Professional Documents
Culture Documents
MANAGEMENT
PRACTICES
Environmental Manual
for Hog Producers in
Alber ta
E N V I R O N M E N T
E N V I R O N M E N T
E N V I R O N M E N T
FOREWORD
Beneficial Management Practices: Environmental Manual for
Hog Producers in Alberta
These farm practices guidelines were developed for Alberta pork producers through the coopera-
tion of industry, government and interested stakeholders to create greater awareness and under-
standing of beneficial management practices for the environment for pork producers in Alberta.
Information presented in this publication is based on the best available research data and years of
experience. The guidelines presented are intended to provide a range of management options for
hog producers of various sizes. This document is a living document and will be updated
regularly to incorporate new proven technologies and information on environmental practices.
Individuals not experienced in pork production practices should not extract portions of this
publication, nor draw inference, without considering all aspects of production. These guidelines
should not be adopted literally into legislation, in whole or in part, by any level of government.
Developed by:
Alberta Pork
Alberta Agriculture, Food and Rural Development
Funded by:
Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada
Agriculture Initiatives
Western Economic Diversification Fund
Alberta Pork
Alberta Agriculture, Food & Rural Development
Alberta Environmental Sustainable Agriculture
Canadian Adaptation and Rural Development Fund
Acknowledgements:
Alberta Pork
Alberta Agriculture, Food & Rural Development
Intensive Livestock Working Group
Texas A & M University
Landwise
The Wilson Law Office
Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Lethbridge Research Center
Alberta Environment
Alberta Association of Agricultural Fieldmen
Natural Resources Conservation Board
Prairie Farm Rehabilitation Administration, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada
Canadian Farm Business Management Council
Environmental Law Center
Alberta Health and Wellness
University of Alberta
Aherne Nutrition Consulting
West Peake Consulting Ltd.
Agviro, Inc.
Prairie Swine Centre Inc.
September 2002 1
Disclaimer
The primary purpose of the Beneficial Management Practices: Environmental Manual for Hog Producers in
Alberta is to assist producers in implementing beneficial management practices.
It is important to be aware that while the authors have taken every effort to ensure the accuracy and
completeness of the Manual, the Manual should not be considered the final word on the areas of law
and practice that it covers. Producers should seek the advice of appropriate professionals and experts as
the facts of individual situations may differ from those set out in the Manual.
All information (including descriptions of or references to products, persons, web sites, services or
publications) is provided entirely "as is" and the authors make no representations, warranties or
conditions, either expressed or implied, in connection with the use of or reliance upon this information.
This information is provided to the recipient entirely at the risk of the recipient and, because the
recipient assumes full responsibility, the authors shall not be liable for any claims, damages or losses
of any kind based on any theory of liability arising out of the use of or reliance upon this information
(including omissions, inaccuracies, typographical errors and infringement of third party rights).
BENEFICIAL MANAGEMENT PRACTICES: ENVIRONMENTAL
MANUAL FOR HOG PRODUCERS IN ALBERTA
INDEX
1.0 Introduction 6.0 Housing, Equipment and Animal
1.1 Client and Objective Management
1.2 Background 6.1 Manure Collection
6.2 Liquid Manure Systems
2.0 Potential Environmental Risks and 6.3 Pen Design and Management
Nuisance Associated with Hog 6.4 Solid Manure Systems
Production 6.5 Feeder Management
2.1 Air Quality 6.6 Water Management
2.2 Odour 6.7 Ventilation
2.3 Dust 6.8 Dust Control
2.4 Gases 6.9 Safety Precautions for Managing
2.5 Pesticides Livestock Manure
2.6 Pharmaceuticals 6.10 Feeds and Nutrition
2.7 Pathogens 6.11 References
2.8 Soil Erosion and Compaction
2.9 Excess Nutrients 7.0 Manure Collection, Storage,
2.10 Groundwater and Transportation and Treatment
Pollution Concerns 7.1 Design Considerations
2.11 Nuisance 7.2 Types of Storage
2.12 References 7.3 Runoff Control from
2.13 Appendix: Disease Risks to Manure Storage
Humans and Livestock from 7.4 Manure Storage Capacity
Hog Manure 7.5 Maintenance and Monitoring
7.6 Manure Transportation
3.0 Environmental Obligations and 7.7 Manure Treatment
Regulatory Approvals for Livestock 7.8 References
Producers
3.1 Environmental Law Relating to
Hog Production – Environmental 8.0 Land Application of Manure
Protection Standards 8.1 Nutrient Value of Manure
3.2 Regulatory Approvals for Hog 8.2 Manure and Soil Analyses
Operations 8.3 Crop Nutrient Requirements
8.4 Method of Manure Application
4.0 Preventing, Managing and Resolving 8.5 Time of Application
Conflict 8.6 Calibration of Spreading
4.1 What is Conflict? Equipment
4.2 Preventing Conflict 8.7 Record Keeping
4.3 Managing Conflict 8.8 Other Beneficial Management
4.4 Resolving Conflict Practices
4.5 References 8.9 Manure Management Planning
Case Study
5.0 SiteSelection and Planning 8.10 Appendix: Calibration of
Manure Applicator
5.1 Site Selection
5.2 Site Planning
9.0 Disposal of Farm Waste
5.3 Shutting Down Livestock
Operations 9.1 Disposal of Dead Animals
5.4 References 9.2 Disposal of Veterinary Waste
9.3 Disposal of Chemical Farm Waste
9.4 Leaks and Spills
9.5 Options for Disposing of
Contaminated Soils
1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Client and Objective
1.1.1 Purpose
1.1.2 Use of the guidelines
1.2 Background
1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1.1 Purpose
The purpose of the Beneficial Management With the hog industry’s commitment to
Practices: Environmental Manual for Hog advancing management practices, as
Producers in Alberta is to document, for demonstrated in the evolution of hog
producers and society, management options production over the past few decades, this
that are environmentally sound, comply with manual will be updated as new standards
existing regulations and are economically are adopted.
obtainable. These guidelines describe beneficial
Due to local and regional conditions, not management practices designed to protect
all of the practices herein pertain to any one the environment and minimize nuisances
specific hog operation. Rather, one or a such as odour, flies, and dust.
combination of these, coupled with other
alternatives, may provide optimal results.
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6 Beneficial Management Practices: Environmental Manual for Hog Producers in Alberta
1.2 Background
In the past twenty years, Alberta’s hog be aware of this attitude shift and give it due
industry has undergone significant changes, consideration in the management of their
both in size and production methods. Hog operations.
production is a specialized industry that is Alberta Pork, along with its many partners,
highly integrated with crop production. In is leading efforts to maintain and develop an
many cases, hog operations have become environmentally responsible, sustainable and
much larger and more capital intensive. prosperous pork industry. It is continually
At the same time, the character of Alberta’s developing practices, standards and
rural residential population has also seen guidelines to assist the pork industry to
significant changes. New rural housing be environmentally sustainable, globally
represents a major personal investment and competitive and publicly acceptable.
owners are sensitive to any activity that may Furthermore, hog producers have a greater
affect enjoyment and/or property value. understanding that, to remain
The combined result of the changes in the competitive in world markets, those involved
hog industry and in rural residential in the production of pork need to use
development has occasionally created common sense approaches, reasonable
conflicts. In today’s changing society, people management skills appropriate for their
in general are less tolerant of perceived operation, and accepted scientific knowledge
infringements on their rights. This attitude to avoid detrimental environmental impacts
extends to both rural residents and other and undue environmental risk.
agricultural producers. Hog producers must
1.0
September 2002 7
1.0
8 Beneficial Management Practices: Environmental Manual for Hog Producers in Alberta
2.0 POTENTIAL ENVIRONMENTAL
RISKS AND NUISANCE ASSOCIATED
WITH HOG PRODUCTION
2.1 Air Quality
2.2 Odour
2.3 Dust
2.4 Gases
2.5 Pesticides
2.6 Pharmaceuticals
2.7 Pathogens
2.7.1 Modes of disease transmission from manure
2.11 Nuisance
2.12 References
2.2 Odour
The primary complaint about livestock • Psychological and physical health effects
operations is odour. The impact of odour on are not necessarily independent.
human health and well-being causes concern, • Odour from hogs is made up of about 160
especially when odours are disagreeable and compounds. Humans have many and
persistent. However, odour is generally varied responses to these compounds.
considered a nuisance rather than a health • The proportion and characteristics of odour
risk to neighbours because of the degree of contributed by each of the primary sources
dilution and dispersion that occurs within (barns, storages, and land application) is
short distances from the odour source. not well understood. Research is underway
There is a difference between the psycho- to characterize odours released from each
logical and physiological health effects related of these sources.
to odour exposure. Psychological effects, such • Odour intensity and odour offensiveness
as irritation, can result from exposure to may have different indicators.
odour and often occur at levels well below • Combining different odorants can have
those that can directly harm human health. positive and negative effects on intensity
Physiological effects can occur through and offensiveness. These effects are not
exposure to specific compounds that make easily predicted.
up odour, for example, asphyxiation from Eliminating all odour from livestock
exposure to elevated levels of hydrogen operations is not feasible. However, there are
sulphide (H2S) in a confined space. The management practices that can control odour
human health effects of poultry and swine impact within reasonable limits. Odour
facilities have been studied and more research mitigation practices should strive to reduce
is underway in this area. the nuisance to neighbours, by minimizing
It is difficult to evaluate odour and its the frequency, intensity, duration and
health effects for the following reasons: offensiveness (FIDO) of odours.
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10 Beneficial Management Practices: Environmental Manual for Hog Producers in Alberta
2.3 Dust
Dust is composed of fine aerosol particles Total dust includes all airborne particles,
in suspension. These particles are various while respirable dust is in the size category of
shapes and sizes and are both inorganic less than 10 microns. Exposure to fine particles
and organic. of dust, less than 10 microns, can cause eye
• Organic dust is biologically active and may and throat irritation and can potentially
react in the respiratory tract of humans and contribute to respiratory conditions, such as
hogs. Organic dust includes hog dandruff, asthma or chronic bronchitis. Organic air-
dried manure and urine, feed, mold, fungi, borne particles in hog barns generally have a
bacteria, and endotoxins produced by high protein content and have been associated
bacteria and viruses. Seventy to 90 percent with allergic reactions. Dust masks are essential
of the dust in animal housing is organic. to protect the health of barn workers.
• Inorganic dust is composed of numerous Dust and particulate matter exhausted from
aerosols from building materials and the livestock facilities does not represent a direct
environment (concrete, insulation, soil). health risk to neighbours, because the
Air quality in livestock facilities can affect survival rates of airborne micro-organisms
the health of humans and animals if they are between the source and the neighbours is
exposed to high concentrations of contaminated considered very low and the dilution factor of
air. Occupational Health and Safety the air high. However, airborne particulate
Administration (OHSA) recommends that matter can contribute to odour and dust, and
total dust should not exceed 10 mg/m3 and may be a carrier of odour.
respirable dust should not exceed 5 mg/m3.
2.4 Gases
Gases emitted from livestock operations nitrous oxide (N2O) are the main greenhouse
may have an impact on global warming, acid gases in the atmosphere. Increases in the
rain, nuisance odour and water quality. Gases concentration of all of these gases except
can be generated in the barn, and during water vapour, are believed to contribute to
manure storage and land application. These global warming.
gases include ammonia, hydrogen sulphide, The bulk of agricultural emissions are N2O
methane, sulphur, nitrogen compounds and and CH4 and the majority of emissions from
several trace gases associated with odour. hog production come from manure.
The properties and effects of these gases are Although the intensity and offensiveness of
shown in Figure 2.1. an odour may be high, it is not necessarily an
Global warming refers to the increase in the indication of the presence of greenhouse
earth’s atmospheric temperature, which many gases. Research is required to establish if there
scientists believe is a result of an increase in is a relationship between greenhouse gases
the concentration of “greenhouse gases.” and odours.
Water vapour, carbon dioxide (CO2), methane
(CH4), halocarbons (used in refrigerants), and
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September 2002 11
Figure 2.1 Properties and Effects of Gases Emitted From Pork Production
Gas Source Properties
Nitrogen oxides** •NOx naturally generated by •NO and N2O are colourless; NO2 is
(NOx) bacterial processes, decomposi- reddish brown
tion, and fires •NO2 is the most common of NOx
•humans contribute primarily •NO2 is one of the main
through burning fossil fuels components of smog
•hog manure emits more N2O than
other livestock in Alberta
Trace gases associated with odour •anaerobic decomposition of •often have distinct smells
manure
2.5 Pesticides
Pesticides include insecticides, herbicides, water. Soil pollution can occur when pesticides
fungicides and rodenticides. Pesticides can be are applied using improper application methods
a risk to non-target organisms, applicators or rates, when disposal protocols are not
and workers, if these products are not handled followed and during spills. Storing large
and applied properly. During pesticide amounts of pesticides increases the potential
application, spray droplets, mists or vapours for a significant pesticide spill to occur.
may form. These airborne particles can drift Pesticide mismanagement can eliminate
and contaminate adjoining properties and beneficial insects, inhibit crop growth and
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12 Beneficial Management Practices: Environmental Manual for Hog Producers in Alberta
Health Effect Environmental Effect
Concentration Symptom
25 ppm........................... Acceptable TLV*
2 – 6 ppm..................... •detectable, but not considered a •soil and water acidification
risk to public health •contributes to odour
•contributes to formation of airborne
20 – 30 ppm................... •burning eyes particulates
40 – 200 ppm................. •headaches, nausea, respiratory •may react with other compounds potentially
irritation leading to acid rain and ozone depletion
3,000 ppm...................... •asphyxiating
5,000 ppm...................... •could be fatal
10 ppm...........................
Acceptable TLV •may react with other compounds, potentially
2 ppm.............................
•detectable leading to acid rain
20 ppm...........................
•paralyzes sense of smell
50 ppm...........................
•dizziness, nausea, headache,
respiratory irritation
>500 ppm....................... •death from respiratory paralysis in
seconds
50,000 ppm.................... •explosive when mixed with air •a greenhouse gas that may contribute to
500,000 ppm.................. •can cause headaches and eventually global warming
asphyxiation when oxygen is
displaced
5,000 ppm...................... Acceptable TLV •removed from the air by photosynthesis and
30,000 ppm.................... •increased rate of breathing ocean absorption
40,000 ppm.................... •drowsiness, headache •a greenhouse gas that may contribute to
100,000 ppm.................. •dizziness, unconsciousness global warming
300,000 ppm.................. •could be fatal in 30 min.
•NOx are not very soluble so •potentially toxic to plants, leading to reduced
symptoms may be delayed. Effects growth
include respiratory irritation, •NOx are the most potent greenhouse gases
coughing, fever, and in extreme emitted by agriculture
situations, respiratory failure. •may deplete ozone
•in low quantities, these compounds are not considered a •contributes to odour
serious threat to human health •may form airborne particulate matter
* Threshold Limit Values (TLV) are exposure limits that serve as guidelines to control health hazards in work environments.
These values are established by Occupational Health and Safety Association.
**Nitrogen oxides (NOx) include nitric oxide (NO), nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and nitrous oxide (N2O) (laughing gas).
reduce viable crop varieties. Domestic animals runoff, leaching, erosion of contaminated soil,
and wildlife may be harmed by eating spills and direct introduction. The severity
contaminated crops or soil. Pesticides that of pesticide contamination depends on the
accumulate in plant and animal tissue can pesticide toxicity and management.
make food unfit for human consumption.
Pesticides have great potential to pollute both
surface and groundwater. Water pollution
from pesticides can be the result of drift,
2.0
September 2002 13
2.6 Pharmaceuticals
A range of pharmaceutical products, • Antimicrobial medications that may be
including antibiotics, dewormers and excreted into the environment in an active
reproductive hormones (for the breeding form. This could potentially alter the
herd) are used in the swine industry. Most of population of bacteria in the environment
these products are completely broken down in or select for the development of drug-
the animal’s body and do not present a risk to resistant bacteria.
the environment. However, concern has sur- There is little evidence to confirm that
faced that some of these products could find either of these concerns is a significant issue
their way from livestock manure into the at this time. The risk to the environment from
environment and have a negative impact on pharmaceuticals is low. Drug residues are
the ecosystem. Two specific areas of concern are: excreted at very low levels and are then diluted
• Reproductive hormones that could act as with water and manure from other untreated
endocrine disruptors. Endocrine disrupters animals. Drug residues are further diluted
are chemicals that affect the function of the when the manure is spread on the land.
body’s endocrine system. They may cause Because the amount of drugs present is
health problems, reproductive failure and extremely small, the concentrations in hog
developmental abnormalities in both manure may not be high enough to have any
humans and wildlife. There are many other effect on animals that come in contact with
sources of endocrine disruptors in the the residue. Thus far, there has been no
environment, including phytoestrogens evidence that residues from pharmaceuticals
(from plants), mycotoxins (from molds), used in hog production have created problems
and man-made chemicals that imitate with the health of humans, wildlife or the
certain hormones, for example, birth environment. Research is ongoing to evaluate
control pills. the potential environmental risk associated
with certain antimicrobials and reproductive
hormones.
2.7 Pathogens
In recent years, outbreaks of waterborne disease in humans or other livestock. Many of
diseases have occurred in humans in North these organisms are also present in human
America and, in many cases, the increase in sewage and in the feces of other livestock,
intensive livestock production has been pets and wildlife.
blamed. While it is not yet known how much Currently in Alberta, hog manure is not
of the problem can be attributed to agriculture, considered a major source of disease for
two things are certain. Poorly handled humans or other livestock. There are three
manure can result in waterborne disease in main reasons for this. First, many infectious
humans. Other sources of contamination, diseases of hogs that occur in the rest of the
such as human sewage, are also responsible. world are not found in Canada (See Section
It is critical that manure is handled 2.13 Appendix). Second, modern production
appropriately to minimize the risk of practices and drinking water supply systems
disease to both livestock and humans. reduce the risk of disease transmission.
There are a wide range of micro-organisms Third, the hog density in Alberta is very
present in hog manure, including bacteria, low compared to the major hog-producing
viruses, protozoa and other parasites. Under provinces and countries.
certain conditions, some of these can cause
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14 Beneficial Management Practices: Environmental Manual for Hog Producers in Alberta
2.7.1 Modes of disease transmission from manure
Disease-causing micro-organisms are cause disease through water contamination,
referred to as pathogens. Diseases that can be several steps need to occur. If any one of
transmitted from animals to humans, and these steps is blocked, then transmission will
cause disease in both, are referred to as not occur.
zoonoses or zoonotic diseases. • First, the pathogen has to be excreted by
Air. There are no diseases in Alberta that the hog. Not all pathogens are found in
can be transmitted from hog manure through every herd and some can be reduced by
the air to humans or other livestock that are management or medication.
outside the hog barn. The odour of hog • Second, the pathogen has to reach a water
manure alone cannot cause infectious disease. supply either by the animal defecating in
Swine Influenza Virus (SIV) is the only the water, or by manure entering surface
zoonotic disease found in Alberta that can or groundwater through runoff.
potentially be transmitted through the air to • Third, the pathogen must remain alive
humans. Direct contact with infected hogs or and capable of causing infection by the
working inside barns infected with SIV is time it is ingested. Heat, cold and dryness
necessary to contract the disease. People can destroy many pathogens in a short
outside barns are not considered at risk, period of time.
because the virus is highly diluted in the air. • Fourth, the pathogen must be ingested
Airborne transmission of certain diseases in high enough numbers to cause an
that only affect hogs, such as Transmissible infection. Some organisms, such as
Gastroenteritis (TGE), does occur in Alberta. Salmonella, must be ingested in very high
Fecal-oral transmission. Manure numbers to cause disease, whereas only a
pathogens are mainly transmitted through few Cryptosporidium organisms may cause
the fecal-oral route (i.e., ingestion of manure disease.
or manure-contaminated feed or water). In Often it is difficult to determine the source
livestock, this can occur through consumption of a waterborne outbreak of disease. Many of
of drinking water contaminated by livestock the same disease-causing micro-organisms in
or wildlife manure, grazing on pasture recently livestock are found in wildlife, pets and
spread with manure or by ingesting manure. sewage. Therefore, identifying the source of
Humans can ingest manure pathogens contamination is difficult. Testing many
through consumption of contaminated drinking sources and using new diagnostic techniques
water, swimming in contaminated surface to determine the strain of the organism are
water and by failing to wash their hands usually necessary to pinpoint the source of
after handling infected livestock or manure. disease, although they still are not definitive.
People most at risk of zoonotic disease are Refer to Section 2.13 Appendix for a full
those working in barns or handling manure. description of pathogens that may be present
The main public health concern related to in hog manure in Alberta.
manure handling is contamination of surface
water. In order for manure pathogens to
2.0
September 2002 15
2.8 Soil Erosion and Compaction
Soil erosion refers to the loss of soil due to timing and tillage. Incorporating manure
wind or water. Erosion potential depends on prevents nutrient losses and mixes organic
management practices and the specific matter in manure with soil. Mixing organic
topography, climate and soil type of a region. matter with soil increases the binding of soil
Water erosion can be the result of particles and can reduce the potential for
surface runoff from rainfall or irrigation. erosion. However, excessive tillage leading to
Wind erosion occurs when soil is not compaction will decrease soil porosity and
adequately covered and when winds are destroy soil structure and aggregate
strong enough to move soil particles. Wind characteristics. This reduces the movement
and water erosion can cause environmental of water, air, nutrients and soil microbes
problems if soil nutrients or fine-grained through the soil. Timing manure application
material, such as silt and clay, enter water to avoid applying manure on wet soil is
bodies. critical to reduce soil compaction. Farm traffic,
To avoid soil erosion when applying and especially on headlands, can cause soil
incorporating manure, a balance must be compaction, particularly when the soil is wet.
achieved among incorporation techniques,
2.0
16 Beneficial Management Practices: Environmental Manual for Hog Producers in Alberta
2.10 Groundwater and Pollution Concerns
Groundwater. Groundwater is the water contain salts from the water used for livestock
that occurs in the pore spaces of soil and watering or from salts and minerals in feed.
rocks. Aquifers are water-bearing layers that In many cases, nutrients, such as nitrogen,
hold groundwater in usable amounts. Typical phosphorus and trace elements are less likely
aquifers are overlain by deposits such as clay to limit manure applications on a field than
or shale. Unconfined aquifers or water table salt levels. Sodium, in particular, can cause
aquifers are close to the ground surface and problems with the soil, since it can cause
exposed directly to the atmosphere through structural changes in the soil and is toxic to
openings in the soil. As a result, the risk of plants at high levels.
contamination to unconfined aquifers is great. Metals. Metals include nickel, manganese,
Over-application of nutrients can result in lead, chromium, zinc, copper, iron and
nutrient leaching directly into the groundwater. mercury. Trace quantities of some metals are
A confined aquifer is trapped below an necessary for the growth of living things.
upper confining layer of rock, clay or shale. However, even low metal concentrations
The risk of contamination for confined can have cumulative effects that are toxic to
aquifers is through direct movement of most life forms. Metals are found in manure,
contaminants into the well from the wellhead waste oil and hydraulic fluids. Metals may
or improperly maintained well casing. contaminate groundwater, move into surface
Manure or chemical spills or seepage into water and accumulate in fish tissue, making
the well should be prevented. them unsuitable for human consumption.
Seepage from improperly constructed or Petroleum products. Gasoline, antifreeze,
maintained manure storage structures and the paints, solvents, hydraulic fluids and other
associated risk of groundwater contamination oil-based substances can have direct and
is a serious concern in some areas, particularly indirect harmful effects on groundwater and
where the subsoil underlying the storage surface water. Direct adverse effects include
consists of sand, gravel or fractured bedrock immediate toxic contamination of aquatic
that allows movement of contaminants through organisms that ingest petroleum products
the soil profile to shallow groundwater. and respiratory interference in fish. Indirect
Over-application of manure on cropland or negative effects include the destruction of
forage land can also present a risk of elevated fish food such as algae and other plankton,
nitrate levels in shallow groundwater. Studies devastation of spawning areas, a reduction in
in Alberta have shown that continuous over- the rate of photosynthesis by aquatic plants
application of manure can increase nitrate and poor stream aeration. Also, petroleum
levels in shallow groundwater. products can taint the flavour of fish, affecting
Salt. Salt levels, as shown by electrical its quality for human consumption.
conductivity measurements and sodium
adsorption ratios, can increase in soils after
successive manure applications. Manure can
2.11 Nuisance
Odour, noise, traffic and flies related to inevitable, but the beneficial management
agricultural enterprises are a potential practices discussed throughout the following
nuisance to the surrounding community if chapters may minimize irritation to neighbours.
not managed properly. Noise and traffic are
2.0
September 2002 17
2.12 References
• Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada (Les • Cooke, S.E. and E. E. Prepas, 1998. Stream
Haley), 1999. Agriculture and Climate Phosphorus and Nitrogen Export from
Change. AESA Greenhouse Gases Workshop Agricultural and Forested Watersheds on the
Proceedings. Boreal Plain. Canadian Journal of Fish and
Aquatic Sciences 55: 2292-2299.
• Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada
Greenhouse Gas Team, 1999. Agriculture and • Environment Canada, 1997. Global Climate
Agri-Food Industry Greenhouse Gas Emissions Change, The Science of Climate Change, Green
in Alberta Summary Statement. house Gases. Web site: www.ec.gc.ca/climate/
fact/science.html.
• Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, 1998. www.ec.gc.ca/climate/whatis/ghgs_eng.htm
The Health of Our Air: Toward sustainable
agriculture in Canada. • McGinn, Sean, 2002. Personal Communication.
Land Resource Sciences. Agriculture and
• American Conference of Governmental Agri-Food Canada. Lethbridge Research
Industrial Hygienists, 1998. Documentation Centre. Lethbridge Alberta.
of the Threshold Limit Values and Biological mcginn@agr.gc.ca
Exposure Indices. 6th Edition. American
Conference of Government Industrial • Minnesota Environmental Quality Board,
Hygenists. Cincinnati, Ohio. September 1999. A Summary of Literature
Related to Social, Environmental, Economic
• Anderson, A.M., D.O. Trew, R.D. Neilson, and Health Effects. Vol. 2., University of
N.D. MacAlpine, R. Borg, 1998. Impacts of Minnesota.
Agriculture on Surface Water Quality in
Alberta. Part I: Haynes Creek Study. Prepared • National Pork Producers Council. Manure
by Alberta Environmental Protection and Storage and Treatment Alternatives.
Alberta Agriculture, Food and Rural
Development. • National Pork Producers Council. Swine
Odour and Emissions from Pork Production.
• Basarab, J.A., E. K. Okine and D. Engstrom,
1999. GHG Emissions from Livestock in • Olson, B.M., R.H. McKenzie, T. Jensen,
Alberta: Past, present and future. Alberta M.A. Arshad, P. Jedel, C. Izaurralde, D.W.
Agriculture, Food and Rural Development. McAndrew, A.M. Johnston, 1997. Nitrate
Leaching in Crop Rotation Studies in Alberta.
• Basarab, J.A., E. K. Okine and D. Engstrom, Water Quality Program of the Canada-
2000. Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Alberta Environmental Sustainable
Livestock in Alberta. Alberta Agriculture, Agriculture (CAESA) Agreement.
Food and Rural Development. Lethbridge, Alberta, Canada. 81 pp.
• Boehm, M.M., 2001. What the Kyoto Protocol • Paul, John. 1999. Nitrous Oxide Emission
Means to the Pork Industry. Agriculture and Resulting from Animal Manure Management.
Agri-Food Canada. Pg. 9-18 Banff Pork In Proceedings of the International
Seminar Proceedings, Advances in Pork Workshop on Reducing Nitrous Oxide
Production Vol.12. Emissions from Agroecosystems, March
3-5, 1999. Agriculture and Agri-Food
• Burton, David, L., 1999. The Role of Manure Canada and Alberta Agriculture, Food and
Application in Maintaining Air, Water and Soil Rural Development.
Quality. Banff Pork Seminar Proceedings,
Advances in Pork Production. Vol.10, • Prairie Swine Centre Inc. Environmental
Pg. 63 – 73. Web site accessible through the PSC site.
http://adminsrv.usask.ca/psci/
• Canada Plan Service. Manure Gas Plan
M-8710, Farm Workers Health Problems • Schiffman, S. S., E. Sattely, M.S. Miller, B.G.
Related to Air Quality Inside Livestock Barns Graham, 1994. The Effect of Environmental
M-9708, Protecting Workers in Livestock Odours Emanating from Commercial Swine
Buildings from Dust and Gases M-9707 Operations on the Mood of Nearby Residents.
Brain Res. Bulletin, Vol. 37(4) Pg. 369 – 375.
• Chang, C. and T. Entz, 1996. Nitrate
Leaching Losses Under Repeated Feedlot Cattle • Thu, E., K. K. Donham, R. Ziegenhorn,
Manure Applications in Southern Alberta. S. Reynolds, P.S. Throne, P. Subramanian,
J. Environ. Qual. 25: 145-153. P. Whitten, J. Stookesberry, 1997. A Control
Study of the Physical and Mental Health of
Residents Living Near a Large-scale Swine
Operation. Journal of Agric. Safety and
Health, 3(1): 13 – 26.
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18 Beneficial Management Practices: Environmental Manual for Hog Producers in Alberta
2.13 Appendix: Disease Risks to Humans
and Livestock from Hog Manure
Overview livestock or manure. People most at risk of
Hog manure contains a wide range of zoonotic disease are those working in barns or
micro-organisms, including bacteria, viruses, handling manure.
protozoa, and parasites. Under certain There are no diseases in Alberta that can be
conditions, some of these can cause disease transmitted from hog manure through the air
in humans or other livestock. Many of these to humans or other livestock that are outside
organisms are also present in the feces of the hog barn. The odour of hog manure alone
other livestock, pets, and wildlife and in cannot cause infectious disease. Swine
human sewage. Influenza Virus (SIV) is the only zoonotic
Currently in Alberta, hog manure is not disease in Alberta that can be transmitted
considered a major source of infectious through the air to humans. Direct contact with
disease for humans or other livestock. There infected hogs or working inside barns affected
are three main reasons for this. First, many with SIV is necessary to contract the disease.
infectious diseases of hogs that occur in the Those working outside barns are not considered
rest of the world are not found in Canada. at risk as the virus is diluted in the air.
Second, modern production practices and Airborne transmission of certain diseases that
drinking water supply systems prevent many affect only hogs does occur in Alberta.
diseases from being transmitted. Third, the Contamination of surface water is the main
density of hogs in Alberta is very low public health concern when handling manure.
compared to the major hog-producing In order for manure pathogens to cause
provinces and countries. disease through water contamination, several
In recent years, many large outbreaks of steps need to occur. If any one of these steps is
waterborne disease have occurred in humans blocked, then transmission will not occur.
in North America. The increase in intensive • The pathogen has to be excreted by the hog
livestock production has often been blamed. - not all pathogens are found in every unit,
While it is not yet known how much of the and some can be reduced by management
problem can be attributed to agriculture, two or medication.
things are certain: poorly handled manure can • The pathogens has to reach a water supply
result in waterborne disease in humans; other either by the animal defecating in the
sources of contamination (such as human water, or from surface runoff, or from
sewage) are also responsible. It is critical that contaminated groundwater flow.
manure be handled appropriately to minimize • The pathogen must remain alive and
the risk of disease to both livestock and capable of causing infection until the time
humans. it is ingested. Heat, cold and dryness can
destroy many pathogens in a short period
How disease is transmitted of time.
from manure • The pathogen must be ingested in high
Disease-causing mico-organisms are enough numbers to cause infection. Some
referred to as pathogens. Diseases that can be organisms, such as Salmonella, must be
transmitted from animals to humans are ingested in very high numbers to cause
referred to as zoonoses or zoonotic diseases. disease, whereas only a few Cyrptosporidium
Manure pathogens are most often transmitted organisms may cause disease.
by the fecal-oral route (i.e. ingestion of It is frequently difficult to determine the
manure or manure-contaminated feed or source of a waterborne outbreak of disease.
water). In livestock, this can occur through Many of the same disease-causing micro-
consumption of drinking water contaminated organisms are found in wildlife, pets or
by manure, grazing on pasture recently human sewage. Therefore, if testing finds the
spread with manure, or when they have direct suspect organism in one location, it cannot be
access to manure. Humans can ingest manure automatically assumed this was the source.
pathogens through consumption of Testing many sources and using new diagnostic
contaminated drinking water, swimming techniques to determine the strain of the
in contaminated surface water, and not organism are usually necessary to pinpoint
washing hands after handling infected the source of disease.
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September 2002 19
Pathogens in hog manure in Alberta can survive for varying lengths of time in the
Several classes of pathogens may be present soil after application, but are generally
in hog manure in Alberta: destroyed by exposure to heat, cold, sunlight
• Viruses. and drying. More research is needed to fully
• Bacteria. understand the survival of bacteria in soils
• Protozoan parasites. and surrounding watersheds after manure
• Helminth parasites (worms). spreading. Adequate manure storage and
proper handling is necessary to prevent
surface and groundwater contamination with
Viruses
these organisms. Municipal water treatment
Most hog viruses found in Alberta infect systems are capable of removing these
only hogs and are not considered a risk to bacteria from the water supply.
humans or other livestock. Most viruses are Producers should practice good hygiene
also easily destroyed once outside the body when handling manure and livestock (hand
and do not survive long in manure. Therefore, washing, etc.). Manure should be stored,
viruses in hog manure are not considered a handled and spread to prevent contamination
significant disease risk at this time. of waterways. The elderly and those
In Canada, the only virus that can be individuals with compromised immune
transmitted between hogs and humans is the systems should avoid contact with livestock
Swine Influenza Virus (SIV). This virus occurs and manure.
in Alberta and is a risk for those working in
infected hog barns, or in direct contact with Escherichia coli (E. coli). Many strains of
infected hogs. SIV causes flu-like symptoms E. coli are beneficial to human health and live
and respiratory disease that lasts several days in the gut of all healthy animals. However,
in humans. This virus does not survive well some strains, such as E. coli O157:H7, can
outside the hog or the hog barn, especially in cause severe disease and even death. Infection
Alberta’s dry, cold climate. SIV is, therefore, a with O157:H7 causes bloody diarrhea and can
minimal risk for those not entering hog barns. progress to a life-threatening complication
known as hemolytic uremic syndrome (HUS).
Bacteria This infection is particularly dangerous for
Bacteria that may be present in hog manure children and the elderly. Outbreaks have
in Canada that can cause disease in humans occurred from contaminated drinking water.
include: E. coli O157:H7. has been found in hog
• Escherichia coli (E. coli). manure, but only rarely. Cattle feces are
• Salmonella species. acknowledged as the main source of this
• Campylobacter coli. organism.
• Yersinia enterocolitica.
• Leptospira sp. Salmonella species. There are a large number
These bacteria can be transmitted to of species of Salmonella. Some strains infect
humans through contaminated drinking only one animal species, while others are able
water, contaminated food, or from direct to infect humans and a wide variety of
contact with manure or infected animals. The domestic and wild animals, birds and reptiles.
first four pathogens can cause diarrhea, fever, Infected hogs can carry the bacteria without
cramps, vomiting and occasionally death in any signs of illness. Outbreaks of diarrhea and
humans. Infection from these organisms death can occur and are usually triggered by
(except Leptospira sp.) is more often traced to stresses such as overcrowding. Recently, new
consumption of contaminated food products Salmonella strains have evolved that are
than waterborne disease. Contamination of resistant to many antibiotics (multi-drug-
food can occur during processing or handling resistant S. typhimurium DT 104). These are of
by the consumer, and is not confined only to great concern, as they are difficult to treat.
meat or dairy products. Contaminated fruits There is speculation that these strains are
and vegetables have also been sources of evolving in response to antibiotic use in
infection. livestock.
Many of these organisms are found in other Research has shown that about one-third to
livestock and wildlife manures, as well as one half of hog farms in North America may
human sewage. Normal healthy livestock may have Salmonella. This varies by region. On
carry these bacteria without any signs of most farms that test positive for Salmonella,
illness. The number of bacteria in manure only a few animals will shed the bacterium. On
declines over time while in storage. Bacteria a few farms, many positive samples from
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20 Beneficial Management Practices: Environmental Manual for Hog Producers in Alberta
hogs and the environment can be obtained. infected animals is one method of infection.
The barn environment, including dust, Wildlife, especially skunks and rodents, are
rodents or birds, can also harbour Salmonella. known to carry the disease and can infect
The main concern with Salmonella in swine swine and other livestock. Introduction of
is food-borne disease rather than waterborne carrier hogs into the herd is also a common
disease. Research is underway to find methods method of infection.
to control or eliminate Salmonella on hog Leptospira can survive in standing water or
farms, especially those farms that are heavily in liquid manure for several months.
infected. Denmark has a stringent testing and Leptospira does not survive in composted
control program in place to keep Salmonella manure, dry soil or over winter. Damp
levels low. Current recommendations on climates, marshy regions and close contact
reducing Salmonella in hog barns include with wildlife are typically associated with
maintaining high standards of hygiene, outbreaks of disease in livestock. Humans
reducing rodent and bird access and reducing often contract the disease by swimming in
mixing of hogs. The Canadian Quality contaminated water.
Assurance (CQA™) program for pork Prevention of leptospirosis depends on
producers contains specific recommendations stopping transmission from infected wildlife,
on reducing Salmonella. rodents or livestock. An effective rodent
Campylobacter coli and Campylobacter jejuni. control program, including removal of
Campylobacter sp. occur in all livestock, but the vegetative cover near the barn is essential.
major animal sources of Campylobacter Wildlife should not have access to water
infection in humans are poultry and cattle. sources, such as dugouts, or to manure from
Most infections are from food. The number of infected livestock. Outdoor swine and other
human infections involving antimicrobial- livestock should not have access to standing
resistant C. jejuni in North America is increasing. water in areas where the disease is known to
There is concern that the resistance is developing exist. Breeding stock should be purchased
in livestock because of antibiotic use. from a clean herd and be quarantined.
The importance of Campylobacter sp. in hogs Vaccination in swine reduces the symptoms
is not clear. C. jejuni is rarely found in swine of the disease, but does not completely
while C. coli appears to live in the normal hog prevent infection. Routine vaccination of
intestinal tract. Water runoff from hog breeding stock is recommended in most
operations is not considered a major source areas of Canada. Medication may reduce
of Campylobacter infections in humans. losses in an infected herd, but will not prevent
infection. Good sanitation is essential to
Yersinia enterocolitica. Swine and humans are reduce spread in an infected herd.
the major source of Yersinia. Most strains of
Yersinia carried by hogs do not infect humans,
but certain types can. Although uncommon in Protozoan parasites
humans, yersiniosis can be a serious infection
Protozoan parasites are microscopic single-
in children. It is most commonly associated
celled parasites that are found in a wide range
with eating contaminated food, rather than
of animals. Today they are considered to be
with hog production.
some of the most important causes of water-
Leptospirosa sp. Leptospira differs from the borne disease in humans. Water contaminated
previous four organisms in that it affects the with these parasites is usually associated with
kidneys rather than the digestive system. animals defecating directly into the water, or
There are many species of Leptospira that with human sewage. It has been shown that
affect livestock, wildlife and humans. indoor-housed hogs managed with appropriate
Leptospirosis occurs worldwide, but is not manure handling practices are not a source of
common in swine in Alberta, likely due to the contamination for watersheds.
cold, dry climate. Giardia. Giardiasis, or “beaver fever” is
Infected swine may have a fever, or loss of caused by a protozoan parasite called Giardia
appetite, or show no signs at all. Infections in duodenalis (also called Giardia lamblia). It is
sows cause abortions, stillbirths, weak piglets found throughout the world and is the most
and infertility. Kidney damage may be seen at common disease-causing intestinal parasite
slaughter in otherwise normal hogs. of humans. The parasite causes moderate
Leptospira bacteria live in the kidneys and to severe diarrhea; children and immunosup-
are excreted in the urine of infected animals. pressed individuals are the most vulnerable.
Contamination of drinking water by urine of Between two and seven percent of humans in
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September 2002 21
Europe and North America are estimated to be these people, cryptosporidiosis is severe, difficult
infected. As many as 40 percent of people in to treat, and can cause death.
developing countries may be infected. Giardia is This parasite is also transmitted by the oral-
transmitted through the fecal-oral route (usually fecal route, often through contaminated water.
between humans, e.g., day-care centres) but Poor hygiene leads to transmission between
waterborne transmission is also common. humans and from animals to humans. Fecal
Giardia occurs in livestock, pets and wildlife. contamination of water by animals and
It does not often cause disease in animals. It has humans may lead to waterborne outbreaks of
been found in pristine wilderness waterways cryptosporidiosis. Such an outbreak occurred in
and is particularly common in the Canadian Milwaukee, Wisconsin, and led to the infection
Arctic. Outbreaks of giardiasis in humans have of over 5,000 humans. The source was traced to
been linked to drinking water contaminated human sewage.
with human sewage, agricultural runoff, and Cryptosporidium has been found in hogs
wildlife feces. Giardiasis is the most frequently around the world, but is not considered a
diagnosed waterborne disease in Alberta. significant cause of swine disease. In a large
Giardia has been found in hogs in Canada, the Alberta study, Cryptosporidium was found in
United States and in Europe. A large Alberta 32 percent of farms, but in only 2.8 percent of
study showed that while it is found on many manure samples. Infection was mainly in
farms (70 percent), Giardia was seen only in a weaners (10.4 percent). The parasite was found
few animals on each farm (8.5 percent). in only one percent of hog liquid manure
Some strains of Giardia are specific to certain samples in the same study, but not in soil
animals and are not easily transmitted to other samples. This low prevalence indicates that
animals or humans. Other strains are easily hogs are not likely an environmental source
transmitted between animals and humans. It is only of this parasite in Alberta.
these strains that are a risk to human health. The few Cryptosporidium produces environmentally
hog strains studied, so far, are not likely to cause resistant oocysts or eggs that are shed in manure.
human infections. They are resistant to chlorination, and are so
Giardia produce cysts that can survive for small that many water filtration systems cannot
months in water, resisting cold or freezing remove them. Therefore, contamination of
temperatures. These cysts are resistant to drinking water with this parasite is of great
chlorination, which is commonly used to concern.
destroy pathogens in drinking water. For this Most human infections are acquired by
reason, this parasite can be difficult to remove person-to-person transmission (day-care centres,
from drinking water. Giardia cysts can be hospitals) and through consumption of drinking
removed from water through filtration or can be water contaminated by human sewage. There
inactivated by boiling water or using powerful are several reports of veterinary students, farm
chemical agents (e.g. ozone). workers and researchers developing infections
Giardia cysts in liquid hog manure storage after exposure to calves shedding large numbers
facilities deteriorate over time. It is considered of oocysts. There are no reports of humans
unlikely that they could survive to be a serious being infected with Cryptosporidium from hogs.
risk for contamination of surface water when The strain of Cryptosporidium parvum carried by
manure is spread on the land. hogs is not likely infective to humans.
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September 2002 23
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24 Beneficial Management Practices: Environmental Manual for Hog Producers in Alberta
3.0 ENVIRONMENTAL OBLIGATIONS
AND REGULATORY APPROVALS
FOR LIVESTOCK PRODUCERS
3.1 Environmental Law Relating to Hog Production –
Environmental Protection Standards
A. ALBERTA LEGISLATION
3.1.1 Agricultural Operation Practices Act
3.1.1.1 Environmental Protection Standards
3.1.2.5 Fines
B. FEDERAL LEGISLATION
3.1.5 Fisheries Act
3.1.5.1 Deleterious Substance
3.1.5.4 Fines
3.1.7 Common law of nuisance and the Agricultural Operation Practices Act
3.1.8 Common law of negligence
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26 Beneficial Management Practices: Environmental Manual for Hog Producers in Alberta
3.1.1.2 Design and operating standards
The Regulations describe the design and With respect to the suggested location
operating standards for livestock operations. of earthen storage and catch basins, the
Some of the standards apply to new and regulation requires a producer to:
expanding operations, while others apply to • Avoid areas with shallow water tables.
all operations, including existing operations. • Maintain a minimum of 100 metres setback
Manure management. The regulatory from a spring or water well and 30 metres
requirements for manure management apply from a body of water.
to both existing and new operations. • Prevent surface water from entering the
Producers are required to have sufficient land lagoon or catchment pond.
base to safely utilize the manure and the • Install a leakage detection system to
regulation contains tables for determination of monitor for potential contaminants.
land base. It is an offence to exceed the • Implement fly control measures.
nitrate/nitrogen limits of the regulations and • Design for the bottom filling of the lagoon.
the soil must be tested prior to application of • Control access to the area and place
manure if more than 300 annual tonnes is warning signs.
being applied. Minimum Distance Separation. A
Manure must be incorporated into the soil minimum distance separation is required
within 48 hours of being applied to the land. between new or expanding operations and
The regulation allows exemptions where the their neighbours. The setback distances
manure is being used on a forage or direct- depend on the size of the new or expanding
seeded crop. It also allows for restricted operation and the type of neighbour. The
manure application on frozen ground where setback distances are measured from the
the land is flat and additional setbacks are portion of the operation closest to the
maintained. neighbouring residence. For the purpose of
General setbacks for manure spreading measurement, the facility’s manure storage is
are as follows: considered part of the operation.
• No manure is to be applied within 30 The minimum distance separation does not
metres of a water well. apply to residences owned or controlled by
• A minimum of 10 metres separation must the producer. It also does not apply where the
be maintained from a body of water where neighbours themselves operate livestock
manure is being applied by subsurface operations and waive, in writing, the
injection and 30 metres where manure is minimum distance separation.
applied by incorporation. Records. The regulation requires producers
Manure storage. The regulation contains to record any documents that were used to
requirements for the design and location of obtain approvals. In addition, producers are
earthen storage and catch basins for the required to keep the following records if
storage of liquid manure for new and expanding they apply more than 300 tonnes of manure
operations. The regulation states that if a per year:
producer uses earthen storage for liquid • Volume or weight of manure produced.
manure, the earthen storage must be able to • Legal description of the land to which the
hold nine months of storage and must be manure was applied.
constructed with such compaction to achieve a • Date and volume of manure applied to
hydraulic conductivity of not more than land.
1 x 10-6cm/sec. In addition, the regulation • Application rates and incorporation
requires the construction of side slopes methods used.
appropriate for the stability of the soil and • Information on any person the producer
contains details regarding specific slope gave manure to, if more than 300 tonnes
standards. was given.
Producers are required to keep copies of
these records for five years.
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September 2002 27
3.1.2 Environmental Protection and
Enhancement Act
3.1.2.5 Fines
An individual is liable for a fine of not occurs is treated as a separate offence. For
more than $50,000 for each offence under example, a release from a lagoon occurring
EPEA and a corporation is liable for a fine of over two days would be treated as two
not more than $500,000 for each offence under offences and would expose the corporation to
EPEA. Each day that a release or impairment a maximum fine of $1,000,000.
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September 2002 29
B. FEDERAL LEGISLATION
3.1.5 Fisheries Act
3.1.5.1 Deleterious substance
Under the Canadian Constitution, the frequented by fish, which then migrates into
federal government has jurisdiction over the the stream. The offence results even if the
protection of fish habitat. To protect fish deposit of the manure does not actually cause
habitat, the federal government has enacted harm to the fish. The mere fact that the
the Fisheries Act. The Fisheries Act prohibits manure migrated into water frequented by
anyone from depositing or permitting the fish causes a violation of the Fisheries Act and
deposit of anything into any type of water may result in charges under this Act, unless
frequented by fish, which can have a the producer can prove that at all material
“deleterious” or harmful effect on the fish. times, the water is not, has not been, and is
Further, the Fisheries Act prohibits anyone not likely to be frequented by fish.
from depositing a deleterious or harmful In addition, a producer commits an offence
substance in any place under any condition under the Fisheries Act if he spreads manure
where the deleterious or harmful substance on land which has a stream frequented by
may enter any water frequented by fish. The fish, even if the deposit of the manure does
Fisheries Act defines the phrase, “water not in fact enter the water, but had a reasonable
frequented by fish” very broadly to include chance of entering the water. The mere fact
all internal waters of Canada. Therefore, this that the manure had a reasonable chance to
definition includes any creek, river, stream, enter water frequented by fish violates the
lake or slough which is frequented by fish, Fisheries Act and may result in charges under
including any creek which contains minnows this Act. However, again, if the producer can
in the spring, but dries later in the summer. prove that at all material times, the water is
As a result, a producer commits an offence not, has not been and is not likely to be
under the Fisheries Act when he spreads frequented by fish, then the producer has
manure on land located near a stream not committed an offence under the Act.
1. R. v. British Columbia Hydro and Power Authority [1997] B.C.J. No. 1744, paragraph 55.
2. R. v. Courtaulds Fibres Canada (1992), 9 C.E.L.R. (N.S.) 304 at 313 (Ont. Prov. Ct.).
3. R v. Northwood Pulp and Paper (1992) 9, C.E.L.R. (N.S.) 289 at p. 293.
4. R v. Bata Industries Ltd. [1992] O.J. No. 236 at page 24 - 25 (Ont. Prov. Div.) online: QL (O.J.), rev'd in part on other
grounds 14 O.R. (3d) 354, rev'd in part on other grounds 127 D.L.R. (4th) 438.
3.0
September 2002 31
3.1.6.2 Environmental management systems
Environmental management systems are The environmental management system
used by corporations to establish and will then put into place the policies and
implement policies and procedures for procedures to reduce the livestock operation’s
operating an environmentally sustainable environmental impacts and to properly train
business. An environmental management the corporation’s employees to meet and
system will examine the corporation’s maintain the applicable environmental
operations to determine the following: standards and laws. Finally, an environmental
• How these operations impact the management system will provide for a periodic
environment. re-evaluation of these environmental policies
• Which policies and procedures can be and procedures.
implemented to lessen or eliminate the Producers adopting an environmental
operation’s environmental impacts. farm plan are taking the preliminary steps
• Which environmental standards and laws toward development of an environmental
the corporation must follow. management system.
• Whether the corporation is following these
standards and laws.
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32 Beneficial Management Practices: Environmental Manual for Hog Producers in Alberta
3.1.8 Common law of negligence
In law, an individual is negligent if he fails if the operator does not act reasonably in
to live up to a “duty of care” he owes to running the operation. For example, a hog
another individual. A “duty of care” is a duty operator may be negligent if:
held by one individual to avoid carrying out • The operator spreads manure on frozen
an activity which has a reasonable chance of land that has a heavy slope towards
causing harm or injury to another individual. a creek.
Of course, it is impossible for any individual • The creek becomes contaminated from the
to avoid all activities which might harm manure spreading during spring runoff.
another individual. Therefore, the law sets • The operator knew or ought to have known
standards of conduct that must be met. The that neighbours receive their domestic
standard is one of being reasonable – the water supply from the creek.
individual must behave in the way that a • Neighbours’ health is affected by the
reasonable individual of ordinary intelligence contamination.
and experience would behave in the same In this situation, the “reasonable” operator
circumstance. How an ordinary individual would know or ought to have known that
would behave depends on factors such as spreading manure on these lands with these
the degree of harm that might occur and conditions could result in the neighbours
standard industry practices. suffering harm. As a result, the livestock
A hog operator has a duty to operate in operator could be held liable for the harm
such a manner as to not cause harm to those or injury suffered by the neighbours.
individuals who could reasonably suffer harm
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September 2002 33
3.2.1.1 NRCB approval process
Producer applies.
* Municipalities are
automatically granted
"directly affected" status.
Producer notifies
"affected persons".*
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34 Beneficial Management Practices: Environmental Manual for Hog Producers in Alberta
The NRCB requires producers seeking an (9) An explanation of how the operation or
approval to provide the NRCB with the expansion and its operation will meet the
following (see Figure 3.1): requirements of the regulations under the Act.
(1) Name, address and telephone number of (10) The legal description of the land where
the applicant. manure is to be spread for the first three
(2) A list of the persons who live close to the years of the operation.
proposed site and who may be affected by (11) A nutrient management plan.
the operation. Once an application is deemed complete,
(3) An evaluation of whether the notice of the application is advertised in the
application is consistent with the local paper or notices are sent to those in the
applicable municipal development plan. area of the proposed site.
(4) Engineering plans for manure storage Anyone wishing to comment on the
facilities, manure collection area and application has 20 days to file a written
contamination management. statement of concern. The NRCB reviews the
(5) Hydro-geological assessments. concerns and, if there is merit to the concerns,
(6) Numbers and species of livestock and forwards the statement to the producer. The
stage of animal development of the producer then has an opportunity to respond
livestock that will be at the confined to the statement of concern.
feeding operation. Once the NRCB is satisfied that the
(7) Legal description of the land on which the statement of concern has been addressed and
confined feeding operation is located. the requirements of the Act and regulations
(8) A site plan, to scale, showing the location have been met, the Board can issue an
of all: Approval for the project.
(i) water bodies. Those persons who filed a statement of
(ii) water wells. concern and who were found to be directly
(iii) property lines. affected by the project, are given notice of the
(iv) residence locations of affected persons. Approval and provided an opportunity to
(v) barns, corrals and pens. request that the Board review the Approval.
(vi) manure storage facilities and manure The NRCB will convene a review hearing
collection area. at which the Approval will either be upheld
(vii) run-on and runoff controls. or refused.
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36 Beneficial Management Practices: Environmental Manual for Hog Producers in Alberta
4.0 PREVENTING, MANAGING AND
RESOLVING CONFLICT
4.1 What is Conflict?
4.1.1 Conflict in agriculture
4.1.2 Sources of conflict
4.5 References
4.0 PREVENTING, MANAGING AND
RESOLVING CONFLICT
4.0
September 2002 41
4.5 References
• Alberta Agriculture, Food and Rural
Development, September 1999. Building
Community Support for Your Project.
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42 Beneficial Management Practices: Environmental Manual for Hog Producers in Alberta
5.0 SITE SELECTION AND PLANNING
5.1 Site Selection
5.1.1 Site selection checklist
5.1.2 Assess perceptions of hog developments
5.1.3 Gather development application requirements
5.1.4 Conduct site assessment
5.1.5 Evaluate resource base
5.1.6 Complete management plans as related to the specific site
5.1.7 Share intent with stakeholders
5.4 References
5.0 SITE SELECTION AND PLANNING
5.1 Site Selection
The selection of a site for a hog barn is an investigation to accommodate present and
important decision that has a strong influence future needs. All operations require similar
on the economic and environmental sustain- resources to operate effectively, while
ability of an operation. A good site will ensuring environmental sustainability and
provide many of the elements required for an acceptable levels of impact on neighbours and
operation to be successful in both the short neighbouring land uses. The size of the
and long term. Operators must balance the operation does not change these requirements,
economic forces affecting their operation with only the level of demand and the magnitude
consideration of issues such as environmental of potential impacts.
protection, animal welfare, food safety and Expansion of an existing operation requires
other stakeholder concerns. equal consideration of the operator’s business
Selection of the appropriate site for a hog plan resource requirements and environmentally
barn will also provide the opportunity to meet sustainability issues.
longer-term goals, such as future expansion. This section outlines the basic process for
Expansion opportunities are largely site selection for hog operations. When
determined by the site selected. considering a new or expanded operation,
Regardless of the size of operation, the site operators should contact a Natural Resources
selection principles remain the same. Conservation Board (NRCB) Approval Officer
However, finding an appropriate site for for information and advice.
a large operation may require additional
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44 Beneficial Management Practices: Environmental Manual for Hog Producers in Alberta
5.1.2 Assess perceptions of hog developments
Assess community and neighbours’ will have an impact on or be impacted by the
perceptions of the hog industry and the development. This will allow analysis of any
potential development. Determine how potential risks of future opposition and save
previous concerns about livestock time and money. It is important to address all
developments in the area were handled. concerns, both real and perceived.
Identify community and local leaders who
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46 Beneficial Management Practices: Environmental Manual for Hog Producers in Alberta
Figure 5.1 Recommended Flow Rates and Water Intake
Type of hog millilitres/min Water intake (litres/day)
Min Max
Suckling 0.3 -
Weaner 750 1000 3
30 kg grower 1000 4-5
70 kg finisher 1500 5–7
Adult 1500 2000 5-8
Lactating sow 15 - 20
Nipple bite drinker 1500 2000 15 - 20
Nose drinker 2500
Gestating sow 5-8
Flush trough system 500 1000
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September 2002 47
Groundwater availability. Information on Steps to prevent contamination of surface
groundwater availability in an area can be and groundwater. Agricultural activities
obtained from the Groundwater Information around a well or dugout may have negative
Service of Alberta Environment (Phone impacts on water quality. To prevent well and
780 427-2770). A hydrology specialist dugout contamination, ensure the following:
(AAFRD, Alberta Environment, PFRA or a Wells
private consultant) or local water well drilling • Ensure wells are properly constructed
contractors can also provide more information and sealed.
on groundwater availability. In some cases, • Locate wells up-slope, away from sources
test drilling may be required to determine of contamination.
availability of water and its quality. Shallow • Properly plug any old, unused wells, as
water wells may be more susceptible to they can contaminate newer wells.
contamination and fluctuation in quantity • Do not over-apply manure; nitrate seepage
than deeper wells. The Water Act may require can contaminate groundwater.
a licence prior to drilling a well. Contact the • Ensure that manure storage structures, such
NRCB or Alberta Environment for additional as earthen manure storages, are built to
information on water licence requirements. prevent seepage into groundwater.
Dugouts and surface water. Construction • Direct surface drainage from contaminated
of a large reservoir or dugout for a farm sources away from wells.
operation requires investigation of the subsoil • Ensure well casing, cap and venting are
conditions at the site and consideration of the always in good repair.
drainage area. Test drilling or test pits can Dugouts
provide valuable information regarding • Construct dugouts in proper drainage
dugout design and selection of the appropriate areas, away from potential sources of
construction equipment. Dugouts can be contamination.
constructed in almost any texture of soil, but • Apply manure and fertilizers to meet crop
may require lining to prevent excessive nutrient needs. Excess soil nutrient levels
seepage. Lining adds significant cost, so a can lead to excess nutrient levels in the
good clay-based site is preferable. runoff water. This causes increased algae
Dugouts that are filled only by spring and weed growth in dugout water.
runoff should be designed to hold at least a • Avoid spreading manure on snow or frozen
two-year water supply, unless an alternative ground. Research in Manitoba showed 10
source can be used to fill the dugout in a to 60 times as much phosphorus in spring
drought year. Dugouts in the irrigation area of runoff from winter-spread fields, compared
the province, or dugouts adjacent to rivers or to control fields.
lakes, must be at least large enough to supply • Maintain manure storages and sewage
water from the time the water is not available lagoons to prevent runoff or seepage.
in the fall until water flows again in the Contact an experienced hydrologist
spring. A one-year storage capacity is the (AAFRD, Alberta Environment, PFRA or a
recommended capacity for these dugouts. private consultant) to develop a plan to
Planning and design information is available protect the operation’s water resource.
through PFRA or AAFRD.
Dugouts should not be located directly in a
watercourse. If the dugout is located off to the
side of the watercourse, then the water can be
diverted into the dugout, or past the dugout,
depending on the quality. All waterways that
supply the dugout should be grassed to
prevent erosion and provide sediment and
nutrient trapping.
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48 Beneficial Management Practices: Environmental Manual for Hog Producers in Alberta
5.1.6 Complete management plans specific to site
It is extremely important for hog producers include a management plan for disposing of
and stakeholders, that clear, functional and waste such as dead animals and pesticides
appropriate management plans are developed. (see Section 9).
This includes the overall operational plan as it It is important to be prepared, with a clear,
relates to the AOPA comprehensive nutrient informed message regarding management
management plan. A comprehensive nutrient intentions as they relate to minimizing
management plan outlines in-barn manage- nuisance, specifically odour and meeting
ment, transport to the storage, storage period the regulatory requirements of a livestock
and land application as directed by the operation.
nutrient management plan. This must also
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50 Beneficial Management Practices: Environmental Manual for Hog Producers in Alberta
5.3 Shutting Down Livestock Operations
The development approval may define the or more, conditions of the permit and
period of time a facility can be empty before regulations may require a cleanup
another approval is required for the operation. procedure within a certain period of time.
General points: Depending on permit requirements within
the municipality, a new development
• No matter how short the shutdown period,
permit may be necessary before restocking
take steps to minimize the risk to humans
the barn.
and animals entering manure storage areas
• For a permanent shutdown, check with
and buildings. Ensure signs are posted to
the municipality for decommissioning
advise of any potential dangers.
(i.e termination of permitting conditions)
• Remove manure from buildings.
requirements. Some jurisdictions may also
• During short-term shutdowns of one
require a demolition permit for site cleanup.
month or more, turn off water, unnecessary
gas and electricity, control weeds and
insects and transport manure from the barn
to proper storage facilities.
• For longer-term shutdowns of six months
5.0
September 2002 51
5.4 References
• Alberta Agriculture, Food and Rural • The Canadian Pork Council, 1998. Canadian
Development, 1999. Livestock Expansion and Quality Assurance Producer Manual.
Developers Guide.
• Institute for Research in Construction,
• Alberta Agriculture, Food and Rural National Research Council, Canada.
Development. Agricultural Operation Canadian Farm Building Code, Publication
Practices Act. www.agric.gov.ab.ca/ Sales, M-20, Ottawa, Canada, K1A 0R6.
ministry/acts/aopa-bill.html.
• Patience, P.A. J.F., Thacker, and C.F.M. de
• Alberta Agriculture, Food and Rural Lange, 1995. Swine Nutrition Guide, 2nd
Development. Water for Swine. Agdex edition. Prairie Swine Centre. Pgs. 241 - 249
400/681. www.agric.gov.ab.ca/agdex/400/ Incl.
40680001.html.
• Water Wells that Last for Generations. • Float Suspended Intake for Dugouts Agdex
716 (B34).
• Dugouts for Farm Water Supplies Agdex 716
(B30). • Dugout Aeration with Compressed Air Agdex
716 (B36).
• Dugout Maintenance Agdex 716 (B31).
• Hydrated Lime for Algae Control in Dugouts
Agdex 716 (B37).
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52 Beneficial Management Practices: Environmental Manual for Hog Producers in Alberta
6.0 HOUSING, EQUIPMENT AND
ANIMAL MANAGEMENT
6.1 Manure Collection
6.7 Ventilation
6.7.1 Pit ventilation
6.11 References
6.0 HOUSING, EQUIPMENT AND
ANIMAL MANAGEMENT
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54 Beneficial Management Practices: Environmental Manual for Hog Producers in Alberta
6.3 Pen Design and Management
Proper pen design and selection of slats that feet and leg problems for the animals. For
clean easily with animal traffic will greatly flooring advice, contact an agricultural
reduce the hogs’ contact with manure and engineer and pen equipment suppliers.
reduce manure accumulation on the slats. The • Scrape manure that collects on the pen floor
following pen management practices can be into the gutters at least daily.
used to maximize hog and pen cleanliness, • Design partially slatted floors with approxi-
minimize odour production, control flies and mately one-third slats and two-thirds solid
facilitate easy cleaning: floor. A step in the floor, between the slats
• Minimize in-barn manure storage time. and the solid flooring, will help define the
• Use slats with adequate void-to-surface dunging area (slatted floor) and reduce
ratio. Slat spacing that is too narrow does manure tracking into the resting area
not allow the manure to fall into the pit, (solid floor).
leading to dirty pens, which encourages fly • Maintain correct pen stocking density. The
breeding and odour. Narrow slats that are minimum standard for stocking densities
laden with manure can also obstruct should be based on the Recommended Code of
airflow through the pit ventilation, Practice for the Care and Handling of Farm
particularly in winter. If the opening Animals: Pigs (1993).* See Figures 6.1 and 6.2.
between the slats is too wide, it causes
* Recommended Code of Practice for the Care and Handling of Farm Animals : Pigs (1993).
6.0
September 2002 55
• Manage ventilation and room temperature • With partially slatted floors, use open pen
to influence animal dunging habits. In winter, partitions in the dunging area to encourage
direct cold air away from the sleeping area, socializing and animal movement. Use
but in summer, direct incoming air onto the solid partitions in the resting area to prevent
sleeping area to help cool the animals. drafts and provide privacy.
• Maintain a comfortable barn temperature. • Install cooling sprinklers over the
To cool off, animals will play with the dunging area.
water dispensers or wallow in manure. • Locate the water source over the slatted
• When stocking partially slatted floor pens, area and the feeders at the junction of the
keep the hogs off feed for several hours slatted and solid floor areas.
before moving them. Spread some feed on
the solid floor area to introduce the hogs to
their new sleeping area.
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56 Beneficial Management Practices: Environmental Manual for Hog Producers in Alberta
6.6 Water Management
Water is often a limiting resource for 25 grow-finish hogs is adequate. However,
livestock production and therefore requires most commercial units provide two
careful management. Water waste also drinkers for groups of 12 or more hogs.
increases manure volume and subsequent Multiple drinkers should be spaced
transportation costs. Typical water require- 1 to 1.5 metres apart.
ments for hogs are shown in Section 5.1.5. • Choose room designs and equipment that
Water requirements are influenced by feed are easy to wash and use minimal amounts
rations and minerals in the drinking water. of water.
Water can be conserved through the • Use a washing protocol that minimizes the
following practices: amount of water required:
• Evaluate the design of the waterers. - Remove all feed from feeders before
Wet/dry feeders are reported to reduce washing.
water usage by 10 to 40 percent in the - Use high pressure washing systems (1500
grower-finisher area. to 2000 PSI).
• Frequently assess the height and angle of - Presoak pens, walls and feeders prior to
the waterers. To prevent pen fouling, washing.
waterers should be installed at the smallest - Keep dirty areas soaked and do not allow
animal’s shoulder height, with a slightly them to dry out.
downward angle. - Use a systematic approach to keep pushing
• Repair leaking waterers quickly. In addition the water forward.
to wasting water, leaky waterers create - Start at the highest point on the walls and
damp areas that contribute to dirty pens, work down.
fly loads, odour and poor air quality. - Repair leaky pull plugs in the storage pit
• Ensure that the ratio of hogs to water to reduce the amount of water needed to
source is appropriate. Research data properly flush and drain pits.
suggests that one watering location per
6.7 Ventilation
The sources of atmospheric contamination influence on the health and well-being of
in a hog barn include the following: both staff and animals.
• Heat, moisture and carbon dioxide are As part of the operation’s ventilation
produced by hogs. maintenance protocol, determine the following
• Decomposition of manure by micro- on a daily basis:
organisms produces gases. • Are the hogs behaving normally?
• Feed dust. • Is the temperature consistent throughout
• Sloughed skin cells and hair from the the barn?
animals. • Are there drafts?
• Concrete dust. • Is there condensation in the barn?
• Dust entering the barn through the • Is the room dusty or smelly?
ventilation system. • Is cool air dumping onto the sleeping areas?
The role of ventilation is to: To ensure the ventilation system is working
• Provide adequate fresh air in the building. properly:
• Control the temperature and humidity. • Clean fan blades and shutters weekly.
• Remove dust, gas, odour and other • Ensure the fans are operating properly and
contaminants. that shutters are opening and closing.
Improper design and operation of • Inspect heating system weekly.
ventilation systems can influence the • Inspect alarm system weekly.
dunging pattern of hogs, which will • Lubricate moving parts regularly.
compromise air quality in the barn and • Clean dust from circulation ducts.
eventually hog performance. Barns that are • Make necessary repairs promptly.
dirty, damp or dusty are more prone to
odour complaints and have a significant
6.0
September 2002 57
6.7.1 Pit ventilation
Ventilating the pit space between the to neighbors. Research is currently underway
manure and flooring releases odorous air in Alberta to develop a biofiltration technique
outside the barn. However, even if odours are to reduce the intensity and offensiveness of
diluted compared to a non-ventilated head- odours exhausted from hog barns.
space, the odours may still be quite strong
and unpleasant and may pose a problem
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58 Beneficial Management Practices: Environmental Manual for Hog Producers in Alberta
6.9 Safety Precautions for Managing
Livestock Manure
As manure decomposes, dangerous gases • Create several feet of headspace for the gases
are released. The gases released from stored by initiating pumping without agitation.
manure can be fatal. The publication, Manure • Agitate below the surface and agitate as
Gas (M-8710), from Canada Plan Service, little as possible.
discusses the sources and types of gases of Good building design and safe work
concern. This leaflet is available from Alberta procedures can prevent accidents related to
Agriculture, Food and Rural Development. manure gases. Workers should be properly
The most important of these dangerous trained to deal with manure gases, especially
gases is hydrogen sulphide. When liquid hydrogen sulphide. Long-term storage should
manure is stored in an enclosed space, hydrogen not be in the same air space as animals or
sulphide can accumulate in the headspace of workers. Connections between the barn and
the storage pit. Although hydrogen sulphide long-term storage must be separated by a gas
is readily detectable at low concentrations, at trap to prevent the gases from returning to the
higher levels the gas paralyzes the sense of barn. The facility should be designed so that
smell. Therefore, it is possible to unknowingly all service work can be performed without
encounter a dangerous situation. As the entering the storage.
concentration increases, the hydrogen A detailed standard operation procedure
sulphide paralyses the nerves that control the should be developed on how to enter manure
diaphragm, causing breathing to stop. When storage areas and only trained personnel
concentrations are high, a single breath of the should be assigned to carry out these duties.
gas can be fatal. When stored manure is A manure storage area should never be
agitated, toxic gases can be released. entered without proper respiratory equipment.
Removing manure from animal rooms to a A specifically built breathing apparatus
separate storage location reduces the risk of comprised of a full facemask and remote air
toxic and odorous gases collecting. However, tank and hose, is required. Always work in
if it is necessary to agitate in-barn manure pairs. If an accident does occur, apply
storage, it is important to: appropriate first aid.
• Provide maximum ventilation. Provide signage around confined manure
• Instruct all personnel to work in pairs. storage areas as a warning not to enter the
• Vacate people and animals from the room storage and of the hazards related to confined
prior to emptying the pit or adequately manure storage.
ventilate the head space above the manure.
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60 Beneficial Management Practices: Environmental Manual for Hog Producers in Alberta
6.10.1 Use of Enzymes to Improve Availability of
Phosphorus and Other Nutrients
The majority of ingredients in animal diets and vegetable protein supplements. There is
are of plant origin. It is estimated that more now considerable evidence that the addition
than two-thirds of the phosphorus in cereals of microbial phytase in hog diets will increase
and oilseeds is in the bound form of phytate phosphorus digestibility. Studies suggest that,
phosphorus. Only 30 percent of the phosphorus in general, addition of phytase in swine diets
in phytate phosphorus is available to swine. will allow phosphorus content of the diet to be
The following strategies can be used to meet reduced by 0.1 percent. It has been observed
the hogs’ need for phosphorus, while reduc- that phytase supplementation of swine diets
ing excreted phosphorus: can improve feed utilization by one to two
Source of P. To meet the animals’ requirements percent.
for phosphorus, inorganic sources of Research has also shown that, in addition to
phosphorus, such as dicalcium phosphate improving the digestibility of phosphorus by
and monocalcium phosphate, must be added 27 to 30 percent, phytase also improved the
to the diet. If inorganic sources are chosen on digestibility of some amino acids and trace
the basis of bioavailability of phosphorus minerals. The benefits of phytase can be
rather than total phosphorus, the excretion of realized without an effect on hog perfor-
phosphorus can be reduced. The digestibility mance, carcass quality, or bone strength.
of phosphorus in dicalcium phosphate, which Vitamin D. It has been reported that
is commonly used in swine diets, ranges from increasing the level of vitamin D in the diet
65 to 70 percent compared to 75 to 80 percent increases phosphorus utilization. An estimate
phosphorus digestibility in monocalcium of the reduction in phosphorus excretion
phosphate. resulting from various feeding strategies is
Ca:P ratio. Ensure a proper calcium to shown in Figure 6.3.
phosphorus ratio. A suggested ratio of total
calcium-to-phosphorus for grain-soybean
meal diets is between 1:1 and 1.25:1. Wider
Ca:P ratios will lower phosphorus absorption
and increase phosphorus excretion.
Phytase. The amount of phosphorus excreted
by hogs can be significantly reduced by
improving the availability of phytate in grains
6.0
September 2002 61
6.11 References
• Adeola I., J. I. Orban, D. Ragland, T.R. Cline • Kemme, P.A., A. W. Jongbloed, Z. Mroz,
and A.L. Sutton, 1998. Phytase and and M. Makinen, 1995. Apparent Ileal
Cholecalciferol Supplementation of Low Digestibility of Protein and Amino Acids from
Calcium and Low Phosphorus Diets for Hogs. a Maize-soybean Meal Diet with or without
Can. J. Animal Sci. 78:307 - 313. Extrinsic Phytate and Phytase in Hogs. Abst.
In Int. Symp on Nutr. Management of
• Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, 1993. Food Animals to Enhance the Environment.
Recommended Code of Practice for the Care and June 4-7. Blacksburg, VA.
Handling of Farm Animals: Pigs. Agriculture
and Agri-Food Canada Publication 1898/E, • Kornegay, E. T. and A. F. Harper, 1997.
Ottawa, ON. www.carc-crac.ca/ Environmental Nutrition: Nutrient
english/codes_of_practice/. Management Strategies to Reduce Nutrient
Excretion of Swine. Prof. Anim. Sci. 13: 19 - 11.
• Alberta Environmentally sustainable
Agriculture, 1999. Manure Production and • Kornegay, E.T., 1998. Nutrient Management
Characteristics. ASAE Standard D384.1 Oct can Reduce Nutrient Excesses. Feedstuffs.
In: ASAE Standards 1999. ASAE: St. Joseph, May 25.
MI.
• Lei, X.G., P. Ku, E.R. Miller, D.E. Ullrey and
• Alberta Environmentally sustainable M.T. Yokoyama, 1993. Supplemental microbial
Agriculture, 1999. Uniform Terminology for phytase improves bioavailability of dietary zinc
Rural Waste Management. ASAE Standard to weanling hogs. J. Nutr. 123: 1117
S292.5 Oct 94. In: ASAE Standards 1999.
ASAE: St. Joseph, MI. • Lenis, N.P. and A. W. Jongbloed, 1999. New
Technologies in Low Pollution Swine Diets:
• American Society of Agricultural Diet Manipulation and use of Synthetic Amino
Engineers, 1999. Uniform Terminology for Acids, Phytase, and Phase Feeding for
Rural Waste Management, American Society of Reduction of Nitrogen and Phosphorus
Agricultural Engineers, Standard S292.5, Oct Excretion and Ammonia Emission. Asian-Aus.
94. In: ASAE Standards 1999. ASAE: St. J. Anim. Sci. 1 (2): 305 – 327.
Joseph, MI.
• Lenis, N.P., J.T.M. van Diepen and P.W.
• Baidoo, S. K., 1999. Nutritional Impact on Goedhart, 1990. Amino Acid Requirements of
Manure Management. In: Allen D. Leman Hogs. 1. Requirements for Methionine and
Swine Nutrition Conference. Eds. S. W. Cystine, Threonine and Tryptophan of Fast-
Scruton and S. Claas. University of growing Boars and Gilts fed Adlibitum. Neth.
Minnesota Press. Pg. 198-204. J. Agric. Sci. 38: 577-595.
• Canada Plan Services, 1985. Plan M-8710, • Liu, J., D.W. Bollinger, D.R. Ledous and T.L.
Manure Gas. Veum, 1998. Lowering Dietary Calcium to
www.agric.gov.ab/navigation/engineer- Total Phosphorus Ratio Increases Phosphorus
ing/structures/index.html Utilization in Low Phoshporus Corn Soybean
Meal Diets Supplemented with Microbial
• Harper, A. F., 1994. Feeding Technologies to Phytase for Growing-finishing Hogs. J. Anim.
Reduce Excess Nutrients in Swine Diets. In: Sci. 76: 808 – 813.
Meeting the Challenge of Environmental
Management on Hog Farms. Second • MidWest Plan Service, 1983. Structures and
Annual Virginia Tech Swine Producers Environment Handbook. MWPS –1. Iowa
Seminar. Carson, VA. Pg. 44 – 51. State University, Ames, IO.
• Jongbloed, A.W. and N. P. Lewis, 1992. • National Research Council, 1988. Nutrient
Alteration of Nutrition as a Means to Reduce Requirements of Swine, 9th Revised edition.
Environmental Pollution by Hogs. Livestock National Academy Press 2101 Constitution
Production Science. 31: 75 – 94. Ave, NW, Washington, D.C. 20418.
6.0
62 Beneficial Management Practices: Environmental Manual for Hog Producers in Alberta
6.11 References (cont)
• National Research Council, 1998. Nutrient
Requirements of Swine, 10th Revised edition.
National Academy Press 2101 Constitution
Ave, NW, Washington, D.C. 20418. ISBN
0-309-05993-3. Internet, www.nap.edu.
6.0
September 2002 63
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64 Beneficial Management Practices: Environmental Manual for Hog Producers in Alberta
7.0 MANURE COLLECTION, STORAGE,
TRANSPORTATION AND TREATMENT
7.1 Design Considerations
7.1.1 Manure characteristics
7.1.2 Anaerobic vs. aerobic storage
7.1.3 Site selection and construction of manure storage structures
7.1.4 Site evaluation
7.8 References
7.0 MANURE COLLECTION,
STORAGE,TRANSPORTATION
AND TREATMENT
Hog manure is a valuable by-product from facility is a permanent structure or location
swine farms. However, to avoid pollution, a designed and operated to contain manure,
well-planned manure storage system is other wastes and contaminated runoff in an
required. This section deals with storage site environmentally sound manner. The facility
selection, sizing and maintenance. Manure should be sized to hold manure until it can be
transportation and treatment are also included. used as a fertilizer. Generally the facility
As manure storage facilities have potential should be able to hold nine months of manure
to contaminate water, they need to be production, as a minimum. Timing and
designed and monitored to ensure they are amount of manure to apply on cropland is
both structurally and environmentally sound. explained in Section 8: Land Application of
The facility must meet the requirements in the Manure.
Agricultural Operation Practices Act (AOPA), Alternatively, if manure is being picked up
Standards and Administration Regulation. and removed from the farm, a manure storage
The design of the storage will depend on structure sized for one cleanout may be suitable
the number of animals involved, the storage to temporarily store the manure. Check with
time required, the type of manure to be the NRCB to determine temporary storage
stored, and the site evaluation. A storage requirements.
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66 Beneficial Management Practices: Environmental Manual for Hog Producers in Alberta
7.1.3 Site selection and construction of
manure storage structures
According to AOPA, the manure • Be sized to provide enough storage to
storage must: enable the operator to spread manure when
• Meet local property setback requirements. crop uptake of the nutrients will occur and
• Be located at least 100 metres (328 feet) when manure runoff from fields to surface
from a spring or water well and at least 30 water is unlikely.
metres (100 feet) from a common body of • If open, the structure must be sized to hold
water such as streams, creeks, ditches, etc. the expected local precipitation.
• Be constructed according to the design • Be close enough to the barns to allow for
criteria outlined in the AOPA to prevent convenient filling.
water, soil and air contamination. • Accommodate future expansion.
• Be located at least one metre above the 1:25 • Be constructed to prevent surface runoff
year flood level. from collecting in the storage. Berms or
• Have at least 0.5 metres vertical distance ditches are commonly used to divert
between the full level of the structure and surface water.
the upper edge (freeboard). • Be seeded to grass on the berm and down
• Be structurally sound with professionally to the maximum fill level to prevent shifting
engineered designs. and blowing and to prevent cracks and
• Be accessible by an all-weather road. holes that result from exposed liners, freeze
• Have berm and liner protection at locations thaw cycles and tree roots.
in the storage affected by scouring (inlets, • Have a grassed buffer strip to intercept
transfer pipes, and agitation sites). manure that could enter a watercourse in
• Be adequately fenced to prevent accidental the event of a leak or overflow.
entry of humans, animals and machinery. • Minimize odour and nuisance to neighbours.
A minimum of nine months storage is • Be located away from roads and traffic.
required for manure storage facilities. The • Be kept tidy to reduce flies and rodents and
manure storage should: promote a positive image.
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September 2002 67
7.2 Types of Storage
Liquid storage. The most common type of design and installation. A layer of clay or
liquid storage in Alberta is the earthen some other liner below the storage foundation
manure storage, which is lined with compacted system will also reduce potential for leakage.
clay or plastic material. In unusually sensitive Concrete storages are generally smaller in
geologic settings, concrete or steel storage surface area and will collect less precipitation
tanks may be required. When concrete or (if uncovered) than earthen storages. Concrete
alternative storage facilities are used the storages can be built above ground, below
manufacturer should be consulted about ground or be incorporated into the barn
ongoing maintenance. The design and design. Long term manure storage below the
construction of all storages should be verified livestock building is known as “deep pit”
by a Professional Engineer. storage. Deep pit storage generally holds six
The cost of installing steel tanks limits their to 12 months of manure in a deep pit under
use in Western Canada. Steel tanks are always the livestock flooring. Most deep pit facilities
circular and may be built above or below use a fully slatted livestock floor above the pit
grade. area. Finisher swine facilities have been the
A concrete storage may be an alternative if main swine facility using the deep pit storage.
local soil conditions, economics or regulations There are several advantages/disadvantages
prevent use of an earthen structure. Leakage of a deep pit facility versus outdoor storage.
can be minimized with proper structural
Above Ground • Leakage or cracking may be easier • Gravity flow is usually not possible.
to detect. • Increased pump sizes are necessary
• There may be less ground to pump manure higher up.
excavation required. • Piping may be above ground with
increased chances of freezing and
maintenance.
• Soil cannot be used for structural
support on the side wall.
Deep Pit • Building and manure storage are • Manure being held under the slats
contained in the same space. has the potential to release hydrogen
• There may be reduced minimum sulphide that may be harmful to
separation distances from neigh- humans and livestock.
bours or property lines. • Agitation and pumping of manure
• Reduced odours (real or perceived). is done directly under the livestock
• Precipitation cannot enter pit since unless the building is emptied
it is covered. during this time.
• Cost is less than having an outdoor • Any structural or construction
storage. problems with the pit will have a
direct impact on the remainder of
the building (or vice versa).
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68 Beneficial Management Practices: Environmental Manual for Hog Producers in Alberta
Semi-solid storage. Hog manure will be Solid storage. Solid storage can be classified
semi-solid when scraped from facilities that as: short-term, long-term and in-pen. Short-
use minimal amounts of bedding, such as term storage contains manure for no more
solid floor farrowing and feeding pens. In the than six months over a three-year period.
wetter areas of the province, semi-solid Long-term storage is storage greater than
manure should be stored in closed, shed-type, six months.
manure holding structures. These structures • Ensure surface water runoff from the
should: storage does not enter an open body of
• Meet the criteria listed in Section 7.1.3 for water or leave the owner’s property.
manure storage structures. • Do not construct manure storages on the
• Have reinforced concrete walls, or equivalent, banks of rivers, drainage channels, or
to adequately contain the manure. depressions that may carry surface runoff
• Have a concrete floor which is sealed to the to water sources.
walls to provide a manure-tight storage • Use berms, catch basins and/or vegetative
and eliminate the entrance of ground or buffers to prevent runoff.
surface water. • The storage bottom must be at least 1 metre
• In areas with a high water table, be above the water table.
constructed entirely above ground to • Storages for solid and semi-solid manure
minimize seepage of groundwater into the must be constructed at least 1 metre above
structure (this will also facilitate the the 1:25 year flood level. If the 1:25 year
cleaning out operation). floodplain is unknown, the storage must
• Be adequately roofed to keep out rain and be located at least 1 m above the highest
snow in areas with high annual or seasonal known flood level.
precipitation. • In-pen storage is used for alternative
• If roofed, be well ventilated to prevent the housing facilities and must be constructed
accumulation of hazardous gases in the as a long-term storage. Drainage and
head space area and to aid the drying of adequate bedding must be provided with
the stored manure. in-pen storage to prevent contaminated
• Have access doors constructed of tight water from collecting in the pen. A slope of
tongue-and-groove pressure treated timber, two to four percent in the pens will provide
or equivalent. Seepage, if any, should be the necessary drainage.
contained to prevent a pollution hazard. • Compost can be either short or long-term
• If fitted with a ramp, have guard rails and storage, but must comply with the Alberta
safety stops on the ramp to prevent a Environment Code of Practice for Compost
tractor from being buried in the manure. Facilities. These regulations come into effect
• Have a suitable concrete slab area for based on a volume of compost.
tractor and manure spreader activity. This
slab should be sloped away from the
building so that water on the slab does
not enter the storage area.
In colder and drier regions of the province,
an uncovered, three-sided storage structure
may be suitable. These structures should:
• Have reinforced concrete sidewall or
equivalent on three sides of the structure.
• Have a concrete, floor, sloping downward
from the open side, which is sealed to the
walls to provide a manure-tight storage,
and have provision to control and contain
seepage.
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September 2002 69
7.3 Runoff Control from Manure Storage
7.3.1 Options to control surface runoff
Runoff considerations. The considerations To date, there is minimal definitive research
for determining a runoff utilization area are that verifies how to design a vegetative filter
the quantity of runoff, topography, infiltration strip based on all the above variables.
rate, soil water-holding capacity, crop nutrient However, the limited research that has been
utilization and soil SAR (sodium adsorption done seems to indicate that the 30 metre-wide
ratio) or EC (electrical conductivity). separation from a watercourse, as specified in
Options to control surface runoff include the AOPA, Standards and Administration
constructed wetlands, vegetative filter strips Regulations (60 metre for four to six percent
and diversion to cropped areas. slope; 90 metre for six to 12 percent slope) will
be adequate under most conditions. Further
Vegetative filter strips. Vegetative filter research is required to determine more specif-
strips are widths or lengths of vegetation that ic design details.
act as a “filter” to trap and utilize sediments
and nutrients from runoff. Wetlands. Wetlands are either naturally-
Vegetative filter strips may be sufficient to occurring sloughs or lowlands, or “constructed”
minimize runoff contamination from some wetlands that are designed and landscaped. In
livestock operations, manure stockpile sites some instances, they might be used to collect
and from manure spread on cultivated fields. and treat contaminated runoff from livestock
Factors influencing the effectiveness of operations. The nutrients and contaminants
vegetative filters are: from the runoff are absorbed and utilized by
• Drainage area up-slope from the operation. the bullrushes, sedges and other marsh-type
• The amount and form of precipitation vegetation growing in the wetland area.
(snow, rain, or both). Wetlands must be properly evaluated and
• Slope of the operation site and whether the designed to ensure adequate retention and
natural topography lends itself to sheet or filtering. As a minimum, these lowlands or
channel runoff. wetlands must be entirely contained on the
• Vegetation type (summerfallow, stubble, producer’s property, and soil conditions must
grass or trees, etc.). be tested to ensure they will not leach into
• Soil type (sandy, loam, or clay, etc.). groundwater.
For example, frozen ground in the spring,
combined with a packed non-vegetative
thatch, will not “filter” contaminants as
effectively as the ground in the summer.
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70 Beneficial Management Practices: Environmental Manual for Hog Producers in Alberta
7.4 Manure Storage Capacity
Manure storage facilities should provide If bedding is used in solid systems, the
enough storage space to allow the operator to weight of manure may increase by 20 percent
spread manure when optimum crop uptake of and the volume may double.
the nutrients will occur and when manure Account for the historical rainfall in the area.
runoff from fields to surface water is unlikely. Where precipitation can enter the storage,
To allow manure spreading when manure the storage must have sufficient capacity
application is the most beneficial, a minimum when it is ready for clean-out, to handle a
storage period of nine months is recommended major rainstorm without overflowing.
in the the AOPA, Standards and Administration Storages should be designed to account for
Regulations. However, manure storage the highest rainfall that has occurred in the
facilities are commonly built with a storage past 30-year period.
capacity of 12 to 14 months to minimize
spreading costs. Allow reserve capacity in the storage to hold
accumulated solids.
Estimate storage capacity: Provide enough storage to allow flexibility
To estimate the volume of manure produced, to spread manure when field conditions,
use Figures 7.2 and 7.3 as guidelines. labour availability, weather and local
• Evaluate an existing operation that is regulations permit.
similar to the planned facility. Short-term storage may mean increased
• Contact experienced professionals. management and labour, as time for setting
Account for management practices up and putting away equipment is increased.
and facilities: More importantly, poor weather, labour
The volume of manure produced can vary shortages and equipment breakdowns can
due to spilled water and the amount of water seriously disrupt the timing of this seasonal
used for washing. For example, where operation.
washing is regularly performed, such as in
farrowing and nursery operations, the volume
of waste from the facility will be higher than
other types of facilities.
Farrow to Finish 86.4 39.3 1.74 2590 1180 52.3 15.76 14.29 637
Farrow to Wean 26.6 12.1 0.54 800 360 16.1 4.85 4.40 196
Farrowing 21.3 9.7 0.43 640 290 12.9 3.88 3.52 157
Weaner 2.8 1.3 0.06 80 40 1.7 0.50 0.46 20
Feeder 8.2 3.7 0.17 250 110 5.0 1.50 1.36 61
Farrow to Finish 14.4 65.7 2.31 430 1950 69 5272 24.0 844
Farrow to Wean 4.4 20.2 0.71 130 590 21 1622 7.4 260
Farrowing 3.5 15.9 0.56 110 500 17 1278 5.8 204
Weaner 0.5 2.3 0.08 20 90 2 183 0.8 29
Feeder 1.6 7.1 0.25 50 230 7 568 2.6 91
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September 2002 71
7.5 Maintenance and Monitoring
Signage and fencing. Hazardous areas solids back into suspension to obtain the
such as storage structures, dugouts and water consistent slurry of liquids and solids that will
basins should be fenced and warnings posted flow during loading or pump out.
to prevent curious humans and animals from Chopper pumps are appropriate since they
accidents. The American Society of Agricultural do not plug easily. These agitation pumps
Engineers Standards ASAE S441 (SAE J115 Jan. have capacities of about 200 L/sec. (2,600
87) has information on creating signage. gal./min). Due to the high settling rate of hog
Mowing. Keeping weeds and grass mowed manure solids, pipeline velocities must be
promotes a positive image, reduces the maintained in excess of 0.5 m/sec. (2 ft./sec.)
potential for liner damage and reduces fly to prevent pipeline plugging.
and rodent habitats. Pumps used in liquid systems require some
method of screening out or breaking up solid
Odour. Decomposition of manure in material. Problems can occur when clumps of
storage stuctures can create odours that may solids enter the pump. Care should be taken
be quite strong and offensive. When manure to prevent solid materials such as stones,
is undisturbed, gases are trapped beneath the pharmaceutical waste and construction
surface within clusters of solid material. With materials from entering the manure system.
time, the entrapped gases increase in volume Care should also be taken to protect the berm
and rise to the surface in a bubble. At the and liner of the storage at locations affected
surface, the bubble bursts and the odorous by scouring (inlets, transfer pipes and
gases are released into the atmosphere. This is agitation sites).
a natural process that occurs slowly over time. Agitation can release gases that are
It is important to note that strong and highly dangerous. This is particularly important
offensive odours are generated intermittently to remember when dealing with deep pit
from manure storages. Weather conditions storage. To control odour and gas release,
and loading and emptying practices can agitation should be conducted so that the
impact the odour released. pump system does not “break” the liquid
Weather conditions. Temperature influences surface.
the generation of odorous gases. During To reduce odour when adding new manure
warm summer conditions, the temperature to a pre-existing volume in a manure storage,
rises in stored manure, increasing microbial it is advisable to discharge the new material
activity, resulting in the faster decomposition beneath the surface of the manure. The
of waste matter and an increase in the volume discharge point should be at least 0.9 metres
of odorous gases released from the manure. (3 feet) from the surface of the manure and
Under cold, winter conditions, bacterial activity 0.3 to 0.6 metres (1 to 2 feet) from the bed
ceases in storages. Odour levels increase when of solids at the bottom. This limits the
bacterial activity stops or starts. disturbance of gases trapped in the manure.
Wind and rain may influence the odours In addition, a low discharge flow rate will
released from manure storages because they prevent vigorous agitation of the manure.
agitate the contents of the storage. A crust on Be aware that several of the gases released
the surface of outdoor manure storages helps by disturbed manure can be fatal. Several
contain odorous gases. However, if strong deaths have occurred in Alberta because of a
winds or heavy rains agitate the storage or lack of training and personal protection
disturb the crust that forms on the surface, the equipment while working with stored
release of odorous gases may increase. manure. For more information on the risk
associated with manure gases, see Section 2.4.
Loading and emptying. Manure solids will
quickly separate from liquids during storage;
therefore agitation is required to bring the
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72 Beneficial Management Practices: Environmental Manual for Hog Producers in Alberta
7.5.1 Odour control strategies
Windbreaks. Windbreaks, such as trees and • Alternative cover materials. These include
fences, can be used to control odour. On a foam glass or clay particles, floating plastic
calm day, odorous air leaves the source in a sheets, plastic covers with a frame, and
stable plume. Windbreaks create turbulence geotextile covers held in place by negative
that breaks up and dilutes odour-laden air. air pressure. These covers have provided
The distance required to create adequate air excellent odour control results. However,
movement between the windbreak and the cost, anchoring and pump-out issues must
storage is being investigated. still be resolved.
Covers. Covers can be used to reduce Additives. Studies have been conducted to
odour and gas emissions from manure evaluate the effect of different types of feed
storages. Several different types of covers and storage additives on the release of odour
have been studied. from barns and manure storages. The results
• Straw covers. These have been reported to of these studies are mixed.
have excellent odour control when the Multi-cell storages. This is the most basic
cover is first installed and as long as the method of solid/liquid separation. Solid/
straw remains dry and floats. Straw covers liquid separation can reduce odour emission
are the least expensive option for covering rates because large mats of solids do not rise
storages. The downside is that the straw to the surface of the second cell. The solid
can cause problems during pump-out and basin releases little odour since the solids
the efficiency of the cover declines as the layer on the surface is dry. On an annual
straw sinks. Reapplication of straw is basis, the liquid can be pumped out without
necessary throughout the year. The Prairie agitation and the solids can be removed with
Farm Machinery Institute (PAMI) found a backhoe. This storage system requires far
that barley straw is the best material for less agitation prior to land application than
straw covers. PAMI has also calculated the single-cell storages.
cost of applying and maintaining straw
covers.
7.5.2 Monitoring
Visual. There are several visual indicators cases where more than visual monitoring is
of storage problems: warranted. These situations might include
• Content levels that don’t change. lagoons constructed in coarse soils, or where
• Wave damage to the liner. groundwater or water tables are within three
• Erosion where manure enters or is pumped metres of the bottom of the lagoon (AAFRD,
from the storage. Agdex 729-1). Sampling wells can be used as
• Cracking or slumping of the liner. additional monitoring methods.
• Seepage, soft spots or slumping on the Sampling wells. Sampling wells can be
outside of the berm or several feet out from installed to regularly monitor water quality
the berm indicate leakage. Any leakage or and detect changes in water quality near
slumping is a serious problem that requires manure storages. Regular monitoring can be
immediate attention. used to verify that the manure storage
• Evidence of rodents. Rodent burrows practices are protecting the environment or
damage the liner and walls of the manure can act as an early warning that a change or
storage. repair is needed. A qualified engineer or
• Trees, if planted, should be away from the hydrogeologist should design the monitoring
storage, outside the boundary of their well system and analyze the water quality
mature root zone. To prevent roots from data. After the wells are installed they must
penetrating the liner and creating leaks, be sampled to determine background
remove trees and plants that start to grow conditions. This sampling should be done
in the manure storage. three to four times per year for the first one to
Although research into leakage from earthen two years. After that, sampling once or twice
manure storage structures has shown minimal per year should be sufficient.
problems, there may be some site-specific
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September 2002 73
7.6 Manure Transportation
Moving manure from storage to the field is Whatever the case, appropriate manage-
an important component of the manure ment and equipment is required to keep the
management system. Manure hauling from roads and ditches free from manure spillage.
storage to field requires an economically This may mean smaller loads, covered loads
sound system that is safe and responsible. or sealed end-gates on the manure truck. In
The nuisance risks associated with manure the event of excessive spillage, cleanup
transportation include dust, spillage and measures, such as sweeping, will be required.
physical impact on roads. The intensity of traffic during manure
Manure hauling traffic can be very intense hauling may have a significant impact on
for short periods of time. Traffic on gravel lower grade roads. Many livestock operators
roads during dry, windy periods can result in have entered into road use agreements with
significant dust generation. If these conditions their local municipalities, which clearly define
exist in “sensitive areas”, such as near responsibilities. These same road-use
neighbours, dust suppression or detouring agreements may also include responsibilities
may be necessary. Dust suppression can regarding dust generation and spillage.
include watering roads or applying calcium Manure spills on the road can be in
chloride. Contact a water hauling contractor violation of the Transportation Act (litter) and
for road watering services. the Alberta Environmental and Enhancement Act
Manure is considered a biodegradable (pollution). Also, producers should check with
product. However, direct spillage from the local municipality regarding road bans
manure trucks must be kept to a minimum. prior to hauling manure.
Manure haulers need to be aware of the risks Transporting manure is an important
associated when hauling on roads. Whether it component of a good nutrient management
is a wet or dry product, spillage may result plan. Safe and efficient manure hauling is
from seepage, overloading, or blowing. possible when these factors are considered.
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74 Beneficial Management Practices: Environmental Manual for Hog Producers in Alberta
Current Technologies include: separating force. Costs of these separators
Multi-cell earthen storages. This is the vary greatly from cost-prohibitive to practical
most basic and least effective method of on large operations.
solid/liquid separation. The liquid fraction of manure can be irrigated
Centrifugal separators. Several types have onto fields. The liquids are diluted with
appeared on the market. They are generally irrigation water and applied using a centre
high in price, low in capacity and low in ability pivot system with standard irrigation nozzles.
to produce a low-moisture solids fraction. Research indicates diluting the liquids with
Screens. Many variations exist for screen irrigation water reduces odour intensity and
separators, from the simple stationary sloped offensiveness.
bar screen and vibrating screen, to screens For more information about liquid-solid
with mechanical assistance. Most separators separation, contact a livestock engineer at
on the market are variations of the screen Alberta Agriculture, Food and Rural
separator, usually with mechanical assistance Development.
in the form of scrapers, screws and/or
hydraulic heads to provide additional
Oxygen
The composting process has several • A carbon to nitrogen ratio between 20:1
basic requirements: and 30:1. The C:N ratio of hog manure
• Moisture content in the range of 40 to tends to be lower than optimum, so
65 percent. Below 40 percent moisture, the additional carbon may be needed, such as
process is slow; above 65 percent moisture, shavings or straw. If the C:N ratio is too
the process can become anaerobic and low, ammonia will volatilize, and if it is too
produce unpleasant odours. Since liquid high, the composting time increases
manure is about 96 percent water, the because nitrogen is in short supply.
solids must be separated from the liquid in • An oxygen supply. Oxygen enters either by
order to be composted. This requires a regular mechanical turning of the compost
liquid/solids separation process to obtain a or by forcing air through the material.
suitable material to compost. Housing • A pH of 6.5 to 8.0.
systems using straw or shavings for • A temperature of 40 to 65 C in the compost
bedding produce solids suitable for pile. Maintaining temperatures of 55 C or
composting. greater for 15 days will eliminate most
pathogens and weed seeds.
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September 2002 75
7.7.2.1 Methods of composting
A wide range of technology is available for livestock manure require low investment and
composting. Most composting methods for low labour inputs.
WINDROWS.
The manure piles or windrows are aerated by frequent mechanical turning, which maintains
the compost process. A front-end loader or a specifically designed windrow turner can be used for
turning.
Advantages: • Rapid product drying under warm temperatures.
• Produces a drier product.
• Handles large volumes of material.
• Produces a stable product.
• Relatively low capital cost.
IN-VESSEL AERATION.
This is the high-end process in terms of cost, requiring a specifically designed compost vessel usually
of concrete, wood or steel. Aeration is enhanced by mechanically forcing air through the composting
material. The optimum conditions of this system allows better control of the process and produces a
consistent product with high weed and micro-organism kill.
Advantages : • Can be covered for weather protection and odour control.
• Space efficient.
• Can be designed as a continuous process.
IN-BARN COMPOSTING.
Some housing systems using bedding can be adapted to enable composting inside the barn.
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76 Beneficial Management Practices: Environmental Manual for Hog Producers in Alberta
7.7.2.2 Composting regulations
The siting and operation of composting 5 x 10-8 m/sec. (or alternate material that
facilities is regulated under Environmental provides equivalent protection).
Protection and Enhancement Act. For more • It must be constructed with a minimum
information, contact Alberta Environmental slope of 2 percent so that the pad does not
Protection. collect water or leachate.
Alberta Environmental Protection • The provision of a run-on control system
Northeast Boreal and Parkland Regions must be included to prevent the flow of
Regional Director surface water onto the storage, processing
5th Floor, 9820 - 106 Street or curing areas.
Edmonton, AB T5K 2J6 • A runoff control and management system
Phone: (780) 427-9562 that provides protection of surface water
Fax: (780) 422-5120 quality is also required.
• In addition, a groundwater monitoring
Alberta Environmental Protection system may be required.
Northwest Boreal and Northern The eggs of the hog roundworm, Ascaris
East Slopes Regions suum, may be present in hog manure (see
Regional Director Section 2.13 Appendix). These eggs can infect
Provincial Building humans if they are ingested from the surface
203, 111 - 54 Street of root vegetables and can infect children
Edson, AB T7E 1T2 playing in gardens fertilized with hog
Phone: (780) 723-8395 manure. Ascaris suum eggs will not survive
Fax: (780) 723-8542 the composting process, if high temperatures
are sustained for long periods of time (i.e.
The Alberta Environment Code of Practice several weeks). Composted hog manure
for Compost Facilities outlines specific require- should be used to fertilize gardens only if the
ments for constructing compost facilities. manure is well composted and has been
• A composting pad must be constructed composted at high temperatures for several
with a minimum of 0.5 metres of clay-type weeks.
material having a permeability of less than
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September 2002 77
7.8 References
• Alberta Agriculture, Food and Rural
Development, 2000. Earthen Manure Storage
Seepage. Agdex 729-1.
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78 Beneficial Management Practices: Environmental Manual for Hog Producers in Alberta
8.0 LAND APPLICATION OF MANURE
8.1 Nutrient Value of Manure
8.1.1 Nitrogen and phosphorus in manure
8.1.2 Salt
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80 Beneficial Management Practices: Environmental Manual for Hog Producers in Alberta
8.1.1 Nitrogen and phosphorus in manure
Manure provides the same nutrients for • Organic nitrogen must be transformed to
crop production as commercial fertilizers, but ammonium (mineralized) and nitrate
the challenge with manure is that the forms (nitrification) forms to be used by plants.
and ratio of the nutrients are not easy to • Phosphorus is generally found in three
change. Nitrogen is present in manure as forms: particulate phosphorus (P attached to
ammonium or as organic compounds. sediments), dissolved phosphorus (water
Generally, the environmental risks associated soluble P) and organic phosphorus.
with nitrogen are losses to groundwater • Soil test nitrogen and phosphorus are
through leaching or losses to air through measurements of the current plant available
denitrification and volatilization. Phosphorus nitrogen and phosphorus. These measure-
is present in manure as organic and inorganic ments can be used to determine if additional
forms and generally the risk to the environment nitrogen and phosphorus are required for
is the movement of phosphorus in surface optimum crop growth. Soil test phosphorus
runoff from spring snowmelt and seasonal can also be used in the assessment of
rainfall. potential phosphorus runoff losses.
Facts about nitrogen and phosphorus:
• Only ammonium and nitrate (mineral or
inorganic nitrogen) can be used by plants.
*The percentages listed in the figure are only estimates. The availability of nutrients from organic sources, such as manure, depends on
biological processes in the soil, and these processes are affected by many factors, such as temperature, moisture and soil type.
**Volatilization is the gaseous loss of a substance (e.g. ammonia) into the atmosphere.
***Denitrification is the transformation of nitrate to gaseous forms (under high moisture or saturated soil conditions), which can be lost to the
atmosphere.
Practices that may reduce nitrate leaching: • Do not apply if heavy rain is predicted.
• Apply manure based on the nitrogen rate • Do not apply near streams or other water
from soil test recommendations. bodies. Manure must be applied: within
• When a high amount of nitrogen is required, 10 metres of an open body of water if
split the total amount required into two subsurface injection is used; within 30
thirds manure and one third mineral fertilizer. metres of an open body of water if manure
Apply mineral fertilizer later in the season. is applied to the surface and incorporated
• Reduce the amount of time between applica- within 48 hours; or within 30 metres of a
tion of manure and the highest demand for water well (Agricultural Operation Practices Act
nitrogen uptake by the crop (e.g. apply in [AOPA]).
spring while plants are actively growing).
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September 2002 81
To reduce ammonia losses into the air: impact groundwater, surface water, or create
• Apply manure on humid and/or cold, an odour nuisance.
non-windy days. • Surface application of manure on frozen or
• Incorporate manure as soon as possible. snow-covered land or on forage and direct-
seeded crops without incorporation is only
To reduce denitrification: acceptable if the minimum setback
• Avoid manure application in low, wet areas. distances are met (Figure 8.2). Surface water
• Apply manure prior to seeding, so nutrients that comes in contact with surface-applied
can be used while plants are actively growing. manure must not enter an open body of
water or leave the owner's property.
To reduce phosphorus in surface runoff: • Base the nutrient management plan on
• Inject or incorporate fertilizers and manure phosphorus for areas that are particularly
to avoid losses by runoff in areas and soils vulnerable to phosphorus runoff or
that are adjacent to water bodies and/or leaching (e.g. flood plains, steeply sloped
have high runoff potential. land, land with high water tables or
• Test soil phosphorus at least once every aquifers).
three years to avoid over-applying fertilizers • Currently there are no soil phosphorus
or manure. Over-application of manure will limits in Alberta, but research is underway
raise soil phosphorus levels above the to identify environmental limits.
recommended agronomic levels (contact
crop advisor or soil laboratory for To reduce nutrient losses by wind and
recommended P levels for each crop). water erosion:
• Test soils in different landscape locations • Leave some of last year’s crop residue on
(e.g. knolls, low spots) to determine if excess the surface and reduce tillage. This is
levels exist in low areas where runoff effective for increasing water infiltration
collects. and reducing nutrient losses in wind-blown
• Apply manure according to soil test sediments and runoff.
recommendations, crop yield goals and • Build a runoff control basin or an embank-
manure analyses. If manure is not analyzed ment across a depression of concentrated
for nutrient content, book values can be water in a field. The embankment will act
used (AOPA). This will reduce excess nutri- as a terrace, slowing water movement,
ents in the soil and minimize buildup. depositing particulate load and reducing
• Apply manure when it can be incorporated. gully erosion. By slowing water movement,
Avoid spreading manure on snow or frozen the re-deposition of P in the field will
soil. increase.
• If manure is applied on forage, direct-seeded • Construct a terrace by breaking longer
crops, frozen or snow-covered ground, or if slopes into shorter ones.
manure must be applied to alleviate storage • Establish grassed waterways in erosion-
capacity, application must be in accordance prone areas to slow water movement from
with the nutrient limits, and other manure the field.
application requirements (e.g. proximity to
water). Application must not adversely
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82 Beneficial Management Practices: Environmental Manual for Hog Producers in Alberta
8.1.2 Salt
Manure can contain significant amounts of • Monitor electrical conductivity (EC) level in
salt that may affect soil quality. soil. Electrical conductivity is a measure-
• Management of soil salinity is crucial for ment of soil salt content, and a change of
sustainable crop production. Saline soils more than 1 dS/m may indicate a soil
can reduce crop production and limit quality problem. If the EC is more than
cropping options (contact a crop advisor for 2 dS/m, plant growth and yield may be
information on crop salinity tolerance). affected. If the EC is more than 4 dS/m, do
• Salt can destroy soil quality. High levels of not apply manure (AOPA).
sodium disperse aggregates, degrade soil • Monitor the sodium adsorption ratio (SAR)
structure and reduce water infiltration levels in soil. Sodium adsorption ratio is a
through soil. measurement of sodium in relation to calcium
To control salt: plus magnesium. SAR levels above 8 in soil
• Monitor salt levels in feed rations (contact a can decrease soil permeability and increase
livestock nutritionist for recommended the potential for water-logging.
levels in feed). • In soils with a high EC and high SAR, do
not apply manure.
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September 2002 85
Figure 8.3 Nutrient Uptake and Removal by Various Crops
Crop Yield N P2O5 K2O
tonne* or kg/ha kg/ha
Conversion of yields to metric units assumed the following bushel weights (in pounds per bushel): wheat = 60; barley = 48; oat = 34;
rye = 56; corn = 56; canola = 50; flax = 56; sunflower = 30; pea = 60; and lentil = 38.
P2O5 x 0.4364 = P
K2O x 0.8301 = K
kg/ha x 0.8924 = lbs./ac.
tonne/ha x 0.4461 = ton/ac.
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86 Beneficial Management Practices: Environmental Manual for Hog Producers in Alberta
8.4.1 Sub-surface injection
The point of delivery is below the soil • Soil should cover all the manure and
surface. Manure is placed in the soil using a trenches should not be left in the field.
shank-mounted opener. Examples include Proper sub-surface injection provides
cultivator shank-mounted openers, such as excellent odour control, low runoff potential,
spoons and sweeps with hoses located behind and low nutrient loss through volatilization
the shanks. and leaching. The drawback of sub-surface
Sub-surface injection is an acceptable injection is high soil disturbance, especially
method of manure application, provided the at higher ground speeds. This may pose a
manure is applied at proper rates and meets problem in minimal till and forage situations.
the following guidelines:
• Pooling of manure on the soil surface does
not occur.
8.4.4 Broadcast
The point of delivery is above the soil Broadcast is only acceptable without
surface. Manure is placed on top of the soil, incorporation on forage crops, direct-seeded
crop and trash. Examples of broadcasting crops and/or frozen or snow-covered ground.
equipment include dribble bar, splash plate, Broadcast method of manure should be
and beater (solid manure). applied at proper rates to minimize nutrient
loss and runoff.
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September 2002 87
8.5 Time of Application
The best time to apply manure is before required for other activities. The longer the
the early stages of crop growth. Spring time between manure application and the
application is the most desirable for Alberta stage at which the crop can use the nutrients,
conditions, as high nutrient availability the higher the risk of nutrient losses. Within a
matches crop uptake. However, in the spring given season, nitrogen loss by ammonia to the
there are usually fewer opportunities for air from surface applications, is higher on dry,
application due to inclement weather warm, windy days than on days that are
conditions, risk of soil compaction and time humid and/or cold.
Figure 8.4
Timing of Manure Application
Season Watch For BMP
Winter •Runoff that can pollute surface water. •Manure should be going into storage.
•Sensitive areas. •Avoid application on frozen or snow-
•Sloping topography covered ground.
•Manure that soaks in too slowly on wet •Avoid spreading on land with a history of
ground. floods or heavy runoff.
•Wet soils that are prone to compaction. •In case of emergency, apply on grass or
winter cover crops or on areas of high crop
residue where there is less danger of runoff
or floods.
•Apply only on level, non-sensitive areas
and only in emergencies (see Figure 8.2).
Spring •Wet soils that are prone to compaction. •Apply to land before seeding annual crops.
•Denitrification that happens in cold, •Apply to row crops as a side dressing after
wet soils. plants emerge.
•Excessive application that can create a •Work manure into soil within 48 hours of
pollution hazard. application.
•Very dry soil with large cracks where liquid •Inject liquid manure.
manure can flow into drainage systems. •Apply to well-drained soils.
•Heavy surface residue that slows the drying •Till very dry soil with large cracks before
process of seedbeds. applying manure.
•Planting too soon after heavy manure •Allow for more time to dry following
application which can create ammonia application of liquid manure.
toxicity and reduce germination and
seedling growth.
Summer •Loss of nitrogen if there is no rainfall within •Apply to grasslands; inject liquid manure.
72 hours. Rain will help manure soak in. •Apply lightly onto hay fields after cuttings.
•Mature crops that are not growing: they •Apply early enough to pasture to avoid
don’t need nutrients. trampling re-growth.
•Application on forages and direct-seeded •Compost manure to reduce odour and
crops: see slope and setback distances in break up clumps.
Figure 8.2. •Consider injection of liquid manure.
Fall •Denitrification in cold, wet soils. •Apply liquid manure to grassland that has
•Manure that soaks in slowly on wet fields; no history of runoff or floods.
excess water will run off. •Apply to annual crop lands before ground
•Wet soils that are prone to compaction. freezes and incorporate within 48 hours.
•Large dry cracks where liquid manure can Base application rates on soil tests and crop
flow into the drainage system. rotation for next year.
•Apply to well-drained soils.
•Till very dry soil with large cracks before
applying manure.
Source: Best Management Practices, Livestock and Poultry Waste Management: Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada and Ontario Ministry of Agriculture
and Food, 1994.
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88 Beneficial Management Practices: Environmental Manual for Hog Producers in Alberta
8.6 Calibration of Spreading Equipment
Spreading is an important operation in The two main reasons for calibrating
manure management. The possibilities for manure spreaders are:
over or under-application are significant. • To provide information on the actual rate
Therefore, it is crucial to correctly calibrate applied—therefore, the exact amount of
manure spreading equipment. It is ineffective nutrient applied.
to do proper soil and manure analyses and • To allow for an accurate rate of application.
determine application rates based on targeted In this case, speed and delivery rate are the
crop yield, if spreading is not accurate. parameters to be determined.
Equipment calibration should address the Calibrate the spreader using manufacturer
rate and uniformity of application. In fact, one guidelines to ensure proper rate of application
of the main concerns in manure application is before each use. Check all parts of the spreader
how uniformly nutrients are distributed. to ensure proper working order. Refer to
Uneven distribution of nutrients in the field Section 8.10 for more information on
creates areas where crop yield may be equipment calibration.
depressed by either excess or insufficient
nutrients. The other concern is how to deliver
the intended manure application rate.
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September 2002 89
8.8.2 Determine proximity limitations
Manure and nutrients must be managed Take into account connectivity to water
with more caution near open bodies of water, bodies, runoff and erosion potential when
wells, rivers, creeks, and drinking water applying manure.
supplies to reduce the risk of contamination.
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90 Beneficial Management Practices: Environmental Manual for Hog Producers in Alberta
C A S E S T U D Y
In this example, phosphorus and potassium are reported as phosphate (P2O5) and potash (K2O),
respectively.
Equation 1
Estimated manure production = [Number of animals] x [Amount produced per animal per year]
Example:
Animals numbers are:
• Sows farrow to finish = 250
• Weaners = 350
• Feeders = 300
The AOPA, Standards and Administration Regulation, Part 2, Schedule 3, Figure 7 Liquid
Manure Production Volume, gives the following amount of manure produced yearly.
• 5272 gal./animal for sows - farrow to finish.
• 183 gal./animal for weaners.
• 568 gal./animal for feeders.
Therefore:
Estimated Manure Production = (250 x 5272 gal./year) + (350 x 183 gal./year) +
(300 x 568 gal./year) = 1,552,450 gal./year.
Example:
Assume two different lagoons of liquid hog manure. The lab results are as follows:
Lagoon 1
Total-N = 44 lb./1,000 gal.
Ammonium-N = 20 lb./1,000 gal.
Total P = 8.2 lb./1,000 gal. = 8.2 x 2.29* = 18.8 lb./1,000 gal. P2O5
Total K = 20.6 lb./1,000 gal. = 20.6 x 1.20* = 24.7 lb./1,000 gal. K2O
*See Units and Conversion Figure for explanation
Lagoon 2
Total-N = 26 lb./1,000 gal.
Ammonium-N = 12 lb./1000 gal.
Total P = 13.8 lb./1,000 gal. = 13.8 x 2.29* = 31.6 lb./1,000 gal. P2O5.
Total K = 12.4 lb./1,000 gal. = 12.4 x 1.20* = 14.9 lb./1,000 gal. K2O.
*See Units and Conversion Figure for explanation .
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September 2002 91
C A S E S T U D Y
Calculate available nutrients and ammonia loss in manure for the current year’s application
using the following equations:
Equation 2
Available N = [organic-N x 0.25] +[Ammonium-N – [Ammonium-N x Loss Coefficient]]
Equation 3
Available P2O5 = Phosphate x 0.5
Equation 4
Available K2O = Potash x 0.9
Figure 8.5
Predicted Losses % of Ammonium N Between Spreading and
Incorporation of Manure Under Various Weather Conditions.
Treatment Average Cool Wet Cool Dry Warm Wet Warm Dry
Spring / Summer
Incorporated within 1 day (24 h) 25 10 15 25 50
Incorporated within 2 days (48 h) 30 13 19 31 57
Injected in season 5 5 5 5 5
Irrigation, incorporation 30 N/A N/A N/A N/A
within 3 days (72 h)
Fall
Early 66 40 50 75 100
Late 25 25 25 25 25
Cover crop if grown after 35 25 25 40 N/A
manure application
Losses expressed as percentage of total ammonium N spread.
Lagoon 1
Organic N = total N – ammonium N = 44 - 20 = 24 lb./1,000 gal.
Available N = (24 x 0.25) + [20 – (20 x 0.3)] = 20 lb./1,000 gal.
Available P2O5 = (18.8 x 0.5) = 9.4 lb./1,000 gal.
Available K2O = (24.7 x 0.9) = 22.2 lb./1,000 gal.
Lagoon 2
Organic N = total N – ammonium N = 26-12 = 14 lb./1,000 gal.
Available N = (14 x 0.25) + [12 – (12 x 0.3)] = 11.9 lb./1,000 gal.
Available P2O5 = (31.6 x 0.5) = 15.8 lb./1,000 gal.
Available K2O = (14.9 x 0.9) = 13.4 lb./1,000 gal.
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92 Beneficial Management Practices: Environmental Manual for Hog Producers in Alberta
C A S E S T U D Y
Determine nutrient recommendations based on soil tests, crops and expected yields.
When requested, nutrient recommendations are provided in the laboratory reports. If not, con-
tact an AAFRD specialist or private consultant to help determine nutrient recommendations.
For a given field, a combination of the AOPA, soil tests, crops and targeted yield data should be
used to determine nutrient recommendations.
Example:
Figure 8.6 Nutrient Recommendations for Each Field
Field Soil Tests Nutrient Recommendations
N P2O5 K2O N P2O5 K2O
lb./ac.
1 20 30 450 160 30 0
2 50 30 450 100 30 0
3 40 15 450 170 60 0
4 80 30 150 50 40 60
Calculate the residual available N from previous manure applications using the following
equation:
Equation 5
Residual N = [0.12 x Manure applied one year ago x Organic- N content of the manure]+[0.06 x
Manure applied two years ago x Organic- N content of the manure]
Use the 6% factor Use the 6% factor Use the 12% factor Prepare a nutrient
to calculate the to calculate the to calculate the management plan to
amount of amount of amount of calculate manure
available N that available N that available N that application rates.
comes from comes from comes from
residual organic N. residual organic N. residual organic N. Use the 25% factor
to calculate the
amount of
available N that
will come from
the organic N
in the manure that
will be applied.
Example:
Figure 8.8 Residual Nitrogen from Previous Manure Application
Field Manure Applied Organic-N Content Residual-N
of Manure
1 year ago 2 years ago 1 year ago 2 years ago
gal./ac. lb./1000 gal. lb./ac.
1 15,000 10,000 18 19 43.8
2 20,000 0 17 - 40.8
3 0 10,000 - 20 12
4 0 0 - - 0.0
Col 1 Col 2 Col 3 Col 4 Col 5
Field 1
Residual N = (0.12 x Col 2 x Col 4) +(0.06 x Col 3 x Col 5) = 43.8 lb./ac.
Field 2
Residual N = (0.12 x Col 2 x Col 4) = 40.8 lb./ac.
Field 3
Residual N = (0.06 x Col 3 x Col 5) = 12 lb./ac.
It is important to determine the following field and AOPA limitations before applying manure:
• Slope.
• Proximity to water body and connecting streams.
• Nitrate-nitrogen limits in AOPA.
• Distance from manure storage (hauling distance).
Slope, proximity to water bodies and nitrate-nitrogen limits are discussed in the AOPA under
Standards and Administration Regulation, Part 1, Nutrient Management.
Field Characterization
Field Hauling Field Limitations AOPA Limitations
Distance miles
1 3 Slope 6% With incorporation within 48 hours, 30 metres
away from a common body of water or well.
2 4 Slope 4% and connected With incorporation within 48 hours, 30 metres
to a surface water body away from a common body of water or well.
3 5 Forage If less than 4% slope, must be 30 metres away
from a common body of water or well.
4 0.3 None With incorporation within 48 hours, 30 metres
away from a common body of water or well.
*Based on soil tests, if this soil was present in
the Brown Soil Zone, the nitrate-nitrogen
content would be over the allowable limit and
no manure would be allowed to be applied to
this field.
* Nitrate-nitrogen limits in AOPA.
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94 Beneficial Management Practices: Environmental Manual for Hog Producers in Alberta
C A S E S T U D Y
This is where information is integrated to determine accurate rates, which optimize economic
return and minimize nutrient loss to the environment.
Field 1:
Due to the steep slope, this field manure rate will be based on phosphorus.
Equation 7
Crop available N = [Available N (Equation 2) x Rate of application] + Residual N (Equation 5)
Crop available N = (20 lb./1,000 gal. x 3,191.5 gal./ac.) + 43.8 lb./ac. = 107.6 lb. N/ac.
Equation 8
Fertilizer N to be added = Recommended amount (Figure 8.6) – [amount provided by manure, which is
Crop available (Equation 7)
Fertilizer N to be added = 160 lb./ac. – 107.6 lb./ac. = 52.4 lb. N/ac.
Equation 9
Manure application rate based on nitrogen = [Recommended amount (Figure 8.6) – Residual N
(Equation 5)] / Available N (Equation 2)
Manure application rate = (160 lb./ac.– 43.8 lb./ac.) / 20 lb./1,000 gal. = 5,810 gal./ac.
Therefore,
Phosphate applied = Manure application rate for N (Equation 9) x Available P2O5 (Equation 3)
Phosphate applied would be = 5,810 gal./ac. x 9.4 lb./1,000 gal. = 54.6 lb. P2O5/ac.
This rate will result in an excess application of 24.6 lb./ac. (54.6 lb./ac. Calculated to 30 lb./ac.
recommended) of phosphate. The steep slope in this field means there would be a high risk
for phosphorus runoff. Therefore, it is not recommended to base the manure application on N.
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September 2002 95
C A S E S T U D Y
Manure application rate based on phosphorus (Equation 6) = 30 lb./ac./15.8 lb./1,000 gal. = 1,898.7 gal./ac.
Crop available N (Equation 7) = (11.9 lb./1,000 gal. x 1,898.7 gal./ac.) + 43.8 lb./ac. = 66.4 lb. N/ac.
Fertilizer N to be added (Equation 8) = 160 lb./ac. – 66.4 lb./ac. = 93.6 lb. N/ac.
For Field 1, using manure from Lagoon 1 or 2 makes a difference on the rate of manure
application, 3,191.5 gal./ac. and 1,898.7 gal./ac. It is recommended to apply manure from Lagoon
2 as this will decrease hauling costs. Save manure from Lagoon 1 for fields that are closer to the
manure storage.
Field 2:
Due to the steep slope and the field’s close connection to surface water, this field manure rate will
be based on phosphorus.
Manure application rate based on phosphorus (Equation 6) = 30 lb./ac. / 9.4 lb./1,000 gal. = 3,191.5 gal./ac.
Crop available N (Equation 7) = (20 lb./1,000 gal. x 3,191.5 gal./ac.) + 40.8 lb./ac. = 104.6 lb. N/ac.
Fertilizer N to be added (Equation 8) = 100 lb./ac. –104.6 lb./ac. = -4.6 lb. N/ac.
Therefore, the addition of mineral fertilizer is not needed.
Manure Application Rate based on Phosphorus (Equation 6) = 30 lb./ac. / 15.8 lb./1,000 gal. =
1898.7 gal./ac.
Crop Available N (Equation 7) = (11.9 lb./1,000 gal. x 1898.7 gal./ac.) + 40.8 lb./ac. = 63.4 lb. N/ac.
Fertilizer N to be added (Equation 8) = 100 lb./ac. – 63.4 lb./ac. = 36.6 lb. N/ac.
For Field 2, it is again recommended to apply manure from Lagoon 2, which allows lower
application rate, therefore low hauling costs.
Field 3:
This field is on pasture; the manure rate will be based on phosphorus.
Manure application rate based on phosphorus (Equation 6) = 60 lb./ac. / 9.4 lb./1,000 gal. =
6,383 gal./ac.
Crop available N (Equation 7) = (20 lb./1,000 gal. x 6,383 gal./ac.) + 12 lb./ac. = 139.7 lb. N/ac.
Fertilizer N to be added (Equation 8) = 170 lb./ac. – 139.7 lb./ac. = 30.3 lb. N/ac.
Manure application rate based on phosphorus (Equation 6) = 60 lb./ac. / 15.8 lb./1,000 gal. =
3,797.5 gal./ac.
Crop available N (Equation 7) = (11.9 lb./1,000 gal. x 3,797.5 gal./ac.) + 12 lb./ac. = 57.2 lb. N/ac.
Fertilizer N to be added (Equation 8) = 170 lb./ac. – 57.2 lb./ac. = 112.8 lb. N/ac.
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96 Beneficial Management Practices: Environmental Manual for Hog Producers in Alberta
C A S E S T U D Y
For Field 3, using manure from Lagoon 1 or 2 makes a difference on the rate of manure application
and amount of commercial nitrogen fertilizer. Although applying manure from Lagoon 2 would
keep hauling costs down, after some economic assessment it may be better to apply manure from
Lagoon 1. The hauling costs will be higher but some of that will be offset by lower commercial fer-
tilizer cost.
Field 4:
This field has no landscape proximity limitations; however based on soil tests, if this soil was
present in the Brown Soil Zone the nitrate-nitrogen content would be greater than the allowable
limit and no manure would be allowed to be applied to this field. See AOPA, under Standards and
Administration Regulation, Part 1, Nutrient Management.
Manure application rate based on nitrogen (Equation 9) = [50 lb./ac. – 0 lb./ac.] / 20 lb./1,000 gal.
= 2,500 gal./ac.
Crop available phosphorus (Equation 7) = (9.4 lb./1,000 gal. x 2,500 gal./ac.) + 0 lb./ac. =
23.5 lb. N/ac.
Fertilizer phosphate to be added (Equation 8) = 40 lb./ac. –23.5 lb./ac. = 16.5 lb. P2O5/ac.
Therefore, the addition of mineral fertilizer is not needed.
Manure application rate based on nitrogen (Equation 9) = [50 lb./ac. – 0 lb./ac.] / 11.9 lb./1,000
gal. = 4,201.7 gal./ac.
Crop available phosphorus (Equation 7) = (15.8 lb./1,000 gal. x 4,201.7 gal./ac.) + 0 lb./ac.
= 66.4 lb. N/ac.
Fertilizer phosphate to be added (Equation 8) = 40 lb./ac. – 66.4 lb./ac. = 26.4 lb. P2O5/ac.
For Field 4, using manure from Lagoon 1 or 2 makes a difference on the rate of manure
application. However, it is recommended to apply manure from Lagoon 2 as it has a relatively low
hauling distance.
*Manure Balance:
Total manure in storage was 1,552,450 gallons. After application of 1,322,960 gallons, the manure
remaining will be approximately 229,490 gallons.
Fertilizer needs are:
• 17,850 lb. of nitrogen.
• 1,320 lb. of phosphate.
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September 2002 97
97
8.10 Appendix: Spreading Equipment
Calibration
Simple Method.
Weigh several spreader loads of manure and determine the area in the field that is covered after
spreading. Determine the weight of the spreader and try to fill each load to a similar level. Once
calibration rate is determined (volume or weight/area), rate adjustments can be made by adjust-
ing the equipment and/or varying the ground speed.
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98 Beneficial Management Practices: Environmental Manual for Hog Producers in Alberta
Speed = 29,700 x [C ÷ (t x W x R)] (miles/hr) Eq(6)
Where:
t is in seconds
C is in gallons or tons
W is in feet
R is in gallons or tons per acre
Example:
Considering these parameters:
• C = capacity of the spreader = 5,400 gal.
• W = width of spread = 12 ft.
• t = time it takes to empty one load (5,400 gal.) = 400 sec.
• R = application rate = 10,000 gallons/acre.
Then,
Speed = 29,700 x [C ÷ (t x W x R)] (miles/hr.)
= 29,700 x [5,400 ÷ (400 x 12 x 10,000) = 3.34 miles/hr.
To calculate the rate of application from spreading speed consider these parameters:
• C = capacity of the spreader (gal.)
• W = width of spread (ft.)
• t = time it takes to empty one load (sec.)
• Speed (mile/hr.)
Where:
t is in seconds
C is in gallons or tons
W is in feet
Speed is in mile/hr.
Example:
• C = capacity of the spreader = 5,400 gal.
• W = width of spread = 12 ft.
• t = time it takes to empty one load (5,400 gal) = 400 sec.
• Speed = 4 miles/hr.
Then,
R = 29,700 x [C ÷ (t x W x Speed)]
= 29,700 x [5,400 ÷ (400 x 12 x 4)] = 8,353 gal./ac.
Tarp method.
Another method is to lay out several tarps (3 m x 3 m in size) and drive over them with the spreader.
Weigh each tarp with manure and subtract the weight of the tarps. Once the area of the tarps is
known, the application rate can be calculated. Many tarp samples may be required to obtain an accu-
rate value. To check on uniformity of application, lay five small tarps side by side in a row, then
drive over the tarps perpendicular to the row. Weigh the manure on each tarp. In addition to check-
ing uniformity and application, the rate can also be calculated.
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September 2002 99
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100 Beneficial Management Practices: Environmental Manual for Hog Producers in Alberta
9.0 DISPOSAL OF FARM WASTE
9.1 Disposal of Dead Animals
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September 2002 103
9.3 Disposal of Chemical Farm Waste
Chemical farm waste includes pesticides topical parasiticides (pour-on or powders for
(herbicides, fungicides, insecticides, treating parasites), cleaners, disinfectants and
rodenticides), pesticide-treated seed and petroleum products.
9.3.1 Pesticides
For complete details on safe pesticide use district offices or from the Publishing Branch,
and disposal, consult the Crop Protection 7000-113 Street, Edmonton, Alberta T6H 5T6.
Manual (Agdex 606-1) available from AAFRD
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September 2002 105
9.4 Leaks and Spills
The best and lowest-cost method of dealing • Store combustible materials away from fuel
with a potential environmental problem is storage tanks.
prevention. • Keep vegetation mowed.
To prevent environmental contamination: • Monitor fuel storage tanks to catch
• Always maintain separation distances leaks early.
from buildings, ignition sources and
propane tanks.
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106 Beneficial Management Practices: Environmental Manual for Hog Producers in Alberta
secure child-proof lids. Most cases of poisoning treatment of certain diseases, their ingestion
occur when these products are accidentally in small quantities can produce illness or
handled by children or animals. residue in the meat. In addition, these products
Motor oils or fuels should not be used should not be used to control dust in yard
directly on the skin of livestock. While these sites or on roads.
products were once recommended in the
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September 2002 107
Unit Conversion Factors
Laboratories report test results using different units. To properly calculate manure or fertilizer
application rate, it is crucial to understand the units expressed in the laboratory report.
Abbreviations:
• Phosphorus is elemental P.
• Phosphate is P2O5, which is a fertilizer unit.
• Potassium is elemental K.
• Potash is K2O, which is a fertilizer unit.
• Nitrogen is N.
• Organic nitrogen is organic N = total N – inorganic N (or ammonium N).
• Total nitrogen is total N = organic N + inorganic N.
• Inorganic N (also called mineral or plant-available N) is ammonium N and nitrate N.
Most of the inorganic N in manure is in ammonium form.
Units:
• 1 kilogram (kg) = 2.205 lb = 35.28 ounces = 1000 milligrams (mg)
• 1 km = 1000 metre (m) = 3,281 feet = 39,370 inches = 0.6214 mile
• 1 m3 = 1000 liters (L) = 220 gallons (Imperial) = 264.2 gallons (US)
• 1 hectare (ha) = 10,000 m2 = 107,639 ft2 = 2.471 acres
• 1 kg/ha = 1.12 lb./ac.
• 1 tonne = 1000 kg = 2205 lb. = 1.1025 ton (short)
• 1% = 10 kg/tonne = 10,000 mg/kg = 10,000 parts per million (ppm)
• 1 ppm = 1 mg/kg (solid) or 1 mg/L (liquid)
• 1 lb (or kg) of P = 2.29 lb. (or kg) of P2O5
• 1 lb (or kg) of K = 1.2 (or kg) lb. of K2O
• 1 ppm N, P or K (in 6 inches or 15 cm soil depth) is approximately equal to1.8 lb. of N,
P or K /ac = 2 kg of N, P or K /ha
• 1 ppm N, P or K (in 12 inches or 30 cm soil depth) is approximately equal to 3.6 lb. of N,
P or K /ac. = 4 kg of N, P or K /ha
For example: If the lab report shows that P content in soil is 20 ppm in the top 15 cm. This is
equivalent to: 40 kg P/ha or 36 lb. P/ac.
BENEFICIAL MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
Environmental Manual for Hog Producers in Alber ta