits?F These measuring units are fed 'ith line to line voltages Csuch as 4a ! 4 cA and difference et'een line currents C5aF5 A% They measure the "ositive se@uence im"edance from the relay location to the fault "oint% Three such relays res"ond correctly to all "ossi le single line to ground faults line to line faults! dou le line 1>=

to ground faults and 3F"hase faults% They ho'ever do not res"ond correctly to earth faults% +arth <ault Enits? F These measuring units utiliHe line to neutral voltage C4an! 4 n 4cnA and "hase currents C5a! 5 ! 5cA% 5n order to make these units measure the "ositive se@uence im"edance correctly! a Hero se@uence current com"ensation is to e "rovided 'hich is o tained y? I1 S C8>F81A; 3R81 C'here 81 S "ositive se@uence im"edance of line% 8> S 8ero se@uence im"edance of lineA 5n the current circuit C1GI1A 5a 'ill e fed for the a ove measurement% iiiA Timers? F Timer relays 'hen initiated y starters "rovide the time lag re@uired for Hones% They also 'ill e used for Hone e$tension "ur"ose 'henever re@uired% &u$iliary relays? F #istance scheme com"rises of several au$iliary relays! 'hich "erform functions such as flag indications! tri""ings! signaling! alarm etc%

ivA

11>

Add#t#o&'( Fe'ture5 #& d#5t'&$e 5$he4e51 C iA iiA iiiA ivA vA viA #) Po'er ,'ing locking relay 4T fuse failure relay% ,'itch onto fault relay <ault locator &utoFreclosing scheme% Carrier communication scheme% Po2er S2#&+ b(o$9#&+1 C #istance relay 'hich res"ond to alanced 3F"hase changes in the im"edance 'ill e affected y "o'er s'ings% These s'ings or oscillations occur follo'ing a system distur ance such as maDor load change or a di" in voltage due to delayed fault clearance% 5n case of fault! the transition from "eriod of im"edance locations C2* to 33O of starter im"edanceA to fault im"edance Cstarter im"edanceA is sudden 'hereas during "o'er s'ings% The P,B relays use this difference to lock the tri""ing during s'ings% ##) VT 6u5e 6'#(ure re('y1 C The distance relays eing voltage restraint 2;C relays! loss of voltage due to main PT fuse failure or inadvertent removal of fuse in one or more "hases 'ill cause the relay o"eration% The fuse failure relay 'ill sense such condition y the "resence of residual voltage 'ithout residual current and locks the relay% 111

###)

S2#t$h o&to 6'u(t1 C )hen the line is s'itched on to a close y fault Csay after line clear 'ith earth s'itch closedA! the voltage at the relaying "oint 'ill e Hero% <aults of this ty"e 'ill normally e cleared y acku" Hones% The voltage a""lied to the relay is lo' and this condition occurring simultaneously 'ith the o"eration of starter 'ill cause instantaneous tri" y ,2T< relay% This ,2T< feature 'ill e effective only for a out 1F2 seconds after the line is charged% <aults occurring after this time 'ill e measured in the normal 'ay%

#3)

F'u(t (o$'tor1 C 5t measures the distance et'een the relay location and fault location in terms of 8 in 2hms! or length in I- or "ercentage of line length% This relay gets same in"uts as the distance relay Cconnected in series 'ith one of the main relaysA% The measurement is initiated y tri" signal from distance relays% The fault locator gives the e$act location of the fault! there y reducing the time of restoration%

112

3)

Auto Re$(o5#&+ S$he4e51C Ty"es of <aults?F

iA

Transient <aults?F These are cleared y the immediate tri""ing of circuit reakers and do not recur 'hen the line is reFenergised% ,emiF"ermanent <aults?F These re@uire a time interval to disa""ear efore a line is charged again% Permanent <aults?F These are to e located and re"aired efore the line is reFenergised%

iiA iiiA

& out :>F=>O of the faults occurring are transient in nature% Hence the automatic reclosure of reaker Cafter tri""ing on faultA 'ill result in the line eing successfully reFenergised! there y aA A cA dA #ecreasing outage time 5m"roving relia ility 5m"roving system sta ility /educes fault damage and maintenance time 113

De'd T#4e1C The time et'een the &utoFreclosing scheme eing energised and the 1st reclosure of the circuit reaker % This is normally set at 1 ,ec% Re$('#4 T#4e1C The time follo'ing a successful closing o"eration measured from the instant the autoFreclosing relay closing contacts making 'hich must ela"se efore the autoFreclosing relay initiated another reclosing attem"t% 5n other 'ords! it may e said to e the time et'een 1st and 2nd reFclosure% Ty*e5 o6 AutoCre$(o5#&+ 5$he4e5 %b'5ed o& *h'5e)1 ') Three *h'5e AutoCre$(o5#&+1 This ty"e of autoFreclosing causes an immediate drift a"art of the t'o systems and hence no interchange of synchroniHing "o'er can take "lace during the dead time% b) S#&+(e Ph'5e AutoCre$(o5#&+1 5n this only the faulty "hase C'hich already has tri""ed on ,0. faultA is reclosed 'ithout causing interru"tion in interchange of synchronising "o'er et'een t'o systems through other t'o healthy "hases% 114

Ty*e5 o6 AutoCre$(o5#&+ 5$he4e5 %$'5e o& 'tte4*t5 o6 re$(o5ure)? ') S#&+(e Shot AutoCre$(o5#&+1C 5n this scheme! reaker is reclosed only once on a given fault efore lockout of circuit reaker occurs% High s"eed autoFreclosing for +H4 system is invaria ly single shot% b) Mu(t#C5hot AutoCre$(o5#&+1C 5n this scheme! more than one reclosing attem"t is made for a given fault efore lockout of the circuit reaker occurs% /e"eated closure attem"ts 'ith high fault level 'ould seriously affect the circuit reaker! e@ui"ment and system sta ility% The factors that must e taken into account?F iA Circuit Breaker 0imitations?F & ility of circuit reaker to "erform several tri" close o"erations in @uick succession% ,ystem Conditions?F 5n the "ercentage of the semiF"ermanent faults C'hich could e urnt outA is moderate! for e$am"le on the lines through the forest! multishot autoFreclosing is follo'ed% 11*

iiA

Ty*e5 o6 AutoCre$(o5#&+ %de*e&d#&+ o& 5*eed)1 5A H#+h 5*eed AutoCre$(o5#&+1

This aids in fast restoration of su""ly ut should e done y taking into account the follo'ing factors?F iA iiA 55% ,ystem distur ance time can e tolerated 'ithout loss of system sta ility% Characteristics of "rotection schemes and circuit reaker%

o2 S*eed or De('yed AutoCre$(o5#&+1C This is suita le for highly interconnected systems 'here the loss of a single line is unlikely to cause t'o sections of the system to drift a"art and loose synchronism%

For EHV Sy5te451C ') Cho#$e o6 De'd T#4e1C 0o'er limit is decided y deionising time of circuit reaker% 116

E""er limit is decided y transient sta ility and synchronism% 0ong transmission lines re@uire longer dead time for single "hase faults% The dead time for high s"eed autoFreclosing scheme 'ith +H4 system is >%3F>%: ,ec% b) Cho#$e 6or re$('#4 t#4e1C This should not e set to such a lo' value that the o"erating cycle of reaker is e$ceeded 'hen t'o fault incident occurs close together% The reclaim time 'ill e in the range of 1>F3> ,ec%! de"ending on the reaker o"ening and closing mechanisms%

119

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C'rr#er Co44u&#$'t#o& S$he4e51C The main disadvantage of conventional timeFste""ed distance "rotection is that the instantaneous 8oneF1 of the "rotective scheme at each end of the "rotected line is set to cover :>O of the line and hence faults in the alance 2>O of the line Cat each endA are cleared in 8oneF2 time! 'hich is undesira le% The desira le scheme is the one 'herein the relays clear the faults on the 1>>O of the "rotected line instantaneously and also "rovide acku" for uncleared faults on adDacent lines% This can e achieved y interconnecting the distance relays are each end of the line y a signaling channel C'hich can e either "ilots! a "o'er line carrier communication channel! a radio link or a micro'ave channelA% The "ur"ose of the signaling channel is to transmit the information a out the system conditions at one end of the "rotected line to the other end and initiate or "revent tri""ing of the remote circuit reaker% The former arrangement is referred to as a JTransfer tri" schemeK 'hile the latter is kno'n as JBlocking schemeK ') Tr'&56er tr#* 5$he4e1C 5n this scheme! the distance relay at one end of the "rotected lines sends a carrier signal to the relay at other end of the line for interFtri""ing! there y clearing the faults on entire line instantaneously% Transfer tri" is of t'o ty"es?F

11:

-%

TR#P REL /

ZL Z3 t3 t2 t1 A Z2 Z3 Z1 B C Z1 Z2 D t1 t2 t3

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C A R R !R " !N D # Z1 T R P # Z 1 $ Z 2 % &C R $ T 2 ' $ Z 3 %T 3

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OR AND

11=

#)

!&derCre'$h#&+ 5$he4e1C The scheme in 'hich the 8oneF1 relay Cset to cover a out :>O of 80A is used to send a signal to the remote end of the feeder for interFtri""ing is termed as transfer tri" underFreaching scheme% To avoid malFo"eration due to recei"t of false signal! the receiving end relay o"eration is interFlocked 'ith its 8oneF 3;starter o"eration i%e% the scheme o"erates either y its o'n 8oneF1 relay o"eration or y recei"t of carried and its 8oneF3;starter o"eration%

##)

O3erCre'$h#&+ 5$he4e1C This scheme is suita le for short lines 'here an underreaching 8oneF1 'ould e too short to e of any "ractical use% 5n this scheme the relay set to reach eyond 1>>O of the line! is used to send an interFtri""ing signal to the remote end of the line% 5t is essential that the receive relay contact e monitored y a directional relay to ensure that tri""ing does not take "lace unless the fault is 'ithin the "rotected section% The disadvantage of this scheme is that there is no inde"endent 8oneF1 tri""ing% The fast tri""ing therefore relies entirely on signaling channel% The disadvantages of these schemes is that the signal is transmitted over the fault line section% #istortion of the signal may occur due to attenuation introduced into the line y the fault%

12>

-% T&

CR

TR#P REL /

ZL t3 t2 t1
A Z2D Z3D Z3A Z 2A Z1A B Z 1D D

T.

-&

T& T#)ERS T.

t1 t2 t3

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-% -& -.
T& T.

TR#P

CARR !R "!ND #Z1 TR P #Z1%CR $ Z2%T2 $ Z3%T3

CR AND

OR

121

122

ZL

-%

TR#P REL /

-R

Z3 t3 t2 t1 A Z2 Z3 Z1 B C Z1 Z2 D t1 t2 t3

T& T. CR -& -. -& T& T#)ERS T.

-R

C RR#ER SEN$

-%

CARR !R " !ND

# ZR

-& -. CR

T& T.

TR#P

T R P # Z1 $ Z2 % & C R % T o $ T 2 ' $ Z3 %T 3

OR AN D

123

b)

B(o$9#&+ 5$he4e51C 5n this scheme! a locking signal is sent y the reverse looking directional unit 8/ to "revent instantaneous tri""ing for 8oneF2 ( 8oneF3 faults! e$ternal to the "rotected line% Here 8/ must o"erate faster then for'ard looking 8oneF3 units and the signaling channel must also e e$tremely fast is o"eration% Though all the distance schemes 'ith carrier interFtri""ing;carrier facility are "rocured! the same are yet to e commissioned% locking

124

F'$tor5 '66e$t#&+ d#5t'&$e re('y o*er't#o&1C iA <ault resistance% iiA 5nfeed effect% iiiA BranchingFoff effect% ivA 0oad encroachment% iA <ault resistance?F <ault resistance has t'o com"onents?F aA &rc resistance% A .round resistance% 5n a fault et'een "hases! only arc resistance is involved% <or a fault at <! the actual line im"edance S / G 3T S 80 #ue to the "resence of fault resistance! the im"edance measured y the relay S / G 3T G /< S 8/ C'here 8/ X 80A <ault arc resistance is given y )arringtonVs formula? /arc S :9*> $l ; 5 1%4 'here l S length of arc in ft 5 S fault current in &m"s 12*

The arc resistance has little effect on accuracy of HoneF1 unit as it o"erates instanteously efore the arc can stretch a""recia ly e$ce"t in case of short lines% /eactance relays are therefore used for short lines 'here the fault resistance may e com"ara le 'ith that of the "rotected lines and also for ground faults 'here the ground resistance is high% The arc resistance 'ill have greater im"act on accuracy of acku" Hones Ctime delayedA as the arc stretches a""recia ly% iiA 5nfeed effect?F The effect of intermediate current source et'een relay location and fault "oint is termed as infeed effect% Consider the sketch indicated in fig FFF & fault at < on the line BC is at a distance of 81G82 for the relay at station &% But 'hen current 52 flo's from us #! the im"edance to the fault as seen y the relay at & is 81 G 82 G 82 $ C52;51A% Thus the fault is seen y the relay as farther than 'hat it really is! i%e% distance relay under reaches due to the infeed effect% The effect of infeed ecomes more "ronounced 'ith more interconnections at station B% iiiA 126 BranchingFoff effect? F Consider the sketch indicated in fig FFF

129

& fault at < is at the distance of 81G82 for the relay at station &% But 'hen current 51 gets distri uted as 52 ( 53 at station B! the im"edance to fault seen y the relay at station & 'ill e C81 G 53;51 R 82A 'hich is less than C81G82A% Then the fault is seen y the relay as nearer than 'hat it really is i%e% distance relay overreaches due to ranchingFoff effect% This overreaching tendency 'ill cause the relay to loose its selectivity% ivA 0oad encroachment? F )hile "rotecting long lines the necessary reach may e so large that the minimum service im"edance Cor load im"edanceA falls 'ithin the region of the starter% This 'ould result in tri""ing 'ithout there eing any fault% The t'o conditions i%e% o"eration at heavy load and short circuit differ y virtue of "hase angle et'een voltage and current% <or the load im"edance! the "hase angle 'ill e 'ithin G3> to F3> #eg% )hile during short circuits! the fault im"edance has a "hase angle of 6> to :> deg% Ci%e% line angleA% 0oad encroachment "ro lem is more "ronounced in case of under im"edance starters and gets lessened in case of mho! elli"tical! lens etc! ty"e of starters% /elays 'ith suita le characteristic on /FT diagram have to e carefully chosen to "rotect long and heavily loaded lines! and this ecomes easily "ossi le 'ith micro"rocessor ased numerical relays%

12:

No&C52#t$hed 5$he4e 35 52#t$hed 5$he4e1 C 5n an ideal 1onFs'itched scheme! there 'ill e 6 starters! 3 for "hase faults and 3 for ground faults% There 'ill e inde"endent measuring units for oth "hase faults and earth fault for each "hase! for all three Hones! totaling to 1: units% This scheme is faster and more accurate ut is costly% 5n the s'itched scheme! only one measuring unit 'ill e used for all ty"es of faults% This single measuring unit is s'itched to the correct fault loo" im"edance y s'itchingFin the res"ective voltages and currents y the starter% The reach of the measuring element gets e$tended to HoneF2 and HoneF3 after the ela"se of corres"onding timings through Hone e$tension "rocess% ,'itched scheme is relatively slo' in o"eration and has the risk of total scheme failure in the event of failure of the only one measuring unit availa le% Mo&e e"te&5#o& 5$he4e51 C &s a via media et'een nonFs'itched and s'itched schemes! there are schemes 'ith Hone e$tension facility Csuch as ++ make --34 ( -/34 relaysA% These schemes consists of 3 measuring units for "hase faults and 3 measuring units for earth faults Ca"art from 3 startersA%

12=

The reach of the measuring unit gets e$tended to HoneF2 and HoneF3 after ela"se of corres"onding timings through a Hone e$tension "rocess% 2ther 2"erating Characteristics? +arlier 'hen electromagnetic relays 'ere in use! the characteristics involving straight lines and ;or circles on /FT diagram 'ere only "ossi le% )ith the advent of static relays! micro"rocessor ased relays and "resently of numerical relays! any desired;re@uiredFo"erating characteristic is "ossi le giving 'ider choice for selection of relays% 5nfact there are relays! 'hich can e "rogrammed remotely% A**(#$'t#o& o6 d#5t'&$e re('y51 ,ince the distance relays are fed from the secondaries of line CTs and us PTs;line C4Ts! the line "arameters are to e converted into secondary values to set the relay as "er re@uirements% 8secy S 8"ri;5m"edance ratio C'here 5m"edance ratio S P%T%/atio;C%T%/atioA Hence any changes in C%T %ratio has to e effected along 'ith revision of relay settings only%

13>

<or the lines! the im"edance in 2hms "er I- is a""ro$imately as under? FFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFF I4 81 CS 82 A 0ine &ngle FFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFF 132 I4 >%4 6> to 9> #eg% 22> I4 >%4 9> to :> #eg%

4>> I4 >%3 :> to :* #eg% FFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFF The line im"edance is to e com"uted de"ending on line configuration conductor siHe and clearness% The values in the ta le are only re"resentative% & distance relay is ste""ed for either 3 Hones or 4 Hones to "rovide "rotection% To ensure "ro"er coordination et'een distance relays in "o'er system! it is customary to choose relay ohmic setting as follo's? F 131

FFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFF ,%1o% 8ones /eactance Time FFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFF 1% 8oneF1 :>O of 80 5nstantaneous Cno intentional time delayA% 2% 3% 4% 8oneF2 8oneF3 8oneF4 1>>O of 80 G 4>F*>O of 8,0 1>>O of 80 G 12>O of 8,0 >%3 to >%4 seconds >%6 to >%: seconds

1>>O of 80 G 12>O >%= to 1%* of 800 seconds% FFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFF 'here 80 S Positive se@uence im"edance of line to e "rotected% 8,0 S Positive se@uence im"edance of adDacent shortest line% 800 S Positive se@uence im"edance of adDacent longest line% 1ote? iA )here a three Hone relay only is availa le! the Hone 3 'ill e set to cover the adDacent longest line% iiiA The Honal timings 'ill e carefully selected to "ro"erly grade 'ith the relays on all the feeders emanating from the adDacent us% 132

133

1orms of "rotection ado"ted for transmission lines in &%P%,ystem?F iA 132 I4 0ines? F & s'itched ty"e distance scheme su""lemented y three num ers directional 2;0 relays and 1 1o% directional +;0 relay% 22> I4 0ines? F T'o #istance ,chemes? F -ainF5? F -ainF55? F 1onFs'itched scheme fed from us PT% & s'itched scheme fed from line C4T%

iiA

& "rovision is generally made for the changeover of voltage su""ly for the distance schemes from the us PT to line C4T and viceFversa% +ach distance scheme is fed from inde"endent CT secondary cores% iiiA 4>> I4 0ines?F T'o #istance ,chemes?F -ainF5?F -ainF55?F 134 1onFs'itched or 1umerical distance schemes 1onFs'itched or 1umerical distance schemes

13*

#etails of distance relays?F 1A iA -ake? F --34? F .+C &lstom 0td% 5t is an electromagnetic ty"e distance relay 'ith? 3Fmho measuring units for "hase to "hase faults% 3Fmho measuring units for "hase to earth faults% 3Fmho starting units! each starter eing associated 'ith one "hase and o"erating for all faults associated 'ith that "hase and one offset mho unit for "o'er s'ing locking% /FT diagram is indicated elo' ,etting range in ohms for 8oneF1 FFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFF >%:34 to 3> 1%33* to 4: 1%66: to 6> 82 S 1 to 3%* times 81 83 S 1 to * times 81 FFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFF ,ome of the schemes are "rovided 'ith a 8oneF4 timer to make the scheme 'orks as a 4 Hone relay! the starter itself eing the 4th Hone% 136

iiA

-/34? F 5t is an electromagnetic relays 'ith 3 mho units for "hase faults! 3 reactance units for earth faults% 3 mho starters! each eing associated 'ith one "hase for all ty"es of faults and one offset mho unit for "o'er s'ing locking% ,etting ranges same as in --34% /FT diagram for "hase faults is same as that for --34 relay and for earth faults it is indicated in figure

139

iiiA

//34? FY 5t is an electromagnetic relay 'ith 3 1os% reactance units for "hase faults! 3 reactance units for earth faults! and 3 mho starters "er "hase for all ty"es of faults and one offset mho unit for P,B% /FT diagram is indicated in figure ,,//34? F 5t is an electromagnetic s'itched scheme 'ith t'o version i%e% 'ith mho or under im"edance starter and availa le in lo' and high range%

ivA

13:

13=

3 under im"edance starters directionalised y mho element or 3 mho element starters and for all ty"es of fault! one reactanceFmeasuring unit for "hase and earth faults% 0o' range relay? 81 S >%* to 9%9% 2hms Ck1 of Hone1? 9%9! 3%>! 1%22A High range relay? 81 S 1%3 to 2> 2hms Ck1 of HoneF1? 2>! 9%:! 3%16A 82 S C1 to 3%*A times 81 83 S C1 to *A times 81 /FT diagram is same as that for //34 relay% <e' versions do not have se"arate HoneF4 timer% 5n such relays! HoneF4 time S HoneF3 time G 1*> msec Cfi$ed uiltFin delayA% vA ,HP- CNuadra mhoA? F 5t is a nonFs'itched static scheme 'ith 1: measuring mho units% The HoneF3 measuring elements 'ill act as starters! 'hich have either mho or a lenticular characteristic% The o"erating characteristic on /FT diagram is indicated in figure The lenticular characteristics allo's healthy overloads and hence "revents tri""ing on load encroachment% ,etting range? F >%2 to 24> 2hms% 5t has uiltFin feature of continuous self monitoring Con demand and "eriodic self testingA% &ll the additional features "rovided y relay can e ena led or disa led 'ith the hel" of s'itches "rovided for them% 14>

141

viA

PQT,? F 5t is a static s'itched scheme 'ith modular "lugFin construction C'ith uilt in test "ointsA% 5t has 3 under im"edance starters and a single mho measuring unit% 2ne E;5 unit for "o'er s'ing locking% /FT diagram is indicated in figure ,etting range? >%>* to 4> 2hms! 'ith starter having range of 2> to 9> 2hms% 5t has an uncom"ensated E;5 starter! 'hich has encroachment for long lines% ecome a "ro lem due to load

The 4F5 characteristic of the starter is indicated in a ove figure% )hen the voltage is less than 6*O rated! the starter o"erates at a current greater than >%2* 5n% )ith lo' voltages at some of the stations! this feature has caused relay to o"erate unnecessarily%

142

143

viiA

2PT5-H2 2"timho distance relay is a nonFs'itched "rotection scheme having 1: com"arators and u"to five Hones of "rotection Cthree asic Hones of measurement and t'o for Hone e$tension schemesA The relay has "artially cross "olarised sha"ed mho characteristics for HoneF1 and HoneF2 "hase units% The HoneF3 for "hase faults have offset lenticular characteristics 'hich "ermit the relay to e a""lied to long heavily loaded transmission lines 'ithout encroachment into the load im"edance% <or earth faults! HoneF1 and HoneF2 units have @uadrilateral characteristics 'ith inde"endent reaches in resistive and reactive a$es% The HoneF3 units are offset @uadrilateral% The HoneF3 units for "hase and earth faults can e chosen for offset or to see in reverse direction% The relay characteristic is indicated in <ig% 2n event of failure of @uadrilateral com"arators! mho;lenticular com"arators are automatically ena led ut vice versa is not "ossi le% The relay has self testing facility% 5t has : grou"s of settings and any one grou" can e set active%

144

14*

P# 7 *21? F aA A cA dA eA 5t is a numerical "rotection relay 'ith "olygon characteristics% 5t consists of four im"edance Hones 'ith inde"endent / and T values for each Hone 8one 7 4 can e utiliHed as a s"ecial Hone for ca ie "rotection% / 7 T diagram as indicated in figure% Through --5! one can enter and edit the settings CThe settings are "ass'ord "rotectedA ,etting /ange Timers ? ? >%1 to 2>>> 2hms% > to 1> ,ecs%

146

-one-. -one-P1programma2le3 -one-& -one-%0 -one-4 -one-%

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R. R& Rp R4ph

149

-5C2- #5,T&1C+ /+0&Q C&lstom makeA? -5C2- P44> series is a distance scheme 'ith advanced numerical technology% -5C2P441 and P442 relays have five Hones of "hase fault "rotection and five Hones of earth fault "rotection% aA Ph'5e 6'u(t *rote$t#o& Phase fault @uadrilateral characteristics is sho'n in the figure% iA 8ones 1!2 ( 3 7 directional for'ard Hones! as used in conventional three Hone distance schemes% 1ote that 8oneF1 can e e$tended to 8oneF1T 'hen re@uired in 8oneF1 e$tension scheme% 8one P 7 Programma le% ,electa le as a directional for'ard or reverse Hone% 8oneF4 7 #irectional reverse Hone% 1ote that 8oneF3 and 8oneF4 can together to give effectively a for'ard Hone 'ith a reverse offset% e set

iiA iiiA

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$) E'rth F'u(t Prote$t#o&1 +arth fault @uadrilateral characteristics is similar to the "hase fault @uadrilateral characteristics as sho'n elo'% /esistive reaches can e set inde"endently for "hase and earth fault "rotections% &ll earth fault elements are @uadrilateral sha"ed! and are directionalised similar to the "hase fault elements% The im"edance reaches of earth fault elements use residual com"ensation of the corres"onding "hase fault reaches%

1*>

1*1

2A

-ake? F BBC;HBB iA 08=6? 5t is a nonFs'itched scheme 'ith 3 underim"edance measuring units common for ground and 3F"hase faults% 3 1os% under im"edance Coffset mhoA starters! one underFim"edance unit for all "ossi le "hase to "hase faults% /FT diagram is indicated in figure <or'ard and reverse reach can e selected inde"endently in starters C'ith HoneF4 time settingA% ,etting range? >%1 to 1>> 2hms% iiA 0586? F 5t is a s'itched scheme 'ith 3 underFim"edance starters! 3 overcurrent starters and one neutral current starter% 5t has one reactance measuring unit for all faults% )ith the "rovision of angle re"lica unit the relay has s"ecial o"erating characteristic on /FT diagram indicated in figure! 'hich "ermits high loading on long lines% This eing the initial versions of static relays there have een num er of com"onent failure and are eing "hased out%

1*2

iiiA aA

03 relays? F 03)Q,? This relay consists of 3 under im"edance starters and a single directional reactance measuring unit CC- relayA% 5t is four Hone relay! the HoneF4! starter ste" eing nonFdirectional% Time settings for all the four Hones Cincluding 8oneF1A can e varied from >%1 to * seconds% /F T diagram is indicated in figure%

1*3

03'yas? F This is similar to 03)Q, relay e$ce"t that the E;5 starters are "rovided 'ith com"ounding chokes there y shifting the circle! making it an offset mho as indicated in figures%

5t is also su""lemented y Qi;0 F "o'er s'ing locking unit% ivA 06ft? F 5t is high s"eed! single ste" distance relay usually su""lemented to 03'yas or 03'ys% 5t is set to "rotect :>O of line and 'ithout any time delay%

1*4

vA

Qke;l relay? F This consists of three under im"edance starters! used in conDunction 'ith 03'yas relays% By "rovision of com"ounding chokes! the o"erating region of the Qke;l relay is shifted much a ove the origin of the /FT diagram% The o"erating characteristic of the com ination of 03'yas and Qke;l relay is indicated in figure% 5t may e seen from the diagram that this com ination "ermits much higher loading and "rotects longer lines! 'ithout any "ro lem of load encroachment%

1**

3A iA

-ake? &BB? F /Q8<C? F 5t has come into service in the initial stage of the advent of static relays! has 3 mho measuring units for earth faults! one mho unit for "hase faults and 3 under im"edance starters% 5n addition! this relay has negative se@uence current starter 'ith a fi$ed setting of 2>O of 5n! 'hich causes the relay to tri" in 8oneF4% The starter can e made to o"erate either as a circle or as oval% /FT diagram is indicated in figure% ,etting range? F 1%: to 2>> 2hms% aA A This relay is found to lose its directional sensitivity for close y reverse faults and hence not recommended for use on feeders emanating from generating stations% &lso the negative "hase se@uence starter is found to res"ond to very far end faults%

1*6

1*9

iiA

/&82.? F 5t is a s'itched scheme 'ith 3 under im"edance starters and one reactance measuring unit% 5t has @uadrilateral characteristic% /FT diagram is indicated elo'% ,etting range? >%2* to 64 2hms% The starter can e made to o"erate either as a circle or oval%

1*:

1*=

iiiA

/&8<+? 5t is static three Hone nonFs'itched scheme% <or ground and 3F"hase faults! the distance relay has a reactance like o"erating characteristic! the reactance line eing inclined y a fe' degrees to'ards resistance a$is on /FT diagram! 'hich "rovides e$cellent margin for high resistance faults and minimises effects of load current and remote ends infeed on distance measurement /FT diagram is indicated elo'% To avoid load encroachment "ro lem! the relay is "rovided 'ith linder! 'hich has inde"endent settings in resistive and reactive directions% <or "hase to "hase faults! mho units are used% ,etting rage? >%2* to 64 2hms%

16>

161

ivA

/&82&? F 5t is a static scheme having 3 under Fim"edance starters and one measuring unit% The directional measuring unit has got @uadrilateral characteristic 'ith inde"endent settings in resistive and reactive directions% /FT diagram is as indicated%

The E;5 starter can e made to o"erate 'ith a circle or oval characteristic 'ith a selecta le s'itch C,3? 1 21 for circle 2<< for oval in /.8B moduleA% /.,B -odule? #irectional 1onFdirectional ,etting range ? ,1? 1 F 2<< ? ,1? 1 F 21 ? >%16 to 64 2hms%

162

163

CvA

/+08F1>>? 5t is a numerical relay 'ith @uadrilateral im"edance units for "hase and earth faults% +ach measuring unit has individual and inde"endent setting of the reach in resistive and reactive directions! as 'ell as for the Hero se@uence com"ensation factor! I1% +ntire 8oneF3 reach Cin for'ard directionA is availa le in reverse direction 'ith a se"arate timer T3/% /FT diagram is as indicated <our grou"s of setting "arameters are "ossi le to suit different system conditions% 2nly one of the grou"s 'ill e in service y choice% 5t has continuous self monitoring and self testing feature and indicate the same y e$tinguishing U/elay &vaila leU 0+# on the relay% Through --5! one can enterB edit the settings! read the mean service values of line voltage! current! real! reactive "o'er and fre@uency% 5t stores data of latest 3 distur ances occurred% CThe settings are not "ass'ord "rotectedA% ,etting rage? Timers? >%1 to 1*> 2hms% > to 1> ,ecs%

5t has a feature 'hich does overload su"ervision and unsymmetrical load condition! 'hich can e used for alarm or tri"%

164

16*

viA

/&#,0? F This "ilot 'ire "rotection scheme used for "rotection of short lines% 5t is very fast o"erating relay! clearing the faults in 1>>O of line 'ithout any time delay% This is commissioned on 22> I4 IT, VCV ,tation F IT, 4 ,tage tie lines 1 ( 2 at oth ends as -ainF1 "rotection scheme C-ainF55 eing /+08F1>> relayA% 0ike'ise .+C make <&C34 "ilot 'ire differential relays are "rovided on 22> I4 1TPC F /&-&.E1#&- tie lines 1 ( 2 'ith acku" 2;0! +;0 relays% -ake? F Eniversal +lectric iA -#T4*B? 5t is a nonFs'itched 3FHone distance scheme 'ith 1: measuring units! 3 1os% lo' set starters 80 and 3 1os% high set starters 8H% 5t is availa le in t'o ranges lo' and high% /FT diagram is indicated in figure% aA A <or 0o' range? /eactance -easuring units for 8oneF1 ( 8oneF2% <or High range? -ho measuring units for 8oneF1 ( 8oneF2%

4A

166

169

iiA

-#TB1>1? 5t is s'itched scheme! 'ith 3 im"edance starters! one neutral overcurrent starter and one mho measuring unit% /FT diagram is indicated in figure% This relay has a 4F5 characteristic similar to that of PQT, relay% )hen the voltage is less than 6*O rated! the starter o"erates at a current greater than >%2* 5n% <or 22> I4 lines! the settings on -ainF5 distance relay must e on "ar 'ith that of -ainF55 relay and viceFversa% <or 132 I4 lines! distance relay along 'ith directional 2;0! +;0 relays are used% The o"erating time of 2;0! +;0 relays for adDacent us faults are set e@ual to or more than HoneF2 time of distance relay%

16:

16=

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-ake? F +asun /eyrolle? F iA TH/4P+24? F 5t is static nonFs'itched scheme 'ith 3 for'ard Hones and 1 reverse Hone consists of a total of 24 measuring units% 12 1os% mho units for HoneF1 ( HoneF2 for "hase and earth faults% 6 1os% offset mho units for HoneF3! 6 1os% -ho units for reverse reach% /FT diagram is indicated in figure% 5t has reverse reach set to Cc $ HoneF1A for "hase faults and Cc $ HoneF1A C1GI1A for earth faults! I1 eing com"ensation factor% .enerally c is set e@ual to V1V% iiA TH/4P+1? F 5t is static s'itched scheme 'ith 3 offset mho starters and one mho measuring unit% /FT diagram is indicated in the figure% 5t is availa le in lo' and high ranges? F ,etting range? F 0o' range? F >%>: to =%* 2hms C'ith &?>%: to =%6A High range? F >%4 to 49%* 2hms C'ith &? 4 to 4:A The starter has a uilt in reverse reach! e@ual to *>O of for'ard reach for "hase faults and *>O of for'ard reach C1GI1A for earth faults! I1 eing com"ensation factor%

19>

191

-ake? F ,eimens 0td% 9,&*11 relay? 5t is a numerical "rotection scheme 'ith 16 it micro"rocessor% )ith three version of detectors% iA Phase selective overcurrent fault detector% iiA 4oltage controlled CunderFim"edanceA fault detector C'ith inde"endent / ( T reachesA and iiiA Polygonally sha"ed angleFde"endent im"edance fault detector% 5t has five Hones Ct'o of 'hich can e used for communication schemesA% /FT diagram is indicated elo'% &"art from common features! it "rovides +mergency overcurrent function! 'hich comes into "icture 'hen main distance scheme is locked due to 4T fuse failure conditions% 5t "rovides t'o user defined logic functions% 5t has continuous self monitoring and self testing feature% 5t stores data of latest three faults and measures values of load current! o"erating voltage! "o'er and fre@uency continuously% ,etting range? >%1 to 2>> 2hms 'ith >%> to 32 sec Cin ste" of >%>1 secA timers% <our grou"s of settings are "ossi le to suit different system conditions% 2nly one of the grou"s 'ill e in service y choice% 192

193

,+0 7 321? F 5t is numerical relay 'ith aA <our -ho Hones for "hase faults 'ith inde"endent "hase to "hase overcurrent su"ervision% A <our ground faults for -ho and Nuadrilateral Hones 'ith inde"endent "hase and residual overcurrent su"ervision and Hero se@uence com"ensation% cA T'o Nuadrilateral Hones for "o'er s'ing locking% dA 0oadFencroachment characteristics% eA 5nstantaneous! #efinite time and 5#-T overcurrent characteristics% fA ,i$ C6A setting grou"s are availa le in the scheme% ,etting ranges?F <or -ho Hones <or Nuadrilateral 8ones /eactance /esistance Timers 194 ? ? ? ? ? >%2* to 32> 2hms C,econdaryA >%2* to 2*> 2hms C,econdaryA >F2>>> Cycles >%2* to 32> 2hms C,econdaryA

/elay indications? "ur"ose and meaning? F The relay indications are a guide to identify the ty"e and road location of fault% They are the means to assess the relay "erformance y tallying 'ith the actual faults occurred% They hel" in revie' and analysis of the tri""ings occurred% #ifferent manufacturers used different sym ols;flags of signaling different ty"es of faults% )henever the relays o"erate! their indications should e noted efore they are reset /elay indications 'ith their meanings on various ty"es and makes of relays are indicated in the follo'ing ta le%

19*

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Bu5b'r Arr'&+e4e&t5 8 Prote$t#o& 5n order to maintain system sta ility and minimise fault damage due to high fault levels! instantaneous tri""ing for us ar faults is necessary% Bus ar "rotection scheme should e? aA Com"letely relia le A & solutely sta le for heavy through faults cA ,elective dA &ccurate and fast o"erating Ge&er'( Bu5b'r Arr'&+e4e&t5 aA ,ingle Bus ar &rrangement This has only single us ar to 'hich all lines;Transformers;.enerators! etc% are connected% 5n the event of the fault on the us entire us has to e deenergised and a maDor outage occurs% A ,ingle ,ectionalised Bus ar ,cheme 5n this! main us is divided into t'o sections 'ith a circuit reaker% 2ne com"lete section can e taken out for maintenance or for reakdo'n 'orks 'ithout distri ution continuity of other section% 1=>

1=1

cA -ain ( transfer us ar scheme? F )ith this arrangement! any line reaker Cone at a timeA re@uiring maintenance can e transferred to transfer us% The feeder "rotection thus gets transferred to tri" us cou"le reaker% 2n fault occurrence or maintenance! entire us ecomes deFenergised%

1=2

dA #ou le Bus arrangement? F <le$i ility of transferring any line to any of the uses% 2n fault occurrence or maintenance only one us ecomes dead! 'hile other us remains in service%

1=3

eA #ou le us and transfer us arrangement?F Com ination of main and transfer us and dou le us arrangement%

1=4

1=*

fA Breaker and half arrangement? F C2ne and half Breaker arrangementA &dvantages?F 1A 5t has 3 reakers for t'o connections%+ach circuit is connected to a "articular us% 2A 1o changeover of line from one us to the other is re@uired% 3A This "airing is done such that one is a source and the other a load% 4A <or reaker maintenance of any line! the load gets transferred to the other us% *A 2n occurrence of a us fault or for maintenance all the interconnections 'ill e on healthy us% 6A +ven if oth uses ecome dead! lines can still e in service through the tie reakers%

1=6

ON! AND (AL) BR!A*!R "C(!+! , T( - CT +!T(OD

B5S-# B5S-##

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1=9

4>> I4 ,ystem Protection? .enerally the 4>> I4 ,u stations are "rovided 'ith reaker and half arrangement% 5n reaker and half scheme five CTs method or four CTs method 'ill e ado"ted for "rotection% <ive CTs -ethod? The CTs arrangement is sho'n in the figure for * CTs method in reaker and half scheme% aA 0ine side CTs 'ill e utilised for 0ine Protection A Bus side CTs 'ill e utilised for us "rotection% cA Teed Protection 'ill e used to cover lind area et'een us CTs! 0ine CTs and Tie Breaker CT% dA T'o differential relays are "rovided for each TF,ection y summating the three concerned CTs i%e% CT1! CT2 ( CT* for TF,ection of feederF1 and CT3! CT4 and CT* for TF,ection of feederF2%

1=:

ON! AND (AL) BR!A*!R "C(!+! , T( . CT +!T(OD

B5S-# B5S-##

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1==

Four CT5 4ethod?

The CTs arrangement is sho'n in the figure for 4 CTs method in reaker and half scheme% aA <or feeder "rotection oth us CT and o""osite tie reaker CT 'ill e summated and connected to the relay CCT1 ( CT4 for feederF1! CT2 ( CT3 for feederF2A% A Bus side CTs 'ill e utilised for us ar "rotection% cA There is no uncovered Hone in 4 CTs method%

Bu5b'r Prote$t#o& S$he4e 1A 2A High im"edance circulating current scheme Biased differential or lo' im"edance circulating scheme%

2>>

S.No. 1%

Det'#(5 Princi"le

2% 3%

CTs Burden

4% *% 6%

CT ,aturation Performance /elays in &%P ,ystem

H#+h #4*ed'&$e $#r$u('t#&+ $urre&t re('y The currents entering and leaving the us ar are com"ared continuously% 5t involves choosing of im"edance high enough to sta ilise the relay for heavy e$ternal faults% 5t re@uires all identical CT ratios 5m"oses com"aratively high urden on CTs% &u$iliary CTs reduce the "erformance of scheme 2"eration of scheme even 'hen CTs get saturated during internal faults Highly sensitive for internal faults and com"letely sta le for e$ternal faults .+C make C&.34! PB#CB

o2 #4*ed'&$e b#'5ed d#66ere&t#'( re('y 5t has differential and ias setting% The resultant ias is "ro"ortional to arithmetic sum of all currents! 'hereas the o"erating current is vector sum of all circuit currents% 5t can 'ork 'ith CTs of une@ual ratios also% 5m"oses less urden on CTs% &u$iliary CTs have no effect on "erformance of scheme 2"eration of scheme even 'hen CTs get saturated during internal faults% Highly sensitive for internal faults and com"letely for e$ternal faults .+C make -BC8 &BB make /&#,, 2>1

/+0&Q ,+TT51. C&0CE0&T521 P/51C5P0+, High 5m"edance Bus ar Protection?F /elay 2"erating Current and ,ta ilising /esistor are to e set in high im"edance scheme% &n 2"erating Current C5o"A of 1>O or 2>O of 5n can e set% #uring through fault! the voltage develo"ed across the relay is 4 S 5f C/CT G 2 /0A )here 5f /CT /0 S <ault current S 5nternal resistance of CT S Ca le resistance

,ta ilising /esistor ,/ can e com"uted as follo's% ,/ S 2>2 4 FFF 5o" CFA 4& urden of relay FFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFF 5o"RR2

<or some high im"edance schemes! only 4oltage ,etting 4 'ill e set%CThe calculations are similar to that of /estricted +arth <ault relay setting for the Transformer "rotectionA% 0o' 5m"edance Bus ar ,cheme?F This relay o"erates on circulating current "rinci"le and differential current setting C 2>O 5nA is ado"ted on the relay% The ias setting is generally set y the relay manufacturer ased on us fault levels% Bu5b'r Prote$t#o& aA Check <eature? F To "revent incorrect tri""ing due to damage to 'iring and e@ui"ment from e$traneous sources! check relay is "rovided% This check relay is "rovided y du"lication of "rimary "rotection using a second set of current transformers cores on all circuits other than us section and us cou"le units% The check system is arranged in a similar manner of the "rimary "rotection! ut forms one Hone only covering the 'hole of the us ars Cin case of single sectionaliHed us ar or oth the uses Cin case of dou le us ar arrangementA%

2>3

A ,u"ervision )hen a CT secondary 'inding or connections et'een CT and the relay circuit e detected y using ecome o"en circuited! the relay may malo"erate for load or through faults de"ending on the effective "rimary setting% This condition of an o"en circuit can su"ervision Cover voltageA relay! 'hich is arranged to give alarm% The su"ervision must e time delayed to avoid a false alarm during genuine fault conditions! ty"ically three seconds is ado"ted%

2>4

2>*

2>6

2>9

BREAKER FAI !RE RE A0 % BB PROTECTION) -ain "rotective schemes "rovided for line ;transformer;generator are re@uired to o"erate and clear the fault immediately! isolating the faulty section of the system% 5t is then im"ortant that the circuit reaker o"erates correctly! clearing the fault @uickly y tri""ing% Ho'ever there is a risk that reaker may not tri" Ceither due to mechanical sluggishness or due to ina ility to interru"t heavy fault currentA% Then the fault gets cleared y acku" relays at remote stations% 5ncreasing "o'er system com"le$ity demands shorter fault clearing times% 5t is therefore necessary to "rovide reaker failure relay Calso called J0ocal reaker acku" relayK or J,tuck reaker "rotectionKA% This scheme 'ill isolate the us to 'hich the stuck reaker is connected! faster% 5t com"rises of 2;0 ( +;0 relays 'ith a timer% The 0BB relay is energised y tri" command of main "rotection schemes and thus initiate master tri" relay of the us ar "rotection scheme after ela"sing of defined time% Then the entire reaker connected to the us get tri""ed! thus isolating faulty element% 5n &%P ,ystem! &BB make /&5C&! .+C make CT5.3= ty"e reaker failure relays are commonly used% The general "ractice is to set the current setting S 2>O of 5n and Time setting S 2>> m %,ec% The schematic diagrams for the a""lication of the 0BB relay Cty"e CT5.A are indicated in the figure%

2>:

+ven if the us ar "rotection scheme is not availa le! the 0BB scheme can e made use of y "roviding s"ecial tri" circuits and tri" relays similar to that of us "rotection tri" circuits for each line% & schematic for such a""lication is indicated in figure% 2>=

2;0 ( +;0 /+0&Q,

21>

211

Ty"es of 2;0 /elays?F 1A 5nverse definite minimum ty"e relays C5#-TA?F aA 1ormal 5nverse iA 3%> sec relays F i%e% 3%> sec% at ten times "icku" 'ith T%0 of 1%> iiA 1%3 sec relays F i%e% 1%3 sec% at 1> times "icku" A 4ery 5nverse relays cA +$tremely 5nverse relays 2A #efinite Time /elays 5nstantaneous highest 2;0 relay su""lementing the a ove 2;C relays% By "roviding a timer! the re@uired time delay can e o tained% The 2;0! +;0 relays are used for line "rotection Cfor 11I4 to 132I4A and for Transformer Protection% 2;C relaying is very 'ell suited to distri ution system "rotection for the follo'ing reasons?F 1% 5t is asically sim"le and ine$"ensive 2% 4ery often the relays do not need to e directional and hence no PT su""ly is re@uired% 3% 5t is "ossi le to use a set of t'o 2;C relays for "rotection against interF"hase faults and a se"arate 2;C relay for ground faults% 212

PickFu" ,etting <or coordination of the inverse time 2;C relays! the "icku" current and time dial setting are to e choosen% The "icku" of the relays must e choosen such that it 'ill o"erate for all short circuits in its o'n line and "rovide acku" for adDoining lines! kee"ing in vie' of ma$imum full load current% 2;C relay Picku" setting S 5 ma$%load +;< /elay Picku" setting S 2>O of rated current% <or the +;< relay! the load current is not a factor in the selection of "icku" settings and is normally set at 2>O of rated current% Time ,ettings The actual o"erating time of the 2;C ( +;< relays can e varied y "ro"er selection of the Time #ial ,etting 'hich is selecta le from >%1 to 1%>% Time dial settings are to e chosen y having "ro"er coordination and gradation in the system% .radations et'een successive relays are o tained y ,elective time interval 'hich is usually set et'een >%3 to >%4 ,ec% 213

The o"erating time of various ty"es of 5#-T relays are in the sketches% &lso can e o tained y the formulae? F 1ormal inverse 4ery inverse +$tremely inverse ? ? ? t S >%14 $ T0 CP,-A>%>2 F 1 t S 13%* $ T0 P,- F 1 t S :> $ T0 CP,-A2 F 1

'here P,- S <ault Current;CC%T%/atio $ Plug ,ettingA C'($u('t#o& e"'4*(e 6or O, 8 E, re('y o& (#&e,Tr'&56or4er1 <or remote us fault! fault current through the "rotected element S 3FPhase ? 3>>> & C&ssumeA ,0. ? 2*>> & C&ssumeA

2;0 relay? &do"ted C%T%/atio on "rotection line S 6>>;1 & C&ssumeA Picku" ,etting for 2;0 relay S 1 & CPlug ,ettingA 214

P,- for 2;0 relay

S 3>>> FFFFFFFFFF S * C6>>;1 $ 1A

&ctual time of o"eration for 2;0 ( +;0 relays is generally set to grade 'ith the do'n side system% &ssume time setting re@uired &ctual Time of 2"eration C&T2A ? >%4 T%0 S >%4 ,ec% >%14 S FFFFFFF $ T0 C<or 1ormal 5nverseA C*A>%>2F1 >%4 $ >%>329 S FFFFFFFFFFFFF S >%>=3 >%14

,et Time #ial CT0A for 2;0 relay S >%1 &ctual Time of 2"eration C&T2A for 2;0 relay >%14 C)ith T%0?>%1A T S FFFFFFFFFF $ >%1 S >%42 ,ec% C*A>%>2F1 +;0 relay?F Picku" setting for +;0 relay S >%2 & P,- for +;0 relay 2*>> S FFFFFFFFFFFF S 2>%: 6>>;1 $ >%2 21*

5f P,- e$ceed 2>! set P,- S 2> &ctual Time of 2"eration C&T2A for +;0 relay S >%4 S T%0 S >%14 FFFFFFFFFF $ T%0 C2>A>%>2F1 >%4 $ >%>619 FFFFFFFFFFFFFF S >%196 >%14

,et T%0 S >%2 &ctual Time of 2"eration for +;0 relay 'ith T%0 S >%2 TS >%14 FFFFFFFFFFFF $ >%2 S >%4* ,ec% C2>A>%>2F1

216

Se(e$t#3e t#4e #&ter3'(1 The time interval et'een t'o successive reakers to "rovide the re@uired selectivity is termed as selective time interval%

Consider the follo'ing?F <&E0T 02C&T521 1 02C&T521 2< /+0&Q )H2,+ T5-+ 5, T2 B+ &#3E,T+# 2

219

The o"erating time of the relay at 1 i%e%! t1 S t2 G 2 G >1 G f 'here t2 S o"erating time of relay at 2 2 S reaker o"erating time at 2 f S factor of safety time >1 S overtravel time of relay at 1 The selective time interval , S 2G>1Gf S >%3 to >%4 ,ec%

21:

21=

22>

221

222

223

224

22*

C5/CE5T B/+&I+/,

226

229

CIRC!IT BREAKERS The function of a Circuit reaker is to isolate the faulty "art of the "o'er system in case of a normal conditions% & Circuit reaker has t'o contacts F a fi$ed contact and a moving contact% Ender normal conditions these t'o contacts remain in closed "osition% )hen the circuit reaker is re@uired to isolate the faulty "art! the moving contact moves to interru"t the circuit% 2n the se"aration of the contacts! the flo' of current is interru"ted! resulting in the formation of arc et'een the contacts% The contacts are "laced in a closed cham er containing some insulating medium Cli@uid or gasA 'hich e$tinguishes the arc% &rc 5nterru"tions There are t'o methods of arc interru"tion i% High /esistance 5nterru"tion ii% Current 8ero 5nterru"tion CiA High /esistance 5nterru"tion 5n this method of arc interru"tion! its resistance is increased so as to reduce the current to a value insufficient to maintain the arc% The arc resistance can e increased y cooling! lengthening! constraining and s"litting the arc% This method is not suita le for a large current interru"tion%

22:

CiiA

Current 8ero 5nterru"tion 5n case of a%c su""ly! the current 'ave "asses through a Hero "oint! 1>> times "er second at the su""ly fre@uency of *> HH% This feature of arc is utilised for arc interru"tion% The current is not interru"ted at any "oint other than the Hero current instant! other'ise a high transient voltage 'ill occur across the contact ga"%

/estriking voltage and /ecovery 4oltage &fter the arc has een e$tinguished! the voltage across the reaker terminals does not normalise instantaneously ut it oscillates and there is a transient condition% The transient voltage 'hich a""ears across the reaker contacts at the instant of arc eing e$tinguished is kno'n as restriking voltage% The "o'er fre@uency rms voltage! 'hich a""ears across the reaker contacts after the arc is finally e$tinguished and transient oscillations die out! is called recovery voltage% Classification of Circuit Breakers #e"ending on the arc @uenching medium em"loyed! the follo'ing are im"ortant ty"es of circuit reakers% i% ii% iii% iv% 2il Circuit Breakers &ir Blast Circuit Breakers ,ul"hur He$afluoride C,<6A Circuit Breakers 4acuum Circuit Breakers 22=

Com"arison of ,<6! CB ( &BCB for 1um er of 5nterru"ters "er Pole? R'ted Vo(t'+e KV ,<6 CB &BCB ;G? KV 1 4 =G? KV 1 or 2 4 or 6 G=< KV 2 or 4 : or 1> EH? KV 4 1> or 12

The "iston is "ushed do'n y high "ressure oil on to" area of the "iston #uring closing stroke high "ressure oil is admitted from the ottom of "iston% Piston ottom area eing larger than that on the to" the differential "ressure acts and the "iston is "ushed u"'ards for closing stroke% /ating of Circuit Breakers Circuit reakers have the follo'ing im"ortant ratings i% Breaking Ca"acity ii% -aking Ca"acity iii% ,hortFtime Ca"acity

23>

Breaking Ca"acity The reaking ca"acity of a circuit reaker is of t'o ty"es% CiA ,ymmetrical reaking ca"acity CiiA &symmetrical reaking ca"acity CiA ,ymmetrical reaking ca"acity

5t is the rms% 4alue of the ac com"onent of the fault current that the circuit reaker is ca"a le of reaking under s"ecified conditions of recovery voltage% CiiA &symmetrical reaking ca"acity

5t is the rms value of the total current com"rising of oth ac and dc com"onents of the fault current that the circuit reaker can reak under s"ecified conditions of recovery voltage% -aking Ca"acity The rated making current is defined as the "eak value of the current Cincluding the dc com"onentA in the first cycle at 'hich a circuit reaker can e closed onto a short circuit% 5" in <igure% is the making current%

231

,hortFtime Current /ating The circuit reaker must e ca"a le of carrying shortFcircuit current for a short "eriod 'hile another circuit reaker Cin seriesA is clearing the fault% The rated shortFtime current is the rms value Ctotal current! oth a%c% and d%c% com"onentsA of the current that the circuit reaker can carry safely for a s"ecified short "eriod% /ated 4oltage! Current and <re@uency The rated current is the rms value of the current that a circuit continuously 'ithout any tem"erature rise in e$cess of its s"ecified limit% The rated fre@uency is also mentioned y the manufacturer% 5t is the fre@uency at 'hich the Circuit reaker has een designed to o"erate% The standard fre@uency is *> HH% 5f a circuit reaker is to e used at a fre@uency other than its rated fre@uency! its effects should e taken into consideration% 2"erating -echanism #ifferent manufacturers ado"t one of the follo'ing? 1% Pneumatic 2% Hydraulic 3% ,"ring 232 reaker can carry

1%

Com"ressed air system for "neumatic mechanism? F The "ressure of the o"erating air "roduced y the selfFenclosed motor com"ressor unit is su"ervised y a "ressure gauge and controlled y a "ressure s'itch Clocated in the reaker control ca inetA% The "ressure s'itch has four sets of contacts each of 'hich o"erates at a different "ressure level for the follo'ing functions? ,tart;sto"! lo' "ressure indication! reclosure interlock! closing and o"ening interlock% This ty"e of system is "rovided for each "ole of 42> I4 and 96* I4 CB%

2%

Hydraulic -echanism? F The hydraulic cylinder is mounted at the ase of interru"ter unit and the hydraulic rod is "ushedFu" during closing stroke and "ushed do'n during o"ening stroke% -oving contact and "uffer cylinder are linked 'ith the hydraulic rod% The hydraulic oil at atmos"heric "ressure from the lo' "ressure tank is "um"ed into accumulators at high "ressure C31> kg;cm2A% High "ressure oil is used for o"ening and closing o"erations% #uring o"ening o"eration high "ressure oil from lo'er area of hydraulic "iston is discharged into lo' "ressure tank y o"ening a""ro"riate hydraulic valve%

233

3%

,"ring -echanism? F <or CB u"to 24* I4! s"ring o"erating mechanism is used% The closing s"ring gets charged y geared motor% #uring closing stroke the closing s"ring is discharged% 5t closes the reaker and also charges the o"ening s"rings% The Circuit reaker mechanism is asically very sim"le since it com"rises a motorF reducer and t'o s"rings Cone for closing and one for o"eningA! "lus their solenoid o"erated latching devices% The closing s"ring after having een charged y the motorFreducer is ke"t ready for closing y its latching device% &s soon as energised! the closing control coil friggers the closing latch there y causing the closing s"ring to o"erate the reaker to the closed "osition and simultaneously charge the o"ening s"ring% <rom no' on! tri" latch kee"s the reaker in the closed "osition and the o"ening s"rings ready for o"ening% The com"act design of the mechanism avoids the need for the o"ening s"rings to e located close to each "ole and "ermits the o"ening o"eration to e "erformed y only one s"ring accommodated in the control ca inet%

234

Re'5o&5 6or *re6ere&$e o6 SFH Bre'9er5 0ess num er of interru"ters "er "ole! hence chea"er% -aintenance free% 4ery long contact life% /elia le 1onFe$"losive #oes not re@uire com"ressed air system ,ilent o"eration Te$h&#$'((y 5u*er#or Performs all the re@uired duties including line s'itching! transformer s'itching! reactor s'itching! etc% 'ithout e$cessive over voltages% +asy to install! o"erate ( maintain

23*

OPENING 8 C OSING TIMES ') C(o5#&+ T#4e Me'5ure4e&t o6 C#r$u#t Bre'9er u5#&+ D#+#t'( T#4e I&ter&'( Meter To measure the closing time of circuit reaker Ci%e% the time ela"sed from the movement of the e$tending control su""ly to the Closing coil to the movement of actual closing of the circuit reakerA! the follo'ing circuit is made use of%

5n this mode! 1C;12 JstartK and 1C;12 Jsto"K s'itches should e in 1o "osition% The counter starts 'hen the t'o terminals of J,T&/TK s'itch are shorted y closing the #%P%#%T s'itch% ,imultaneously the #%C su""ly is e$tended to the closing coil of the reaker% The counter sto"s counting 'hen the t'o terminals of ,T2P s'itch are shorted through the main contact of circuit reaker! as soon as it closes and the timer dis"lays the time interval! 'hich is the closing time of circuit reaker% 236

Hence the "rinci"le is that the energisation of the closing coil of the circuit reaker and starting of the counter should e simultaneous% b) Me'5ure4e&t o6 C#r$u#t Bre'9er O*e&#&+ t#4e To measure the o"ening time of circuit reaker! Ci%e%! the time ela"sed from the movement of e$tending control su""ly to the tri" coil of the circuit reaker to the movement of actual tri""ing of circuit reakerA! the follo'ing circuit is made use of%

5n this mode! 1C;12 J,T&/TK s'itch should e in J12K "osition and 1C;12 J,T2PK s'itch should e in 1C "osition% 239

The counter starts 'hen the t'o terminals of J,T&/TK s'itch are shorted y closing the #%P%#%T s'itch% ,imultaneously the #%C su""ly is e$tended to the tri" coil of the reaker% The counter sto"s counting 'hen the t'o terminals of J,T2PK s'itch are o"ened 'ith the o"ening of the circuit reaker J-&51 C21T&CT,K% The time internal dis"lays the time internal! 'hich is the J2"ening timeK of circuit reaker%

Po(e D#5$re*'&$y Re('y?

T'o cases are to e studied? 1A Three Phase Tri""ing% &ll the thee "oles should simultaneously tri" or close% )hile tri""ing!if any one or more of the "oles do not o"en simultaneous 'ith the other! after a set time Cof >%1 ,ec%A! the "ole discre ancy relay 'ill give a tri" command again to tri" the same% ,imilarly 'hile closing the reaker! if any of the three "oles do not close simultaneous 'ith the other! the "ole discre ancy relay! after a "reset time Cof >%1 ,ec%A 'ill give a tri" command to tri" the closed "oleCsA% ,ingle "hase tri""ing and &uto /eclosure?

23:

)hile the a""lication "rinci"le is same as 'ith the three "hase tri""ing! the time setting of the "ole discre ancy relay shall e more than the dead time Cof 1 ,ec%A of the auto reclosure relay% Circuit reaker o"eration &nalyHer? F This instrument hel"s in measurement of contact make and reak times! contact travel s"eeds%

23=

24>

241

,T&T521 B&TT+/Q
242

243

BATTER0 OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE

I) 1% CaA The &m"ere hour ca"acity of 22>4 atteries at smaller ,u Fstations shall e :>% C A The same at +HT ,u Fstations shall e 2>> CcA Batteries 'ith 3>>&m"s hour ca"acity shall e used only at Po'er houses or ,u F stations 'here solenoid closing of circuit reakers is in use% 2% The trickle charging rate shall e J&m" hour ca"acity $ 2;24$1>> "lus regular discharge in am"sK% 3% The oost charge rate shall not e$ceed J &m"%hour ca"acity divided y tenK% 4% The individual cell voltage shall not go do'n elo' 2%1 volt% *% The s"ecific gravity should not differ y more than 3> "oints et'een cells in the same attery ma$imum and minimum% )here the difference is moreB electrolyte should e diluted y adding distilled 'ater in cells 'ith higher s"ecific gravity thus narro'ing do'n the difference and all cells in the attery given a oost charge% 244

Ender no circumstances electrolyte or concentrated acid should e added to cells 'ith lo' s"ecific gravity% 6% Esage of alkali cells and acid cells in the same su station should e avoided to avert inadvertent mi$ u" of electrolyte or usage of accessories of one 'ith the other% 9% 0eakage indication lam"s should e com"ulsorily connected on the charges "anel for continuous indication of healthiness% :% +very #%C% Circuit takes off should e through "rotective fuses CH%/%CA or m%c% s% =% CiA 2nce in a day &%C% su""ly to charges should e s'itched off and #%C% measured and noted% CiiA 5n that condition 'ith no &%C% su""ly to charger! the duty "erformance of the attery y closing or tri""ing of a relatively unFim"ortant reaker is to e ensured% -ere availa ility of #%C voltage is no inde$ of healthiness of attery% CiiiA &%C su""ly to charger is to e restored immediately after this test% 1>% Certain charger "anels have J,'itch 2ffK arrangement 'henever &%C su""ly fails% There should e s'itched on after each restoration of su""ly% 11% 0eakages in #%C circuitry should e attended on to" "riority first y sectionalisation! then y isolation and finally e rectification% 24* voltage

e'd A$#d B'tter#e5 %Co44o&)

1% Check u" the +lectricity to level in the cell of all the cells in morning shift every day% 5f the electrolyte is lo'! to" u" the cell 'ith distilled 'ater% 2% Check u" the voltage and s"ecific gravity of si$ cells in each shift and record as "er cell num ers given CP502T C+00,A 3% Check u" the #%C voltage of the com ined cells C atteryA after s'itching off the attery charger every day in the morning shift% /ecord the attery voltage and current 'ith the charger off% 4% +nsure that the attery is in floating condition normally y adDusting the rheostat of the charger% *% 1ever charge a attery at a voltage higher than 2%4 4 "er cell i%e%! it 'orks out to 264 4 for 22> 4 Battery and limit the charger am"ere ca"acity also% 6% 5f any of the cells is found to e having lo' voltage and s"ecific gravity! y "ass the cell% The removed cell should e charged se"arately and re"laced after the voltage and s"ecific gravity attains normal value% 5m"rovement should not e attem"ted y adding acid to electrolyte% 246

9% Check the condition of all the cells every month for voltage and s"ecific gravity% Charge the attery if re@uired% The voltage and s"ecific gravity readings shall e taken efore and after charging% The charging rate shall e limited to 1> hours rating to avoid e$cessive gassing and eva"oration of +lectrolyte% :% &ll the cells shall e "hysically checked for fracture and uckling of the container and e$cessive rise% Check attery terminals for tightness% &""ly 4aseline C"etroleum DellyA 'henever necessary% This check should e attem"ted after the attery is rought to full charge% =% Iee" the charger off! o serve the voltage 'ith #%C lighting on continuously for t'o hours% 2 serve the voltage and current% The voltage should not fall y 1>O 'hen the discharge on the attery is at 1>Hrs i%e%! 2*&m"s for 2*>Hrs% attery 3>&m"s for 3>>Hrs% attery etc% +very discharge shall discharge am"ere hours% The attery charger "anels! in some cases have a no volt tri"s% )henever &;C su""ly fails! the charger should e s'itched on after restoration of &C su""ly% 249 e com"ensated y charging% &s the am"ere hour e more than efficiency is al'ays less than unity! the charging am"ere hours shall

+&/TH51. P/&CT5C+,

24:

24=

!ART( N/ PRACT C!" AT "0B"TAT ON"

I&trodu$t#o&
+arthing "ractices ado"ted at .enerating ,tations! ,u stations! #istri ution structures and lines are of great im"ortance% 5t is ho'ever o served that this item is most often neglected% The codes of "ractice! Technical /eference ooks! Hand ooks contain a cha"ter on this su Dect ut they are often ski""ed considering them as too elementary or even as unim"ortant% -any reference ooks on this su Dect are referred to and such of those "oints 'hich are most im"ortant are com"iled in the follo'ing "aragra"hs% These are of im"ortance of every "racticing +ngineer in charge of ,u stations%
I4*ort'&$e o6 E'rth#&+ 8 Pr'$t#$e5

The earthing is "rovided for aA ,afety of Personnel A Prevent or atleast minimise damage to e@ui"ment as a result of flo' of heavy fault currents% cA 5m"rove relia ility of Po'er su""ly The earthing is roadly divided as aA ,ystem earthing CConnection et'een "art of "lant in an o"erating system like 04 neutral of a Po'er Transformer 'inding and earthA% A +@ui"ment earthing C,afety groudingA

2*>

Connecting frames of e@ui"ment Clike motor ody! Transformer tank! ,'itch gear o$! 2"erating rods of &ir reak s'itches! etcA to earth% The system earthing and safety earthing are interconnected and therefore fault current flo'ing through system ground raises the "otential of the safety ground and also causes stee" "otential gradient in and around the ,u station% But se"arating the t'o earthing systems have disadvantages like higher short circuit current! lo' current flo's through relays and long distance to e covered to se"arate the t'o earths% &fter 'eighing the merits and demerits in each case! the common "ractice of common and solid CdirectA grounding system designed for effective earthing and safe "otential gradients is eing ado"ted% The earth resistance shall e as lo' as "ossi le and shall not e$ceed the follo'ing limits? Po'er ,tations +HT ,u stations 33I4 ,tations #;t ,tructures To'er foot resistance Ste* Pote&t#'( ,te" Potential is the difference in the voltage et'een t'o "oints 'hich are one metre a"art along the earth 'hen ground currents flo'ing% 2*1
F

F F F F

>%* 2hms 1%> 2hms 2%> 2hms *%> 2hms 1>%> 2hms

Tou$h Pote&t#'( Touch Potential is the difference in voltage et'een the o Dect touched and the ground "oint Dust elo' the "erson touching the o Dect 'hen ground currents are flo'ing% S*e$#6#$'t#o& o6 E'rth#&+ #e"ending on soil resistivity! the earth conductor CflatsA shall follo'ing de"ths% ,oil /esistivity in ohms;metre 1A 2A 3A *> 7 1>> 1>> 7 4>> 4>> 7 1>>> e uried at the

+conomical de"th of Burial in metres >%* 1%> 1%*

To kee" the earth resistance as lo' as "ossi le in order to achieve safe ste" and touch voltages! an earth mat shall e uried at the a ove de"ths elo' ground and the mat shall e "rovided 'ith grounding rods at suita le "oints% &ll nonFcurrent carrying "arts at the ,u station shall e connected to this grid so as to ensure that under fault conditions! none of these "art are at a higher "otential than the grounding grid%

2*2

P('te E'rth5 Taking all "arameters into consideration! the siHe of "late earths are decided as Po'er ,tations ( +HT ,tation ,mall ,tations F F -ain F &u$iliary F 9* $ :mm 1>> $ 16mm *> $ :mm

The com"lete s"ecifications for "roviding earth mats at +HT ( 33I4 ,u stations! #istri ution transformers ( Consumers "remises are re"roduced elo'%

S*e$#6#$'t#o& 6or E'rth#&+ Sy5te4

I) EHT Sub5t't#o&

1% The earth mat shall e as "er the a""roved layout% The earth mat shall e formed 'ith the steel flats uried in the ground at a de"th of 9*>mm on edge% 2% The earth mat shall e$tend over the entire s'itchyard as "er the layout% 3% &ll the Dunctions of the steel flats 'hile forming the earth mat and taking risers from the earth mat for giving earth connections to e@ui"ment! steel structures! conduits ca le sheaths shall e "ro"erly 'elded% &ll Doints shall e "rovided 'ith suita le angle "ieces for "ro"er contact et'een flats%
2*3

4% Provisions shall e made for thermal e$"ansion of the steel flats y giving smooth circular ends% Bending shall not cause any fatigue in the material at ends% *% The earth mat shall e formed y 'elding *>$: mm steel flat to the 1>> $ 16mm "eri"heral earth conductor% The grounding grid shall e s"aced a out * meters i%e in longitude and a out * meters in the transverse directions% &fter the com"letion of earth mat! the earth resistance shall e measured% 5n case the earth resistance is more than one ohm the earth mat shall e e$tended y installing e$tra electrodes! so that the earth resistance is less than one ohm% 6% &ll fence corner "osts and gate "osts shall e connected to the ground y "roviding 32mm dia -%, rods of 3 metre length near the "osts and connected to the main grounding mat% 9% &ll "aint enamel and scale shall e removed from surface of contact on metal surface efore making ground connection% :% The risers taken along the main s'itchyard structures and e@ui"ment structures Cu"to their to"A shall e clam"ed to the structures at an interval of not more than one metre% =% *> $ :mm ground conductor shall e run in ca le routes and shall e connected to the ground mat at an interval of 1> metres% 1>% .rounding electrodes of 32mm dia 3mtr% long -, rods shall e "rovided at the "eri"heral corners of the earth mat% The grounding rods shall e driven into the ground and their to"s 2*4

shall e 'elded to clam" and the clam" together 'ith the grounding rods shall e 'elded to the ground mat% 11% 0ightening arrestors shall e "rovided 'ith earth "its near them for earthing% 12% Cast iron "i"es 12*mm dia and 2%9* metres long and =%*mm thick shall e uried vertically in the "its and a mi$ture of Bentonite com"ound 'ith Black cotton soil a ratio of 1?6 is to e filled 3>> mm dia and the "i"e for the entire de"th% )here it is not "ossi le to go to a de"th of 2%9* metres! 1%3 $ 1%3 --, "lates! 2*mm thick shall e uried vertically in "its of 2 metres de"th and surrounded y Bentonite mi$ture atleast 2 metre a'ay from any uilding or structure foundation% The "lates shall e atleast 1* metres a"art% These earth "its in turn shall e connected to the earth mat% II) E'rth#&+ 't >>KV Sub5t't#o&5 1% Providing of earth "it and earth matting include the follo'ing connected 'orks? aA +$cavation of earth "its of siHe 21;2ft $ 21;2ft $ =ft in all ty"e of soils% A Providing of C5 "i"e of 3 inch diameter =ft length 'ith flange% &ll connections to C5 "i"e shall e 'ith .5 olts and nuts% cA <illing of earth "it e$cavated 'ith Bentonite 'ith Black cotton soil C1?6A in alternate layers% dA Providing of cement collar of siHe 2ft diameter 2ft height 1 inch elo' the ground level% eA The to" of the C5 earth "i"e should e at the surface level of the ground% 2**

2% Providing of earth matting 'ith -, flat 9* $ :mm including the follo'ing connected 'orks? aA +$cavation of trench in all ty"es of soils of siHe 2Z ft de"th and 1 ft% 'idth% A 0aying of -%, flat 9* $ :mm in the e$cavated trench% cA 5nter connecting all earth "its and 'elding "ro"erly at Dointing location and Dunctions% dA Back filling of earth com"letely% III) E'rth#&+ 't Co&5u4erA5 *re4#5e5 The earthing at Consumers "remises shall e as "er sketch elo' using a 6mm thick "late

2*6

IV) E'rth#&+ 't D,P Stru$ture Three electrodes forming an e@uilateral triangle 'ith minimum distance of 6*>> mm! so that ade@uate earth uffer is availa le% +ach +lectrode shall e & grade .5 "i"e of 2 inch thick and :ft long and uried vertically so as to leave a out 4 inch "i"e length a ove ground level to fi$ a E sha"ed clam"%

Note1 1% The connections to the three earth conn%+lectrodes should e as follo's% C&A To one of the earth electrodes on either side of dou le "ole structure CT or QA i% ii% 2ne direct connection from three 11I4 0ightening &rrestors% &nother direct connection from the 0T lightening &rrestors if "rovided% 2*9

CBA

To each of the remaining t'o earth electrodes% i% 2ne se"arate connection from neutral Con the medium voltage sideA of the Transformer CT'o 'iresA ii% 2ne se"arate connection from the Transformer ody and the handle of the 11I4 &%B s'itch CT'o se"arate ody earths to tankA iii% 2ne se"arate connection from the +arthing Terminal of "oles%

CCA

4mm .%5 'ire should e used for earth leads%

.OINTS There shall e minimum Doints "refera ly no Doints enroute to earth electrodes )here 3oints are unavoida le! they shall e raHed! rivetted or 'elded Cand "ainted 'ith red lead and alluminium "aints one after the other and finely coated 'ith itumenA

TOWER INE GRO!NDING 1A .round rods are driven at the ase of the to'er% )here it is not feasi le! an electrode is located 'ithin a distance of 2>> ft% of the to'er and grounding rods are "rovided at that "oint and tied to the to'er ase y a single uried 'ire% 2A 5f lo' resistance is not o tained 'ith 2>>ft! cro'foot counter"oise 'ith 4 'ires is installed% The counter"oise conductors shall e 6 ,). galvanised steel 'ires taken a'ay 2*:

from the to'er at mutually right angles and ke"t atleast *>ft a"art% +ach of these 'ires is terminated at a rod at the nearest "oint 'here lo' resistance is o tained% 5f counter"oise 'ires cannot e terminated 'ithin half s"an from the to'er the 'ire is carried through a continuous counter"oise to the ne$t to'er! 'here the "rocedure is re"eated% Me'5ure4e&t o6 E'rth Re5#5t'&$e The measurement of earth resistance is done using three terminal earth meggars or four terminal earth meggars% Three Ter4#&'(? T'o tem"orary electrodes or s"ikes are driven one for current and the other voltage at a distance of 1*> feet and 9* feet from the earth electrode under test and ohmic values of earth electrode is read in the meggar% Four Ter4#&'(? <our s"ikes are driven into the ground at e@ual intervals% The t'o outer s"ikes are connected to current terminals of earth meggar and the t'o inner s"ikes to "otential terminals of the meggar till a steady value is o tained% M'#&te&'&$e o6 E'rth#&+ Sy5te4 The follo'ing -aintenance schedule in mandatory at each of the ,u stations Sl.No Item Periodicity 1% )atering of +arth Pits #aily 2% -easurement of earth resistance of individual earth "its Half yearly [ 3% -easurement of com ined earth resistance at all the "its Half yearly%%% 4% Checking of inter connections et'een earth "its and Nuarterly tightness of olts and nuts 2*=

[ +arth resistance of individual earth "its can e measured y disconnecting the earth connections to the electrode% This is "ossi le if the connections are made to a common clam" 'hich is in turn is fi$ed round the "i"e% %%% Com ined earth resistance shall e the same at every earth "it unless it gets disconnected from the earth mat #efinitions of .eneral +arthing Terms So#( Re5#5t#3#ty? This is the resistivity of a ty"ical sam"le of soil E'rth Sur6'$e Vo(t'+e1 The voltage et'een a s"ecified "oint on the ground around the rod and reference earth% E'rth E(e$trode These are conductors! 'hich are in direct contact 'ith the soil and "rovide the conductive "art in electrical contact 'ith earth% They can include rods! ta"e! steel reinforcing ars% #efinitions of Terms associated 'ith Po'er ,ystems Neutr'( Po#&t The common "oint of a star connected "oly "hase system or the earthed midF"oint of a single "hase system% 26>

I&de*e&de&t E'rth E(e$trode &n earth electrode located at such a distance from other electrodes that its electrical "otential is not significantly affected y electric currents et'een +arth and other electrodes% E"*o5ed Co&du$t#3e P'rt Conductive "art of e@ui"ment and 'hich is not normally live! ut 'hich can ecome live 'hen asic insulation fails% Po#&t5 o6 E'rth#&+ 1% +arth mat of 9* $ : -, flat should e laid as outer of the s'itchyard com"ulsorily and see that the "ole structures are enclosed in the outer mat% 2% -ake vertical and horiHontal sections for the outer mat as sho'n in the fig% The internal vertical and horiHontal sections may e 9* $ : or *> $ 6 -, flat% 3% The +arth mat should e laid minimum 6>>--! elo' the ground level under the +arth mat and Bentonite "o'der is to e laid u"to 2*mm and over the earth mat% The same Bentonite com"ound 'ith Black cotton soil a mi$ture of 1?6 ratio is to e "laced u"to 1>> mm and the remaining earth trench is to e ack filled 'ith the soil% 4% ,ee that each and every "ole structure is earthed 'ith *> $ 6 -, flat to the +arth -at% *% <or every reaker there 'ill e fine earth connections to the earth mat 'ith *> $ 6 -, flat CaA Breaker ody C A /elay Panel CcA CTs of the Breaker CdA and t'o sides of the reaker structure% 6% 0ightening arrestor is to e connected one end directly to the earth mat and the other end is to the nearer earth "it or to the earth mat% 261

9% 0ine 5solators are to e connected directly to the earth mat% :% The Po'er transformer ody is to e connected t'o sides to the earth mat% =% T'in neutral earthing should e done to Po'er Transformer as sho'n in the fig% one +arth flat of siHe 9* $ :mm -%, flat is directly connected to the earth "it and the earth "it is again connected to the +arth mat% The second neutral is directly connected to the earth mat! 1>% Provide fle$i le Dum"ers thoroughly raHed as sho'n in figure 11% &ll &B s'itches o"erating rods are to e "rovided 'ith coil earths and the &B s'itch su""ort is to e earthed to the earth mat% 12% &ll the e$"osed earth flat 'hich is dro""ing do'n from the reakers! CTs structures should e a""lied 'ith ituminous "aint% 13% 9* $ : -, flat is to e laid around the control room from main earth and the "anels of the reakers! mid"oint of the Battery and Battery stand structures are to e earthed to the earth flat and make a section in front of the control room% 14% The distance et'een any t'o earth electrodes should e t'ice the length of the +lectrode% 1*% The ca le C11 $ 33I4A sheaths are to e earthed 'ith 2* $ 3 .5 stri" to the +arth mat% 16% The neutral of the station transformer is to e connected to the +arth mat directly 'ith 2* $ 3 .5 stri"% The ody of the ,tation transformer t'o sides to e connected to the earth mat 'ith 2* $ 3 .5 stri"% 19% &ll the 'elding Doints should e "ainted 'ith ituminous "aint

262