Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Scope of Reforms
They had both religious and socio-economic nature to it. An interconnection between them were realized which had to be rid of the evils for the nation to progress. Major social problems lingering at that time was: 1. Emancipation of women from their plight including abolishing of sati, encouraging womens education, abolishing child marriages etc. 2. Dismemberment of social evils such as untouchability and caste system, 3. Education needed to be propitiated among the masses for enlightenment and building the platform for nationalism. Major Religious issues: 1. Idolatry 2. Polytheism 3. Religious Superstitions 4. Exploitation by priests.
Methods of Reforms
Reforms from within: It is the general enlightenment of society against societal regression through debates and organizing marches etc Reforms through legislation:
British contributions
Female infanticide:Laws against the same were passed in 1795 and 1802 Sati was banned in 1829 under william bentinck Widow remarriage act of 1856 After 1857,the british government stayed out of reforms in social customs of indians as part of an official policy.However in 1929 they passed The Sharda act which fixed minimum marriage for males at 18 and females at 14.
Reformers in the Renaissance Henry Vivian Derozio and the Young Bengal
Henry Louis Vivian Derozio was born on 18 April 1809 in Kolkata. He was a fiery Indian teacher and poet and as a lecturer at the Hindu College of Calcutta, he invigorated a large group of students to think independently. His students came to be known as Derozians. He encouraged students to read Thomas Paine's Rights of Man and other free-thinking texts and infused rationalism and patriotism and ,he encouraged questioning the orthodox Hindu customs. He was there from 1827 until he was expelled from the college by the Hindu dominated management in 1831. His contributions were: He gave a profound intellectual backbone to the youth in the college. His ideas had a profound influence on the social movement that came to be known as the Bengal Renaissance in early 19th century Bengal. He also educated on the key social issues such as women upliftment ,abolition of sati and widow remarriage. He also established the Young Bengal movement which instilled spirit of free thought and rationalism.it included members such as Krishna Mohan Banerjee, Peary Chand Mitra, , Ramgopal Ghosh etc. These and many other Derozians later managed forerunners of later organisations such as the Landholders Society, British India Society, and British Indian Association. Also many of them were involved in Brahmo Samaj.
The title 'Raja' was awarded to him by Mughal emperor Akbar, the second in 1831 when Roy visited England as an ambassador of the King to ensure that Lord Bentinck's regulation of banning the practice of Sati was not overturned and also for promoting free trade in Bengal. He died in Britain at Stapleton, Bristol, on 27 September 1833. For his contributions he often referred to as the "Father of the Bengal Renaissance" and the Maker of Modern India".
Brahmo Samaj
It was started at Calcutta on 20 August 1828 by Raja Ram Mohan Roy and Debendranath Tagore as reformation of the prevailing Brahmanism of the time and began the Bengal Renaissance of the 19th century pioneering all religious, social and educational advance of the Hindu community in the 19th century. It propagates the worship of monotheistic god and also discarded idolatry. Its achievements are: Abolition of sati due to the pressure put by the samajis on the then governor general William Bentinck in 1828. In all fields of social reform, including abolition of the caste system and of the dowry system, emancipation of women, and improving the educational system, the Brahmo Samaj reflected the ideologies of the Bengal Renaissance. Special Marriages Act of 1872 was enacted to set the minimum age of 14 years for marriage of girls. It also supported social reform movements of people not directly attached to the Samaj, such as Pandit Iswar Chandra Vidyasagar movement which promoted widow remarriage and also inter-caste marriage. Tattvabodhini Sabha found in 1839 by another Brahmo leader Debendranath Tagore also worked alongside the brahmo samaj. First schism of the samaj occurred in 1866 under Keshub Chandra Sen who started the Brahmo Samaj for India with the other led by Tagore; the Adi brahmo Samaj. It was an ideological split with the former reverting away from the hindu components and accepting the teachings of all religions and the doctrine of God of Conscience ;while the latter remain in a more inclusive and Hindu sphere of influence. there was again a schism on May, 1878 when a band of Keshub Chandra Sen's followers left him to start the Sadharan Brahmo Samaj mainly because their demand for the introduction of a democratic constitution.This group consisted of eminent nationalists like Ananda Mohan Bose,Sivanath Sastri etc.Thus the Brahmo Samaj also contributed prominent nationalists leaders who would later form the backbone of the Moderate Phase of the INC.
dissemination of the knowledge of the Upanishads and promotion of religious enquiry. He along with the samaj were instrumental in the movement that led to the abolition of sati. It also had a printing press and Debendranath started publishing the Tattwabodhini Patrika. This Patrika became the principal organ of the Samaj for propagating its views ushering in the era of early journalism. The Brahmo Sabha was formally absorbed into the Tattwabodhini Sabha in 1842 and renamed as Calcutta Brahmo Samaj. n 1848, Debendranath codified the Adi Dharma Doctrine as Brahmo Dharma Beej (Seed of the Brahmo Dharma). In 1950, he published a book titled Brahmo Dharma enshrining the fundamental principles. These principles emphasise monotheism, rationality and reject scriptural infallibility, the necessity of mediation between man and God, caste distinctions and idolatry. Debendranath framed a covenant for the adoption of the Church and to introduce a regular form of Church service for converting Brahmo Samaj into a spiritual fraternity and also syncretic. He thus inspired many generations of reformers and also invigorated the brahmo samaj operation leading it to fulfill its aims.
He also inspired his sons into the reform movement; the most famous being Rabindranath Tagore,
enunciated the ideology God is Conscience . He also started Indian Reform Association. He was also considered close to Ramakrishna Paramahamsa and also incorporated his ideologies. Thus he was a social as well as a religious reformer who invoked rationalism and spread education among the indians especially the Bengalis which laid a groundwork for further reformers and nationalist.
Ramakrishna Paramahamsa
Sri Ramakrishna was born on 18 February 1836 near Kolkata.Ramakrishna was born in a poor Brahmin Vaishnava family. He became a priest of the Dakshineswar Kali Temple. He was a revolutionary religious reformer of his time. He found a different school of thought altogether. He successfully managed to synergise the 3 main school of thoughts at the time- Bhakhti, Vedanta and tantra which was at variance at the time. He broke the frontiers of Hinduism, glided through the paths of Islam and Christianity and revered all the Sikh gurus and thus created a universal god. He also was a mystic who also spoke openly about sexuality unthinkable in a conservative society like India. His teachings inspired syncretic version of brahmoism and inspired all its leaders including leaders such as Keshub Chandra Sen and Debendranath Tagore. This school gave way to some of his greatest disciples including Swami Vivekananda who would then take his psalms to the world. It even influenced many great thinkers and indologists like Romain Rolland and even Max Mueller and enriched their views about indian philosophical thought.
Swami Vivekananda
Vivekananda was born Narendranath Dutta in Calcutta to a traditional Bengali Kayastha family on 12 January, 1853. After his education he became a member of a Freemason lodge and a breakaway faction of the Brahmo Samaj led by Keshab Chandra Sen and Debendranath Tagore. In 1885 he became a disciple of Ramakrishna paramahamsa and took over his activities after his death in 1886. Then evolved and emerged the reformer, Swami Vivekananda. He travelled to different parts of India like Varanasi, Lucknow up to the south to Kanyakumari spreading the message of Ramakrishna and his teachings. He chided casteism and untouchability vehemently during his travails and also gathering followers. He also stood for girls education as he and his disciple Sister Nivedita established in Kolkata. He refurbished a dilapidated Baranagar Math to the first Ramakrishna Math. He also established the Ramakrishna Mission headquartered at Belur which carries to this day his treatises and psalms. He was the first great philosopher from India who represented and exemplified Indian philosophy and the Hindu religion before the world at the Parliament of the World's Religions opened on 11 September 1893 at the Art Institute of Chicago as part of the World's Columbian Exposition. His famous Chicago speech still imbibed in the laurels of history and still remains one of Indias greatest moment till death.
Motto of the organisation is Atmano Mokshartham Jagad-hitaya Cha which means means For one's own salvation, and for the good of the world It has become an organisation which forms the core of a worldwide spiritual movement known as the Ramakrishna Movement or the Vedanta Movement which has branches here as well as abroad. Also referred to as the Ramakrishna Order, the Math is the movement's monastic organisation. Founded by Ramakrishna in 1886, the Math primarily focuses on spiritual training and the propagation of the movement's teachings. The mission works against the caste system and orthodoxy to spread the message of harmony and spiritual transformation. It also has established a number of educational institutions for spreading education It is also involved in the spreading of Indian culture abroad . It is also involved in running destitute, old age homes and also involved in disaster relief. Its libraries help spread the knowledge of Hinduism to all. The mission activities include: 1. Education 2. Health care 3. Cultural activities 4. Rural upliftment 5. Tribal welfare 6. Youth movement etc
It after its inception has resulted in a harmonious socio-religious movement and that of spirituality and is one the largest organisation working in this front; in the country.
His translations of the Vedas form Vedic Sanskrit to Sanskrit and to Hindu s also his great contribution. He inspired generation of nationalists including Madame Bhikaji Cama, Lala Hardayal, Madan Lal Dhingra, Ram Prasad Bismil, Bhagat Singh, Mahadev Govind Ranade, Swami Shraddhanand, Mahatma Hansraj, Lala Lajpat Rai etc. His book Satyarth Prakash also remained inspirational to nationalists during the freedom movement.
Arya samaj
Arya samaj preached that god is formless, omnipotent, beneficial; immortal, fearless and the maker of-the universe. They established a number of Vedic schools across the country to teach the Vedas to everybody and make it accessible. Thus they campaigned against caste system vehemently opposing and to try the knowledge to all and thus to take away the monopoly of the Brahmins and the Upper Castes. They believed that Vedas are the storehouse of knowledge and religious rites should be performed through Havans and Yajnas Focus on the expansion of education and abolition of illiteracy : A Network of schools and colleges for boys and girls was established throughout northern India to promote the spread of education.Dayanand Anglo-Vedic Schools System founded in lahore in 1886 by efforts of Lala Hansraj manages hundreds of institutions today. Arya Samajis opposed child marriages and encouraged remarriage of widows. Shuddhi movement:It focussed on reconversion of hindus who had converted to other religions back to hinduism. They also established their samaj abroad at many places to spread the awareness Hinduism and to cater to the spiritual needs of Hindus there.
Balshastri Jambhekar
Born in 1812 at Konkan region in Maharashtra. He was the pioneer of intellectual movements here and vehemently opposed to Brahmin orthodoxy. Also opposed the caste system. through his marathi newspaper Darpan which was the first in the language he propounded his ideas and also aroused feelings of nationalism. For he is acknowledged as The Father of Marathi Journalism.
Paramahansa Mandali
Found in 1849 by Dadoba Pandurang and a group of his friends. First ever socio-religious movement in Maharashtra. It promoted monotheism and breaking caste rules. Also advocated widow remarriage and the education of women.
Prarthana Samaj
It was founded by Dr. Atmaram Pandurang in 1867 inspired from the Brahmo Samaj. Prarthana Samaj(ists) were followers of the great religious tradition of the Maratha Sant Mat like Namdev, Tukaram and also Hindu scriptures. They were against caste orthodoxy and priestly domination along with idolatry. It inspired great reformers such as R.G Bhandarkar, M.G. Ranade and Veeresalingam.
He was the champion of the depressed classes and also women among them. He established a night school for the children of all untouchables in Meethganjapeth, Pune in 1905. In 1906, he set up the Depressed Classes Mission in Bombay which worked for their upliftment. He also founded the Somvanshiya Mitra Samaj on March 14, 1907 to abolish the Devadasi system amongst Mahar and Mang women. He succeeded in inducing the Indian National Congress to pass a resolution chastising untouchability in 1927. He even established the Akhil Bhartiya Nirashrit Akhil Bhartiya Nirashrit Asprushyata Nivarak Sangha, through which he organized an All-India convention in Mumbai emphasizing on the removal of untouchability, during the years 1918 to 1920. which was supported by the Mahatma himself.
Other major reformers from maharashtra: Pandita Ramabai :One of the most notable women reformers,she established many institutions aimed at education of widows and women in general.These include: Sharada Sadan, an a home cum school institute for widows in Mumbai in 1889 Mukti Sadan ,1898 at Kedgaon and later many more such institutes. She also founded the Arya Mahila Samaj at Pune in 1882. She also started a number of missionary schools especially for girls for their upliftment. Gopal Ganesh Agarkar & Vishnushastri Chiplunkar:Cofounders of the famous Kesari (Marathi) and Maratha (english) newspapers they constantly worked for the eradication of evils like untouchability.They also worked in the field of education.Agarkar was one of the founders of the Fergusson college,Pune. He also found the Deccan Education Society in 1884, Jamnalal Bajaj:Founder of the Bajaj industries he vehemently fought untouchability and worked for entry of harijan into temples.He dedicated his wealth to the upliftment of the downtrodden.
Maharaja of Kolhapur and in it vehemently opposing the untouchability. He also convened and attended conferences to voiced his opinion against untouchability especially in Bombay and Pune. His first organised attempt to achieve this was the Bahishkrit Hitakarini Sabha, which was intended to promote education and socio-economic improvement, as well as the welfare of "outcastes", at the time referred to as depressed classes. By 1927 Ambedkar decided to launch active movements against untouchability. He began with public movements and marches to open up and share public drinking water resources, also he began a struggle for the right to enter Hindu temples. He led a satyagraha in Mahad to fight for the right of the untouchable community to draw water from the main water tank of the town. Perhaps his most important satyagraha march was that to the Kalaram temple to open up the temple for untouchables. Ambedkar through the Poona pact successfully negotiated a permanent political solution for the depressed classes which ensured them political representation. He also formed political movements such as the Independent Labour Party and also Schedule Caste Federation which contested the polls on their behalf. Perhaps a much less talked about contribution was his revitalization of Buddhism which gained prominence under him. The Ambedkarites as the Mahars in Maharashtra is called still remains the most emancipated and progressive of the Schedule Castes due to the efforts of this great man they lovingly referred to as Babasaheb. South India
TAMILNADU
EV Ramaswami Naicker
Popularly known as periyar.Started the self respect movement. Started a paper named Kudi arasu and vehemently opposed caste system and brahmin supremacy and proclaimed religion and shastras as irrational. Strong supporter of women's rights,opposed child marriages and argued in favour of widow remarriage. The movement,initially limited to upper class of non brahmins later turned political and became dravida kazhagam. He also gave the deprived classes political and social ambitions and upliftment.
Andhra Pradesh
Kandukuri Veeresalingam
He was born in 1848 at Rajamundry. He is widely considered as the man who first brought about a renaissance in Telugu people and Telugu literature, influenced by the ideals of Brahmo Samaj particularly those of Keshub Chandra Sen. He started Vivekavardhini, a monthly journal, to point out and criticize the defects in the society and started a column exclusively to highlight the plight of women. He also ran several other journals and wrote reformist articles in them.
He established in 1874 a girls school at Dhavaleswaram to encourage women's education and followed up with a number of other schools in Seemandhra. He also established an organization called Hitakarini Society and donated all his property for the social activities to improve the society and support various organizations set up by him which went on to establish a number widows homes and schools especially in Rajamundry. He ridiculed the opponents of women's education in many satires, lampoons and drama like "Brahma Vivaham and criticized early marriages He was also a great critic and writer and in his books like "Abhagyopakhyanamu" he criticized the persistent orthodoxy and backwardness in the society.
KERALA
Ayyankali (1863-1941)
Another leader who was born among lower castes,he formed sadhu jana paripalana sangam in 1907 for the upliftment of dalits in kerala society. He was nominated to the assembly of Travancore, namely, Sri Moolam Legislative Assembly in 1912 and for 28 years was the voice of dalits in the assembly. Due to the struggles and efforts of SJPS and SNDP by 1914,schools were opened to dalits and dalit women who did not have the right to cover their nakedness were given the right to do so.
After trying to brutally suppress the satyagrahis the authorities and the orthodox relented partially by opening roads on 3 sides of temple to all castes.
Guruvayur(1931-32):This was organised to gain entry for all hindus,irrespective of caste,into the famous temple at guruvayur.Noted for the considerable support it generated from many learned men of upper caste,the satyagraha could not achieve its objective and had to be withdrawn prematurely.But it was another step closer to achieving equality of castes Temple entry proclamation(1936):As a result of satyagrahas for temple entry,pressures from reform organisations like SNDP and due to his own personal conviction Sree Chithira Thirunal Balarama Varma ,the king of erstwhile princely state of travancore threw open the temples of his dominions to all hindus irrespective of their caste.The step which was hailed all over the country and earned commendations from gandhi and other leaders,was the first such of a major princely state in India.It gave a big boost to the social reform movement in Kerala and resulted in the gradual erosion of social disablities imposed upon lower castes in the state.
Muslims
Mohammedan Literary Society was founded in Calcutta in 1863 by Nawab Abdul Latif Ahmadiyya movement founded by Mirza ghulam ahmad in 1889,can be termed a reform movement in that it tried to give religious recognition to modern scientific and religious progress. Syed Ahmed khan was born on October 17, 1817 in Delhi After the revolt of 1857, he saw the critical role of modern education including english and science for the empowerment of the poor and backward Muslim community. He also promoted the ideals of secularism and cultivated it at the hearts of the youth. He was also famous for promoting the puritan Urdu language. He set up a Scientific Society in Aligarh in 1863 to create a scientific temperament among the Muslims and the society started The Aligarh Institute Gazette in 1866 to promote its cause In 1875, Sir Syed founded the Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental School (M. A. O.), Aligarh.It became a college in 1877 and aligarh muslim university in 1920 He instituted All India Muslim Educational Conference in 1886 The Aligarh Movement motivated the Muslims to help open a number of educational institutions and was the first significant step in the reform of muslim community.
Nirankari movement
By baba dayal dass(contemporary of Ranjit singh) Introduced Anand Karaj which simplified marriage rituals,condemned worship of graves
.His son Baba Darbara singh and brother Baba Rattaji took the movement forward after him. Nirankari means formless god because he preached worship of a formless god instead of human gurus Also called Kuka sect.started by bhagat jawahar mahal.Strengthened under baba ram singh Opposed caste system,Infanticide,child marriages and Advocated vegetarianism,use of white clothes. Founding of Namdhari sect is believed to be around 1840. Movement later turned fanatic and many butchers were killed by kukas in amritsar malerkotla etc Due to political nature acquired by movement,a serious outbreak of violence against british occurred and many leaders were blown by cannons in 1872 and ramsingh was exiled Progressive non political and focused on education of sikhs Created schools,colleges (eg:Khalsa college amritsar founded 1892)etc and often received patronage from british officials. During time of persecution control of Gurdwaras passed to control of udasis who were initially of high integrity and character.Later some udasis turned controllers of religious institutions and came to be called mahants and Mahants started enjoying wealth of temples and jagirs attached to them as their property. Aimed at regaining control of shrines.started by the political wing of singh sabha. After gaining control of shrine at sialkot,Akalis turned to golden temple and the akal takht at amritsar. Golden temple was governed by a government appointed 10 member committee lead by a sarbarah.The priests at golden temple did not allow prayer offerings by lower castes which was against the basic tenets of sikhism. Akalis marched to the golden temple and gained control of it and formed a committee for its management which became the Shiromani Gurdwara Parbandhak Committee. Nankana tragedy: 20 feb 1921,the akalis who marched to Nankana (birth place of Guru nanak) to take control of shrines there were attacked by the men led by the mahant of gurdwara janam asthan.130 men were killed.Gandhiji visited nankana and advised akalis to broaden their movement. Toshakhana Keys affair: The keys of Toshakhana (treasury) of golden temple was taken away by british deputy commissioner.Akalis joined by congress volunteers launched a strong agitation and the british were forced to give the keys back. Guru ka bagh morcha: 1922,Akalis who collected wood from trees attached to the gurdwara guru ka bagh were arrested by police who claimed the wood was property of the mahant of the gurdwara.Agitations started and government arrested over 5000 people.and started cruelly beating them up.This drew criticism and again british relented by releasing all arrested and leaving the wood free to use for the community kitchen.
The akali movement came to its end with the passing of gurdwara bill 1925 which gave right to govern shrines to elected bodies of sikhs.The movement was significant in that it ended the caste system among sikhs,destroyed the evil authority of mahants and ended immoral practices that were practiced in gurdwaras.
Parsis
Rahnumai mazdayan sabha or religious reform association founded by nauroji furdoonji,dadabhai naoroji,ss bengali etc in 1851 with support by KR Cama Behramji Malabari:a Parsee journalist and writer,he was an advocate of women's social reform in India and a champion of women's suffrage.
Organisation Sevasadan servants of india society social service league Mahar movement Nair service society
Sivaprasad Menon References 1)NIOS and ignou notes 2)Modern india by bipin chandra 3)blogs on the subject,wikipedia Book preference:GS manual>Sumit>Rajiv >Gandhi sivaprasad menon