1

Spread Spectrum Multiple Access

Reference: Introduction to Spread Spectrum Communications: Peterson, Ziemer, and Borth, Prentice Hall, 1995 [0-02-431623-7]
Spread Spectrum technology was originally developed for military, single user, anti-jam applications
where the intent was to conceal the signal being communicated in the presence of a jammer [a signal
that is intended to make communications unreliable]. Spread spectrum works by spreading the
energy of a narrow-band source signal (eg, 10 kHz speech) over a wide bandwidth (eg, 1-10 mHz).
The spread spectrum modulated signals are broadband, noise like, and resistant to multipath (since
they are broadband). Invented by the female American actress Heddy Lamar during World War II
[she actually invented FH/SS ---see below].
Current major application of spread spectrum is to the multiple user environment in2G (IS-95) and
3G cellular communications. For a single cell: CDMA-based IS-95 and TDM-based GSM/IS-136
have the same theoretical capacity [in a given bandwidth (B Hz) and time duration (T sec)--- ie, 2BT
orthogonal carriers are possible].
Spread Spectrum is a (controlled) interference-limited system
Carriers are chosen to be random waveforms with regard to each other
Each user/carrier is assigned a unique randomized code, different and approximately orthogonal (ie, low cross-
correlation) to the other codes [analogous to having unique time slot in TDMA or unique frequency in FDMA]
Correlation (CDMA) and frequency agile (Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum ---FH/SS) receivers are used
to separate the users
Users can transmit asynchronously with respect to each other (performance is better if synchronized)
In Code Division Multiple Access or CDMA (specially with Direct Sequence Multiple Access):
In addition to being rejected by correlation , the residual interference is averaged over a long time (CDMA is
said to be a noise-averaging system)
the code is a pseudo-noise (PN) like, high bit-rate signal that is used to multiply the user information symbols.
the capacity of a system is not subject to a hard limit (like TDMA); increasing the number of users reduces the
received signal-to-interference ratio and performance
technical issue: power control (for maximum system capacity, all users must be received at ~ same power)
In Frequency Hopped Spread Spectrum (FH/SS) the code is used to generate a pattern of frequency
hops (signal typically stays on a frequency for a small number of bits) that avoids other users
FH/SS is a noise-avoidance system
2
Multiple Access System Fundamentals
Popular Multiple Access Alternatives [for Wireless Systems]
Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA): First-generation analog systems
Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)
Spread Spectrum Multiple Access
Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) [also called Direct Sequence (DS)
Spread Spectrum]
Frequency Hopped Spread Spectrum (FH/SS) ---this is what Heddy Lamar
invented
Time Division Duplex (TDD)
Two classes of multiple access
Contending for rf resources (eg, time slot, code, or frequency) using an
ALOHA-like protocol like that used on packet networks. This is a multipoint
(many terminals) to point (the base station) network
Sharing circuit resource (frequency, time, or code) with other users on a point-to-
point basis between the mobile terminal and the base station (this is where the
FDMA, TDMA, and CDMA technologies apply --- once the circuit has been
established.)
Third-generation (3G) systems will be data/packet oriented and will use ALOHA like
protocols to send info in a (controlled) asynchronous mode
Two basic approaches to resource sharing
Orthogonal systems (ideally non-interfering): TDMA, FDMA, TDD
Controlled Interference: Spread Spectrum
3
DIGITAL RADIO TRANSMISSION: Multiple Access Radio Systems
[For sharing the rf spectrum among multiple users]
Single user (e.g., mobile to base station)

*
. . .
A/D and
Speech Coder
Modulator
Radio
transmission
Multiple users (e.g., base station to mobile)
Modulator
*
. . .
A/D and
Speech Coder
*
. . .
A/D and
Speech Coder
*
. . .
A/D and
Speech Coder
1
2
N
.
.
.
Multiplexer
Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)
Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA
Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)
4
MULTIPLE ACCESS ALTERNATIVES
Only DS-CDMA will be discussed in detail in this course.
DS: Direct Sequence
FFH: Fast-Frequency Hopping
FTH: Fast-Time Hopping
*This can be viewed as a narrowband TDMA.
5
Both digital cordless systems (CT-2 and DECT) use time division duplex
(TDD) while the cellular/PCN digital systems use frequency division duplex
(FDD) to separate the uplink and downlink. Also note that the cellular
systemse use frequency division multiplexing (FDM) to divide the uplink
and downlink into smaller bands [eg, of 10 MHz]. Thus you could say that
GSM is: FDD/FDM/TDMA [for the individual users].
FDMA TDMA CDMA
TDD CT-2 DECT UMTS
FDD Analog IS-136
GSM
IS-95
UMTS

Frequency Division Duplex (FDD)

Downlink
path
Uplink
path
Time
Frequency

Time Division Duplex (TDD)

Downlink
path
Uplink
path
Time
Frequency
6
Code Division Multiple Access: Spread Spectrum Techniques
Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) is based on the principle that each subscriber is assigned a
unique code that can be used by the system to distinguish that user from all other users transmitting
simultaneously over the same frequency band. There are several techniques that have been considered
for mobile radio CDMA communications, including:
Frequency-Hopping Spread Spectrum (FH/SS)
Time-Hopped Spread Spectrum (TH/SS)
Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DS/SS)
Frequency-Hopping Spread Spectrum
In a frequency-hopping system the signal frequency is constant for a specified time duration,
referred to as a time chip T
c
. It is frequently convenient to categorize frequency-hopping systems
as either fast-hop or slow-hop, since there is a considerable difference in performance for
these two types of systems. A fast-hop system is usually considered to be one in which the
frequency-hopping takes place at a rate that is greater than the message bit rate. In a slow-hop
system, the hop rate is less than the message bit rate.
Time-Hopped Spread Spectrum
In a time-hopping system the transmission time is divided into intervals known as frames. Each
frame is divided into M time slots. During each frame one and only one time slot will be
modulated with a message. All of the message bits accumulated in the previous frame are
transmitted in a burst during the selected time slot.
Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum
In a direct sequence system, the transmitted baseband signal is multiplied by a
pseudonoise code digital stream.
7
Code Division Multiple Access: Spread Spectrum Techniques
8
Spread Spectrum Classification
Spread spectrum is the general term describing a communication system in which:
1. the information is transmitted with a wider bandwidth (at RF) then the information bandwidth.
2. the RF bandwidth is independent of the information bandwidth.
Three types of spread spectrum methods are: frequency-hopping (FH) spread spectrum, time-hopping (TH) spread
spectrum, and direct sequence (DS) spread spectrum.
In a frequency-hopping system the signal frequency is constant for a specified time duration, referred to as a time chip,
T
c
. It is frequently convenient to categorize frequency-hopping systems as either fast-hop or slow-hop, since there is
a considerable difference in performance for these two types of systems. A fast-hop system is usually considered to be
one in which the frequency-hopping takes place at a rate that is greater than the message bit rate. In a slow-hop system,
the hop rate is less than the message bit rate. There is, of course, an intermediate situation in which the hop rate and the
message bit rate are of the same order of magnitude. In a time-hopping system the transmission time is divided into
intervals known as frames. Each frame is divided into M time slots. During each frame one and only one time slot will be
modulated with a message. All of the message bits accumulated in the previous frame are transmitted in a burst during
the selected time slot.
The direct sequence (DS) (or pseudo noisePN) is an averaging type system where the reduction of interference takes
place because the interference can be averaged over a large time interval. The frequency-hopping (FH) and time-hopping
(TH) systems are avoidance systems. Here, the reduction in interference occurs because the signal is made to avoid the
interference a large fraction of the time.
A list of the advantages and disadvantages of the three types of systems is shown.
System Advantages Disadvantages
Direct
Sequence
Best noise and antijam performance
Most difficult to detect (more private)
Best discrimination against multipath
Requires wideband channel
Long acquisition time
Near/far problem
Frequency-
Hopping
Greatest amount of spreading
Can be programmed to avoid portions of the
spectrum
Relatively short acquisition time
Less affected by near/far problem
Complex frequency synthesizer
Not useful for range-rate measurement
Error correction required
Time-
Hopping
High bandwidth efficiency
Implementation simpler than frequency hopping
Useful when transmitter is average power limited,
but not peak power limited
Near/far problem avoided in a coordinated system
Long acquisition time
Error correction needed
9
CDMA Direct Sequence Transmitter
The information signal, b(t) [with symbol rate 1/T], is multiplied by a unique, high-rate
digital spreading code, c(t), that has many [~100] zero crossings per symbol/bit interval
[with T
c
sec between symbols]
The Spreading Code, c(t), is periodic with a period of T sec. [the source symbol period]
Bandwidth spread by code bits (called Chips) before transmission
The transmitted signal, b(t)c(t) is wideband and has the bandwidth of the spreading code
At the transmitter (eg, a cellular Base Station), Multiple Signals are combined onto one
radio frequency channel
In IS-95: Only transmit rf bits when there is active speech
Source and
Channel
Coding
RF
Modulator
Code
Generator
X
Multiplier
Code Bits (Chips)
Digital Signal (Bits)
Frequency
Spectrum
f
Spread Frequency
Spectrum
f
c(t)
b(t)
b(t)c(t)
10
CDMA Direct Sequence Receiver
Each signal looks like noise to the desired received signal
Spread Signal Multiplied Again by a Synchronized Replica of the Same Code to De-Spread and Recover
Original Signal [Note: c
2
(t) = 1, for all values of t]
Signal from Multiple Users Recovered via their Unique/Different Codes
Codes from different users are orthogonal if their time bases are aligned
Cellular: Speech activity factor [~0.4] reduces interference [when codes not synchronized] and increases
capacity
f
G
{
G = processing gain
= number of chips per information bit
WHEN CODES ARE NOT TIME SYNCHRONIZED
(more later)
Recovered Signal
Other
Users
RF
Demodulator
Channel
and
Source
Decoding
Code
Generator
X
Multiplier
Code Bits (Chips)
De-Spread
Signal
f
Spread Frequency
Spectrum
f
Digital Signal (Bits)
b(t)c(t)
c(t)
b(t)
11

c
i
(t)
Digitized speech signal: b(t), with a bit-interval of T
b
PN code generator output signal: c
i
(t), with T
c
, where T
c
is known as the chip time.
The Processing Gain is defined as
G =
c
b
T
T
, typically T
c
<< T
b
[eg, T
b
= 64 T
c
],
The processing gain is central to system performance when codes from different
sources/users are not time synchronized.
Spectrum of b(t) is G
B
(f), [narrowband], and the spectra of c
i
(t), and y(t), which are
G
c
(f), and G
y
(f) respectively, are wideband where G
y
(f) G
c
(f)

We say that G
B
(f), the spectrum of b(t), has been spread to a wider bandwidth.
CDMA PRINCIPLE:
Spread Spectrum Concept
wideband
narrowband
First zero crossing ~ 1/T
b
First zero crossing ~ 1/T
c
12
DIRECT SEQUENCE CODE GENERATOR: (Pseudo-Noise Sequence)
Direct Sequence (DS) Code generator
T
c
. . .
output
outouoOutp
b
i
(t)
Cl ock
M = 2
m
- 1
1 2
m
Output waveform is

+1
-1
T
c
= time chip
The output is periodic with period [we will show this
later in the course]: MT
c
= (2
m
- 1)T
c

e.g.,IS-95: m = 42
1/T
c
= 1.2288 Mbps
The stateof the shift register is the set of inputs
to the delay elements. There are 2
m
states.
[ M is the period of the binary output sequence]

n
b
n
c
n a nT t p n a t c ) 1 ( ) ( where , ) ( ) ( ) (

p(t) is a unit pulse
over 0< t < T
c
t
13
Correlation Function of the Code Sequence
Note that the mapping maps a binary 0 into a +1 and a binary
1 is mapped into a -1. The waveform c(t) is deterministic and periodic, so
that its autocorrelation function is defined by
The correlation function is only nonzero when the pulses p(t-mT
c
) and
p(t+t-nT
c
) overlap. The delay t can be expressed as t= kT
c
+ , where
0 < <

T
c
. Using this substitution, the pulses only overlap only for n = k+m
and n = k+m+1, so that the correlation function becomes
n
b
n
a ) 1 (
dt nT t p mT t p a a
T
dt t c t c
T
R
m n
T
c c n m
T
c
) ( ) (
1
) ( ) (
1
) (
0 0


+ +
used. been has n subsitutio the where
M
1
) (
1 1

) ( ) (
1
M
1

) ( ) (
1 1
) , ( ) (
1
0
1
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
t-mT
T
a a T
T
a a
M
d T p p
T
a a
d p p
T
a a
M
k R R
c
M
m
m k m c
M
m c
m k m
T
T
c
c
M
m
m k m
T
M
m c
m k m c c
c
c
c

+
+ +
+

+ +

+ +

14
Correlation Function of the Code Sequence-2
The discrete periodic correlation of a code word b
n
is defined by
Using the above, the correlation function becomes
This is a convenient expression since properties of code sequences are
generally expressed in terms of unit delays. A simple example will
convince you that [recall that a
n
take on the values +1 and -1] (see next
slide)
where N
A
and N
D
are respectively the number of places that the
sequence a
n
agrees and disagrees with a
n+k

1
0
1
) (
M
n
k n n b
a a
M
k
, where
n
b
n
a ) 1 (
) 1 ( ) ( ) 1 ( ) , ( + + k
T
k
T
k R
b
c
b
c
c

M
N N
k
D A
b

) (
15
Correlation Function of the Code Sequence-3
The operation of the shift register can be described in terms of a z-Transform [many
references use the term D-Transform]. As a polynomial in z, the transfer function of
the shift register is generally a primitive polynomial---a primitive polynomial is one that
cannot be factored [see Chapter 6] for more information. Using this framework it can be
shown that the mod-2 sum of the output of the shift register and any phase shifted signal
is the same signal at a different phase [i.e., a time shifted version of the signal]..
Such an autonomous [no input] shift register, can never have all zeroes as its state, and
therefore as it cycles through all possible non-zero states, the output of the shift register
will have one more one than zeros [and thus the number of ones is 1/2 (M+1)]
Using the above, the periodic correlation function is given by
since for k=mM, the words are aligned and N
A
= M and for arbitrary k, the modulo-2
sum [or the product in real numbers] remains a shift register output sequence, then there
is one more one than zero, so that N
A
-N
D
=1.
Using the above result, the correlation function becomes
mM k
M
mM k
M
N
k
D
b

,
1
-
, 1
N
) (
A

)
1
1 ( 1 )
T
(
1
)
T
- (1 ) 1 ( ) ( ) 1 ( ) (
c c
N T M
k
T
k
T
R
c
b
c
b
c
c
+ + +

16
Correlation Function of the Code Sequence-4

The autocorrelation function is shown below

The cross-correlation function between c
i
(t) and c
j
(t) is
R
i
()
PN sequences can achieve
this property if time bases are
aligned. If not, they may have
poor cross correlation properties.
Gold sequences have
better cross-correlation properties
To improve the correlation properties we can let M increase
Desired cross correlation
17
DS-CDMA Receiver ----One User and No Channel Distortion
Consider a DS-CDMA system with a single user b(t), spreading code c(t), and AWGN
n(t). The received signal is r(t) = c(t) b
i
(t) + n(t), i = 1,2; 0 < t < T. Let the signal b
i
(t)
be an equiprobable binary [1 or -1] signal. Initially we assume no channel distortion.
The Maximum Likelihood receiver computes p[r(t)| b
i
(t)]. Given b
i
(t), the detection
problem reduces to a known signal [c(t)b
i
(t)] in AWGN. The ML detector is thus a
minimum distance detector that simplifies to a correlation detector [as in Chapter 2].
The receiver has filters that correlate r(t) with v
i
(t) =c(t)b
i
(t), for i =1,2 over the interval
0 < t < T [ie, over the entire symbol interval]. See next page for a correlator receiver.
The output of the i
th
correlator recovers the signal, and is given by
/T. T factor gain processing
by the reduced is output correlator at the appearing noise the Thus noise. the
to 1/T ~ bandwidth of filter pass - low a like appears integrator The T). (0, over
integrator an through c(t)] signal wideband by the multiplied is noise the [since
signal noise wideband a pass to is term second) the (ie, noise the of effect The
signal. TDMA a recovering and sampling to
analogous is This (t). b - b(t) when negative and (t) b b(t) signal d transmitte
actual when the positive be will L output the noise, no for that Note
)] ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( [
] 1 ) ( that [note )] ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( [
)] ( ) ( )][ ( ) ( ) ( [ )] ( ) ( )[ (
c
i i
i
0
2
0
2
0 0

+
+
+

dt t b t c t n t b t b
t c dt t b t c t n t b t b t c
dt t b t c t n t b t c dt t b t c t r L
i i
T
i i
T
T T
i i i
Signal Detection [Correlator and Matched Filter] with K-ary Transmission
Receiver configurations for computing minimum distance signal:
(a) correlator realization and (b) matched-filter realization
Minimum
Distance
Decision
Calculator
Z
1
t =T
b
Decision
Z
2
t =T
b

v
2
(t)
Received Signal
Plus Noise:
Z
K
t =T
b

()dt
T
b

()dt
T
b

()dt
T
b
Minimum
Distance
Decision
Calculator
Z
1
t =T
b
Decision
Z
2
t =T
b
Received Signal
Plus Noise
Z
K
t =T
b
(b)

Matched Filter
v
1
(T
b
t)

Matched Filter
v
2
(T
b
t)

Matched Filter
v
K
(T
b
t)
(a)
) ( ) ( v ) ( t n t t r +
) ( ) ( v ) ( t n t t r +
v
1
(t)
v
K
(t)
19
Single user system with channel distortion:
Tapped Delay Line Model For A Frequency Selective [Multipath] Fading Channel
1
W
u(t)
h
1
(t) h
2
(t) h
3
(t)
1
W
h
L
(t)

r(t)
1
W
1
W
1
W
A passband channel can be represented by the baseband equivalent channel shown
above. The boxes marked by 1/W correspond to delays of 1/W seconds. This is called a
Tapped Delay Line [TDL] channel model; the total multipath delay spread is ~LT
c
sec
The fading process is generally assumed to a Gaussian process [ie, the h
i
s are
uncorrelated zero-mean complex Gaussian random processes and are statistically
independent]. The additive noise, n(t) is assumed to AWGN.
The TDL channel model provides the receiver with L statistically independent
replicas of the transmitted signal u(t). So, is fading good or bad?
We wil show that a receiver that processes the received signal in an optimum
manner will achieve the performance of an equivalent Lth-order diversity
communications system.
Ideal Lowpass Filter
Bandwidth = W /2~1/T
c
(t n/W )
) ( ) ( ) ( where
) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
1
t c t b t u
t n
W
n
t u t h t r
L
n
n

n(t)
Received Signal
Transmitted
Signal
20
Tapped Delay Line Model For Frequency Selective Fading Channels-II
The received signal can be expressed as
where we follow our convention that u
i
(t) [i=1,2] represents one of the binary choices for the
baseband-equivalent transmitted signal [which is the product of the information bearing signal and
the spreading code]. Recall that the signal u(t) = b(t) c(t). Later we will consider the situation with
multiple sources/users.
In a macro cellular system, the multipath delay spread is limited to <20 s [according to the GSM
standard]. So, for GSM with a symbol interval of 3.69 s, multipath can spread the transmitted signal
over 4-5 symbols and produce Intersymbol Interference [ISI]. For IS-95, the chip time is 1/1.25MHz
=0.8 s, and so the multipath extends over ~25 chips, but does not exceed the 64 chips in a symbol
interval . Thus for commercial spread spectrum systems [IS-95 and WCDMA] the multipath is such
that the spread of the output signal is confined to much less than the duration of the symbol interval,
T
b
, of the baseband signal [but spread across many chips]. Thus there is no ISI [except for the edge
effect of some spill over into the first part of the next symbol].
If the channel tap weights are known, then we have the familiar problem of a known, binary signal in
AWGN; the optimum receiver consists of two filters matched to v
1
(t) and v
2
(t), followed by
samplers and a decision circuit that selects the signal corresponding to the largest output. An
equivalent optimum receiver uses correlation instead of matched filtering. Note that the correlator or
matched filter will, in theory, need to have M sub-filters, one for each multipath component.
Since there are generally only a small number of significant multipath samples, the receiver can be
simplified. The RAKE receiver is a realization of such a computationally efficient receiver [realizing
only the active L branches.
Techniques for rapidly estimating the channel weights will be studied later in the course.
2 1 0 ), ( ) ( v ) ( or,
) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
i
1
, , i T t t n t t r
t n
W
n
t u t h t r
b
L
n
i n
+
+

21
Receiver for binary antipodal signals transmitted over a frequency-
selective fading channel- delayed reference/code implementation.
The received signal is given by
The optimum receiver computes [for each value of k]
The mechanization of the RAKE receiver is shown on the next chart
) ( ) ( ) ( where , ) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
1
t c t b t u t n
W
n
t u t h t r
L
n
i n
+

2 , 1 , ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
0
1
0

k dt
W
n
t u t h t r dt t v t r
k
T
L
n
n
T
k
b b
22
1
W
RAKE receiver for binary antipodal signals transmitted over a frequency-
selective fading channel- delayed reference/code implementation. There are
two realizations of the filter [ i=1,2] and we note that 1/W~T
c
/2
u
i
(t)
r(t)

1
(t)

2
(t)
3
(t)
1
W

L
(t)


( )dt
0
T
Decision
Circuit
input
t =nT
1
W
1
W
1
W
r(t) is the received signal
u
i
(t) is the transmitted signal and is the
product of the reference code and the baseband signal.
There are two paths for i=1,2
(t) are the channel estimates[ ---> h(t)]: called the RAKE fingers
and the RAKE receiver is much simpler than the fully
configured correlator or matched filter [since L <<M].
The receiver needs to estimate which of the L weights are
non zero and determine their location [in time] and track their
evolution over time.
23
Functional Block Diagram of a RAKE Receiver

PN_CODE
T
1
T
2
T
3
Delays

( (
s
c
) )

3 2 1
n
In IS-95, the receiver will have
three or four RAKE fingers,
and the receiver will first determine
the location (in time) of the
3-4 biggest fingers and then
determine and track their amplitudes (and
phase ---for a passband system)

24
Performance of the RAKE Receiver: Single User System
There are L diversity channels each carrying the same information-bearing signal. We will
assume that each channel is slowly fading with Rayleigh distributed envelope statistics, and
the fading process among the channels is assumed to be mutually statistically independent
and to each contain AWGN
The optimum receiver computes:
and the expression is simplified by substituting in the above
and the output can be expressed as: [note the sign of the mean for k=i]
where
To calculate the error probability we condition on a fixed set of channel weights h
k
and
determine this conditional error probability and then average over the probability density
function of the{h
k
}.
For a fixed set of {h
k
} the decision variable is Gaussian [a linear combination of Gaussian
variables] with mean and variance given respectively by

2 , 1 , ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
0
1
0

k dt
W
n
t u t h t r dt t v t r L
k
T
L
n
n
T
k k
b b


+
L
i k
L
k
k k k p k i k
N h h E b b L
1
2
). ( in energy the is and ) ( ) (
0
t u E dt
W
k
t u t n N
p
T
k k
b

and
2

L
i k
k p
h E

L
k
k p
h N E
1
2
0
2

2 , 1 , ) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
1
+

i t n
W
n
t u t h t r
L
n
i n
25
Performance of the RAKE Receiver-2
For these values the probability of error [ie, the probability that the decision statistic is
negative] is given by
The characteristic function is the Fourier Transform of the probability
density function of the random variable X. The characteristic function provides a simple
method for determining the pdf of a sum of independent random variables. If Y=
X
1
+X
2
+.+X
L
, then , (where it is assumed that the Xs are
identically distributed) and the pdf of Y is computed by taking the inverse Fourier
Transform.
Since the fading on the L channels is statistically independent, we can calculate the
characteristic function by recalling that for L=1, has a chi-square probability density
function with a characteristic function and raising this function to
the L
th
power [which is the characteristic function of a chi-square distributed random
variable with 2L degrees of freedom].
The final step is to average the conditional error probability over the fading channel
statistics (which can shown to be):
channel. k on the SNR ous instantane the is and
by given is , bit, per SNR the where , ) (
2
1
th
0
2
k
1 1
2
0
b
N
h E
h
N
E
erfc P
k p
L
k
L
k
k k
p
b b e

j
j

1
1
) (
noise] Gaussian with as l exponentia not : [note power L the to raised 1/ as es error vari of y probabilit that the so
,
1 2
4
1
) ( ) | Pr(
th
0

,
_

,
_

L
L
d p e P
L
e
] [ ) (
X j
X
e E j


L
X Y
)] ( [ ) (

Note how the RAKE receiver uses the

diversity of the L independently fading signals
26
DS-CDMA Mobile Receiver without Multipath: The Terminal/Mobile
Now, consider the CDMA system with N users, b
j
(t), 1<j<N. Up to N of the users are
transmitting at the same time (on the same frequency) and the received signal, r(t), 0 < t
<T is given by
The detection of the single signal b
j
(t) [eg, at the j
th
terminal] is different than any problem
we have studied so far ---since there are (up to) N-1 other signals being received [at the
base station we typically consider the joint detection of all the N signals]. To detect the j
th
signal we can make use of the Central Limit Theorem and regard the other signal-dependent
terms as Gaussian Noise. This assumption reduces the problem to the detection of a
known signal c
j
(t) b
ji
(t) in noise [the noise being the sum of the additive Gaussian Noise
and the signal-dependent noise]. We will consider multi-user detection problem at the
base station later.
stream. bit users for that detector single a be will there mobile a at Typically
...N). 1,2, j (for 1, - or 1 is (t) whether determine try to and signal received entire the process
jointly will detectors the where detectors, N be will ere station th base a At T). (0, during d transmitte
be may signals N all that note ; 2 1 , value the assumes user the of
) ( signal the mean that to ) ( use we 2], [Chapter discussion detection our in
used that simular to notation use To (t). the of each for 1] [say modulation baseband
binary assume we and AWGN, is n(t) where ), ( ) ( ) ( ) (
1
+

t
+

j
ji
th
j ji
j
j
N
j
j
b
, i (t) b j
t b t b
b
t n t b t c t r
27
DS-CDMA Mobile Receiver without Multipath: The Terminal/Mobile ---II
The received signal can be written as
function]. tic determinis known, a is it [ie, process random a not
is that Note . 0 )] ( [ ) ( )] ( ) ( [ ) ( ) ( E
is noise, the of value average The ). ( ) ( noise the of statistics he consider t we white, is
noise" " the if determine to Now Gaussian. as noise ce interferen the appoximate to
Theorem Limit Central the use can we Gaussian, not is ce interferen the speaking, strictly
le, white?Whi and Gaussian noise the is But, noise". " additive in signal known
a detecting to reduces again ) ( detecting of problem the Now, . 2 1 where
), ( by ) ( of values possible the denote we , convention our Following signals. d transmitte
other the to due noise" " the and AWGN) (the noise background combined the is ) ( where
), ( ) ( ) (
0 ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
1 1 1
1
1
(t) c t b E t c t b t c E t b t c
t b t c
t b , i
t b t b
t z
t z t b t c
T t t n t b t c t b t c t r
k k
N
k
k k
N
k
k k
N
k
k
k
N
k
k
j
ji j
j j
k
N
k
k j j
j k j k j k
j k
j k

1
1
]
1

+
+ +

28
DS-CDMA Mobile Receiver without Multipath: The Terminal/Mobile ---III
We now compute the correlation function u(t,) of the interference noise

2
1
,
M
1
-
,
1 1
1 ) 1 ( ) ( ) ( ) (
page) next on the is picture (a ] [where function r triangula the
is function n correlatio - time the ion to approximat good a that 128] - 125 pg al et Peterson
[see shown be can it | | for 0; ~ be will summation the and chips different
in are summation in the terms then the , | | if and , ) ( ) ( ) ,
by ed approximat is function n correlatio the So, unity. by ed approximat well
is ] ) ( ) ( [ , 1 is ) ( Since ]. ) ( ) ( [ ) ( ) ( ) , summation single the to
simplifies n correlatio the so 1], k and 1 - k or [ unless zero be will expression this t, independen
are ) ( the and tic, determinis are the since ], ) ( ) ( [ ) ( ) (
) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) , (
0
1
1
N
1 i 1
1 1
j i
c c
c
c
T
i i c
c
c
c
N
i
i i
i i i i i
N
i
i i
i
N
k
i k i k i
k
N
k
k i
N
i
i
T
M-
T
T
M M T
dt t c t c R
T MT
T
T t c t c u(t
t b t b E t b t b t b E t c t c u(t
k i
t b (t) c t b t b E t c t c
t b t c t b t c E t u
k i
k i
j k
j k j i


,
_

+ +

<
> +
+ t + +
+
+ +
1
1
]
1

+ +

29
DS-CDMA Mobile Receiver without Multipath: The Terminal/Mobile ---IV
The power spectrum is found by taking the Fourier Transform of the above correlation
function and can be shown to be [see next page ---taken from reference]

m
m
mf f f P f S ) ( ) ( ) (
0

). white" " (ie, flat almost

is spectrum the , 1 1 of bandwidth e within th range, entire
its over ite exactly wh not is noise ce interferen the while So, spectrum. power the of
]
1
where [i.e., lobe first e within th contained is energy the of Most
.
sin
sinc that Recall . / 1 and 0 where and
), / ( sin ] / ) 1 [( and / 1 where
0
2 2 2
0
c
c
c
m
/MT /T baseband
T
f
u
u
u MT f m
M m c M M P N P

Correlation function
30
The power spectrum of a maximal-length sequence shown above consists of
discrete spectral lines at all harmonics of 1/MT
c
. The dc term has an amplitude
of 1/M
2
and the continuous term is shown above.
In most spread-spectrum systems the carrier is randomly modulated by data, as
well as by the spreading code. In this case, the power spectrum is continuous and
not discrete.
In this figure, the period
is called NT
c
instead of MT
c
DS-CDMA Mobile Receiver without Multipath: The Terminal/Mobile---V
31
DS-CDMA Mobile Receiver without Multipath: The Terminal/Mobile ---VI
With this assumption, the receiver is the familiar matched filter or correlator detector can be used.
Correlating the received signal
with the stored reference signal for i = 1,2, produces the output
T t t n t b t c t b t c t r
k
N
k
k j j
j k
+ +

0 ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
1
) ( ) ( t b t c
ji j
signals. ed transmitt users other by the caused ce interferen the eliminate totally
ill receiver w filter] matched [or n correlatio the aligned are bases time the if So,
er]. transmitt single a with case the like just - - - symbol ed transmitt on the
depends integral first the of sign the [where ) ( ) ( ) (
that so , simplify to us allow ns observatio These
. gain) processing " by the reduced be will
noise ce interferen this (and correlator by the filtered pass - low be they will and
noise wideband like behave will terms cross then the not, if - - - aligned
are codes the of base time the if true is this )[ (for 0 ) ( ) (
that and T), (0, over constant a is ) ( ) ( that , 1 that observe we now
) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
)] ( ) ( )][ ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( [ )] ( ) ( )[ (
0 0
2
0
2
0
1
0 0
2
0 0
1
dt t b t c t n dt b L
L
k j dt t c t c
t b t b (t) c
dt t b t c t n dt t c t c t b t b dt t b t b (t) c
dt t b t c t n t b t c t b t c dt t b t c t r L
ji j
T T
j ji
ji
k j
T
ji k j
ji j
T
k j
N
k
T
ji k ji j
T
j
T T
ji j
N
k
k k j j ji j ji
j k
j k

+ t

+ +
+ +

32
Transmitter:

c
1
(t)
y
1
(t)
A
c
t
i
cos( ) +
PN 1
.
.
.
PN 2
PN N
c
N
(t)
c
2
(t)
b
1
(t)
b
2
(t)
b
N
(t)
1
2
N
+
y
2
(t)
y
N
(t)
Mobile Receiver:
V
in
(t)
c
1
(t)
Sample at t = T
v
o
(t)
Coherent carrier
A t
o i 1
cos ( )
+
Tb
0

PN code
CDMA Transmitter and Receiver: When the timebases of the codes are
synchronized [e.g., downlink in IS-95]
j i if 0,
j i if only 1, dt (t) (t)c c because
) - (t b dt ) - (t ) - (t )b - (t (t)
j
T
0
i
1 1 i
0
1
b

c c v
b
T
N
i
i o
Correlator Receiver
33
CDMA Synchronized Multi-User Receiver with N Users, No Distortion: The Base Station
user. each from n informatio the transmit to used are signals antipodal
binary that assume will we simplicity For T). (0, interval over the signal received the is ) ( ) ( ) (
that so period symbol a over constant is signal n informatio user that the assume can We user. other each of symbol
single a from ce interferen only is there and user each by ed transmitt being symbol single a consider only need we
Here, ed. synchroniz are signals the of timebases the where ion, transmiss s synchronou consider first We
[AWGN]. Noise Gaussian white additive the is ) ( and
signals] tting or transmi users K [for 0 ), ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( is
signal received The channel. k in the delay the is where , ) ( ) ( ) ( source] user k by the
ed transmitt symbol n the represents ) ( [where signal PAM the as ) ( express we intervals symbol N
over mission user trans e accommodat To T).]. (0, over exist to code the define will we here e convenienc
for but T interval symbol a to equal period with signal periodic a is code [the code spreading k the is ) ( and
signal user k the is ) ( where ), ( ) ( ) ( is signal ed transmitt he receiver t station base multiuser a In
1
1 1
1
th
k
th
th
th
th
1

+
+ + +

K
k
k k
K
k
k k k
N
n
N
n
k k k k
k k
k
k
K
k
k k
t n t c b t r
t n
T NT t t n nT t c n b t n t s t r
nT t c n b t b
n b t b
t c
t b t c t b t s

34
DS-CDMA Multi-User Receiver: The Optimum Receiver
page. next the on shown is detector the of n realizatio A
R
Rb b r b b r
b
b b
b b
b
K K K K K K
detector). terminal with the before seen have we (as detection threshold symbol - by - symbol to reduces which
],
2
1
(1)r [b 2 (1) b (1)r b 2 ) b , C(r becomes metric the and j k unless zero be will case in this since
rward, straightfo rather becomes receiver the ed, uncorrelat are codes the if that Note users]. of number he lly with t exponentia grows
complexity detector the [ie, users K the sequenceof n informatio in the bits the of choices possible 2 are e that ther Note energies.
signal received the of knowledge have must detector optimum that the Note . elements h matrix wit n correlatio code the is and
vector, d transpose the denotes symbol ' the where , 2 ) 1 ( ) 1 ( ) 1 ( 2 ) , C(
metric(s) n correlatio the maximizing to equivalent is ) b ( likelhood - log the minimizing Thus words. code the of
n correlatio - cross the involves ) ( ) ( term the and filters), matched use can we course (of sequences code K
the of each with signal received the of n correlatio - cross the represents ) ( ) ( term The ed. transmitt was
sequence which g determinin in relevance no of is and sequences possible all common to is integral first that the see We
) ( ) ( ) 1 ( ) 1 ( ) ( ) ( ) 1 ( 2 ) ( ) (
: get we integral above the Expanding
). ( minimizes that K} k 1 , ) 1 ( { sequence n informatio the selects and , ) ( ) 1 ( ) ( ) (
by given is likelihood This . by writing ) 1 ( simplify we follows In what vector. d transpose the denotes the where
, ] ) 1 ( ),...., 1 ( ), 1 ( [ ) 1 ( vector signal the of function likelihood - log the computes [ML] Likelihood Maximum
The T). (0, interval symbol one in received signal he consider t to sufficient is it fading], Gaussian - non have will channel
actual the [remember AWGN In symbol. desired with the interferes which symbol one exactly produces user each where
ion, transmiss s synchronou consider us let First, T. NT t 0 interval time over the observed ) ( signal received given the
K} k 1 N, n 1 , ) ( { bits of sequence probable most the selects that receive the as defined is receiver optimum e Th
K
1 k
k k kk
K
1 k
k
2
K
1 k
k k K K kj
K
kj
kj
1 1 1
0
kj
T
0
1 1 0 0 1 0
2
2
0 1
2 1

+

1
]
1

K
j
K
k
j k
K
k
k k
T
j k
k k
K
j
K
k
T
j k j k k
T
K
k
T
k
k
T K
k
k k
K
k
b b r b
dt t c t c
dt t c t r r
dt t c t c b b dt t c t r b dt t r
b dt t c b t r
b b b
t r
n b
35
Optimum Multiuser Receiver for Synchronous CDMA Transmission
Computes
the metric
C(r
K
,b
K
)
and selects
the set of
bits, b
K
,
that max
the metric
r
1
t =T
b
Decision
r
2
t =T
b
r
K
t =T
b

()dt
T
b

()dt
T
b

()dt
T
b
) (t r

c
2
(t)
c
1
(t)
c
K
(t)
36
CDMA Asynchronous Multi-User Receiver with N Users, No Distortion: The Base Station
] ) ( ... ) ( ) ( [ ) (
] ) ( ... ) 2 ( ) 1 ( [
] ) ( .... ) ( ) ( [ ) (
] ) ( ... ) 2 ( ) 1 ( [
] ) ( ... ) ( ) ( [ ) (
] ) ( ... ) 2 ( ) 1 ( [
s definition and gy terminolo following the have we and
)] ( bits ed transmitt the detecting for statistic sufficient a s constitute vector [this ,
form the in expressed can outputs filter, matched or , correlator NK the
notation vector of terms In user. each for one - - - s correlator K of } 1 , k 1 ), ( { outputs the involves that metric n correlatio a
of terms in expressed be may function likelihood - log that the observe We . and for ) ( ) ( ) (
n correlatio cross the involving terms into decomposed be may ) ( ) ( integral the and
intervals, symbol the of each in user k for the correlator the of output the denote to 1 , ) ( ) ( ) (
notation following the use We sequences. n informatio possible all to common is it since ignored, be may integral first the before as and
, ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( 2 ) (
) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
function likelihood - log the computes receiver d Likelihoo Maximum the before,
As s]. technique n correlatio [by receiver at the measured be must parameters These . delays their as well as role], important
more a play it way here but unity, energy was this assumed we analysis ed synchroniz the [in users K the of each for energies, the
knows receiver that the assume will We course. the in later until on equalizati defer will We receiver. of type - RAKE the following
equalizer an need ould receiver w optimum the then speaking, Strictly period. preceding the in symbol the periodand symbol same
the in symbol the - - - interfere each from symbols e consecutiv two from ce interferen be will there Operation us Asynchrono For
2 1
K 2 2 1 1
2 1
0
kl
0
th
) 1 (
1 1
0
1 1 1
0 0
1
2
2
0
1 1
k
k






+

>


+
1
]
1

+
+ +
+

+

+ +

+

i n i n i n i
N
i b i b i b i
N
i r i r i r i
N
i b
N i K i r
l k l k dt t c t c
dt jT t c iT t c
N i dt iT t c t r i r
dt jT t c iT t c j b i b dt iT t c t r i b dt t r
dt iT t c i b t r
K
K
K
k
k
T
l l k k
T NT
l l k k
k k
T i
iT
k
N
i
N
j
T NT
l l k k l k
K
k
K
l
l
k
N
i
T NT
k k k
T NT
K
k
k
T NT
K
k
N
i
k k k k
k
k
n
n n n n
b
b b b b
r
r r r r
n b R r
b
N

37
CDMA Asynchronous Multi-User Receiver with N Users, No Distortion:II
( ) ( )
) (
2
1
)] ( ) ( [
matrix ation autocorrel an and mean zero have (t) vectors noise Gaussian the and

, ) ( ) ( elements h matrix wit a is and
) 0 ( ) 1 (
) 1 ( ) 0 ( ) 1 (
.
... ) 1 ( ) 0 ( ) 1 (
... ) 1 ( ) 0 (
0
j k N j k E
dt t c t c m R K K m
c
l l k k k l c
NxN
c c
c c c
c c c
c c
N


1
1
1
1
1
1
]
1

R n n
n
R
R R 0 0 0
R R R 0 0
0 0 R R R
0 0 R R
R

If we adopt a block processing, the optimum ML detector must compute 2
NK
correlation
metrics and select the K sequence of length N that corresponds to the largest metric. This
is clearly too many computations when N and K are large. An alternative approach is to
use ML sequence estimation [ie, the Viterbi Algorithm --- as we used in decoding convolutional
codes]. We can build an (approximately) optimum sequential type of detector by making use of
the fact that each transmitted symbol overlaps, at most, with K-1 symbols in the same symbol
interval and K symbols in the next symbol interval, or 2K-1 symbols. This, suboptimum, detector
will mean a significant reduction in computational complexity with respect to the block size
parameter N, but complexity is still exponentially proportional to K.
38
CDMA Asynchronous Multi-User Sub-Optimum Receivers
Here we are interested in suboptimum detectors whose complexity grows linearly with the
number of users, K. The simplest suboptimum detector is the (conventional) single user
detector that we studied in connection with the mobile.
Conventional single-user detector: as with the mobile receiver, the receiver for each user consists of
that correlates the received signal with the code sequence of the user and passes the correlator output
to the detector. The detector makes a decision based on a single correlator output, and neglects the
presence of the other users of the channel, or equivalently, assumes that the noise-plus-interference
is white and Gaussian. As before the output of the correlator for the k
th
user for the interval 0<t<T is
[ ]
properly. work o receiver t for this of form some es necessitat and
, the called generally is situation This user. k the levelof power n the larger tha ly sufficient is users
the of more or one of energies] signal received [or the levels power the if excessive become can users other
from ce interferen the user, the to orthogonal not are sequences code the of more or one if hand, other On the
optimum. is detector user - single the and vanishes above] in the ) 0 ( ) 1 ( by [captured
users other the from ce interferen the , orthogonal are words code the if before, seen have we As
.
2
1
) (
2
1
) 1 (
is (1) of variance the
2
1
density spectral power with Noise Gaussian is Since
) ( ) ( ) 1 ( by given is component noise the where
), 1 ( ) 0 ( ) 1 ( ) 1 ( ) ( ) (
th
1
0
0
2
0
2
0
0
1
0
control power
problem far - near
jk j
K
k j
j
j
T
k k
k
T
k k
k jk j
K
k j
j
j k
T
k k k
b
N dt t c N n E
n N n(t)
dt t c t n n
n b b dt t c t r r

+ +
39
CDMA Asynchronous Multi-User Sub-Optimum Receivers-II
In asynchronous transmission, the conventional detector (just described) is more vulnerable
to interference from other users. This is because it is often not possible to design code sequences
for several users that remain orthogonal for an arbitrary time offset. Generally, interference is
unavoidable, and the near-far problem resulting from unequal power in the received signals is
particularly serious and requires a power adjustment method that is controlled by the receiver via
a separate communications channel. There are other sub-optimum detectors, including the :
Decorrelating Detector: This is a detector that has linear computational complexity, but does
exhibit the same level of vulnerability to other-user interference. The detector is motivated by the
synchronous system. Here the received signal vector r
K
that represents the output of the K matched
filters is r
K
= R
s
b
K
+ n
K

where and the noise vector
has a covariance E[n
K
n
K
]=(N
0
/2)R
s
. Since the noise is Gaussian, r
K
is described by the K-dimensional
Gaussian probability density function

] ) 1 ( .... ) 1 ( ) 1 ( [
K 2 2 1 1 K

K
b b b b
] ) 1 ( ... ) 1 ( ) 1 ( [
2 1

K K
n n n n
1
]
1

) ( ) (
1
exp
det ) (
1
) | (
1
0
0
K s K s K s K
s
K
K K
N
N
p b R r R b R r
R
b r

The best linear estimate of b

K
is the value of b
K
that maximizes the likelihood function, which is
equivalent to minimizing the quadratic form in the exponent.
40
CDMA Asynchronous Multi-User Sub-Optimum Receivers-III
Receiver Structure for Decorrelation Receiver
r
1
t =T
b
Decision
r
2
t =T
b
r
K
t =T
b

()dt
T
b

()dt
T
b

()dt
T
b
) (t r

c
2
(t)
c
1
(t)
c
K
(t)
Linear
Transformation
(Decorrelation)
and detector
K s
opt
K
r R b
1

) sgn(

opt
K K
b b
The result of this minimization yields where the superscript
stands for optimum, and will be shorted to o in the subsequent text. And the
detected symbols are obtained by quantizing each element ie,
K s
opt
K
r R b
1

) ( sgn

opt
K K
b b

The receiver is shown above and since the estimate is obtained by performing a linear
transformation on the vector of correlator outputs, the computational complexity is linear in K.
41
Receiver Structure for Decorrelation Receiver: II
Consider the decorrelating receiver for the case of K=2. In this case
This is a very interesting result because the decorrelating transformation has eliminated the
interference components between the two users. Consequently the near-far problem is
eliminated and there is no need for power control!
1
1
]
1

+
+

1
]
1

1
1
]
1

+ +
+ +

1
]
1

+ +

1
]
1

1
]
1

) 1 /( ) (
) 1 /( ) (

are samples the Thus
s. correlator the of output at the components noise the are and where ,
the tor to input vec following the produces
) ( and ) ( with ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( signal received the correlates receiver The
) ( ) ( where ,
1 -
- 1
1
1
that so
1
1
2
1 2 2 2
2
2 1 1 1
2
1 1 -
s
opt
2
2 1
2 2 2 1 1
1 2 2 1 1
2
1
2 1 2 2 2 1 1 1
0
2 1
2
1 -
s

n n b
n n b
r
r
n n
n b b
n b b
r
r
t c t c t n t c b t c b t r
dt t c t c
T
s
R b
ed Decorrelat
or Decorrelat
R R
42
Successive Interference Cancellation: Another Sub-Optimum Detector
Successive Interference Cancellation (SIC) is based on removing the interfering signal waveforms
from the received signal, one at time as they are detected. One approach is to demodulate the
received signals in order of decreasing received powers. Thus, the user having the strongest signal
is demodulated and detected first. After a signal has been detected, the detected information is used
to subtract the signal of the particular user from the received signal.
When making a decision about the transmitted information of the k
th
user, we assume that the
decisions of users k+1, ,K are correct and we neglect the presence of users 1, 2, , k-1. The
decision for the k
th
user, for synchronous transmission is
where r
k
is the output of the correlator corresponding to the k
th
users code sequence.This approach
does not fully take into account the cross correlations among users. Another approach is to
demodulate according to the powers at the outputs of the cross correlators. In any event, each of these
approaches requires accurate estimates of the received signal powers [in order to cancel the interference]
Estimation errors result in residual multiuser interference. The delay in demodulating the weakest
signal increases linearly with the number of users. For asynchronous reception, the time delays
must also be estimated.
1
]
1

+
K
k j
j jk j k k
b r b
1

) 0 ( sgn

43
CDMA: Principal of Interference Cancellation
Conventional CDMA receivers treat all noise the same, but:
If we can reduce the interference from known users in a
clever way, we can increase quality and capacity
Iterative Canceller -- Estimates each signal and subtracts to reduce
known interference
Potential capacity gains of 2X - 3X
Received
Signal
Receive/
Reconstruct
Signal 1
Receive/
Reconstruct
Signal 2
-
-
+
+
Receive/
Decode
Signal 1
Receive/
Decode
Signal 2
Interference subtraction
Cleaner signals
44
REPRESENTATIVE CDMA SYSTEM PERFORMANCE: Spread Spectrum Signal
when code timebases are not synchronized [e.g., uplink in IS-95]
b
1
(t)

PN gen Mod
Demod PN gen
. . . . . .
Transmitter Receive r
Signal-to-inte rference rat io:

c
b
N
2 i
2
i
2
1
T
T
/3 A
/2 A

where: A1 = received carrier level of desired signal, 1
Ai = received carrier level of interfering signal, i

Processing gain

G =
c
b
T
T

Probability of error in Gaus s ia n
Noise/Interference

Pe = (1/2) e rfc
Integrate over T
b
The interference from the other signals is wideband noise
to the receiver and is filtered: the fraction of interference
that appears in the output is T
c
/T
b
=1/128 in IS-95 ---assuming
that all the interferers have the same power at the receiver
input [hence the need for precise power control].
45
CDMA SYSTEM PERFORMANCE
Given: P
e
= 10
-3
Processing gain = 128 [IS-95]
A
1
= A
i
for all I; Negligible noise

Find: the maximum number of users

Solution: From P
e
=1/2 erfc
o
N / E
b
, we can
obtain:

= 4.852

We then apply:


1) (N T 2
T 3
T
T
/3 A
/2 A
c
b
c
b
N
2 i
2
i
2
1

to find the number of users = N = 41.

Graceful degradation of performance
Thus the Signal-to-Interference Ratio [SIR]
degrades smoothly with the number of user
[but the speech quality may be a step funcion
of the number of users]. This soft
capacity is in contrast to the hard limit on the
number of TDMA users.
46
CDMA SYSTEM WITH BPSK: Power Spectrum
f
o
- 1/ T
c
f
f
o
+ 1/T
c
f
o
Spread signal transmitted: A
T
C
i
(t) b
i
(t) cos (
o
t +

i
)
=

C
i
t v
BPSK i
t ( ) ( )
power spectrum of transmitted signal, G
T
(f)

shifted spectrum of PN code

Data sequence b
i
(t)
+1
-1
T
b
2T
b
0
PN code C
i
(t)
T
c
+1
-1
0
t
t
47
RECEIVING A SPREAD SPECTRUM SIGNAL
Desired Other users [not time synchronized with desired user]
b
i
(t)C
i
(t) + b
j
(t)C
j
(t)
C
i
(t)
Synchronized desired
PN code rate, T
c
b t C t b t C t C t i j i j
i
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2
+
b
i
(t) + b
j
(t)C
i
(t)C
j
(t)
Synchronized
to bit rate, T
b
( )
0
T
dt
b

v
0
(t) v
0
(t
b
)
Sample at t = T
b
h(t)
1/Tb

2 / T
c
G
b
i
f ( )
G f
b
j
C
i
C
j
( )
G
b
j
C
i
C
j
( ) 0
Spectrum input to integrator Spectrum at v
0
(t)
0
f
0
f
1/Tb
Matched filter receiver
Coherent carrier recovery
48
RECEIVING A SPREAD SPECTRUM SIGNAL (continued)
1/T
b

2 / T
c
G
b
i
f ( )
G
b
j
C
i
C
j
G
b
j
C
i
C
j
( ) 0
Spectrum input to integrator Spectrum at v
0
(t)
0
f
0
f
1/T
b
( )
0
T
dt
b

v
0
(t)
v
0
(T
b
)
Sample at t = T
b
h(t)
h(t)
v
in
(t)
f ( )
At the integrator output the interference is reduced by the processing gain


c
T
b
T
I
S

power ce Interferen
power Signal
The above assumes that all signals are received at the same power level ---that is, perfect power control.
If an interfering signal is 10 dB hotter than the desired signal, it appears like ten interferers.
49
Modulation
(signal power =d
2
)
BPSK
[circle of radius d
QPSK
[circle of radius d]
16-QAM
[points are
(t1,t3)d/10
Data Rate R bps 2R bps 4R bps
Squared Minimum
Distance-to-
Interference Ratio
(Interference
~number of users)
4d
2
/I
BPSK
2d
2
/I
QPSK
0.4d
2
/I
16-QAM
Number of users
to maintain the
same error rate
N N/2 N/10
System
Throughput
[rate number of
users]
RN RN 0.4RN
System Throughput in a CDMA System as a Function of Modulation Format
[dont expect to see modulation greater than QPSK in interference-limited systems]
Note: we assume perfect power control, so that the interferers
have the same power as the received (desired) signal
50
EFFECT OF DELAY SPREAD ON CDMA PERFORMANCE
2 Path Downlink Example: Non-Rake Receiver

Delay spread greater than time chip (

>T
c)
All interfering signals reduced by processing gain, including path-b of user 1
where PA
i
= received amplitude of path-a signal
PB
i
= received amplitude of delayed path-b signal
G = processing gain (T
b
/T
c
)
Delay spread less than time chip ( < T
c)
User 1 path- not suppressed and can cause destructive interference b
51
Correlator
Phase
rotator
Delay
Equalizer
Code
Generator
Channel
Estimator

Q
Combiner
Finger 1
Finger 2
Finger 3
Matched
filter
I
Q
Input
signal
(from RF)
Timing (Finger allocation)
A CDMA Rake Receiver
I
Q
Operating Principles for the Rake Receiver
Identify the time delay positions (to within 1/4-1/2 a chip)at which significant energy arrives and
allocate correlation receivers [ie, Rake fingers to those peaks]. Update the multipath delay profile on
the order of tens of milliseconds.
Within each correlation receiver, track the fast-changing phase and amplitude values and remove
them via a phase rotation (updates on the order of < 1ms)
Combine the demodulated and phase-adjusted symbols across all active fingers and present them to
the decoder for further processing.
52
Characteristics of CDMA ---Summary
Multiple subscribers use the same RF carrier simultaneously
Signal-to-Interference (S/I) ratio degrades as the number of
simultaneous users on a RF carrier increase
User signal is spread to a wide bandwidth by modulation with a PN
sequence (this gives the signal more immunity to multipath fading)
The PN sequences have low autocorrelation and zero crosscorrelation
and are used to separate the user signals at the receiver
RAKE receivers are used to combine multipath signals for better
receiver S/I
Power control is essential on the uplink
Quadrature spreading and modulation are used for better performance
Conditions less favorable to CDMA
systems requiring very high bit rates (eg, a user rate of 10 Mbps and a
spreading factor of 100 gives a bandwidth/clock of 1 GHz (expensive!)
systems that use CDMA in a common rf band for cellular and office
(PBX) systems. Difficulties in achieving power control if the systems are
run autonomously.