Project Management: A Managerial Approach 4/e

By Jack R. Meredith and Samuel J. Mantel, Jr.

Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Presentation prepared by RTBM WebGroup

Project Management
A Managerial Approach

Chapter 7

Budgeting and Cost Estimation

Budgeting and Cost Estimation

The budget serves as a standard for comparison It is a baseline from which to measure the difference between the actual and planned use of resources Budgeting procedures must associate resource use with the achievement of organizational goals or the planning/control process becomes useless The budget is simply the project plan in another form
Chapter 7-1

Estimating Project Budgets

In order to develop a budget, we must:
Forecast what resources the project will require Determine the required quantity of each Decide when they will be needed Understand how much they will cost - including the effects of potential price inflation

There are two fundamentally different strategies for data gathering:

Top-down Bottom-up
Chapter 7-2

Top-Down Budgeting
This strategy is based on collecting the judgment and experiences of top and middle managers These cost estimates are then given to lower level managers, who are expected to continue the breakdown into budget estimates This process continues to the lowest level
Chapter 7-3

Top-Down Budgeting
Advantages:
Aggregate budgets can often be developed quite accurately
Budgets are stable as a percent of total allocation

The statistical distribution is also stable, making for high predictability

Small yet costly tasks do not need to be individually identified The experience and judgment of the executive accounts for small but important tasks to be factored into the overall estimate Chapter 7-4

Bottom-Up Budgeting
In this method, elemental tasks, their schedules, and their individual budgets are constructed following the WBS or project action plan The people doing the work are consulted regarding times and budgets for the tasks to ensure the best level of accuracy Initially, estimates are made in terms of resources, such as labor hours and materials Bottom-up budgets should be and usually are, more accurate in the detailed tasks, but it is critical that all elements be included
Chapter 7-5

Bottom-Up Budgeting
Advantages:
Individuals closer to the work are apt to have a more accurate idea of resource requirements The direct involvement of low-level managers in budget preparation increases the likelihood that they will accept the result with a minimum of aversion Involvement is a good managerial training technique, giving junior managers valuable experience
Chapter 7-6

Budgeting
Top-down budgeting is very common True bottom-up budgets are rare
Senior managers see the bottom-up process as risky They tend not to be particularly trusting of ambitious subordinates who they fear may overstate resource requirements They are reluctant to hand over control to subordinates whose experience and motives are questionable
Chapter 7-7

Work Element Costing

The actual process of building a budget - either top-down or bottom-up - tends to be a straightforward but tedious process Each work element in the action plan or WBS is evaluated for its resource requirements, and then the cost Direct costs for resources and machinery are charged directly to the project. Labor is usually subject to overhead charges. Material resources and machinery may or may not be subject to overhead. There is also the General and Administrative (G&A) charge
Chapter 7-8

An Iterative Budgeting Process

Resource estimates and actual requirements are rarely the same for several reasons:
The farther one moves up the organizational chart, the easier, faster and cheaper the job looks

Wishful thinking leads the superior to underestimate cost (and time) because the superior has a stake in representing the project as a profitable venture
The subordinates are led to build-in some level of protection against failure by adding an allowance for Murphys Law
Chapter 7-9

An Iterative Budgeting Process

Usually the initial step toward reducing the difference between the superiors and the subordinates estimates is made by the superior The superior agrees to be educated by the subordinate in the realities of the job The subordinate is encouraged by the superiors positive response and then surrenders some of the protection of the budgetary slop This is a time consuming process, especially when the project manager is negotiating with several subordinates
Chapter 7-10

Category/Activity Budgeting vs. Program Budgeting

The traditional organization budget is either category oriented or activity oriented Often based upon historical data accumulated through an accounting system With the advent of project organizations, it became necessary to organize the budget in ways that conformed more closely to the actual pattern of fiscal responsibility
Chapter 7-11

Category/Activity Budgeting vs. Program Budgeting

Under traditional budgeting methods, the budget could be split up among many different organizational units
This diffused control so widely that it was almost nonexistent This problem gave rise to program budgeting which alters the budgeting process so that budget can be associated with the projects that use them
Chapter 7-12

Program Budgeting
Program budgeting aggregates income and expenditures across programs (projects) Aggregation by program is in addition to, not instead of, aggregation by organizational unit These budgets usually take the form of a spreadsheet with standard categories disaggregated into regular operations and charges to the various projects
Chapter 7-13

Program Budgeting
Project Budget by Task and Month
Monthly Budget () Task
A B C D E F G H I J

I
1 2 2 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

J
2 3 4 5 7 7 6 7 8 9

Estimate
7000 9000 10000 6000 12000 3000 9000 5000 8000 6000 75000

1
5600

2
1400 3857 3750 3600

5143 5000 2400 4800 3000 2571 5143 1286 3750 1250 2667 5333 6000 5333 6000 4800 2400 1250

5600

12607 15114 14192 9836

6317

Chapter 7-14

Improving the Process of Cost Estimation

There are two fundamentally different ways to manage the risks associated with the chance events that occur on every project:
The most common is to make an allowance for contingencies - usually 5 or 10 percent Another is when the forecaster selects most likely, optimistic, and pessimistic estimates
Chapter 7-15

Funding Non profitable Projects

There are several reasons that firms would choose to fund a project that is not profitable:
To To To To To To develop knowledge of a technology get the organizations foot in the door obtain the parts or service portion of the work be in a good position for a follow-on contract improve a competitive position broaden a product line or a line of business
Chapter 7-16

Learning Curves
Studies have shown that human performance usually improves when a task is repeated In general, performance improves by a fixed percent each time production doubles More specifically, each time the output doubles, the worker hours per unit decrease to a fixed percentage of their previous value That percentage is called the learning rate The project manager should take the learning curve into account for any task where labor is significant
Chapter 7-17

Other Factors
Anywhere from about three-fifths to five-sixths of projects fail to meet their time, cost, and/or specification objectives There are several common causes:
Arbitrary and impossible goals Scope creep Wildly optimistic estimates in order to influence the project selection process Changes in resource prices Failure to include an allowance for waste and spoilage Bad luck
Chapter 7-18

Types of Estimation Error

There are two generic types of estimation error:
Random error - where overestimates and underestimates are likely to be equal Bias - a systematic error where the chance of overestimating and underestimating are not likely to be equal

Chapter 7-19

Summary
The intent of a budget is to communicate organizational policy concerning the organizations goals and priorities There are a number of common budgeting methods: top-down, bottom-up, and the program budget Firms will fund projects whose returns cover direct but not full costs in order to achieve long-run strategic goals of the organization
Chapter 7-20

Summary
If projects include repetitive tasks with significant human input, the learning phenomenon should be taken into consideration when preparing cost estimates The learning curve is based on the observation that the amount of time required to produce one unit decreases a constant percentage every time the output doubles
Chapter 7-21

Summary
Other major factors, in addition to learning, that should be considered when making project cost estimates are inflation, differential changes in the cost factors, waste and spoilage, personnel replacement costs, and contingencies for unexpected difficulties
Chapter 7-22

Budgeting and Cost Estimation

Questions?

Chapter 7-23

Budgeting and Cost Estimation

Picture Files

Budgeting and Cost Estimation

Figure 7-1

Budgeting and Cost Estimation

Figure 7-2

Budgeting and Cost Estimation

Figure 7-4

Budgeting and Cost Estimation

Table Files

Budgeting and Cost Estimation

Budgeting and Cost Estimation

Budgeting and Cost Estimation

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