CONSTRUCTIONin i At this sage, you have a complete design for an indi- ‘vidual building. If you have followed the patterns given, you have a sche ‘ground, with stakes, or on a piece of paper, accurate to the nearest foot or so. You knosw the height of rooms, the rough size ail position of winderes and doors, and ‘you know roughly how the roofs of the building, and ‘he gerdens are sil out. The next, end last part of the language, ells you how 40 make 2 buildable builling dircelly from this rough scheme of spaces, and tells you howe 10 build it, in detail, eof spaces, cither marked on the ‘The patterns in this last section present a physical atti- tude to construction that works together with the kinds of buildings which the second part of the pattern language generates. These construction patterns are intended for Duilders—whether professional builders; or amateur owner-builders, Each pattern states'a principle about structure and materials. These principles can be implemented in any number of ways when it comes time for actual building, We have tried to stare various ways in which the prin ciples can be built. But, partly became these patterns are the Jeast developed, and partly becuse of the nature of building patterns, the reuler will very likely have much to add to these patterns, For example, the actual mate- Fials used to implement them will vary greatly from region to region . Perhaps the main thing to bear in mind, as you look lover this material, is this: Our intention in this section onsconsTRUCTION has been to provide an alternative tothe technocratic and rigid ways of building that have become the legacy of the machine age and modern architecture. "The way of building described here leads to buildings that are unique and tailored to their sites. It depends on builders taking responsibilty for their works and. work ing out the details of the building as they go—mockiig ‘up entrances and windows andthe dimensions of space making experiments, and building direetly according to the results. 7 “The patterns in this section are unique in several ways. First, the sequence of the patterns is more concrete than in any of the carlier portions of the language. It rot only corresponds to the order in which a design matures conceptually, in the wser’s mind, but also cor- responds to the actual physical order of construction. ‘That is, except for the frst four paterrs, which deal with structural philosophy, the remaining patterns can actualy be used, inthe sequence given, to build a build- ing. The sequence of the language corresponds almost cexactly, to the actual sequence of operations on the build- ing site. In addition, the patterns themselves in this sc tion are both more conerete, and more abstract than any other patterns in the language. “They are more concrete because, with each att have always given at least one interpretation which can be buile directly. For instance, with the pattern Roor FouxDATION, We have given one particular interpreta- tion, to show that it can be done, and also to give the reader an immediate, and practical, buildable appreach to construction. 96 * ferent physical syste ———— Yet atthe same time, they are also more abstract. The particular conérete formulation which we have given for fach pattern, can alo be interpreted, and remade in thowand ways. Thus, it is ako possible to take the gen cral'idea of the pattern, the idea that the foundation funcions like & tree rout, in the way that it anchors the building in the ground—and invent a dozen entirely dif- Which all work in this funda. this seme, these patterns are more ab- seital way. stract than any others in the book, since they have a vider range of possible interpretations. To illustrate the fact that a great variety of actual building systems can be developed, based on these pat- terns, we present three versions that we have developed, in response to different contexts In Mexico: Concrete block foundations with rebar connectors; hollow sealigning molded earth blocks te- inforced with bamboo for walls and columns; burlap formed concrete beams; steep burrel vaults with earth and asphalt covering—cverything whitewashed 1In Peru: Slab flors poured integrally with wall foun: dations; finished with soft baked tiles; hard wood (diablo fuerte) columns and beams; plaster on bamboo lath acting as shear walls between columns; disgonal ‘wood plank celing/Moors bamboo Iie partition. Tn Berkeley; Concrete shb finished with colored wax walls of exteriot skin of 1 x buteds and interior skin of ypboar filled with ight weight concrete; box eclurmns rade of 1 x boards, filed with Fightweight concrete; ‘inch concrete ciling/Mour vaults formed with wood Jatce and burlap forms 97‘As you can see from these examples, we have formu: lated these patterns with very careful attention to cost. We have tried to give examples of these patterns which use the cheapest, and most easily available, materials; we have designed them in such a way that such buildings can be built by lay people (who can therefore avoid the cost of labor altogether); and we have designed it so that the cost of labor, if done professionally, is also low. Of the three parts of the language, this third part is the least developed. Both the part on Towns and the part on Buildings have been tested, one partially, the ‘other very thoroughly, in practice. This third part has 10 far only been tested in a small number of relatively minor buildings. That mean, obviously, that this mate- rial needs a good deal of improvement. However, we intend, as soon as possible, to tet all these pattems thoroughly in various different buildings houses, public buildings, details, and additions. Once again, 28 soon a3 we have enough examples to make it Worth reporting on them, we shall publish another vol- tame which describes them, and our findings. many ways rough though it iy this is the most part of the language, because it is her, in these feve patterns, that we can most vividly see a building literally grow before our eyes, under the impact of the patterns ‘The actual process of construction, in which the se quence of their patterns creates a building, is described in chapter 23 of The Timeless Way. 98 Before you lay out construction details, etablsh a Philosophy of structure robich will ee the structure grow directly from your flan: and your conception of the buildings. 206. 208, 939205 STRUCTURE FOLLOWS SOCIAL SPACES** 40 + if you have wed the eslier pater inthe language, your Pane ae bated on subse strangensene of social spaces But the Beauty and suey of sl thew wx space will he deaoyed, when you sat buiiiog, unless you ind way of builing which ix able to fellow the socal pacer without siorting -te- arranging them for engineering rss ‘This pattern gives you the xinsing of such away of bulk ing. Ie isthe frat ofthe 49 patterns which deal petty with siructare and consruction; iti the butneck theeagh which all angusges pus fmm the laser pater for rns ad bling layout to the eal ones whi spite the proms conse tion. It nat only hs 58 on incite arguments about the tle tion between social acer and andcesringsrecture—it- ako fontaine, atthe end 2 Is for paterson seucars, colunns wally Hoos, ruly and ll the deat of eonstestion, 1 ll the consections which you need No building ever feels right to the people in it unless the physical spaces (defined by colamns, walls and ceilings) fare congruent with the social spoces (defined by activities and haman groups). And et this cenprnce ie hanlly ever pron in men conaracion. Must often the piel al aia spores seinen {groent. Modern consrction that iy the fs mot commonly practi! inthe “mieemteh century usally forces socal spaces int the faneswork af 2 baling whose f cmairtction On the one handy there are these I form i vers demanding inet sn a to follow the shape omer, hype pao ‘On the ther hind, there ore the baling ae very few structural chmente-a few. gant lings hoe strata Foret the mca pace the eemntretion-—Ruckaincer Fuller(Geoetic dome ‘Stel and ls ror nth tiling the al pee at defined yak ‘Teh nnn pein tng ee within the “est” phate! sueuve gion byrie enesig. The baingy ie ae der Ree nd Shih Owing nd Nev ce men ; "We sal now ange iat thie Kind of nena do tendanent damage ene difereat one th ene hr sce dame Cn Bone contin th cal sue and teri iret ohh Satay to be'To be pose: we lao hom ou ep des te ppl seal oe pute lngge degn, Tiliag fr theneley and tate pe te eee te Tempel by oer colicin hae an etnilig ge frecarngemets ay cl tne he di es snd habs, Var hone pln oan 205 STRUCTURE PoLLoWs social sracts Any form of constuction which makes i imposible to imple- nt dese plans an free them inthe a jacket of ah en ing, ial damage OF coune, it could be miguel that the rata ecco building ares mach 2 part nf ite nature sy the sxal and Pye ‘ological needs of it inhabitant “This agement ight perp, pethap, hold water if there were indeet nv way of building buildings whieh:conform more exactly tothe Jame plans based on activities sone ‘But the wert Joe paters in thie book make it ery clear thet, ‘here do exist ery! of building hich are strc, ound snd yet perfectly congrucnt sith scl spare, ceithon! any come ‘romise whaterer ris therefore clea that we may legitimately reject any form of coniroction which cannot alapt elf pete fect tothe frre of ae require hy wal ation, What ofthe second kind of jncongivence been Soci space and building form—the Bind:where the sircture crests huge anex of almost anintermpted “fesitle” space, pencteted. ty caional cola, and the sal spaces ate ceatel inde hit framework hy neneretulpottons Once again, many important putes cannot be incorporated int the design —aseu ow 390 stn or teeny mown (159), fr example simply cannot be include in 2 gant rectangle. Btn this ype of building, there ean aldiemal Lind of incongrcnee ‘eeweon sail space an engineering sroetate which comes from the fac thatthe to are steal independent of each other. ‘The engineering follos i on Inns the scl space flo ft Iiwr—and thes do ot mate, ‘This miomaeh is perceive snd folk not merely 2 smatch, but 282 fandamenial snd string inclerence inthe lai of the building, which mae people fel wneas an usar of theme selva and their relation to Jhe work, We wer fir pie explanations Fite spaces calle fore the potters sealing with socal and paychoegiesd Tae spaces ate nat gh seometry, simply for strvtual syns the needs are nor met anf problems ate no sve Sine thee space area evita seawm that they mst he Fleas rea spaces, not fly haphazarllyparSiamed spaces which msconstruction only pay lipersce tothe needs people experince. For ietanee, if an entrance room is crested wth Bing. partitions, i wil not take hols people won't take it trot. Only when the mot tol lenens of the building foray the spaces Wil the spaces be fally fle and the netdewhich cll forthe space then fully be sted, Second: bulking wills scm alien unless it give toi er a direct and intuitive sense of ite arueture—how itis put together. Buildings where th stactre iden ley et another pin people's understanding of the environment sound them. ‘We Know this is porte to chikeen and surest ie ast be Important els oo. "Third: when the sacs pace hag at is own surrounding, the fabric of the Jod-benring structure vehich support tha space, then the fores of gravity ee integrated wth the sei frees, ana one feels the relation of! the faces which are acting in ‘his one space. The experience of being in a place where the forces ate tselved taper 3t once it cSapletely revfel and ‘whole. Tes Tike sing under an oak tre: things innate esl sl the eres aeting on them together: they ate inthis seme, ‘whole and balneed Forth: i ss psychologeal lac that a spc i defined by ie comers Jost 3 for dos define 4 reetangle to your ef, 10 foar ‘pons (or'mare) define sn imaginary space etvecn thew aN soe 1 Fowe eiet he wrecergle ‘Thiei the et fandomental way in which slide die space ‘nes thé stall which make wp the billing Te atthe corners of ite soca spacer, they may ined be cresting her al spaces ates with the intended ane. "The building will nly be at rat pachologicly i the core of it roone a ‘desrlr marked and coincide, at let in the majority of can ‘with te mot aid elements. oun 205 STRUCTURE FoLLoWs SOCIAL srACES ‘Therefor A fist principle of construction: on no account allow the engineering to dictate the building’ form, Place the Joad bearing clements—the columns and the walls and loors—according to the social spacts of the building; never ‘modify the socal spaces to conform tothe engineering struc. ture of the building, You will beable to gusrante that structure follows scl space by pling colons atthe corner of every sci pace covuns AP THE connins (312); and by building ditnet and separate vault orer cach room and vocal spice—riaon: emuine eaves (219), For the principles of suuctue whic will make it posible to beitd your building according to this ater begin with xr ‘ENT sravcrURe (206); forthe clas of compatie materia, see coo maremins (207); forthe fondamentals of the proces of constrction see «oubuat rire ane (208) ons6 alter complements the patera srRUCTURE FoLLONE eins the eltonship rewecn the social spaies aul the structure thie pattern yt down the kind of ‘A you will, ib campatile with ernucrtnn votes so {GAL ences, and will help to reste i tevin ace (205). Whore thst pa uctue which is deat Uy pare enginceng ee Some buildings have column and beam structures; others hhave load-bearing walls with slab floors; others are vaulted structures, oF domes, oF tents. But which of these, or what ‘mixture of them, is actually the most efficient? What is the best way to distribute materials throughout 2 building, so 1s to enclose the spacc, strongly and well, with the least ‘amount of material? Engineers asully say that thefe it no answer to this question. According to corent engincsring practice itis Gist necesary 10 hnule an aibitary choke among the bose posible syems—and nly then ponible Yo te theory and escalation to ix the size of ‘members within the chen sytem. By the Basle choice isell— Jet scaring to prevailing dague—cannot be made by theory. ‘To anyone with an enquiring mind, this ems quite unlikely. ‘That ach 2 fundamentl choiee, 36 the choige between column and beams system amd Jnd-bering wall atoms and vaulted ‘quem, should Tie purly Jn the ren of whim—and that the Pile myriad of avned ystene which re Between these arche= {apes cannot cten be considered-—all this hss more v0 do with the satus af avssble theory than with any fandsmensl insight. Tndced, a we all mow uy ta shu the atchetypa, best wl tion to the problem of ecient structure in + building i one tihich doc Te in Between te thece mest famous archetypes. I Fasten of lansheasing wally supported at frequent intervals by hchened tflners ke columns 3nd faored and roofed by syne of val ‘We shall derive the character of the mot eficient sructare in owconsrRucTiON thie seps Ft, we shill define the three-dimenionsl chase ter of apical system of rooms and spaces ins building. We Shall then define an ficient stactre at the alles chespest mount of wable material plsed onlin the interices between ‘the roam, which can support il! and the leads which the rome [everate, Finals, we shall okexin the dete of sn efieient rac fare, For a sinilar discon, see Chritper Alexander, “An ate tempt to derive the nature-of 2 human buling system from, fit peincipley” in Edvard Alen, The Repowiee Home, MALT. Pres, 1974. 1. The threcimensional character of a typical building used purely on the socal spaces and the character of room 3 In err to eta this from fendamentl couideratons, let wt fit review the yp shape of room—ace He SARE oF INDOOR smncr (191)-—and then goon to derive the most ficient suc tare for bilding made up af these Kinds of rooms: 1 The boundary of any space, scen in pln, is formed by segments which are cuentillyatsight Tines—though they need ‘ot be perfectly sight 2+ The celigg height of apices vary azcording to their social fonction. Roughly speaking, the cling Bight vary with for aow—large spacer hive higher clings, mall ones lower— Ccetanc ici vautet¥ (190). jf Sh The edges of the apace are ently veil up 10 hea! Inight—shat i about 6 fect. Above head height, the boundaries ofthe space may come in toward the space, The upper commer Treen wall and celing of + novmal room sere no fonction, and ite therefore not eel to consider them af an exenial port of the pce. Sd Bach pace har orizontl aoe S.A bulling then ies packing of polygonal aces in which cach poygan has a bechive cto sectlon, apd 2 height which ‘aris scoring ti ize If we fallow the principle of sreucrURe FoLz0%s soc races (205), we ma sume that tht tcecdimerionel ary of fpoces must remain intact, and not be interupted by structural 206° EFFICIENT STRUCTURE et A aching 6) polygon broke sce, ements, This means that an ficient structure moat be one of the arrangements of material which werupien ony the interatcet [etwoen the spec ‘We may viealize the era of thee pole rucares by means of & simple imaginary process. Make a lump of war for tach ofthe epacce which appa in he bulling, aml contact ‘hree-dimensonal say of thew Jp of wa, leaing gape be= tween all adjacent limps, Now, take » gonenized “wrstare ‘uid and pour i allot thi steangemens of lamps, so that it completely covers the whole thing, and fil ll the pps, Let this uid harden Now dieolve cut the wax Tomps that represent space, The ff which romain isthe most generalized U1, The mort eficiont structure for a given system of spacer. . Obriosy, the imaginary structure made fram the stretare 4x aot ren. And beds, iis rather inficen:it woud if actly carried eat we 2 rest deal of mater, We mt now tak how to make a sirwcter, similar to this gina one bat fone which vir the salle snount of materia At me lal se, {Bit moe eficient srvetute will ke rempresion scare, in ‘which tending and tension are reduced to 2 mininom and a omtnuous structure, i sich all members ae rigid connected in sch «way cach wember cries at leit seme part of the trons ented by any pattern of lading A compresion trarhrr, tn a eiient strate, we Want very ance of material ta he woking tHe pacts. Tn more preche term, we. want theatres ditribted.thruphoat the Iaternk in ch a ay that every cabie inch ie ated to the fame degree, Thie i not ayy expe, 8 3 ple tween beam, ‘The materia shat srezed ot the top and bottomconstruction ofthe beams the mide ofthe eam hat only vry lowe stent, became thre is too"much materia there reaire to the sre Aistebation. js ‘Aaa goncrl ule, we may say that members which are in bending saps have uneven ses distributions and that fe cn ‘therefore ony ditrbutesrenes evenly throwghout the materials if the atroctere ie entirely free of bending. In short then, perfectly ficient atracture must be fee of bending. “There are two posible wrvctoret which avoid bending alm tgsther: pore tension eractres and pare comprosion srectars, [Although pore tension sroctarc are. theoreially interesting and sitsble for oceaons special purposes, the consideration, ascribed ia coum wavenians (207) rule them out over whelmingly on the gedinds thi tension materisle are hard to bain, and expenive while not all materials ean resist con presion. Note evpecilly that wood and ste, the to principle Tension materia in buildings, aie both sare, and enon cclegicalgroande—no longer be wed in bulk—again,se2 coo0 wavamius (207). 2. A continous sructre. Yn a efiient srvctur, iis not only true tht individual elements have even sues dstibation fn them when they are lnded. Iti alo tree that, the arvctre seu 83 whole ‘Consder, for camp, the ene of 3 bulet. The individual strands ofthe buset are woth. By iualf no one strand can sess, ‘ch lod, Bat the biset is v9 canningly made, tht all the rand work together tort efen the sulle Id, 1€ you pre fon one part ofthe Batt with your finger al the standin the boeket—even thore inthe part farthest from your fnger—work together to resist he led. And of coun, since the whole struc: tore works a one, frei the land, noone prt ha, individually, to be very stone . ‘This principe is purticulaly important ns sractre Hike biking, which foes» vast range of diferent losing condition. ‘Av one minvte, the wind is Blowing very tong in one at another moment an earthquake shakes the buildings in Iter yeary wneven sctlement reliasibeter dead loud, Derate same Foundations tink lower than others; and, of coure,throoghout it life the people and farnitue in the bailding re moving 950 206 EFticIENT siRUCTURE Al the ime, If exch clenent is be strong enough, by itl, to ‘es the marimam kad it ean be rubjecedl te, i will have to be enormous Bat when the bailing teow Tke 3 eke a hat ea att of the building ele to cary the small, then, of ‘aus; the enpralitale nature ofthe Jade creates no difical> tis a a. Members can be quite anal, beeawie no mater what the lade ae, the continuity of the building will daribute them meng the members a6 whole, and the bung will setae he agsnst them, “The continuity of 4 twikling depends om ite conaectons: stu coninty of antral and shape, It ie very bar, amor impos, to make centinsoer connections between diferent m= te which tranaer Toad ay clicintly 4 »contnvous tei and iti therefore cential that the lliog be male of one a, which i actually continuous ran meaner to member ‘And the shape of the comectione between clement ial ton Right gles tend to reste icontinutier: forect cn be di tulbned deougheat the tulding only Hf there are diagonal ltr wherever walle cet clings, walle ect all, and columns ‘meet bee. ML. The details of am efficient structure. ewe mums now that an ficient bei i be ath come prove and continuous, we ean uitin the main morphologies festarerof ite tractre by dies inference. 111 edingn, foorn, and oon must all be canted, "This fallow directs. "The dome or vou shape x the anly ape which works in pure comphseon, Fleurs ant roots con ly be con= FEaooue wit wally Hf they carve downar at their edge. And the ape of social’ spces aly fnvier H direnly—anee the ‘oginiof mpi, letras ey oll ae Seton, Severe cel erpos i ra natal place for sraturl materiaCONSTRUCTION jolly mast ll be load-bearing. Any non lad-besing pir- tilon evidently contradiae the principle of contisuty_ which tayr tha every price of the builing is helping to resist lends Furthermore, calumns with on lou-bearing_patitins, be fhcen thom heed shest amppor. ‘The wall provides it nator nd the continuity of the wll foot, and ceiling can ony be ened hy th ston of a wal hat es her sete < Lendcearing cl 45 Walls nut be sifened at integals along thir lenath by comma rib a wall to consi’ given amount of material ‘hen the wall acs most ficiently when its material is wedi {ribued, nonkomogeneony, to form vera cis. ‘This wal it howe eficent in resting bucling™—indeed, st most thickneses ‘hi Kind of aiening is atully repuired wo et the wall at 3 its fal comprenive epacty-—ice PINAL COLUMN. DISTRIDUTION (ais), And it helps 10 rest horizontal fads, Beenie the ‘ike et 8 beam again he horizontal force es erica iene. 4: Connections betséen ell and floors, and betteen walt card ely mua all Be thickened Dy extra material that form # Slee alone the run, Canmection are the weakest point {or con rai, and righeangled connections ae the worst: Hsever, w= now frm ie sare or apoon arace (191) that we Gane old rough right sags where walle meet walls; and of cours, ‘Sere most be roogh ight angle where wall meet foo, To ounteract the eect of the rgb angle, it necsary to “Al” ‘he angle with material, Thi principle i dscused ander coun ccomnterions (227) 952 hickeed conmetion. 5. Opening in ells mut have thickened frames, ond romd- . npn the upper concn. Vis fellows deely trom the principle Gr continity aa is folly licesed. ny vmases a8 -HCXENED oces (225). oping ‘Therefore ‘Conceive the building as a building made from one con- sinuous body of compressive material. In its geometry, con- (rive it at a three-dimensional. system of individually ‘faulted spaces, most of them roughly rectangular; with thin load-bearing walls, each stiffened by columns at intervals slong its length, thickened where walls meet walls and ‘where walls meet vaults and stiffened around the openings. cosioity f ratrat 93 issu‘The layout of the inner vale given in vt an exe aiyour (210) and Frootetitine vavers (219); the lgost ofthe oster rae which form the 100! i given in noor tavoue’ (209) and sor vaviae (230). The lyout of the sifeners which make the walt i given fn rina. coutinn oeemavrion (213); the lyoat of the thickening whore wilt mect sale is given by couunns ar ru cornens (312); the thickening where elle meet vaste ic given by emminirteR ness the contruction of the earns and the wal given by nox {couusins (216) and wats wastnRames (218); the thickening of doors and window frames ie given by takes as THCKEMED eoces (235); and the nowtight-angled connection, Between Columns and beams by eot.vaen consncrion (237). 954 207 GOOD MATERIALS**the principles of strctre allow you to imagine 2 beiding fa which materia ave distibted in the aost ficient ay, * fangrocnt with the ssa space given by the plan—stAUeTURE ouiow seciAL sricts (205), eFvieuNr sraucrURE (206). But of coune the sacral conception all oly schematic, ‘ean nly become frm and copcatin your mind wchen you know what materiale the building wil be made of. Thit pattern hele You wile on materia, eee ‘There isa fundamental conflict in the nature of materials for building in industrial society. ‘On the one handy an organi building requires materiale which cenit of handsede of aml pice put together, each one of them band ext, each one shaped to Be unique according tit postion. On the other hang the high os of labor, and the exe Gf mar predation, tend to create materials which are Trg, ‘dential, not eatle or modifiable, and not adaptable i ion races of pln, These "modern moter tend to destroy the frganic quality of natural aildngs andy indeed, to, make i imposible, In addkion, modern materials tend to be ims and Turd to. mintsin—ao that buildings deteriorate more rapidly ‘han in a presindutril society where building ean be maine tained and improved for hundreds of years by patient attemin, “The central problem of str, then, isto nd 2 collection cof materi which are small insole, cay 10 cot on ie, ey 10 ‘Mork ite without the ai of huge and expensive machines, fy to vary amd adapt hese enough to be sali lngsting ot ‘Gat to msinaiy and et eayto Bal, not ceding specialized Thor, not expensive tn Labor, and universally obtangble and ches. ' Fevihermore, tis cl of goal materia mune he ecto sand: Biclegradsble, low fm energy consumption, and not kel fon deplctabe resources. "When ve tae all tho requirements together, they suggest & 956 207, coop MATERIALS father suring clas of “gop! mterin"—guite diferent from the malsrak in common vse toy. ‘The following discasion i tar atempt to Bog to deine thi ete of yatern, Iti cer taal fneampltey but peshaye ic ely the problem of materiale more exetlly We,sart with what we call “bulk mateiak™—the material that occr inthe grote volume in a given lig, ‘hey may secount for as much a8 #0 per cent of the ttl volume of mac terials wed in building. Traivonally, balk: materine have heen earth, concrete, won, Bric, lone sow « » Today the alk materiale sre caentislly seood and concrete and, in the ‘ey large bling, sel ‘When we°anaiyze thee materi ariel, accouing 19 out svnriay we find that one and brick meet tort of the reg ens but ae alten out of the quaton where labor i expensive, becuse hey are abo ites ‘Wool i exellent in many age, Whore it avilable people tue i in great quamttcn and where itt not avilable people se tying fo et al of i. Untortunately the forts have been terbly managed sane have heen svslsteds and the price of Iesy Tamer hat skyrocketed, From toy’ papers “Since the dof federal economic conta the price of Humber hs been omping aboot +5 percem tom anf now beat 55 percent Aeve what it ab Neat aj" Sow Frans Chronicle, Pebear sy 11, 1974. We shall therefore lak upon wont a6 2 precious laut), which should not be axed at 9 bole mstril or for ie pp Steel at a holk atrial arc at ofthe quetion, We do not reed it for high builling since they do not abe sca sense— roonserony sir (2) And for slr buiing ie expen te, imponile to melts, high eer in penton, Earth isa incre lk antral. ari hal wn aabize, and it makes incredibly eary walls Peau Ht ha t he hick think through ‘Where thie is appropriate and srhre the earth is aailable, how ves icra ome the “pod tera Regular conrcte to dene. Hie hese ‘Ale iets one ean ext inn itor wail int tA ie suraee i ap, cold, and Hardin feling, anlse covered hy expensive Sher ot integral. thereatAnd yet coneete, in some form, is fcnatng material. It Jn uid, rong, and reaivelychesp. Tes vslble i slot every rt af the world, A Univerite nf California prof of eng teering iene, P Kumar Nlcht, has even ja recently found Z veayvof convening abandoned tice husks ine Portnd cx Ts thete any way of combining al thee good quite of cone crete and alta having meri hich is Hight Hn wight, ea fo work, with a plenan fnih? There is 110 poile to wea ele rangh of ultvolighteright conrets ehich ce « denity ad compeenice strength cory similar tot of ewool, They are aay a work sith ea be malled eth ordinary mal, eut sith 42, led cith sood-orting tol, eu reputed. We beliece that wllighctight concrete is one of the most Sundaviental blk matral of the future. “To mate tht a8 cir at pie, we sal owe Utne the range of lighowsight concrete Our experiments kad os t0 be- Tee thatthe bet lightosight concrete, the anct mot! wile, for building, ate thts whore deni ein the eae of 40 t0 60 ‘pounds per cobic foot sn which develop tome 600 19 1000 pu in compresion. Oily enough, thie particular speciation lies in the Jat developed pare of the presently aviabe tage of swe can see rom the folowing diagram, the alle Eoneretr are anslly more dene (at leat go pounds per cubic foot) and amich stronger. ‘The eet common “igheveight” oncetes use vermiculite 36 an agprepate, are wel for ander Mooring and iulation, and are wsry light, but they do aot temaly develop coough nrcogih to be stracterally wcfal—asat Currey scilable concrete mixer ost 207 Coop MavERIALS ‘ften about 300 pa in comprenon. Humever, «range of mized lightweight aggregates, containing vermiculite, pert pumice, and expanded shale in diftrent priportons, rae 40-60 pound, 600 psi cocrctes anythete inthe worl, We have fad very good luck with a mix of 1-2-3: coment-hyie-vermicae It, Beyond the bulk mater, there are the materials wed in seltvely smaller quantities fr famessot,surlacis, andfnises, ‘These te the “ccondaty” materia When buildings ate built with maageslessconary material they cam be repaid with the sme mari repair. Decmes ‘continuous with the eriginl bailing. And the bildings are more apt to be repre if i Js eyo da o and if the user can doit hime bit by bt without having to rly skilled workers ‘speci equipment. With prefabricated materi this is m= ppauble, the materials ste inherently “wrepsiable, When pre SSbiated finish materials are damaged they must be replaced ith an entirely now component. Tale the cate of 3 orden patio. I can be made at» contine= ow concrete sah. When the ground shift lightly undemeath tht sh, the sb cricks and buetles. This is quite unrepitable forthe ter. Ie requires thatthe entre sh be broken gut which vee ‘qt relatively hesey-doty equjent) and replaced-—by pro fesinalailled labor, On the ather handy it would have teen pusile to bail" the puto intlly out of many small vik tle er stnes, When the prod shift, she ser i thn able 10 Tit ap the broksn tle, sd sume mune earth, and replace the tle—all withost the aid of expensive machinery or potions] Iadp. And if one of thesis wr Iv Isvanes cape i ean bea replacd, What ae the goal secondry materia? Waal, which we want to avid at blk material cellent as tcomdry sei for dors, Gish, Winds, furniture Plpwon, partie boty sed gypsum bosrd can all be cut, nae rimmedy amd are ele tel cheap. Dumboo, thatch, piste, paper, corrugated metal dicken wire, canvas, doth, vinyl rope, ity fiberges, none thlorinated plaice areal expe of rcandary’ materials which do rather well sist our errs, Sane are dubs ecologically that i the Bberglan and the corugsed metak—bat again, 999CONSTRUCTION those shect material nced only be wied in maleration, to form and fini and trim the bulk materia. Finally, there are some material which our ertrisexeae centrely—either at bulk wecondary materi, They ate eapene tite, hard to alspt to iioynertic plan, the require high nergy production techniques, ther are in Timed reserves for example: steel panel and rolled steel sctons;alominam) han and prestened concrete} chlorinated. fons; sryctata Iamber emene plasters iments scion of pte gas. "And, for any optimist who thinks he can go. on opi see, reinforcing bars frerer—consier the fllaving fa. Even ion, abundant ait i all over the cathe wrface, 2 depcable re: source. UC convatption hope growing at ie prsit rate of fae reste (i very trelh may, ten the rast parts ofthe world nat Yet exingrourecr at Amerie and esters cosumptin levels), om mill um mt fn 2050 the ratte BURGCG RGR wR SW a Years at wich carious metals ill Be depleting arent wage rate conics fo Werte ati dil betwen ee gta end 1g6t ‘Therefore: | Use only biodegradable, low energy consuming material, which are easy to cut and modify on site. For bulle mate: rials we suggest ultrlightweight 40-6o Ibs. concrete and carth-based materiale like tamped earth, brick, and tle. For sccondary materials, ute wood planks, gypsum, plywood, cloth, chickenwire, paper, cardboard, particle board, cor rugated ioa, ime plasters, bamboo, rope, and te. 960 207 coop Marentans slluslight weight concrete ar oranic or cath fase materials Jn exo. evv9 sine (308). nell wk onthe may of sing the mater ht gus th sraverone nova foot mre (con) and rears arnecroar (Say Taye the mater in ach wa ano llon thi on teste vo os p ovrinn wane (234), srr SIDE Wats ob208 GRADUAL STIFFENING** fa ermverune rotons soe sraces (205) and EPrie tamer sraveroo: (206) we have set down the beginnings of 3 piloophy, an apprch, 19 contraction, nan sivas (207) fell at something about the materiale we ought so ae in ander to meet human and ecologist demands. Now, before we ear the Practica task of making structural yout fr a buildings it 8 secenry 19 consider one more philic pattern: ane which defines the proces of comsiaction hat will make it pes to tae the right materi and get the overall conception of the sect right, ‘The fundamental philosophy behind the use of patern languages is that buildings should be uniquely adapted to individual needs and sites; and that the plans of buildings should be rather loose and fluid, in order to accommodate these subtleties. ‘This requires an eniely new atGiude toward the proces of contruction. We may define thi atitade ty wying that i ie desabie to build bailding in och 2 wap that it starts oat Toe sud finyy while fina adsptations in plan are made, and then gets atifenedgeadslly during the prose of sonsruction, so that each additional act of cmteuction ales the svctare som ‘To understand this philaophy propery te hepful to imagine ‘balling being made lke Iotet, A few trands are pat in ae. They ate vely Hingy, Other sieande are woven in. Grade tally the basler gets tier and iller, Iie inal sirectarl strength only rested frm the rp td isnot reached until the building is comp this tense, such 3 proces producers building in which all parte it ate workieg sracterally see Prevent srmverunt (206) Why docs the principle of grads! stifening sem so semble ss procen of bulking? ‘To begin with, woch a structure alas the acta bulking poze tbe # restive act, I allons the bung tobe built up oo‘CONSTRUCTION gradually. Membes an be moted around before they are firmly fn place. All thre deuiled design decvions which con never be trorked oat in advance on paper, an he made daring the ull ing proces, And it allows oH to ce the apce in three sions While, ech wep ofthe ap, a8 more materia kadded, "This cane that since each new antral that ie aded in the process mast adapt perfectly tothe framework that i there, exh ew material mt Be more adaptable, more fesible ore capable of coping with variation, thin th Int. ‘Ths, though the balding 46a whole goes Frm fing 0 strong the actu) msterne that se lJed go feom the. strongest sid wile, to the gradually Jes sf until aly uid mateale sealed “The escnes of this proce is very fundamental indeed, We snay understand i best bp compsring the work of a filsy-year-ld Carpenter withthe wrk of a novice. The experienced crpen leepe going. He doct’e have to keep topping, becas, every setin he performs is eaeulsed i such 2 way that some Ite tetion exe put i right to the extent hat it imperfer now. ‘What is erital het, ie the requence of evente The carpenter sever les + wep vthich he cannot correct Inter; so he an beep ‘working, confidently, steadily. ‘The notice, by compari, spends 2 great del of his tine tying to fgare oot what todo, He dos this xentisly beau The ksows that an action he tales now may eauie unretractabe problems sIitle farther dows the Ines and it he ie not aretl, te wil nd himself with a joint tht ries the shortening of tome crucial member—at » ee sehen itt too late to shorten that member. The fear of thre kinds of mistake force him #0 spend hours tying to igure aheals and it foret him to work 2 fr spose to enact drawings becute they wil stants that he ald these Kinds of mistakes "The diference between the novice and the mater je sn thatthe aovie hat ot learnt, fet, how too thing in way that he cam afford to make small mistake, "he maser Tnows that the sequence of hit actione sil leap alle hin 10 cover his mistake + ile farther down the line, It thi simple but exental Enowledge which gives the work of maser c= enter iis wonderfl, smooth, relaxed, and almost uncon cerned simplicity. 964 tlle ts ene ereze pele + these machinelbe “perfect” 208 GRADUAL STIFFENING In building we have exacts the same picblem, only rest rmspnied. Eeenally, mont molcin constriction has the eharc- terval the movie's wary ht nf tho meters "The builds do sot ve Bove to etl, hn deal with var sabes by Iter detalings ther donot kaow the proper sequence of evens; apd they do not, xsl, ave a building sytem or fonstaction proces which aloe them to develop this Kind of felazed sod cual vale, Tosca Tike the novice, they work fxsclly to finely detail drawings; the bulking ie exttemely| eptight ae gee male; any: dcpartre from the exact drawings a perhaps mike wecemery to pullout whole rection of the work, ‘This nvielte and paniesricken attention to det has 1 very eriows results. Fit, Tite the novice, the architects spend {est deal of time trying to work things vt ahead of time, not smoothly balding. Obviously, this cate omer and cle cent Second 2 vatly more seri= fois consequence: the details contra the wel. ‘The besy and snbdry ofthe plan in which potter hate eld free wray over the design suddenly becomes tightened and destroyed beau in fear tha deal won work oot, the deal of cancion, and sompenens, ae allowed to conta the plan, Ar s rel, room fet tobe sighs the wrong shape; windows po eat of position, ‘aces Betcen doors ap wale fet altered jut cnough tomate them sles. In s word, the whole charactor of morn achiece ture, aamely the conto of larger space by piling details of cenatracion, taker over What i needed it the oppite—a proces in which detail 0 fed tothe whole, This he scree the mar enrpenrs ies dseribed in detail in The Tinclen Way of Building the fundtion ofall expan forms and all woes balding ‘The grace of gradual sifening shih we decibe heey i the physeal and procedural easuliment of tht esata principle ‘We now a how, in pactie, i is pte to create gradually stifened sractore within the content dened ly the patter (00 marinas (307). Facsaloot materisk give wr the sarting punt we need 1. Sheet materials ov eay to produce and mate the best eon % 65constauction In traditionl sity there ae few sheet materials. However aciry production tends to make sheets moze easly than other fori of material, Ar we move into an ape of mow froletion, Sheet materials become plentiful and ate naturally sttong, light tnd cheap, Gypsum board pjwood, cloth sing, eass, ides, force toads wood plans, corageted metal chicken str, 6 AM example, And sect material ae he strongest for connections, Com rection ae the weak point in a srweture, Sheet moteris ae ny to connect becae connections can join safes to one Snoher, Anything made out of abet is ierontlystonger than something made of lume o sticks ve Ultelightcight concrete is am excelent fll materil— is hay the denity of 06d, ts sront, light, cay 10 ea, 439) 10 repair, cay to ml into—ond is acl everyehere This Alaconed flyin enon wavensats (207). ‘: Hoaecer, ony Hind of concrete needs formeork: aid the oto formaorh is normoni. "Thie makes it ver} expensive indeed to build any complex foxm; and within coneentionl building stems, it more ot los tales oat the hind of “organic” secure which we have deste. Farthermare, in regular concrete werk the formvock i eventer ip wasted, thrown aa ‘We believe that the Gnithes in any semiBle billing tem. should be integral with the proce of contraction and the sre tare ill (ae they are in almor all traditional belldings)— and shat any building sytem in which finishes have 10 be "hded” to the building ate wasteful, nd unnatea, 4: We therefore propo that slirelghrecight concrete be goured into forms which are made of the evily aaiable sheet Tatras: avd that thee materiel re then lft i place te form (he fh “The shéet materiale can be any combination of cloth, anv, vwood plans, gypoum beards, fiberboard, piso paper plstered ‘hickenwire, conraated metals, and where it it posible, 1, oF one~—tee coo uarenints (307). For the sleight weight concrete we recommend + petite, expanded shi, of pumice aggrepate. Tamped earth, adabe, nonchlorinated fam, ay sho do isend ofthe concrete, fads allow it. 966 208 GRADUAL. SrIFFENING One veh of grata sifening, sing ome inch Henk, i da a ery at ral ‘The drawing shore, shows one particule velston of this ind of praoal silfning. atthe principle ie fi more general than thie particule ase of it, Indy it cary im ome Way OF ameter in alvt all aso) ons of Inagaki Helo fenstaction and, Afion Iokst wroctrer are both gradall ned rots where cach nest ep copes wth the exiting framesori, olds it, ont sles, The ane Budi of Albeo in wuthern Maly ae example, Soe Hlizabetham hall- Simber onsrecton orconstruction “Therefore Recognie that you ae nt sscming bling frm components ike an exon sy but that 708 ate istad sreavingasvucare which sar oa lly complete, but Timayshen gradual making afer tuts rather fimyy and only finally aking completely sift and SVE eve tat nour own tng the mont natura ein of ie poe st pt wpa shel of sheet materia snd Shen make fly song by Bling with # compesive i soft skin formwork compresive fill Choo the most natural insterns you can, for the ovter shel ivel/—thin bod plans for clams, cane ot burlap forthe ‘aut plaster bord er plik or bres or hallo ile for wali ‘Coop semis (207)- ‘Ue teslighineight goto 60 pounds petite conerete for abe compresive flit hat the same density 26 wood and can be cut tnd nailed ke wood, bath da Year when repsire become necemry—cood waretats (207) ‘Build up.he calamity then sll them with she st lightweight concrete; then build ap the beans asd fill thems, then the vals, and cover them with 2 thin coat of concrete Shieh hardens to frm a shelly then fll that shell with even Tighter weight materia o frm the oors; then make the walls and window ames, and ill them and Bally the ool agsin = thin lth vault covered with 2 eat of concrete to form 3 shell — ‘or couustns (216), PERIMETER nent (317) WALL MEMBRANE (218), ruoos-cutuine wav (319), noor vauets (220) 968 ithe contrtion afd in later, within this philorphy of atrueturey on the bass of the plans which sow have mad, aeark out the complete structural layout; thsi the lst sing you doom poper, fore you actualy start ta builds 209. ROOF Lavour 213, FINAL, COLUMN DRYRIBUTIONa =! asume ow that you hare a rough plan, to sae, for exch oor ofthe bailing. In this cae yo ate the rae wil go fm caren mens (146) aml iron oor (417) sn yu hve vatly whee the ri ate orm roof gardens next to roms at iflerent ny now kane (118). This pattern sons pos owe to got debe tot plan for the building, which hele thine puter cate to lif, for any sla which yoo hase drown, 209 ROOF LAYouT* ‘What kind of roof plan is organically related to the na tare of your building? We kno, from ang ‘nace (191), thatthe majority of race in 20 organi building will Rave roughly—not necessarily perecty—straight walls bee taote i it ony then thot the space on th sides of the wall nents praaled ix Fax Murs or rnDoeR fan be port, oF conve in shape. ‘And we Enov, (rm similar argument, that the majority of the angles inthe bldg willbe roaghly—again, not exactly right angle, tht ix in the general range of Ho to 100 deprce ‘We knoe, therefore, thatthe els of natural plane may cone tan variety of shopes Tike haf crcl, tans, and 20 et —bat hat for the most part, it will he made of tery rough, soppy rectangle. We aho knoe, frm sueeriaine nem (143), that entre wings shoukt be under ane rot whencterpenible ani thatthe Iiling. soe rofesth-» ate of lt route and-dloping ‘or domi roo with the 2ecent on thse whic ae nr We may therefore sate hep of defining » rol yout 1 follone! Gen an atlitcary Hu of the type doribed alone, how can we ft to Han rangement of roofs which conform 10 ‘he easeaos oF xonvs (116) and saviseaine non (117) ad oor canons (118)? ‘Before explaining the predate for lying oat sof fn deta we anderine five umptions which prove the hase for the procedsre. v0 om1, The “pitched” rots may actully be pitched, of they may te sale with a cared pitch, or birrl saue—at described in snoop wavins (220). The general proelure in all dhras eas, the sane, (Por curred sul define lope as beightiseid The ptc of a anlted ro 2. Auume that all roof inthe building, which te not Bat ave roughly the ume lope. For 2 given clinste and rool con struction, one slope ie sully Baty and thi grey simpler he tm lpe tranehont 4: Since all roots have the tame dope the root thich cover the wider wings and/or rooms will have the highes. peat those covering smaller Wings and roams will be telatirely, ower “Thief content with mare mentontc (99), ESCABE oF ROOFS (116), 30d exuaxe netorr vamery (199). Wide reoeare high 4 Any place athere the building help to enclae am outdoor room or courtyard needs an cfen eave Tine so that i€ has the {pace of 3 rom.” An ieregular ro! Tin, with gable ends, will Guay destroy the space of a small coursed. It i neces, therefore, that roof be hipped in there poston: to male the roof edge horizontal “209 oor savour i a Lo rel edge rovml a conser 4: a all other poston, the cmd of buildings and wioge ss gle endconstaucrion We shal now dicts the rae for roofing 2 bailing bing ‘an example af a houte designed by + layman osing the pattern Tangsage, ‘This bulking plan abown toe, Uta singlesory howe andi contains no eof anton o alanis We fiat identity the largest rectangular cuter of rooms aid roof it with» peaked rool, the ridge line of which rane she Jong direction E ‘Then we do the sme with ansler dster, spacer ate rooled. “Then we 1006 remaining with shed soos sloping outward. ‘Those roof shoul! spring fem the toe of the main ool to help eieve them of cutrard ‘thro their outside wall should be as low as posible, om + with the vig ramming len 209 ROOF savour Finally, we identify the outdoor spaces (shown at Ay B, and ©), ad hip the roofs around them to preserve a mote cintinuoas eave line around the pac, We shall now dicast»sighly more complicated example, to sory bailing, Weshegin with the top so rooking the entire mater bed roam and bath under one peated root with the ridge ronning engi: we Te a ree ie ane, [A [Next we mote tothe Laver sory, roofing the elildren’s wing ander a fit soo to fra sont non (448) forthe master deco, and the leg irng rom wnder 2 pitched rok, again ons“Then webring the roof over the master bedroom dows over the intriar lo. Finally, we amoth the living 100m roof ridge Tine inthe side of the soot ovr the lot, Ths comple the rot yout om. Ter vay Fp, when you are lying out roost rewember the srctral principle uined in ewcaoe oF moors (116), When yor hive fished, the orerllstangement of the soo hold fer sell-butresing ccade in which each lower oof help to take up the hovizonal thre generated by the higher foof—and the overall section of the roofs taken in very vey, general terms tends toward 3 rough upside down tenary- “Therefore Arrange the roots s0 that each distinct roof corsésponds ‘o an identifiable social entity in the building or building complex. Place the largest rool+—those which are highest fand ave the largest span—over the largest and most im: portant and most communal spaces; build the lesser roofs ff these largest and highest roofs; and build the stialet roots of all off these lester roofs inthe form of half-valts land sheds over alcoves and thick walls. 916 4 209 RooF Layout aoe rte minor roa Yoo can bul all thc roof, and the eamnections between ther, by following the istrctane for rl aus—mor YAGI (G0). When 2 wing ends in the open, leave the gable end at fall eight; when a wing ends in courtyard hip the gable, so thatthe horizontal root ege makes the courtyard ike 3 room — fnunreanoy wate 148% (115) “Trea the salle shed roo, Which covet thick walls and shores, as buttress and bud them to help take the horizontal ‘rat fom floor vaults ad higher roof aurick xn THE cures wauis (211) on210 FLOOR AND CEILING LAYOUT «. Eepieneer srmicrure (206) tells us that the spaces inthe ining shouldbe vaulted so thatthe Roos and. ceilings an be rade alt entirely of eompreaion materia, To ly out the foot and cling vaults, we must ft then tothe variety of cling eight over indvideal rom—cetsne nasou vantery” (190) tnd, om the top tory, 10 the layout of the roof aul—noor avout (209) eee Again, the basic problem is to maintain the integrity of the social spaces inthe plan. We know, fom srnverute rot1aws sent sence (205), that for and cling vaults mut corepond to the imputht daca pee nthe plan. Bat there ate» ret numberof oc Spies, and they rane i sit fom maces Tike non” eck (i), prt ve fet rom osc lke rain eens (so), pears 15 fet arom to coletion of pes The com Nos atts are a (129) pape 35 fs are "Where cals of diferent wih ate ner cach ater, yon smut remember to gay atention to the lee ofthe Moor shore Ether gu can lel out the or by ming the salle tule hare propotontey higher arch, you cn put eats ms tea in between fo Kep the mall vl fee cee ricer water (199), oF Jou con mle eye i the Bao re ta corrapond to changes in the alt ses slow. Vault on diferem fears donot have to lineup perfect with ‘one another, In thir ete they ate for more sibs, than ‘olumrbeam sructors, and for this reat aso better adapted to maverene rouiows tocis. sPaezt (205). However, here ‘ate limit. If oe vale plced 0 that it Tone come do over 210° FLOOR AND CFILING savour the atch of the wpa below hit will pot une ses on the lower vault. Insta, we mabe we af the Tet that vein ones, Fasing though a comtinuous comyressve snedinn, epreal out Aowaward in s 45 detrce angle cane. Ifthe laser columns ate always within thi cone, the upper sau sill dn mo sretural amageto the v2ok blo i coker ‘he angle a elich etc Jorce spreads dona. ‘To msinain resonable actual integrity in the som of raul a3 whale we therelore sags tat every vauk be placed to that i Joade come down in 2 pexition from which the foret fan fo tothe colmne wsich support the mext vault down, by fallowing 2 45 degree diagonal Eee! With allthis in end then, work out 2 aul plan for your bailing. We sogest tht sou try to beep the vals agned ith the sous, wih evemional eljntments fo suit a very Hi rom, es tery sll ok or ako. The desing a the nest page Shows 3 for sn ein jou for 3 stp buiing "Esch apace that you single oat for 3 vault sy ave citer a twrany eat («doses eciling on 2 rectangle bats) or 2 cneonay raat (2 byerel vault). The tore tule ate the mort ‘ficient stractarale; bat when 2 space it long and mare the omic shape begin Yo set Tike 3 harcl tal, We therefore o”constRucTION 4 crtion of oorciing layout, shows in lon and ‘cctin, force imple oltresihtacigitconcee building. suggest divs fr oct where the lone side et mere {han ie the abort de ad fre tas for the opacd which ‘We also soggest that you use barrel vals forthe rooms imme- dialy under the rot The oo il ene» Brel vale tre noon sau: (220) met tt ive the cling Soh ac jest uner the rot bala wel ‘The uit decribed ia Plaorceiuine *40u3 (219) my fo 210. FLOOR AND. cr: ‘pan from § to 30feet. And they require 3 ie af at lett 13 er cent ofthe hort san, ‘Therfore Draw_a vaul plan, for every floor. Use twoway vaults ‘most often; and one-way barrel vaults for any spaces which ‘are more than twice as long as they are wide. Draw sec- tions through the building 2s you plan the vaults, and bear the following facts in minds 4 Generally speaking, the vaults should correspond 10 2 There will have to be a support under the sides of cach vault: this will usually be the top of a wall. Under exceptional circumstances, it can es beam or ache 3. A vaule may span as litle as 5 feet and as much as 30 feet. However, it must have a rise equal to atleast 13 per centof its shorter span. 4 If the edge of one vault is more than a couple of feet (Ga plan) from the edge of the vault below it—then the Jower vault willhave to contain an arch to support the load from the upper vault, : Ly Pur romimeven meant (217) on all four vies of every vault slong the tp of the hearing wall opauning shape of the vaults from rionmcernawe vauity (319) and 3 ou Iy out the sections though the val bear in mind that the ‘evmeter beams gt lower and lower em higher for, beesne the Get theconsrRucTION columns on upper sores mast be shorter (tp flor colar about {tect one below top 6 fet, two below top 6 t0 7 fet three bee iow top 8 fet) rina. couaee sisraunu tion (243). Make sre {hie vaitions in for level coincide with the distinctions be- foeon quiet and more pablie ares—rioon aunrice (233) ‘Complete the definition ofthe individual spaces which the vast Gene wth, couusint ay rie” convent (212). Inclode the inlet raul of ally around the building edge, in Tm1eKENING Sue ouren wauss (311) on 201 THICKENING THE OUTER WALLS*the arrangement of roof snd flor vaults will generate baie ‘owtl outward thru, stich needs tobe butresed-—CMCADE oF roots (116), It seo happens, that ia a email made builing Srey floor is surrounded, at ariow placer, by small alors, window sei, niche and counters which form “thick wall” troond the outide edge of roams—winpov rice” (180), ‘nek seats (197), SONNY copwrER (199), nuI-TN sexTE (202), en cwver (303), skener riace (204). The beaty fof + natural building i that there thick wall—since they need lower clings, always, than the rooms they come fom—an work a butte ‘Once the noor Lavour (209), and the PL0oR AND eEIARE savour (240) are cle thete thick walle can be Init out in such 2 way 3810 form the most effective bates, against the horizntl thrust developed by the vl. ‘We have established in Tacx watts (157), how impor- tant it is for the walls of a building to have “depth” and “volume; so that character accumulates in them, with time. ‘But when it comes to laying outa building and constructing it this turns out to be quite hard todo. “The walle will not aul be tick in the trl sete except in cerain spec csr whore med contraction, for example, lends itll to the making of wall. More often the thicknew of the wall hat tobe bail wp from fant, plaser, columns strats, std mem branes. tn thie cise column, above sll, ply the mr role, be- are they do the mont to encourage people to deve the wall, For instance ifthe framework of 2 wall is made of columas ttatding aay from the Back face of the ell then the wall invites modification becomes natral and ex to mail plans to the calunis, and 1 make test, and shelves, and changes, there. But a pars, May Bunk wall doce not give thi Kind of couragement. Eventhough, theoreti person on always a ‘hinge which stick out fram the wall the very smoethnes 6f the ot 211 THICKENING THE OUTER waxts wall makes it mach Je ilely to happen. Last we stume thee, that 4 thick wall becomes effective when it ie volome defied by ‘olan i Thick wells made eHective by columns Hore it pole for wall of this Kindo justi is eapense by helping the sructre of the being? he fateh the Salding t conceived se + cmpresive srucne, whose Roos sod rook are raul—svvcsinr rrnverens (206), mean that thee ae hoiaontl shrine dere on the aside ofthe bude Jing whet the vault not comterttane one anther “To sae extcot tht horizontal teu ern be availed by a seaging the orerllsops of the billing a8 a8 pide down tery cca wns (416), If i were a perfec ence 7 there would be na outward that all. Otsu though tna buildings ae narrower ant eeper than the ideal srcaal teary, wo there are horizontal thre romaining, Although the thats an bere by tense reinforcing inthe perimeter tesmw—ice rinnrron vate (817) it singles, snl met strayed able to ue he ulin fel bute the hot ‘at that "This ebity eccuns matonly whereser there ae “thick elec, wn nn or ay ether sal ees atthe tnuide edge of rooms, which can fave lower ecg thn the in rom and can sheers hae tht rot hope comin fie ofthe ering vl oe, Tht req thn thik wall be ‘ote the structure uf the main oan tat their tote and seb come et forming senna withthe main val«construction 1 i of courte rate tobe able to have the alcove or thick wale proach a tr eaenay section —we hardly ever want them that ‘fap or that Tow. Bat even when the thick wll an lone ate inside the Tine of the extenary, thes are all helping to counter outward trast, And their butuesiag efeet cen be improred Bl ove by making their cools henry. The extra weight wil fend. to redirect the forces coming. from the ssn val slightly more toward the grosnd. “The drawing below shows the way his pattem works, and the Kind of effec it has on building. ¢ “i (ben The eet of iceving the eater all ‘ow in pln al ection, 986 211 THICKENING THR oUrER watLs “Therefor: where seats and closets individually by ALCOVES cK WALLS (197), SUNNY LF (201), AUILTAN SEATS y plan 10 cor respond to these positions. Make it two or three feet deep; recognize that it wll be outside the your seats, niches, shelves, Space of rooms but not inside ‘out columns and minor columns, place the eolumas in such a way that they surround and define these thick vol- if they wete rooms or alcoves counters less than 2 feet deep, there is no aaced to go to these lengths. The thickening can be built simply, by deepening columns and placing shelves between, them. Mark all those places in the are to be. These places are (79), wonvow Pacts ( Counren (199), Waisrst rem. Then, when you lay a 103 fet i, otis sect > q we aa outside bee In order to mate an shone or thick wall wonk 96+ bates, Ind its roof a near 8 posible to 3 cumtinuation of the eure of the oor val immeitly inside. Hand the tof of the bate wih extra mas to help change the deetion of the foresaw ‘uur (230). Recoghize tat thse thid all ust be eunide ofconstRucTION the main spice ofthe room, below the main vault of the roon— 1g), to that they help to butzes the 1 by the main vast of the ceiling, 212 COLUMNS AT THE and minor cole, pu» column at the corner of every thick wal 0 thatthe wll pie, Tike her focal spaces, becomes 2 rcogniable part of the bellding src ture—eonolne at TUF CORNER (213). + CORNERS**| asume that you have worked out the roof playa aid out eling noo for every oom oh cry foor—R00F LAYOUT {Gog}; Pum ano enteane tavour (340). ‘hee aus ae not Cee aa f the structs, but ako define the socal spacer arcmcath them. Now iti tie to put comms 3 the corer ee the souks This will both compete them as clestly defined Mal gusme-rrmvertne rotten cia so4ers (205) —and ‘Te bene Bt connrutve stp inthe erection of the building TACAADUAL STEFENING (208). one We have already established the idea that the stra: tural components of a building should be congrucnt with its socal spaces. In sraverUne youtows soci. sruexs (205) we Have abe Tea hat the eslumns need to be a comer. of socal ypaces for Ppychologial renom, In EFVicizwr svavcrume (206) we bve Ublabed that there needs fo be 2 thickening of material t the earners of pa for purely structural resons ‘Now we give yet a third ail dierent derivation ofthe mame ptcm=aot bad on poyholgia arguments of strotral pe vreau but on the procs by hich a person can communicate + Tamper design tothe builder, and ensre that it-cn, be bul in an orgnie manner. Wve agin with the problem of mesurement and: working dcawingn For the lst few deeades it hasbeen, coon race fo spoty a building plan by means of working drawings, Thee Ty agawings sve then thes. to the ster the, builder TManstye the meseremente to the sey and every dca of the Arewings ir uit in the flesh, on ite. : “Tair poe cripples building Wt ot posible io ke such 2 dbvwing without a Toauate, The necesiis of the, dan ep inet change the plan, make fe more vg torn it Fate the [ada plan which can be draws and canbe mesure "Bot the Lind of pass which you con wake by sing the pate 990 212 COLUMNS ar THE conNERS Inguage ae mach fer than hot—anl nts ay to da and menue: Whether you caneive tha plan ton the ser-and ta hem onthe se ith sls and ume hal aes or dra them soghlyon the tak of eos or sap of tracing paper—in all events, the richness whichsyou wert build inthe pi cn nl he psa i the bude ra to sgencrae a Tsing buikdng, with all it slightly uneven Hines and ec hi in ily ween ine and (Chath mars one ground In order to achieve th etal essed ‘in an entirely different manner, It ‘he made by # oma eb ag ‘sein dings. Wit mae oe easy se ons yee sa on ow flies epee ee i a Cesegaeag earn aes You may rose i ths fe the erro ery ma space by putting a stake in the groond, ‘Ther ea fiw daten of thee corm i's hailing, wrae © posi fui moments note a ean la te commer markers where they scam right without teged for the onconstRucTION exact ditances botweon them, There i no ron whatever 9 try and mate modolar ditances beeen them. If angles 6, fy 2 tgp often il bythe molar nem me imps ans 1 single ma we al you nel t bil he buling One ation ety Fou cnt we snp, by Salle prey “These columns will then 2 calm, over cach of these marks generate the rst of the building, by bee mere prsnes, without oo .212 COLUMNS AT THE coRNERS any further ned for detailed mearements of drawings because the walle will simply he uit slang the Hiner which eeonect ade Scent columns: an everything ce fll, For the upper ston you can make drawings of the column pettins and once again tafor them tn the seta! lniog vile itis being builds you will we toa pina couse ‘rruininon (213), upper story columns do not need to line ‘ap perfectly with downstate cola ‘With this procedure, it hecomes penile ws tamer = rather ‘onplex bulking from yar sin homens af popes to the ste—and regenerate t in» way which makea HT out ther, ‘The methal hinges on the fet that you cn fx the coment of the spaces irt—and that thew corners may then play 2 Sinica role in the contruction of the buling, Tie ine tering that although ic is hcl on enrely diferent arguments from sraverune rouxows soci. tacts (205), lend to ale ‘ost exzily the same concsion, ‘Therefore: On your rough building plan, draw a dot to represent 4 column at the corner of every room and in the comers formed by lesser spaces like thick walls and alcoves. Then transfer these dots onto the ground out on the site wit stakes, Columas at cones Once you ave the clams for cach for on your vault pny ‘ecomile them from floor to oor and putin intermalint cofumns—rieit cotayn ourarmurion (23)~ Note, especially, {hati not necey forthe corner calms to. fll on 2 rid. ‘The floor welts and roo! vaults cn be made to ft any arrange” rent of comin, and wll ake a coherent strctare—shvs sllow= Ing the soda spaces to determine the building shape without fondue constraint from porely stratual coniraions—r10% feitame wavs (219), noor var (220). “Those cclomns will ot only pide four mental image of the building, they wil sho guide eorstraction: fr put dhe cole fn the column foundations in place; theny to ake the fime Cemnplet, te the columas together around each room with the perimeter beam—noor rounpaniost (244); doe COLUM (216), restucrren enue (217). Give special emphasis to all freeatanding columns with the Hes that when roo build them, yon will mate them very thick—eobum uct. (226) 04 213 FINAL COLUMN DISTRIBUTION * onstssume that you have placed the corner column’ which som (242) 41 a0 Aching the qucer—cetvans AE IE incest to fil the gay bettcen the columns wth intermediate Miner columns a required bp revicne staveruRr (306). "This poten. gives the spacing of thse intemdiate wifenet columns, and lye generate the Kind of walls which rrr fuer rruverunr (206) requites. [Cabo helps 10 generate rman anscre vane (190). How should the spacing ofthe secondary columas which stiffen the walls vary with ceiling height, number of stories and the size of rooms? tn some very row inne way we othe Sw thi quotion Rowghyy if we inogine = balding wit the. wah Tiel at intrs lng thi eth we can ee that the ee tte ofthe fener ne 10 be or no the nd IThece scl spaces ae ng and whee Toads ae age an Tmt na the ray ee sae ale and where hd Seka, Ini row inteie form thie the ate 2 he Gn bch tel ht eget the fn teste im the big a the fine end of leaf where eveyhing is allo, onto eget the grou erences fo be ne the ngs ato he eae Le ‘ov 213 FINAL COLUMN pisrRIBUTION ‘The intuitions are borne out by muy trains! building forme where cclmns, or frames, er tillers are larger and ther apart near the greand, ssl finer and cece together Bigher sp. Our hey picture shane expen, Dat what fe the stractral ai for these intuitions lati plate theory gives v3 forms] exp nation (Consider an efor thin wall earring an aia loxd “The wall will ually fin hacking Before it ln pare compresion Become it f-thn, And thie moons that the material Sin the wall in nat being wel efits. I ie ale to carry the compresire loads whichis compreaive svenpilh maker pible Benue it i too thin, Tt therefore natal 1 design 4 wall which is cithor thick nough oF atilened enwugh so that ican cory Toads pe ie fall eomprenive capacy witht twclling, Such 2 wally which tacit material tothe Init of compresive capacity wil then tho sin the demons of nyricnivrstaucrune (208) "The etal factor i the slenderats of the wall: the ratio of Iw height 10s thine, For the simple cae of an sneered fmerete wal, the ACI ele tll oe Hat the wal il be able to work at 93 per cent ficiency (hat iy carry 93 per cent of te pental compronine ld ithoat buling)y Hit has lender= fet ratio of 40 0r ks A wall 40 fest igh and x fot thick fe ‘Berto ficient in thine Suppose now, that we extispobte to the exe of tfened ll ting elastic piste theos. By wing the eqetion whic relates lobe are to he socio of aifence, me can obtain similar figures for varias wall with silfeners Uhexe figs are pre= sented in the earve below. For cxampley + wall with 3 slender= nos of 20 nocde tiflenee at ousll apart (there Hie the Bright) Ghar erating pels Half 3¢ wide 3¢ they are high, In general, onions, the thinner the wall iy in clan to ie Freight, the mune often i needs t be ifn along it nat Th every cay the curve lves the spacing of snes ehich ie needed to mate the wall work at 3 per cen a i emprenive strengths In sh the principle of nrvven ser camceryenr (306) “aught to be silfened in accordance with ths curv ‘The gradient of coum saving aver dierent floors follows we may ay that 2 all but acceding to[eer ony | Sikcait eye | eisieecete \ cache = Baseese he care ach rls soll enderne ee spcng of nieve rectly from thi cuere, We map ace this in the follwing ‘manner. The walk in 2 four tory boiling cary lads which te very roughly nthe ratio 43:25 (ony very roughly). In ny cacy the Toads the wale etry get les and Jet the higher we {in the building. If Il the wal are reaching their fll con Presire copay, thin means that they mast be getting sedi {hinace toy the higher one goes in the building. If we ume thr the walle all have the sve eight, then the four abs will Uerefore have progenively preater and. greater slendernes tation and sel thetefore fll farther ad farther to the lft Om Ihe creey and sil therfore need to be stifened at cluer ad loser intereae "For ccomple, suppose four sory buling hat 8 fot high eon all Hoos ant hae wall tiekneace of 12 inches, 9 inches hes and inches nit four floors. The senderaes ratio. we'B thetps and sho In thin cae, reaing ff the carey we find the ground for has no atiflenes at al (they are nity far apart) the second floor har sifeners at abost 4 feet apart the third floor hat hem about 5 fet apart, and the top Boor Jas them aboot 2 fet ape in another ve here the walls ae dinner (because materials sre lighter and land alle), the spacing will be clot. Suppo, for example, that the ncentry wal thikneses are 8, 6, 4 200 98 213 FINAL COLUMN pISTRIBUTION 4 inches, ‘Thon the Senderine rain are 12, 16, 245 and 48, the wifleners nei tobe save cher together than before! me feet apart om the feral sony, 5 fect apart at the second tory, 3 fet apart on the thir and #3 inches apart the tp. “As you can sce inom these esamnpley the variation in column spacing ie eunpisingy pest renter in ft than intiton woud ‘Blow. But the variation its extreme Decne we have atamed that cviling Beighi ate the sane on every Hoo In fst, fe corey designed building, the cling height will vay’ from oor to foors and under thee Greumstancs, a we shall se, the ‘variation in column scing becomes mote reasomble. There ae two reasons why the ciling height nce to vary from floor to fer, one vcs and one struct. mon buildings the spaces a room on the fet or will tend to be larger—since communal ran, meting rooms, and to on, ate generally beter Ite nea the entrance ts buligs, thile private and smaler rooms willbe on vppet store, deper Tato the building. Since the eiing eights vary withthe sizeof socal apacer—sce cratanewaear® vawery (190)— that the Gailing eight are higher onthe ground Moe, geting Iawer as one gost up. And the oof floor hae citer very short all or no eal at alle wirnsranne moor (117) Vainio of oem ss ‘And there is second, purely sruetra explanation of the fact hat elings nce wo he hase on appr tories Tt embodied in the drawing of the pronsyy sown Belo. Suppowe that ss tem of calms i slat for pore srstare. 1 {tpper stories vill be thinner, case they cary lest load am 9Ja expat to restocking, ond must therefore be shoxet if ie se to void vesting material At rl, even in peanagy, where there ate ne socal reson (or vriaten in elngPeight, purely structoral considerations ceste the neceity for thik co ‘ume and high elings on the lower sores and for thinner 2nd thinner eslumas and lower and ower celings the higher ane ges in the building. arnin prone "The sate conclusion comés from comidettion of our cure We have aped the eure, 0 ff, t tll tha allen need to be dlr together on upper wie, becuse the walle are more Slender. We may’ alo te the corre to tll ut that for 9 ives ead wre shoal try to Lep the lendernen ratio at tw 2 pombe On the upper sore, where walle ate mest apt to be thin, we Should therefore kd the walle at low 4 posible, in onder 10 Leep the slendemete ratio Jo. «already gv 213° FINAL COLUMN DisrrinUTION Let we sume now, that the wall highs do vary in buildings in & manner consent vsith these arguments, A. four ston eiding, with an eso op mig shen Bate the el Ieighs (remember tha the vat height, jn 2 val rom Bigher than the wl height): 9 fect nthe pron lot, fet fm the second, G fst om the third, snd 4 fect om the fourth, where the pitched oof comcs deen lene ovr the caves And let a asume thatthe wall thicncacs are 13 inchey © inches, § inches, and 3 inches, rspectcely. In this exe, he sendernes tatoe wil be 9) 14.14, 15. The groand flor nests mo ifeners at ally the second fs them 6 fect pant the thin hae them § fest apart; andthe fourth hae them 4 feet apan, We show 4 siniledisteibutian in the desing opp, When you ty 10 spit this paters to loo plan, you wil find ‘acerain tp of ilies. Since the corners of roms may sees be fiaed Bp cousins ar i comsene (243), its not always posible to space the stifenes correc within the wall of any fren room, Natwolly this doer not matter a queat dels the stifeners nly need to he len rights the spaing om come feral vary om rs to von to Bit the dimensions of the vals However, onthe whole, yus mst tay and pu the ilfenes closer wpether where the oom ae all and further apart whete rm ge dy nay he bing i oo te Feder one's wrctural ntitons Conder to rooms oa these flor ene twice lg asthe cer. The linger roam has uve the perimeter, bat it celing enerates four times the lads it thetfore enrce» preter lad pet unit length of wall nan al ficient svete this means thatthe Tl us he hikers and theres, I the arguments it wll need atifencr ced farther apart than the smaller room which caries les Wad ant has thier al, We recognize that fo buillere will ae the tele te mabe all thicknesses eaty fram nna to iean ome lar of the building. Towevey een ifthe wall f anor tick, we bee lieve thatthe ileners wast at fit wt contradict thie rule Th, for reaons of lavou, it here tat the poring of atifener tie Tom room: te rey then ie esta the the lager ‘pacings of the aimee fll cn tho wall which enclre theconstRuctION ‘The fat cam ditiomion in a Jour wary butdings ‘iar ing i pn orcas, large rooms IF the greater spacing of sileners were to coincide with amaler roomy the oe would be so deceived that people Inight iunderstnd the balding ‘One important note. All of dh precoting alse is bused on the asumption that walls and stifener are behaving 21 ela plnen Thetis oughly true and helps to explin the general 213 FINAL COLUMN DISTRIBUTION plenomencn we are tying t desribe, Howerer, po wall behave, Perfecly man, clasie platelet ofall the kind of Tihtweight Eeneree walle we are alsucating im the tet of the contrecten pater, We have therfore wea + woifed form of the elaie Fite theory, elirsed according to the ACH cue, 90 that the fombers in our analy ate based on the cate behavior of ancrete (en fll vithin the Tite of teason and compre tion). However ‘oat of the late range and ‘cack, a it almost certainly will a» concrete design, other fattons will enter in We therefore easton the reader mat strongly motto tate the actus) nambers presented in aor analysis ‘more than Hhstatons. ‘he ners reflect the general mathe- Imaied behavior of such a aston, but they ane not reliable ‘noagh te in stactra competations, “Therefore Make column stiffeners forthest apart on the ground oor and closer and closer together as you go higher in the building. ‘The exact column spacings for a particular Iulding will depend on heights and loads and wall thick- esses. The numbers in the following table are for illus tion enly, but they show roughly what is needed. mili bleh finals ound lor 2nd oor 3rd loor 4th for : 25! a ‘ ia 3 yey a jaye ve 1g columns as dots between the comer columns on the drawings you have made for different floors. Adjost them so they are evenly spaced between cach pair of corner columns; but on any one floor, inake sure that they are closer together along the walls of fall rooms avid further apart along the walls of large 1003TTT a © fut stakes the ground to mark the columns on the ani start erecting the mainframe according to ‘the layout of there aes; 215, oxoUMD FLOOR sLAn ‘And mate wall thicknence and cluran thicknees vary with the height ce wait Mmarntawe (218), Oar cleltions, for ppd ighoweigheconccte building ofthe Hind we have been ‘Freomings suggest the following orders of rognitede for wall ‘Miekneace: Tep sory—2 inchet thick; ane below top st00—3 Inchers two telow top stor— inches: three tors below top (Grom foot on 3 four sory buildng)—s inckes. OF coun Tree Numbers wil change for diferent lois, or for diferent ‘materia, but the show the typeof raion you ea expel “Colom thicknenes most be proportional to wall hicineses, vo tht the thine wallchave the thinnest columns. 1 hey ae ery thin, it willbe pombe to make then simply by pling Tours or one thicket of atts otsde the ter shi hi form the wall mgmbrane—ace x. wemaane (218). Ifthe wall ne thicky they wil need to be fll clans, wid” a i Thick a the wally an roughly ast in section; bul before the telly but made in such a ay that they can be poured integral | Isth the walle—nox coLunns (216). 216, nox CoLumNs 218, WALL MEMDRANES 219, FLOOR-CEILING VAULTS ; ' | 3 | s | eek. ‘To the extent const with Erste mriirrvansery (190), make walls and colamns propresively shortr the higher you $2 in the building to beep senders ratios low. 1004, a14 Rook KOUNDATIONS ee ag fonanime a rik commas (243), Fa COL SIN TN (213)—-yor ae ready to at the ste work ial. Fist, sake ont The posions of the ground floor calumny Before you do. ay ther carhwork, 10 that fou can move the enlmmns whenerer ecemay to leave roce or pnts intct—sre REPAIR (104)y, Conncriow vo rie eanrit (168). Then dig the fousdation pits and prepare to make the foundations. ‘The best foundations of al ae the kinds of foundations Which a tee hat—where the entire structure of the tee simply continues below ground level, and creates a'system. Cnttely integral with the ground, in tension and com: pression. ‘When the column and the foundations ate separate dashes which have to be connected the connection becomes 4 dificlt fd cial joint, Bath bend and shear eveuce are etcemely high jut a the joint. I eannector is introdaced as 2 third flement, thee are even more joins to worry abou and exch Inember work les letvely to revit thes sre "We suspect that it would be Bete to build the foundations and the clumne in such + way thatthe clamns get toned in the foundation and become fategral and. contiavoys withthe round Tr the raizaton of tht atern which we Hluststey the rat foundation takes 2 very simple form, Since colomas sort out hell, nox cor uns (246), ee eam frm + rote foundation by setting the hollow ealumn info the foundation pit, and then pouring the lower part of the column and the foundation, ines fern in single pou. ‘Ss far athe wood erson i concerned, the problem of placid 1006 214 RooT FOUNDATIONS 4 roe fonnation for «alow wooden box telaonsebichae-heve bl reed in contac with eet umfegrinmd contre i very eri ‘The wood of the cain can be prnceed ean dy ro andere nite by prewure dipping in pentclorophenol, We alo blixe that pant with thick sola er dampproot mastic might work, bat the problem nt really seed, Of cove matory versions in which clare are mae of tr and filed with dense concrete, ooh to ork sleight, Bat even in thee cnc, we are doubifel abot dhe exact atrecural aldof the pater. We bse that some Ln of sructure which is ‘continuous with the greand it ncedal: but we quits haven'e ‘hen ables aork it atts Meni, we ste thie pstern a nd of challngs ‘Nome ‘Try to find a way of making foundations in which the ‘olumns themselves go right into the earth, and spread ‘out there—so that the footing is continuous with the mate- of the column, and the column, with its footing, like tree root, ean resist tension and horizontal shear 28 well as ‘compression. “cominuos with alum ‘To mate foundations lie this for holo concrete filled box colunns, sat with pit foreach foundation, pice the halla Column in the pit, and pour the clam and the foundation, integrals in ane continuous pour—nos couunens (216). Laer twhen you build the ground lors, tie the concete into the Foundaione—oxounn rim stat (215). 1008 - 215 GROUND FLOOR SLAB this pater helps to compete eonscvi vot was EFFICIENT SAUTER (306), cor cMNe At Hh CORNEAS and moor rouinbarions (214). Hea spe sy sshich ne grown Hor of the buillings tice the ram foundations ‘one anthel, and as ans sow to form simple erp foundae ioe pata the lat sey the wall ‘The slab it the cases, chicapest, and most natural way to haya ground floor. onyconsrruction When the ground is rlatirely lve, a concrete sab whigh ia ively om the groand isthe mest stars and chenpss wah of builing a round floor, Wood for are expensive, net ie ‘pce andemesth them, and necd to be built up on continue foandstion wall or beans. Prefabricated oor panes slo need’ structure of some fort te support them, A sab Reon onthe ether ‘band, wer the earth for support, and can euppy the foundatint hich ar needed to apport wal by simple thickening. ‘The one trouble with sala is that they canealy fel cold and damp. We believe that thie feling it at lent ot much © chological ene a8 plyscal one (given a welhmade and ine nied slab), amd that the feling i mo pronounced with sabe that are on grade. We.therefoce propne thatthe sab be tsed from the ground This en be dove hy not excasating the pound 3 al, jnstead only leveling ity and placing the una bel of ratble and gravel en tap of the grotnd, (In normal practice, ‘the ground is excavated so that the tp of the rable i lightly below grade, andthe top of the ssh only jut above the ground.) ‘Therfor: Build a ground floor slab, raised slighty—six or nine inches abore the ground—by first building a low perim- ter wall around the building, tied into the column foun dations, and then filling it with rubble gravel, and con- bic edge bet Finish the peblic ares of the flor in brick, or ile oF wssed and poled lightweight concrete, er ern beaten earthy, 4 for those areas which will be more private bik) them one 21$ GROUND FLooR sLAN step ep or one step down, with + Tightweight concrete finish that ‘an be felted and expoted—rionn sonnet (233), uid the Jow wall which fori the elge of the ground Aloe ‘hb out of brick and tei ney int llth teeecs and path sound the bulding-—eomcrimm ro vie sant (168), corr ‘TLE ano anicx (248). If you are building on a scep sloped fit, baild part of the ground Naor at 4 vaulted floor isesd of excavating to form + sib-—rsoon-esnano vavw (219)216 BOX COLUMNS** « if you use nook rounnariont (214), the eclmns must be mide 1 the same time 36 the feundsions, since the foundation and the columu ate intel. ‘The height, paring, and thickest ‘of the various columas in the builing even by rina oben oseminuriow (213). This pater deere the deta of construction fr the infividua columns, tee In all the world’s uaditional and historic buildings, the columns are expressive, beautiful, and teasured elements, Only in modern buildings have they become ugly and meaningless. ‘The fact is that no one any longer knows how to make 2 column Which ea the sme time besuifl and srectaralyeficient, We iva the problem under serenrepatate headings 1. Columns fect uncomfortable une they are_ reasonably ‘hick and old, This feling is rooted in structural reality, A Jong thin column, carrying » hesty lon, i likely to fal by beekling: and our felings apparently, ate patcabrly tunedin tothe posit We do not with 0 exaggerate the need for thickness Taken too far, it col enly become» wan sor. But clumnn 2 rather ridicelove snd solid and only thin when they When the thieknes bevomesescatia piace (236). 2. Sirvtual argamens od to exstly the sme conelsion, ‘Thin, high sueagth materia Tike steel ules and pwotvessed areas (207). Laser sength ly sound hate to be telatvely fat he in mo dnger of bucking standing one then the need for his fllydacused ender conan Te cheap An hy sold wv cola 5s too expensive; thick tvick or ste columns ate slmat ot of the geesion in taday’s markt= ‘4 Te most be wart tothe toch, Conerete columns and painted sec calmns havea unplestnt surface and ate not ery ey 10 foce. SU the column takes honing, the highest strength materi should be concentrated toward the outside. Bacling and bending ftregth both depend on the moment of insti, which i highest tehen the materi i a fr a posible from the neateal ait. A balk of ga is the archetypal example. A cerion of bax falumas made of + inch eed Honk ‘nated together cithsfral proce wil, and Sled uth (eter wie ond wlraighnoeght conte. rom 216 nox couumes 6. ‘The colin must be cay to conneet to faundatons, beam and wall Prcat concrete eolunne ate very hard to comnet. So cluiar are easy to connect 0 brick ‘eight ain structures required by wats seals to the igh darsendene (218) 7. The exlamn mast be hen mila, and hand catble 19 imate ortite modification and ler repair 2 exy 2 posible, ‘Again, crcent mers dh ot ea oneet thi tequtement, “A colann which Dae all here fates » box calm, where the hallow tube can he mle at thick at it ror, and then fled with 2 erong comprenive materi. Such 3 caluinn can be male chesper than compseale wood and steel calsaney the fouter akin can be male with 3 mater that ie Bosal, sto psi and soft tothe teach; the column can be aioned for tending, either bythe shin iely or hy extra reinorcingy 2nd, for sractaral integrity the ill material can be made contineous ith the calm’ Fotnge and bes. ‘An example of a tox column which we hate but and tested Ji wooden box colama, made with 1 ineh wooden plans and filled with lightweight concrete the save demty at woud, x0 thst it har the overall vole snd mast of = hesey inch slid telunn. The drawing oppaite shove these wooden box column ting made, 2 Petite bx clams Box columns ean be mle in many other ways, One Kind ie made by sacking ¥ by inch Ugscight eonerete blocks, and filing the cavity with» canerate of she sme density Some wine reinforcing inside the clam ie required to ive the cluma tenile arengih, A allow Inch column, Sle wth earth iconstauerion another posbiiy. Concete, vinyl and terraots sever pipe Fed with lightweight concrte and reinforced with movbs a eetimpeegnatd exoard tobe BM with eothy af 10 be ‘Emre tadboard tubes with the cuter ring filled with cores Seu the nner ring filed sith earths ill nother is made fom Piabe of chicken wire sea, filled. with rubble, plvtered sad ‘diene on the ouside, And sl another can be made with setgnng hollow ies forthe skin. ‘The tls con be melded TERR wid hand pres-—in conerete of tile the sft tie will smoke bestia ase red sat warm clans shox columns made fro coer sr ie ited it concrete. Therelere: Make the columas in the form of filed hollow tubes, with a siff tubular outer skin, and a solid core that i Throng in compression. Give te skin of the column some mile suength-—preferably in the skin itself, but perhaps ‘with reinforcing wires inthe fil. a 1016 216 nox conunns ‘As you steady hy iti hott she ets tea ‘wih Row nouns (214) 9 the round flor, or integral With the rioomeriune eaves (219) 08 upper lnm, and {orf them in and somtinuns pour. Once the col ‘aiton, putin the primers nits (217) ad il the beams Bethe me time that yeu fil the apper part of the column. If the column ir fre standing, pot in ealmn brace or clumon tapitalneouuan comterion (227)—Ho bre the connection feeneenthe two, And make the elumnsexpecil thick or Bald them in patsy where they are freestanding, so that they form 2217 PERIMETER roe this pattein help» to complete mux conus (216), by ‘ping the ops af the calunne together ance they stein pxton Taleo helps to foes the being srlie for the cde of the uoorctatine wavs (219). For this resins the pens of nd exntly to the eg of the the perimeter bese mast corns 1 you conceive and build s roo by ist placing columns atthe comers, and then gradually weaving the walls and cling round them, the room needs a perimeter beara around its upper edge. 18 ithe beam, connestng the clomns which creates» volume yoo can visualizes befor it i empletes and when the clomns tne staning inthe groan, you ned the atl physical perimeter beam, to generate this vlune before your eyes to et you sce the zoom st you are building it, and tose the top of the columns together, pili “Thasd ressous ate cencepisl. But of cour the conceal simpliciy and righines of the Tesi arora the oom come in the en, from the more vie fact that this boas Bat» wamber of rated wfscturs fonction, which mabe it an csentisl port of fy room il a a natal siete, ‘Fhe perimeter bes aw four svetral fnctons 1 Tt forms the watual thickening between the all mem Ievve-tnd- tao monbrmey deavthed in nerve seeUCrUnt (406). 2 Te rei the horizontal heat ofthe cig lt, wherever vaults olan agai {+ I functions a Tach wherever doors and windows pierce the wall membrane Se TY Unfes oi [i coeens fx upper columis an the wall membrane blow it and epreale thse lode tt 10 daribute thom evenly lctwoen the colons and the 1019‘These functions of the perinicter Beam show that the beim must be a continuous a posible with wall and eelamas above; the wall an esnnae Belo, and wth the Mrs LT fll coon atareniats (207), the beat at aho been 40 mak and ‘ea tact to dierent length, ‘Araible beam do not meet thie requirements, Stel bein and preast or peeducucd beams cannot eaily be tad into the Wall and flor to become continucs with thee membranes, Fae Imoreiinpornt, they cannot eaily be cut on ste t0 conform (0 the exset dimensions ofthe diferent roms which will cc i coxgenic plan, A eerson ofthe frincter bea comin ith "he be tal oon bore 217 Peri OF cours, wood Besse meet bath requirements they are 297 to cat a eas Le te slony heir nba tall and Moor imenbrane. Toweeer, a we have ah in wear stste Rus (207), wood is uassiabe in many pce, and even where it sible, it becoming saree and tesbly expense, pecially in the lige size needed for hea To aroid the we of wood, ue have designed» perimeter beam—shown opposte—hich i consivent with our box column, and designed to be wed together with it, I ea beam made by fit naling up a chanel made of wooden plans to the columns, ‘fore the wall membranes are mde, then puting fn cifocing, and filing up with alicalightncghy Go. paunds per cube foot onctete afer the walle made and fle. This bea is excel lent fo continsity. The wooden channcl ean fist be made con= tous with other skin elements by nailing, andl the. eon then be made cuntinus by filing clams and beams and wall and vat in one continaose poor—ace wat atttnnavrs (318) and rLoor-ceiane envi (219) OF course there are many llr wave of mating » pesimeter team. Fist of al, there are several vias af eu design the Uataped channel can he mae of fibrbanplyweay precast lightweight eonerte, and, im cee cog filled with Fightncight toncrte. Then there are cSt tralianl perimeter heams— the Japanese version or the early Aterion versions come. to tind, And then thee are 3 voiiy wf sratons wish ate not exaciy even beams—hot sil act to mead vertist loads and oaneract horizontal thrats, Any of nik aches ight one ih tendon tng af tion i thie wisn far feted ae jmgle creeper ‘Therefore Build 2 continuous perimeter beam around the room, strong enough to resist the horizontal thrust of the vault above, te spread the load: from upper stories onto columns, to tie the columns together, and to Function as lintel over ‘openings in the wall. Make this beam continuous with columns, walls and floor above, and columns and walle below.constnvctION ting beam snembe o place enforcing in sch way that the pine ee Ee cml deen velo rei Wane oe eae mae Pmnd hens no enn y the soul. Stenghen TOTS een th coluns and the pesineter bam ecm acs where the sau are fee nog Touunim comnseron (237)- 218 WALL MEMBRANE* seconding tw kanicrenr srmverins, (206) and Pina fcouumm ourainuviow (213)y the wall 3 eompresive Jade hearing membrane, “erstghel” batccn ajacent columns and ‘entingous with ther the columns themeleer poe’ at frequent mers to eta ilfeners. The interest vty fom Boor te Bor, according to colusn heights andthe wall thchoes (membrane igknes) vac in 3 sina aio. IT the column incre ae rey in ple securing to noe conan (246), this pater feseribes the 35 to reich the ‘memirane. frm calamn. to ‘alam 1 form the wall, In organic construction the walls must take thei share of the load. They mast work continuously with the struc: ture om all four of their sess and act to rest shear and bending, and take loads in compression. When wall are working lite thie they ate ctentllyarctual rmembyanet: they are continuoat int dinenions; together with (tifeners ond cores hey resi ‘eat 3 continnost rigid connection levcen calumny hams and oor, oth shore and chet help vei shear ad bending Bs conta crtain wale S," donot acta membranes. ‘They may fantom 0 alsin ther resectethey eats enchacy they define juce—bat they dort contrite tothe eral rater wlidty of the uliag, ‘hey et the rae so all the work sructaaly the ane wanted, [For the stk of the argument that every part af the race mui oupette to ake Ia sce avn ¥r SPA ‘ow (206).1 [A meanhvaie, om the ater Ian, mules he wall a integel ahd bail sin canproning and hey A wah hich ae eel thing working with thestoctne svat it no tech wall membrane? rossA corn fm ini wl men ich et nto boar ain aad altredighecight conte jor he cen wavenints (207) tell oe that we should we hand ceutatle, milale, ecologically wound material, which ene om ‘ork with home ton, withthe emptass on earthen fll materi nd sheet material ‘onion, enienine (208) tes ws thatthe proc of bill ing should be such that ene can sar wid Hinge stractore ad filfon it during the cour of construction a8 materials are pe jn plac, thatthe proce an be smooth anil continues. 218 wana. ‘An example of sch wall shat we have built and teed wus sxpboir for the inncr skin, shipped women based for the fotter akin and vlerofiptnweght concrete for the 6 The wali Ik by fixing nailing Meeks tthe oe of etunns. We nal the shin tothe nailing blocks, par chickens into the evits to reine fence the concrete sins shige, sad then your the Higseght oneree ino the cat The wall news tobe braced daring pou ing, and you cat pour more tha to or thrce fet st = mes the prewure gets too fret. The lt poar ill the perimeter beam ad the top ofthe wall and aes thr intogra ‘The dawg ‘opposite shows une way that we hae made is particule hind ‘of wall membrane. ‘This wal issold (stuart the density of word) hs gol out and thermal propery, ca cay be Sui wo conform to free and Fergal plane dnd can he msl nts. Al ecsse of is tile fener the wali very atomg fot ticket (Otter version of this paticrn: (2) The skin cn be formed ftom hollow stoctral tito concrete blocks, with concrete or carthén fil. (3) ‘The exterior shin might be Brice, the imerer ‘in phwood or gypbund. In either ee the columns would have tobe hallow t,o comercte pipe, or other monty box cole {3) The akin might be formed with wire mosh, gradually Billed with concrete and rablle, and stccoed on the ouside, with ‘ier on the isle, ‘The coumarin this ee ea be built inthe fame way—out of 2 wire mesh tube filled with sable and con tet. (4) Tey ako fe posible to oe pepboard for bath si Fnvde an oot Vie pppoe onthe outer side cool! then be coerelwith biking oper ath md nacre, “Therclore Build the wall as a membrane which connects the columns and door frames and windows frames and iy at least in part continuous sith thers. Ty build the wall, frst pt. up an inner and an outer membrane, which can func- tion 2s finished surfaces then pour the ill into the walInner and outer membrane Remember that in stifened wall, the membranes cn’ be much thinner than you inight expect, beaase the wifleners pre ‘ent buckling Inst cit they en be 16 thin 25190 che ia Jone sory tuildng, thee inches 3b the battom of a sory twiding and eo on sce pat cotUu osrmmuribe, (213) ‘Membranes cn be made fom holla te, lightweight éoncete ork, plpmendy gypinany woo pals of any ater sect, pe Insel which would make a nce surface, which is ey 10 nal jnto, comfortable to touch, and wo on IF the inner hee is gppset tends i an be finshed with » skim cout of pster—s0rr iNuDE wats (253)-'The outer shect can be made of 1 inch board, tongue and grooved; or exterior grade plywood; ot extri turd hung with tly shingle, of plsered—ravery ove watts (234). Tt ita posible vo build the outer sin of brick rau ano nsien (248). + « 0x6 ze | | 1 219 FLOOR-CEILING VAUL'«ve have already decd the fct that ordinary jst Ros 4a’ sab floors are ineficient and wastfa because the tension Teng are est common tha pte Compresion mateiahervaenunt Frnvevome (206), ont ase extn (207), and that it i therefore desirable 10 we sake Trherever penuible. This ptirm gives the shape and construction ofthe val, The vaults wil help to complete FLooR Ax CEILING Tavour (210), and. PEAIMerse nants (217) and, mast ine portant ofall they will help 10 erate the efirane amscnre ‘anuere (199) in different ons mses they ve 49 1H see ‘We seck a ceiling vaule shape which will support alive load on the floor above, form the tiling of the room be- low, and generate as lie bending and tension 2s possible so that compressive materials can be relied on. “The vale shape governed by two constrains: the eciling cane sot be lower than abou 6 fet at the edge of the fo, except jn ocasonal tc roms ind the ceiling im the middle of the tom should rasp with the room sine (8 to 12 feet for lrge feoms, 7 1 9 fet for middle sized room and Gt 7 feet forthe ‘ery amalest alcoves and corners—aee e2iLise MEIC ¥3RvETY (190). We know, from structural consideration, that» citclar shell dome will generate virtually no Bending moniens hemi Ye ‘bata 130 20 percent of ie diameter. (Thi is éxabliied in studies and tts of shell sructre, and i cortoborted Hr ur town comptr studies) For arom B fect acre, thit rire 2 ise of about 18 face, making total height of 7 ¥ fet in the middle, for a room 15 fet acti requires te of 3-3 fect; making a eight of 8 f0 10 fet in the mile, Tuck thet vauk ‘eights ate jot congruent. witl the tore, that theien) coded ceiling eight, Wer may tts ‘aul for an inhabited space is one which spring from 60 7 feet the edge, and ree 1310 20 por cen of the slr diameter. rot 219 FLOOR-CEILING VAULTS "There ate variautponitle ways of miking crcl or eli col sl pring fom a avre or rectangular tom, 1 One type af eat ie made by arching dpe it rom yen sing sesight Hine element stn 9 4 Another is hsed on #seeangule grid of arched rib. The ce ls are ently ty andthe center sibs have the gresest fartatere, Inthe endy cach pat the van i-eurved in three Uimensionsy an the corner ate slightly fattened. Foch of thse Ue souls hes sense im alighly different sitcumstonces. The fat isthe cases 19 conceive, batt hoe @ Slight steyetois disdvsnie: i rrfce pale ae curved in one “ication onl—heese they are made Of sagt line clmente nl cain theefone achieve the sttengil of 2 doubly cured Stull. ‘The wo dhe Hardow to eoeeiee; however, He comet satay Teo the intercon of 3 spherical shape and a rete flor onc. Mme were to ke a raul hy wing» flo 23 form, posh ep within the periter hea, the second type wel be the exit to we. the particule being terbnigue we hase ecm sing, the hid trp etn 0 se, bese i pricy roxysimple to hy out the atched rile which provide the formwork: I Attens out atthe corner, which could reat being manent and rogue Voaron material, Himever, in Fghtweight co rete we hate found that i de not oye ay are than the fhrinkage reinforcement, which = nese ane We sll now describe a very simple war of making 2 sly Bear in sind that we conser it exon tat the vault be built op gradual, and that eco he ted 0 ny an shape without dificuts. This techingae is at oe cheap and simple Wt i so one ofthe only aye me have foal 2 abiteary oom shape He we that are jt oftrectangley, aml akbape tome, He can be applind w ronns of an size. "The height af the able can be tatiedaconling to jt position in the ovcrall array af ceiling heights and feors—chattne inary sani (10), same reat Gio). Firs, pce laie atrps at one foot centers spnning in one Airecin, from one perimeter beat to the oppoite pointer beam, beading cach sri to make 2 sensible vault she, Naw veeve strips inthe oer retin, alo at alia one ft enter to form a sstt. The stage ean he mile onto the form f the perimeter beam around the room. You wil find thatthe basket Fnnmenses strong and sible Latice rips inpeition Now suetch burl over the Intice sips, tasking jt sips soit is tighis: Paint the barip with a hey com of plese ein to tif i axe Se a ee get | | | | 219 FLOOR-CEILING VAULTS ana oer the lative wrk ‘The burlystesin shin ie ston emagh to apart 4402 inches of lightweight concrete. In preptation for thy pat slayer of ‘hickenvire 28 suinoge vinoncement, over the wifene burp ‘Then towel wna 1-10 inch Iver of lightweight coneete, Once again, we the ulelighwcih 40-60 und onercte described in como nareaiats (207) Retin over barlap The shell which fons sry enough te support the rest of ‘he yu sd the fase, Ligheright conrete onConsrRUCTION ‘The rest ofthe vaue should not be poured ania elge re in, columns forthe next Boor ae in potion, and di se nox cnt uate (316), aver vac (239). I the weight ofthe waul dwn, importan tha even the lee Tighoosight concrete be farther lightened, by mixing it with 50 er cent voids and ducts. Any Kind of vod can be neler cling cal, mate of thn crete heb retin, clicker: cel contre 1032 Md = Ls ay eat el denne lan orl 219 viooK-eniane vavias heer cat, wine jus, sno tube duty chums of polyrethane Or voids can be male very ach Hike she aul thomckee fy lhe ect sven i pte raph oe bee analyz hea computerized Gite skament anal. The coerce ss asumel ta be 40 pans perltes with Ress of eamputer nals orsCONSTRUCTION ‘est comprenive strength of Goo pi. Tensile strength is talent 34 pus and bending 2 25.5 inch poonde per inch. "Those figure: Zhe bed on the asunption that the conerce is uneinforeed Dead lads were gured a 60 pounds per agate fot assming 50 percent voids inthe apundrels of the val, Live lads were taken tobe 50 pounds erage fot ‘Accarding. 10 the sly, une such Toading the get compressive ste in thir dome orcurs near the be 3 avi pins (fall four sides and i t20 pi. Outward tras is the greatest 3 Ggaarter points along ll four wll, nd is 1769 pounds. The Inaximum tenon of 32 ysl occur at the corners. Maxinn ening isto inch pound per inch. AU ofthese ate well within the capaciy of the walt, snd besides, shrinkage reiaforcement in the raul will make i grenstroger. ‘The atlyis shoes, then, tat cfen though the vault i an Impure fon (ic contain aquare pal which are cul sagging swithin the overall configuration of the sult shape), its sete Tehavior i il claw enovgh to tht of 2 pure vault to work cently a» compresion structure, ‘Thre ae small amounts of Toca bending; and the corner portions of the dome ster small amounts of terion, but the chichnvire need for srinkage will lake cre ofboth these rence, Here ae some other ponte way of builling soch 2 vale: ‘To begin with, iseal of wood for the atice work, many cher materiale can be wed: plate strips, thin metal tubs, tamboos, Other ssinu besides polyester resins cam by wed 10 tiflen the burlap. If resins arp unseibble, then the anh for the salt can be made by pacing nice spear described, and then nrsiching chickenire overt then burp waked in morte thick i allowed 40 borden before conrete fs pce. Tt might tho te pouible te matting wilfened ith glue, perhaps efen popiee mache is pee that snr aus coud be formed hy slgéther diferent mcane perhaps with pneumatic membrancs at balled ‘And itis of courte pombe to form vale by sting vere tations method: briels or stonen on centering, like the besaial val ‘ed in rnsinane churches, gothic etheials, sn on rout 219 FLooR-cet “Therefore: which rise between 13 and 20 per cent of the shorter span. Use a type of construction which makes it possible to fit the vault to any shaped room after the walls and columns are in position: on no account use a prefabricated vault, ot yetabrcted When the main yank ie finshed, mh the postions of al the columns whith wil be placed on the Hove sore trix. couuae prraipurion (213). Whenever there are columns ‘which are’more than 2 fect away from the- perimeter beam, Ttengihen the vauk with rife and era renforing to withstand the esti force. ‘Pall the upper cols in poston before you pour the Boor of the val a that when pou pou iy the concrete Will pour round the column feet, al ancor them aly i the me wy {Oat they ate anchored in she lernatione--aowr YOUNDETIONS (19). "To fin the ander stave of the awh pine io ploser sort aie wane (235). Aa for the for surface aboey either wer itand poh it or cover Ht with soft waeriak—vt.00K SUR ace (233)220 ROOF VAULTS* 1036construction, For this rexon, in’ this patern we mate oar discus at fundamental as we ean. We shall do erersthing we Gin to obtin the meconary fentarer which we can eat a onan for al ey, * ropa of people oF culure—yet deep enough to slow ach assortment of cate varstions, ‘We approach the problea withthe ssumption that there are no consis crested by techigucs or avail of materia We are merely concerned With the optinum shape and ditrib- ion of material. Gren 3 roughly rectangular plan, cr" pin compose of reetaagelirpcece connected what i the fest shape forthe shel of the tof which corre them? ‘The reqirements inluecing the shape are thew: 1. The feling of shelter—suetzexinc woop (117). This te sires thax the ro cover a whole wing (tht i not merely roem) * by room). It requires that sme of the roof be highiy vile Fence, that it ave a faisly step slopeand that some of the roof be fat and ible for garden oF terrace: 2. The root must definitely contain Tivei-in space—that i ‘ot jst st ontop of the rooms which at al slow—ace sen. tEK- mo noor (117). This mean it needs rather a steep spe at the ‘edge—tecae otherwite there ino headroom. This requires an lip section dome, or + brel aul (which stars going op ‘eri at the edge), oF avery steep lope, 5. In lan ech indiviesl rot ia very sough rectangle, with sxcavonal variations. "Ths fellows from the way the tate of = ling mst, topether, fll the soil Taya of the plan— bor savour (409), 4 The roof shape most be relaed—that i it can be wed ja sy pln lyout—and ean be generated ery simpy frm 2 few encrating lines which follow sutmatiely om the plan--thit jit mast not bea tricky eared shape which needs ft of fiddling around to define it—staverUne. rotons wei sacns (205) 5, Siractaral considerations require 4 curred shell, dome ‘ult to eliminate as much-bending at pontle—ace xrriciet sraverun (206) snd coon warrainis (207). Of couse, ‘he extent that wood or wed or ether tension maiciah ave ava able, this equzement cn be rele (6. The roof is seep enough t shed rin and enow in climates 038 rane where they occur. Obvious, this spect of the r00f will vary fom ciate to climate ‘These requirements liminat he follwing kids of rots: 1. Fler eufs. Fat rool except moor canons (118), are already climinated by the yeyholoicslsrgoments of srrERING toons (117) and, of coure, by structural consieration, A Bat roof is neceay where peuple ae pong’ walk om it; but i iba ‘ety ineicieit struts shape since teresa benling. 2, Pitched Rua}. Vtchel rate all roqire materia th withaand ending moment. ‘The nt comin material for Pitched rofs—naul-is hecming scarce and capemive, At We have si in coun wavaquats (303), we bln tment semble to kes wood for surfaces and otto se i ara erctral materia, xcept in woot rich are Diched routs sho. read to be tery steep, indeed to enchae habitable ace a ried by sea m6 ROOF (117}—and hence ether mein 3- Dutch darn and mansard-rinjs. Vise vos enchne habit thle space more efiienfy than pitched ronls bet they have the {ani sractaral densa 4 Gendese domes, “hose denser cover esemaly cirelar areas and ate nat therefore velo in thir eedinary form CASCADE. OF HOOK (114), HIHUETUME. Yoni social, SPACES (295). Inthe mudifed for, sohich comer. wen you strechconsrrverion the bas into 2 rough rectangle they become more or le conga: ent with the elt of sults defined by this pater, 5. Calle wets and tent Thoseroote te tei: meri ie seal of comprenive onct—they do ol contin to the eeue rents of coop aurumints (207)."Ther are ao ver inliicat ‘when it comes teal i habit pace—ond tho Lil so moet the requirments of reverent Ponsa sist. sacs (205) "The rool hich sty the reqirements ate all ype of et tungole ovel vaul or shell, with or without peak, gabled or ipped, and with 2 variety of posible crs ations, mort any ane of thes sel willbe further acngthened hy alien gn Aholtons inthe diteton of the rau. Hzamper of posible cro sections are given below. (Remember that this dace ot inelae thse fst wear eansene (148) built over rrogmeatane Sere (219)) ~~ N EXER GN ~ Pane reof eva, We have developed s sange of tof saute which are esther similar 'to 4 ich okt wih » convex curve grat enh to climinate Bending in wm coer actully approxching bare taal, One ie shorn inthe drawing opposites another i shown below, “Anatercerion of «reo eal, il by Bab Harris in Oregon 220 Ror vauLrs ‘We build the roof tlt vers much lite the lor sz 1. Fiat span the ing to he roofed with pe of ie sips ‘which are curly mill at their ends te perimeter beam and wcighted at thir apa that the tw pets Decne lightly caned, 2. Make the frame for the cing dr the rn fame a the same time scoring t Puneet: wav (219), 3 Repos this fame every 18 inches wt the enti wing it A tye of 00h cmt sitar to the oni made fran laice sip, asl, hihenie and a Tigleorght concn, tal eth on aes, ad ich em oettins erwin royconstruction framed, The outer one wil be the rms, while the inner fame forthe cling may change according to the rooms under i 4 Now lv bls over the sling frat, then een then 45 inches of wluslgheight concrete for PLomcEsLiNe ¥aULTs G9). 5+ Now ny burlap over the root fame, taking i emt the Intice sip so that there ir 3-inchsalop in between the to form sructoral undulations in the akin. Ags, palit the burp with resin; lay ehilentie and put layer of Tighiight onetete oer the enero We have analyzed + 48-fot root of tht type by esis of computerized finite cent aalss smile io the one dsribed for ruoot-eeiuine Abt: (219). The anlsis shows tht the rmaximam membrane crisis tis inthe rot is 39.6 pis the maximom niembrane tensile atte 2.5 pi and the mast die gol mensbrane str which develop fromthe maximum shea of 4127 puis t5.2 pi Thos street te within the capacity ofthe material (See allowable steer given in Piaoneeitive vaUiet (219)). The maximum membrane bending moment i 46 inch pounds per inch which is higher thn the capacity of the unvcin- fowced section, bat extpeltions from our dats show that this will be comfortably taken care of by. the reinforcing which is needed anyeay for shrinkage. Rools with smaller, spans for + ‘ypicl wave oP water (406), wil be even seonger, ‘Of course there are dozens of other ways to make a rot vault Other versions inlade ordinary bare vaul, lame stocares, inthe form of barrel vals, elongated peoesic dons (bail ep fom str), vaults built up from plate sheet ot hero, of corrugated mil Bat, in one way or mater, bu your rune according tothe invariant defined below, remembering that i es somewhere in eteen the Crt Palace, the sone vale of Allende, med huts of the Congo, rae structure of the South Pacey and the erragsed iron huts of our ow tine. This shape is eyuited whenever you are working wih materials whith ate in pure compen, Obrioa, i you have acest t2 worn or eel and want ose it you can modify this shape by adding tension members. How ‘fer, we beliere that these tenyon material will Become fnore 1042 Eserimenal roof wn ica ramon, fine wees ‘Rape will gradually he Therefor Build the roof vault cther as cylindrical barel vault, oF like a pitched roof with a slight convex curve in each of the two sloping sides. Put in undulations along the vault, tormake the shell more effective. The curvature of the main shell, and of the undulations, can vary with the spans the bigger the span, the deeper the curvature and unduls- tions need tobe. beer vat = pdalaions weconstruction ee ewe mace for darmets 2 tervals along the vault main wonvows (234), and build them integral with it. Finish the not with nooe-cary'(232). And onc the vast is complet, it need 8 waterproof paint of skin applied to ite outer surface sree ‘urwon watts (234). It cn be pained. white to protect, ‘sins the sn; the undaltons wll ery the vsinwates eee, swith the main frame of the buitdng, fir the exact ottons for opevings—the doors and the windows Sand frame these openings 223. 24. 235.221 NATURAL DOORS AND WINDOWS** imagine that you are now standing in the bail-up frame of 2 pardy eonsruced bulling, with the colame and. Beams plce—now conan (216), remerrin mans (217), You Know voaghly where you sant dors and window trem 2 view (134), srREE wimbots (164), tMbow PrAcr (+89)y windows ovinooKine nave (192), coawex Books (196). Now yen toon he exit psitonsa he fan Finding the sight positio! for a window or a door is a subtle matter. But there are very few ways of building which take this into consideration. Tn our current ways of buiMling, the delicay of placing « vindow or 2 door hat neatly anise, Hut it ie jst this reine ment, down to the lst foo, even tothe lat inch or two, which males an immeis: diflerene. Windows and dare which are jst right ae slays Tike this Find » Beautfl window. Sud See how diferent it woull be if is dimension vated + few inche in cther devon Now ook st the windows and door in mot bildings made uring the lit 20 ye hat thee openings are in w thy could be improved hee ere an there, le Tei almost alas» vigil contraction yey cabined with 2 formal seahetc. which Ile thew. wide in such a death Arp. There is nothing che to thie rotary, fr its possible {rl the rcpoavicy mint ling sora net tis ao nportant to and doors con mi he done few hat this ial poring of winds ite, with the tough frame of the ailing fo psi, 1 bt 85 usa pepee Baten the te it fe quite wi auras mock vp the epenngs with sap of hone or ting and nose them stound nt ther fos etal stint tothe organization of the view andthe Lin space that in ereated aide‘CONSTRUCTION Geng ie jut rig A we shall se in Iter ptem—atans, wars (239)s it ie ot nocenary to ttke the windows any special dimensions, oto tty and make them mips of any standaed pane size, Whatever Alimension this pattem glres cach window will dhe be pose be to ride i op, to form all ps, which il be diferent in their exit shape and size, according tothe window they rein “However, although there nd consi on the exact dimen sion of the windows her 2 general rule of thumb which will fale window since rary Windows, a1 rule, should. Became smaller you get higher wp in the bulking. 1 The ates of sindows coded for light and venlstion de- pends on the sae of rooms, aud oone are general anuller on Upper sores of the hullfag—ihe communal rus ate gene ‘on the ground for ail mote private roams ose, 12. The mount of daylight coming through » window Apes, on the aea of ope sy ible though the seindow."The Wigher the window, the more open sly i visible (bee nearby Hse and building abscure lea) es window ste is needed to get ‘ifcentdalight i, {To fel nfo om the upper sare of bill rote endoere, aller windon, higher sill—aad the higher off the ground one i the mere one ns thee eyshogical pote "Therefore On no account use standard doors or windows. Make cach window a different size according to its place. ‘Do not fx the exset position oF size ofthe door and win. ros ddow frames until the rough framing of the room has ac- tually been built, and you can tally stand inside the room, and judge by eye, exactly where yout want to put them, and hhow big you want them, When you decide, mark the openings with strings. ‘Make the windows higher in the er and smaller, as you go 2% ea. mito in window sie RE a a B | EH the positon ofthe doo Fine tune the exact poston of ech cage, and imllion, and Ait, according to uur comfort in the rn, andthe View tht the 23), mesvae (235). Ae 2 rea, each winds will have 3 differen sie and shape, accord ‘winder fos ontomto su fay ts poston inthe bling. ‘Thc ea thet ft imponible 1 wie sandard wines and csen Sipe to mabe cach window 4 rinple miple of sandal pate Bt it i till be pomible to plze cath windy, since the proedre for Bailing the poncs males thom divine of the whole, instead of raking up the gohoke os 4 nile of standard ponce—santn, ans (239) roy Solty Bite ae | el teem at Baler i i ne222 LOW SILL ‘hapten Reps to compete nsrunst. ooas AND Wines (G21), and the special love for dhe view, and forthe eth ut tide, which 21 woeae (1306 bwkrtaucot at (aye) all anne react: (180) and 9 eee One of a window's most important functions + to put you in touch with the outdoors. If the sill is too high, it cuts you off ‘The “ight Bicight for» ground Boor window sll ie stonsh- ingly low: Our experinents show tht sll which are 14 oF 14 inches fram the flor ate pele This is uch lower than the trindow ell which poop mont often bulk « stndaed. window if sboat 24 to 36 inches Crom the ground, And ite higher than French doors and windows whith wally have a boton rll of 8 1010 inches, The best ght then, happens to be seater ‘We fr give the dtl explarition for thir phenamenen, and we then explsin the masifeatons which se necary on ppe oars People are drawn to asindowe becabi of the light and the view oatide—they are nateral place tot hy when reading, talking, sowing sin cde have sil heights of $0 incher or #0, ion hy tern you cannot fee the ground ind. hie ie wnualiy fue ttating—jou alta hate vo stand up tog a cmnpete view In “The Function of Windows: A Reappraial” (Bailing Selene, Vo Pergamon Prom 49675 ppe 97-421), Thomas Matlae shows that the primary Tanetion ol proride Tight bat to prod 3 Tink to the onside andy farther- for, tht ths Hink fe most meaning when it continesvew of the ground andthe hurion. Windom with high ile cut aut the tie of he ground, ‘On the ather hand sndesrabl, It ie distr wall the way deen 10 the floor is bcs it scene costradtory andven dangerous It fone ore Hike door than window yéa have the esing that you ought to beable to walk throught. He the sill 44 tn 14 ines high, you cam confortable he round even if rt ave 2 nto tine away frp the wind, nd cl fe ie» window eather than door. ‘On upper worse the ail Iight nes tn besligh- higher The wl wl peels to be aw to we the grand but He ena iF iis wo low. A al height of aboat 20 inches lows you to see smot ofthe ground, from 3 char nes, and atl fs fe “Therefore: ‘When determining exact loation of windows also decide which windows should have low sill. On the first floor, ‘make the sills of windows which you plan to sit by between 12 and 14 inches high. On the upper stories, make them higher, around 20 inches. ‘Mae the sill are af the frame, and make fe we enough 9 poe things omer sen (201), Ms 4 THICKENED. Focts (335), winows vnc OPEN wine (236). Make the ssindow open outward, so that ou Can sae the silt» shell, ad to that you can Tean out and fend the flowers, Ifyou can, pt flowers right ouside the window, on the ground or mised + Tite, tay a0 that you can aways sce the flowers from inside the rears nero Puetvens (245). 223 DEEP REVEALSthis pater helge to complete the work of Lic ew 40 ‘apes oF EVERY noow (159), by Roing even further to reduce fare; aml it hope o shape the aaa arena EvCES Gas). ‘Windows with a sharp edge where the frame meets the ‘wall ereate harsh, blinding glare, and make the rooms they serve uncomfortable. ‘They hove the mi eferthe bright headlight of an on= coming ca: the late prevents you fem scing nsthing ce on the raul beens your eye canna, imaltancouy apt tothe bright headlights and tothe ders ofthe roadway. Just sy 3 window it alnaye much brighter than an interior walls nd the wll tnd to be daskot next fo the windows edge. ‘The dif feeace in ghia bccn the bright window and de dk wall around it alo caer gre. ATi ares and mo sles "To solve thie problem, the edge of the vinden mast by layed, ty raking a retel bewscen the window and the wall, ‘The splayed revel then cress 2 uansition seat zone of Inermedist Brightnon—tetwcen the beighinsr af the window and the darkest ofthe wall, Ifthe revel ie deep enough sad ‘he angle jut righ, the lore will vanish together. But the rere mt be quite deep, and the angle ofthe spay vite marked, In empire adie of gle, Hopkinisn sad 1054 223. DEEP xevEats Paetherbridge hive found: (1) thatthe Irger the reread ithe Jem glare there iy (2) the reveal functions hes, when ite bighte nest jst Ialfoay betwecn the brighines of the window and the brighines of the wall ("Disenfort Glre and the Lighting of Buildings?” Transactions of the Ilminatng Engineering Secey, Val XV No. 3) 1980, 9p 5 ‘sr own experiments show tat this happne mort nearly, when ‘he reveal ie at betecen fo an Go depocs fo the plane of the window though, of cours, the angle will vary with local condi Yins. And, torts the need for 3 "large rove we have found thatthe reves self mese be a gool 10 1642 inches wie. “Therefore: ‘Make the windévr frame a deep, splayed edges about a foot wide and splayed at about 50 to 6o degrces tothe plane of the window, so thatthe gentle gradient of daylight gives 1 smooth transition between the light of the window and the dark ofthe inner wall. 5010 Go derees eee Bild the depth ofthe frame so that iti continuous with the saractre of the wlle—rrastis as iene wack (235) 5 if the wal ethiny ake ap the moceaary depth for the reve] nthe imide face of the wall, with buukselve, chaste or other Track waits (497) 5 embellish the edge of the window even farther, to mabe Tight even softer, wth Ice worky teeny, and dlimbing plate—rat:rearn acirr (338), manawen rane (ago), extuaune ouavrs (348)224 LOW DOORWAY some of the sort in 2 bulking ply 4 special role im ireaingtratitons and vasintining yeas? Ht sy he any of {he doin gecran by vanity or branes (102), er Mat smeraahce (110), oF 3nt ctane vamminay mums, (134) oF commen ( Thi pattern speci height and shape High doorways are simple and convenient, But a lower ‘The 6 8" recanglar dloninates the experince of tani, There have hecn times howeer, when people were more semitive to the moment of pauage, snd sna the shape of thir dure eomvey the feling of 1 pater, and iene om th pee bam, eeepc ren andra in though ow hen the wall, Once Tide, shes ll, the gocst i entirely 2 aia he wae ‘Among architect Frank Lloyd Wright wed he ytern many times. There is 2 Beqtfelly lw irellsed walk behind Taliesin Wet, mortig the tons out of the main howe, alng the th tothe sac, If you ave going. tty this yttern tea it fit by pinning he fame. Make the doorway entering mt literals bn cardboard up to effectively ome Te encagh ws tat H appeee “hacer than il™—thew people linen asa tity an tll yoo wil ot Bi the en “Thorlo Instead of taking it for granted that your doors are imply 6 8" rectangular openings to pass through, make at least some of your doorways low enough so thatthe act of going through the door is deliberate thoughiful passagefrom one place to another. Especially at the entrance. 10 1 house, a the entrance ta private room, oa fire cornei— sake the doorway lower than usual, pethapes even as lov 33 seeps ‘Tes the height before fos Bull it in place—NATURALBooRs sno winvoves (221). Build the door frame as pat of the sees I oxnantivr (249) around the fn 225 FRAMES AS THICKENED EDGES**«some tha columine and bes ate in and that jou have marked the exaet pation of the door and windose with sing fr pencil marks—nevunas nooks anb wienowe (321), You ate ready to buld the frames. Remember tht 4 well made fame neds to be continous with the aerounding wall-wo tht it Fel the building stracturlly—evricinws eraverUns (306), ‘onaoun. envrentns (208). tae ‘Any homogeneous membrane which has heles in it will ‘tend to rupture atthe holes, unless the edges of the hoes ate reinforced by thickening, ‘The most familiar example of tht principle at work i in the” human fae itl. Both eyes and mouth are sarroanded by exe, hone an Beth I ie this thiclening, around the eyes sbd mouth, which gives them their character and. help to make thet such important parte of human physiognomy. ‘A building aso'has its eyes and mouth: the windows and the doors. And fllowing the principle which we observe in mtare, mort every building ha te windows and door elaborated, made Imote speci by just che Kind of thickening we se in eyes and mouth "The fot that openings in natrly occurs membrane se invariably thickened con be carly expsinad By comieting how ‘he Tce of Tore in the membrane mune flow around the hole, Th deity ofthe line epee incrating 1060 225 FRAMES AS THICKENED EDGES ‘The increasing density of Tins of force around the ferimeter of the hole reguires that adlions material he generated there to prevent tarng ‘Consider 2 soap film. When yo prick the iim, the tension pall the film apart, and it dsiniegratn. Hut f yo inert 3 ing ff sring into the fm, the ae wil forces which sccumulac noun) the opsning can be he by the thicker ring. This isin teasias, "he sme Ie tre fr bucking and competion, When a thin plate is functioning jn campreson ind 1 hole is made nity the Hole need aiming. Iti impor tant to recognize that this aiflening i wot only supporting he opening ive spain cll, hati taling cave of the srewes inthe membrane which wok! normally be disibuted in that art of the membeane which i remored. Familiar examples of tuch iffening in pats ate the lpeof sec around he portales, inaaip lcemetre cb A doar fre a a hicheing ‘The same is tue for dns anil windecs ina bilding. Where the wall are made of wom plants and lightweight concrete fice as aoatnants(218)> the thickened ames ean be made from the sme sil pln, placed form bale, and then filed ¥o be continua ith the wall M other spes of kin are wed in the wall membrancy there will he other hinds of thickening: edges formed with chicien wie, burly and rein, fled with concrete, ge formes with ehisten wite led with rbble and then merta, plster; edger for with br, lle, ‘hen pated atscowsTRUCTION ‘More general examples of famer st thifened edges ext ll cover the worl, They inclede the thickening of the mud around the windows ofa mad hut the wie of stone edges tothe opening n'a brick wall bcaue the ste i stranger, the use of double Studs around. an opening in sud contraction, the ext stone round the windows in gothic church the exes weaving round ‘he hole in any Banker het Theretore Do not consider door and window frames as separaté righd structures which are inserted imo holes in. walls, ‘Think of them instead as thickenings of the very fabric of the wall itself, made to protect the wall against the con- centrations of stress which develop around openings. In Line with this conception, build the frames as thicken- ings of the wall materia, continuous with the wall itself, ade of the same materials and poured, or built upy in @ manner which is continuous with the structure of the wall. o wat hing I windove,eploy.the thickening, to create Orr events (223)5 the fori of doors nd windows whch wil i the fame, js given Bf the later patterns—wmboWs WHICH OPEN “WIDE (236), sour boons wrt ota (257), SMALL Pans (239)- - 1s you build the main frame and its openings, fut ie the following tubridary patterns where they are eppropriatey, 226. 227. 228. 229, 230. 231 232, 163226 COLUMN PLACE* ain isp + certain coluin ih are free sanding cole wslkeas, sd atdoor jis (119), ovr fines the charter thee cally Thin columns, spindly columns, columns which take their shape. from structural arguments alone, will never ‘make a comfortable environment. "The fc it that» free Juma sper Hm valor an enche aman pint of vc In scent tine sided in their imp imide of brick, or Tes ea to make esta But with secl and infor ey Hi posible to make 4 very slender column; 90 sender tha is sil pepe dapepear ahogether, Pout inch tel pipes oF 6 inch icinforsd cone ‘rete colmas break up spacey but they dewry it 38a pce for human seven, beeawe they do not create "spue” where people ‘an be comfortable, : 7 Thin columns of te plate world In these imei, it i therefore necemary to seintrduces cone scien, the soil purpose shich columns have alongside heir stesetsrl fontions, Let us try to deine thew: socal parpses cnt ‘A column affects a volume of sce around it according tthe sivnioh. The space has an ates thst i roughly cireslar, perhaps 5 fet in ai, he sai around the cot When te ealnin i to thin, o ks 3 tp oF Bottom this entire volumes ates of perhape 75 syste fete lt, cannot tea tater place in i on tight the clara i too thin ten int there no ay to build a.sat up aps ity there is no steal way to pce 3 table ora chat againat the column, On the other handy the column sill break ap the space. It subly prevents people from walking directly through that ara! we note 1066 226 conunw ‘at peopl tend to ike these thin columns x wide bent and it prevents people fram forming us In short if the culuma har to be there it will destroy a fonviderable area uns itis made o be place whore people feel comfortable to sy, + natural focus, a place to st dort a place tes “Trerefore: sman~at least 12 inches, preferably 16 inches: and form places around it where people ean sit and lean comfortably: 8 step, a small seat built up against the column, or 4 space formed by a pair of colunins. : thick columns You can get the exit thickios quite cheaply if you build the olan a8 a nox conve (216); complete the “place” the ee ‘mn frm, by giving it “Jot” in the frm of a column expt, ‘vale which springs fam the column, or by bracing the coun spit the beame—enignin covwrctinn (27). And when it ‘aks sense, make the clu bea rons war (243), pate fer fovers—nasrn views (245), eF 3 pce for'2 ait ot ‘ube—rremanr cians (251),2 perimeter Iran (217). Aecordng 10 fave structs 227 COLUMN CONNECTIONS** | = lm ae pit dave en i thr By inte hich govern the eed siffening to ka the clans, oye they a in amen (119), ana Hoe sour (166), sicraor tatcony (167), eoLUneN mack (226), You may ah te un ithe ver cre of rt der and window frames—yaases ae nanexnnen nes (239)-—making ticked openings sang a | ‘The strength of a structire depends on the strength of fis connections; and these connections ate mest critical of all at comers, especially at the cosners where the columns smeet the beams, ‘There ate evo entra difercit ways of loking at 4 con sngleion, 10 pre A easly sound the orn thonging isarain in esry pa the bilting on dows 10 nigoed to ether ot that pat of i and rama the forces ng that are not the Weak point of the+ an aa Rectanglar frames eapecsly, have these crc st the corners ecto the transion of the land i dicontinuos there. To tole tht problem the frame must be braced —made ino + igi frame that tari the Tores around it a + whole with ‘ont distorting. The braving i rere at any righted corner between colin ad beste orn Uke erncts of dr and window frames 2, A column connceton a enfitel ‘This happens mot effectively in am ach, ‘The atch crests 2 entinuout body of compreaive materi which tanfers verte forces om one vertical ais to another. It work effectively be! cote the line of seton of 3 rertieslforee ins continuous cam ‘rosive medium spreads aut downward at about 45 degre. ‘And sco expt in thitome, acing 382 aml, uadee- Aeveloped arch. Ie reduces the length of the bes—sed 30 re ducer bending treat And it begs to proride the path forthe fore a ther move from one Fertil aco anther, through the medium ofthe beam. The larger the capital the beter. 1 cai haat the oe sty ata ach A celumn connection. wil work best when it act bath 3 + clam capital and at» cum brace, Thi means tht it need 10 227, COLUMN conection ‘be thid and slid ikea capital 0 hat thre is 2 tof materiel Tor the forces ty travel threat, and wif and trang. and come Pltely coninaons ith the column and yerimeter beam lke the brace, 0 thai com work agains shear and bending ‘The bone structure, shown tclow wes both principles, «© transfer compresiv atten from one stat to ancher,continoouly, thoughout + thrce-limensonsl space frame of straw The meat: tare is most masive atthe concetions, where the fore change Alretin CComection imide «bone A sinter clene cenccom can be male integral with youred hole clint a hess. The fore lr the emneston fre genes nade of sin sera then the con td the ‘Ot a the paca the tok hr one of the mow idee spc and fon taken the grr rariay af enward forms Broogout he core of his si wd ep on 4 won talon, ors cntnsody pont lun op and cho of Son, or purl sete leap Any of ous, pial sakes apfokn lap one a's wow lems of eal fet pico ner if ak fn one ap he bey res dea Bot onl caves fn a te itr oma come tion sceed Ply ang ahs ae ap Theron Build connections where the columns meet the beams Any distribution of material which fille the comer up will do: fillets, gussets, column capitals, mushroom columa, and228 STAIR VAULT* ost general ofall, the arch, which connects column and beam in a continuous curve. frctwork, painting, fr this etl postion. In certsin ca ennecion may act at an uinbrela for a cougsin “eiser (38)this pater helps complete the rough shape snd lecates of sar given by sramcase ar «trace (133) and by tramon votuwe (195). Ifyou want to bud a conventions sai sou oe find what you need im any hind. But how to bud 4s fo 3 ay which i content with the comprenive structure of re ‘eiexr sraverune (206), without "unig wood “ot ‘el ar enctete—coov maremints (207)? tae Within a building technology which uses compressive ‘materials as much as possible, and excludes the se of ‘wood, it is natural to build stairs over a vaulted void, simply twsave weight and materials A concrete sui i sully made from precat pieces supported by steel svingess or itis formed in place and then sipped of its forms. But for the renoss akendy giten in coos eo, ‘Tenis (207), precast concrete and sted ste unleiable mer ternk © wie—they all for modalar planning; they ate snpleasat ‘materials to touch, ook 21, and walk ony they ate hard fo work wth and modify in any celated way, since they cil fot spocal toot Given the principles of rrvicuier sraverune (206), coo Mevrmsts (207)s and cmancnt. siveremine (208), we togper that sar be male like rhoomcenawe vnvtts (a1y)--by gee ing « baieaale (tothe slope of the sult), wth aie sp, but, resin, chicken, and ightneight concrete thenscles cn then be formed hy wing, wood 1 1 ners and ling inthe tps with welled con ree ‘When we fit wrote this pater, se thought i wo very doa fal—and pat it in mainly to be consitent with floor and rot ‘aul, Sine then we have but vaulted sar, Its. grat suse —testifal—and we recommend it hey. ‘Therefore: Build 2 curved diagonal vault in the same way that you ors 228 srai vaunr build your: sLooR.cen hardens, cover it wi formed int position, SSS ‘© VAULTS (219). Once the vault steps of lightweight concret, trowel. vale ied eds ~ A lightweight cgncete te phe ean be guite enuf‘ st enough tw fe comfortable ne ee funrack (233)—and will eventually tke an the patina ee ‘led for in sor ris an nosen (248) ‘The vated space ander the #3 cn be tasd a an ancove (229) sco cov. (205), o contre mewn none (a98) 1 i i plateredy Hike a teflr ccling nee rrooe corny wis (219), it makes mach more plea and mete wns nthe pae under sn dinars si, "229 DUCT SPACE fn 3 building built scoring to the principles of vevsene enverons (206) and bal ith salted floore—rtoomecriine ‘avers (219), there ie 2 tiangul volun, neil around the cee of every rou, ‘This ie the rust natural place to pat the dvew, ‘You never know where pipes and conduits arc; they the walls; but where exactly are In mest buildings elec“ cond ing, deny, se Pipes, tclphone sires, and 20 on, are buried in the wal in completely uncoordinated and Guorgoniaed ways This makes the init consrotion of the billing competed since ie dil cut to coordinate the italtion ofthe various sles with the building of various parte of the building. It mates it dfialt to think about making any changes or sitions to the building once ie builsince you don't now where the service ies are And it leaves gap in aur endertanding of our serrandings the or onizstion ef ulin and servicer in the Baldings we live in ae ‘We propose that all the series be lost together ond in around the eciling of each rou in the spaniel Beweon he faulted cling and. the oor abore-—Puaonccritins) TAGETE (219) Heating and ccctrcal condste ill he envera theooghont the billing and shoul! ths ra around every ran Plmbing sa ga lines wit be around some rooms onl A ins ils be concentrated vertically atthe corners of roams, That the line form serial trunks frm schich horizontal loys spring. Thi configuration of pipes and connie ey to understand sl pag 076 229 ver space AU 0 oe plac "Therefor: Make ducts to carry hot air conduit, plumbing, gas, and ther services in the triangular space, within the vault, around the upper edge of every room. Connect the ducts for diferent rooms by vertical ducts in special chases, in the corners of rooms. Build outlets and panels at intervals along the duct for access to the conduits. walling tangle sae Once the duct i in, you cam Bll ap the triangle sith fghe weight conerete—rioomerstines vavis (219). Place heating panel slong the surface of the winphe—aansns vat (230) and place gates for lightest trsqunt intersh Ielow the deg with lade smd comdeits running dv in ates along the wine ow frames meats oF ct (230 RADIANT HEAT* fo complete want, Masuneayrs (248), rLanmenitine ‘autre (219) and puer srace (229), we » bioligilly sensible esting stem. one ‘This pattern is a biologically precise formulation of the intuition that suilight and a hot blazing. fire are the best Kinds of heat a Heat on be tansmited by rlition (heat waves acts empty space), conection (flow in sitar Tigsdeby mixing of moles and hot ir ring), and condactin (Bow shronghs slid) In moat plaes we get hes inal thee Ways frm out environ ment: conducted Hest from the slide we touch, conveced est inthe air around us, and raised heat from those souices af dition in ot line of sigh. OF the three, condacted heat is teva since any surface hot enough t0 conduct est to us ditetly it too hot fr comfort As far asthe other tw are concernd—conrected heat and dant eat—ve may ak wheter these i any Bali diference in their efecson human being. In ft there ie 1 arm ot that people ate most comfortable when they ‘receive radiant heat at a slighty higher temperitare:than the temperate of the si around them, ‘The oro most prnitne ‘zamples of tht swation ae: (1) Outdoors on spring day when the air i no too hot but the sun it thining. (3). Around an open firey on 3 col evening ‘Mast people wil recogize intitively that thee. are two unusully comfortable situations. And in view ofthe fact that me craved 34 orpanina in the open ai, with plenty of sony ft ‘ot sonpring that this contin happens to be 40 comfortable for us Te is Bll Sato our tems, bilgi Unfortnately, it happen that many of the mest eidely wed eating sytem ignore tir baie fac, 1078 230. kabiaNT. Ear Hit, air systems, and buried: pipes, and the so-called hot ater “radiators” do tpnait sone of their heat to w by means of radiation, but-ment of the heat we fet fram them comet feom convestiny, The ai pete cated ant warn vai sil around us, Bity 2s it dows uit creates that ven-uncomforble stn, overseted, dey seston. When canvection heater a warm’ enough to heat us We feel alle, It we tuin the heat down it gets oo col ‘Tae candtions in which people feel matt comfortable require 4 rable tslance of comctgd est and radiant heat, Experiments have gublishe thatthe awat cvsnfrtble ae Between the two, occurs when the average ralont temperature jt about wo egies higher than the ambient troperstare. To get the average “radiant temperature in a ron, ove mesture the tempersture of all the visible sarfoes in town, mtiply the ate of ech surge yi temperature, all these up, and divide by the total area, For comfort, this average radiant temperature neds to be aboot to depres higher than the air temperate Since some of the srlaes in room (winders and ouside walk), will wuslly be cooler than the indoor sr_temperatae, this means thas at est some surfaces must be conilersbly wate to et the average op. ‘An open Bre which Jat» sll area of ery high tempesse ture, eres this concen in + cn rum, ‘The beni Avs trian and Swedish tile stoves abv do it vsty nel, They are susie woves, sade ol clay nicks or ey with tiny furnacein the midale. A handfal of twige in the furnace give all their heat tothe cay of the stove island thi ayy lke the cathy eps this Beat and rater it lly ever a pera san hour Radiant panel, with dndivilal romm conte, and infor Instr: hugo walls and eslings, ae posible high techn ony sources of radiant est. Ie posible tht sours of loegade radiant heat—Fike 4 hot water ‘ank—might ako wotk to vey uch the sme eff. Instead of inelting the tay it might be an excellent source of zdiant eat, right in the center of the hoo, There Choose a way of heating your space—especially those rooms where people are going to gather when itis cold— that i essentially a radiative process, where the heit comes ‘more from radiation than convection. sudan sacs +? Seta a= = sufaceslighty warmer than se If you have fllowed ester pater’; you may have room which have a tasted ecling, with 2 steeply sloping surace owe to the walh and with the tajor dct behind tha surare— ‘ook-ernine vAULTS (219), DUCT Pace (239). In this coe, itis natural to put the radiant heating ponck om that sping sarface Bat iti ao very wonderfel to mae atest some part ofthe radiant surfices low enough so that seats cn he bul round them and ogrns them; on 2 cold day there is nothing beter than a seat aaiat x warm tove—mvitrom sua (208) 1080 231 DORMER WINDOWS* Pe Lie a]this patern helpt to complete sieutennc moor (117); If you hare flloned shelering ton, your rot hs living space within it and i€ mus therefore fave windows in ity to, ring light into the root. ‘This patcrn is «special bind of winnow ace (180), which completes the noor vavirs (330), in thse eae We know from our discussion of SHELTERING ROOF (437) that the top story of the building should be right Inside the oof, surrounded by it Osvioaly if there is habitable space ine the rot, it must fave some kind of windows; skligh are not etistctry wi dov-—eacept in adios or workshops —becaie they’ do nt create 2 connection beneen the ise andthe ovtvide workd—wmnome oventoonine tire (193). tis therefore natural to pierce the 100f with windows; in short, to build dormer windows. "This simple, fandamentl fc would hardly need mentioning if i were not for the fact that, dormer windows have come to wom archaic and romantic: Le important to emphasize how sensible and ordinary they are— simply because people may not bull them if they believe tat they ae old fahioned and ot of dat, Dormers make the roof livable. Aside from banging in light and sir and the cannetion tothe eusie, they tle the low ceilings along the edge ofthe rots and erste alcoves and wi dow places How should the dormers be contrctel?. Within the roof tault we-have desribedy the bse which fort the aul enn simply be continued to form the roof of the dormer, over + frame of columns and perineter hese which form the opening ‘The other ways of bulking dower windows depend om the ‘onstrctonsstem you ate wring. Whatever you re wing for line tel, columns and walls com smply be modied and wed in com ination to bud the dormer 231 DORMER winpows ‘Therefore: Wherever you have windows in the roul, make dormer ‘windows which are high enough to stand in, and frame them like any other alcoves in the building, ormer jezalb ee Frame them like aucores*(179) and winvow mace (180) with enuat srirrznine (208), coLuane at Tit CORNERS (212), nox couuions (216), besterren meant (247), Wate duaneanes (218), ruookeritine VAULAS (319), 2007 VAULTS (220) and reates as rennin EDGE! (225). Pat winpows witen ors wine (336) in them, and make suas. vanes (239) tots232 ROOF CAPS snd hie pattern fhe the v canvent (118) oF the oor ynorrs (420). Amume that yen have Bult the roof wank 1 bul up the spine eich tthe vault, Or ane that you Aor tent that yo have a wil spp ave begun to build a vot pac, ant ave begun to fence i oF ssrroond it In “hal the rst be finished he hah whi ‘There are few caves in traditional architecture where builders have not used some roof detail to cap the building ‘with an ornament. ‘The pedimente on Grek bwidingsy the aps he tal of Alberebllo; the top of Jame shvinsy the venting cape om farm. In each of thee examples here msn to be se iwe the building stem that tows resoltion, sa the builder takes the opportunity to make ap We spect thers ie» renun fr thie wh seroaiy, The raf cap lye to inh the bailing it tops the Building with human touch, Vet, the power of the ep is corral effect on the fevtnge of the bing, eof mck restr Froprtons than nc wouktespect, Hank he aketeher of 3 Tailings with and without 2 vol cope They Teo Hike diferent Inildings. The difference ie enormous Wy ie that thew cap a or omesfal fet on the bling 3 whole? Here are 1. They «1 ix daerves The tof important, so the caps emphasize thi fact, 2s They a desl hes mate the so! hoe homogeneous, and mae psi the rok heyre theCONSTRUCTION they relive the roof from bring » single einteraptd thing, ‘The, wall get this relief from windown doors, belcoies, whe sd vale and chavacter; when # roof hut many dormer, seen to need the cae len 3: The cap prove a connection tothe sy, in a way that might have had religious overtones atone time, Just athe bli tng needs 2 rns of connection tothe carth—ice counterion To THE anrut (168)—perhape the roof needs connection to the sly. In the building system we prope, the rool caps ate weight. We ie at the ridge ofthe roo! to mae the slight core in the pitched sides of the root. They happen at regular interval at the ridges of the wallop. They need ne be large small og ‘of tnd ora sone will do, platered with concrete and shaped fe bulge js obvious. It may be nice to pant them 4 diferet ‘lor from the rook. OF course, thee are hundreds of ether posible kinds of rook ps. They ‘can be brick chimneys, sates vent atactnd etl the pinnacles on « gethic bute, weather rane, or even winds ‘Therefore: ‘Choose a natural way to cap the roof—some way which + is in keeping with the kind of construction, and the mean. ing of the building. The caps may be structural; but their main function is decorative—they mark the top—they ‘mark the place where the roof penetrates the sky. connection tthe shy — Aas ace Finish the roof eps any way: you wants but don't forget thenr—onnnatent (249). 1086 Putin the surfaces and the indoor deties 233. 234. 235. 236, 237. 238. 239, 40.233 FLOOR SURFACE** z Sh patel ou baw wpa he lon te fom 40 fish the ghovwn visu eran (216) andPosootceione vaias (219). Aken propels nal, the er iruee wil toe help intensity "thé radon of intinasy inthe Iildiog swnimncr ohio (127) j ‘We want the foot to be comfortable, wargp to the touch inviting. But we also want it to be hard ehough to resist wear, and easy to clean. When we think of lors we think of woo foes. We hope, it we ean afford itt fave 4 wale tor. Hein hot country here tke are Heautifl, many people want hardwood Moors henever theyean aff them. Hat the wend for, hgh seems so beatiful dns litle Wo she the Tundsmcntl problem Boos, The fact i that a rom in which there i+ bate wood for, seem rather baten, forbidding, max the. tom sound hollow and unfurnished. To make the wooden Nowe nice we po oven carpets. But then i ot really yond fae oa This confusion mater it clear that the fondamena prblem of “Be oor has no ben properly tte When we look at the jrablon honestly, we reaize hat the wooden for, an the weal fas with 2 cn ore bah lather unewen comprise. "The hore wind lor is bates wo hard to be eomortaley fut ot fn fart harlem t ese ear paccoaly well ft ie Kt wncoeted i crs and dents and apinten. And chen the flan is eimered with a sarpet the whole point af the Beauty wf the wan i lat, You fant see it anymore, except round the eles of the eirpery snd the carpet on the ta ecttinty not atl enugh Fs iy substantial wear, Fortheonte, the mgt healfa expe Jundmade rue and tapetric, ave an deleste tha they coboet luke very rough west. "The practice af walling on 2 Peon Pop vith ontdor thoes on sa barbarian habit, neve practiced by the ‘people who make thse rags, and know how to uct then they always ake their shore off But the molcen nylon and acrylic "apy thachinestide for hard wen, eal the tmptvonsnc andste ofthe cape: they ate ait were, sft hinds of concrete "The problem cannot be saved. The const is fundamental ‘The problem can only be arvided by maling a clear Usintion inthe howe between thot stem which have hess) trae and 0 nec hard eating surfaces wich ae ex Io clean, and thee other areas which have only very light trafic, where people can tate off their shes, and where lash, oft, besutfl rs, plows, and tpt can ely be pre “Traditional Japanese out 20d Rowan hous wl the probe Jem in exact thie way: they divide the Bor inio tne 2o0e— serviceable and comforts. They be very clei, and eften pre= ous materi in the comfrtble zone, and aten make the zervice- ale zane an extension of the sieet—that i dit paving, and so on. People tae thei shoes ofa put them on, when they ps from one ane tothe ober, he trthld beeen hardest We ae no ute whether thing shoes off and on could Become ‘nator abi ia our eure, But i ill makes seme to zone the howe 5 thatthe faor material change at one gts deeper into the howe. ‘The patra terataer coapnivr (137) cl for 3 aradient of publ, semi-pablic, and pivate rooms, I folios th fone wants the foo to get ster a one goce desper ita the houses is the entesnee and the Hitchen are beter floored ith a ard serviceable worfae, while the dining, family ram tnd chldee’splayzoome neod 2 vericeable foe but with com foruble spot, and the bedrooms, stalin rooms of c's om ‘eed sof eamforbl floors on hich people can sy cy and mak torso. 1090 . | 233. FLoon surrace ‘What should the mers be? Of the hard and soft materia, the hard is more of 2 rub, Sine chiblven ate lee to thete for, well the alt ones, they must fe warm tothe touch, and a the same time they mute ey to dean. Fr tess hard oor, a “ft” concrete might work, 1 can he made serviceable and pleasint ai the same time if iti finished of with» Tight= weight textured oor finch, which it vlatively porous. 1 cam be rade to wear and repel water by making the eer integral with fhe mix and by waxing and polishing after it inset. I is faily cheap and males sense if the foor is 2 concrete Noor anyway (Other materi which would work as hard fore ae earthy ubber rca tie, sft abobed dle Known 2 pollens in Pese—ace sor Tie AND vintex (248)—snd wal plik, bat thee mate ris ate mote expensive. For tft materia carpet ie the oat stfectory—for Stings Iying, and being cee tothe groand. We doubt that an improve: sent can be made on i—in fact we gues that Hf 2 sebttate ted fnsead, it wil eventually get expeted over, anya. This ‘means thatthe ait which arc going to be carpeted might a well aves chesp salon with wating ni wal to wal ‘To emphasize the two zones, and to promote the taking off sd on of thet from one zone tothe next re uggst tat there be a uep up or sep down betweer the zones, This will help tremendously in keping each zone pate” and iti sue to help the active in enh zone, "Therefore Zone the house, or building, into two kinds of zones: public zones, and private or ‘more intimate zones, Use hhard materials like waxed, red polished concrete, tiles, or hhardwood in the public zane In the more intimate zone, ‘use an underfloor of soft materials, like fet, cheap nylon ‘carpet, or straw matting, and cover it with elths, and pi lows, and carpets, and tapestries. Make clearly marked ‘edge berween the twoperhaps even a step—so that people can take their shoes off when they pass from the public to the intimate. 091soft ntimate oor hard pli oor theehol for shoes On the hard floor, you ean we the te for 36 you we on outdoor paths and terrcer—hand fred brick and tle—sore ie xo unter (248). On the sft intimate Boor se materia ind clothe that ate ich in ornament and color—onnaste ne (249)y wana couons (250). » = ten nna a 234 LAPPED OUTSIDE WALLS‘hit pttern fnihes the wats. rates (218), 2nd noo Swolte (230). I deine the character of their oui srl. ‘The main function ofa building's ouside wall is to keep ‘weather out. I can only do this ifthe materials are joined in such a way that they cooperate to. make impervious joints. f At the sme time, te wall mst be eae to maintain; and give the people tide ame chance of rating to "None of there fonctions eon be very well managed by reat sheets of inperviou mater. The sheety slays in the ee plane have tremendovs protlems at the join They require Highly comples,sophinicstedgoskots and sas, and, in the end, Fede thes sel and ime which Consider a variety of natora organisms: tre Gsh, animals Broadly speaking, thelr outside coats are rough, and made of large numbers of simile but ot identical elements, And thee clement are pled 10 that they often overs: the sales of fish the for of an animal the cikling’of ator] akin, the ark of # tre, AM thet cost ave mie to be impervious and ey repair Tn simple technolagics, buiklngs fallow suit Lapped board shingles hong sles, thatch, ae all examples, Even stone and brick though in one plan, at il in» sere laped internally to prevent cack which run all the wy theoogh. And all of these rll are made of many small clement, so that individual pices ‘in be teplaed a they are damaged or wear out ‘Bear in mind then, ax you chose an exterior wall ish, that ie shouldbe = material which can be easly lapped. against the sweater, hich ie mde of clement that ae ena to reps lolly, Td which therefore can be maintined piecemesl indefinitely. ‘Kod of cores whatever you choc, make ie 3 surace which ites you to touch it and lean ap sins it. Tn making our filed Fightweight conietestructares, we have 096 234 LAPPED OUTSIDE Watts t = i TS The tral sructve ofan imaginary Lappe materi ted Japped boss the exterior formwork foe the lightweight ‘concrete fil, And ity of cous, pole to use many other Kinds (of external lading if they are sable and if one can afford them. Slate, cortgated iron, ceramic tik will produce excellent shingled wall cladliegs, snd con sll be plc in such a way a8 provide eaterior formwork for the pouring ofa wall Tt ao ‘conceivable (though we hgte no evidence for it, that scent might be able to erste an oriented meri whats intereal etal or fiber structure isin effet “lapped,” bau all the split Hines un diagonally cuterd and doors ‘Therefor: Build up the exterior wall surface with materials that ae Tapped against the weather citer “internally lapped,” tke txterior plaster, or more literally lapped, ike singles and Boards and tiles. In elther casey choose @ materi thats ay 1 repair in lite patches, inexpensively, so that ite ty ltl, the. wall can'be meintained in good cond indefinitely lapped elements tot xy tose 109s235 SOFT INSIDE WALLS* 1096 ci sn ++ and this yutlen fines the inner surace of the wane Munimnants (218), and the under sufie af vavere (219). If AA wall which is too hard oF too cold or too solid is un- pleasant to touch; it makes decoration impossible, and ‘rentes hollow echoes, Jn color (ete iv enough to igh However, cement p respect. Iti 1 Jed and rough cally—that iy vere ih reflectance which erates 9 han, Yow sounds and it it relive hand to rpain, bees rack forms init i shoe to mae 3 sept that i hemogenease ‘withthe oi In general, we have found ha and enooth. This portly an effort impervions to herman ear Bat i i teria re struction hat gone are hart Tings clean and leva the hinds of mae perlect and xsl thes Buildings Jeave us totally unreae them not only. because they a they have mo gives they dn vical urvenfoisle tle agains rnd touCONSTRUCTION ‘The solution tothe problem le in the following 1 Gypium plier 2 apposed to cement pte. Soft bated tls opposed to hard fred ener. When materia ae: pores d and low in density they are generally sltce and warmer fo the tovch, 2. Use materss which are granular and have natural texte, and which can be wed in all pecs, or in sucha ay that ther, 5s repetition of the me anal clement, Walls nigied ig wed here the qualiythe wood itlf har teature; basrds reper st luge wal, Plater has this cataier when iti hand feed FFint there isthe granular qual of the plater and thew she Jargrtextre crested by the motion ofthe human hon, One of the most besuifl venins of this aterm is the one ‘wed in Indian village hoses, The walls ste plaered, by hand, witha tintare of cow dang and mad, which driest 3 beau soit fnith and shows the five finger of the paneer heed ll ‘ver the wall , Cove dung lane nan aden village home Therefore } Make every inside surface warm to the touch, soft ‘enough to take small mals and tacks, and with a certain slight “give” to the touch. Soft plaster is very good; textile hangings canework, weavings, also have this character, ‘And wood is fine, where you can afford 1098 235. sorr insto watts salt tthe touch ‘nog “ive” fr mails tae mn our om building system, we fnd i it worth putting on a Tigh lim com of plate over the inner surace ofthe waus anemone (218) and ruook-cenine vavus (219). Wherers Sinih pater meets columns, and bens, and doors and window frames, corer the joint with Dalinch wooden tei rae (340). 5 + 1099236 WINDOWs WHICH OPEN WIDE* this pattem help ow (283) lete wisn act (180), wine 2), and SATU, dems AN wine Many buildings nowad: all; and many of the op build, don't do the job that lave no opening windows at ng windows that people do ning windows ought to do. 1t is becoming‘the rule in erm design w sil op sends and ert perfet™ indoor clinics with mechanical sie condi ‘Asin is when the room gets 2 and smell the air and treet and Dhnve and the weathers sad a hole ‘brough k en Wht i ‘window? Double-hong windows cannot he fully opesed—onl lf of the toa window: ares ean ever be opened a once, And they ace set stack—-smetimes beni they have been paint, smsetnes the winder area san The side h the grates rang of cm which i agea eee constRucTION side—yet im a perfectly usban set, at much in Pais or Madrid {nthe open countryside, ‘Theretere: Decide which of the windows will be opening windows. Fick those which are easy to get to, and choose the ones ‘which open onto lowers you want to smell paths where you might want to talk, and natural breezes. Then put in side-hung casements that open outward. Here and there, g0 all the way and build full French windows. es Complete the wibfrime of whe cement with stun PANES (39). = 237 SOLID DOORS WITH GLASS + this pattern inser the doors defined by conve poons (96) and ow ooonwny (224). He abo helps co Snish rarusta for nicht ano bann (135) anderen wnBows (194) since it equirsgleing in the door, and can help to-ereste daylight in the darter part of indoor plo. ‘An opaque door makes sense in a vast house or palace, where every room is large enough to be a world unto itself; ‘bat in a sal building, with small rooms, the opaque door is only very rarely weet 2 What is nected is # Lind af door which giver some seme of vinual connection together with the posibility of acoastic isla tion: + door which you cam sce through but can't hear throogh. ‘Glzed doors hae ben tations in certain peiods—they are teautfl, nd enlarge the sme of connection and mate the life inthe hosse onc, but all have people the pslity of privacy they need. A glaed door all for + more gracetel enteace into toon and for a more gracsll cecepion by people inthe room, crue it allows both paris to get realy for each other 18 abo alla for different degrees of privacy: You can Jeave the door (pen, ot you can shut for sebustal privacy bet maintain the inal connection; or you con certain the window for visual and outie privacy. Any most important, it ites the feng that Mf i comacted-—not oben priate ceryone in the Beil "Therefore ‘As often as possible build doors with glazing in them, so that the upper half at least, allows you t see through deo ds thee seine: Mines. Weald hie: Meacaa Cone tethat they give acoustic folaion and make + comfortable “hum” when they are closed. 238 FILTERED LIGHT*«even ifthe windows re beauifally placed) glare ca sill be 2 problem—warunat books ano winnows (221). The tottncn of the Tight, in and around the win males an evordos silerence tothe room inside: "The shape ofthe frames eam do a art of itoner neveacs (225)—bat it will needs addtional hp eee Light filtered through leaves, or tracery, is wonderful, But why? We know that Tight Seving through 2 leafy tree B very plesont—it lend excitement cerflneny gael; and we bnow ‘Bat areas of uniform Fighting-eeste dll unimeresting space Bat wig? 1 The mort obsiow teson: direct Hight coming fram a point source cats strong shadows, resign harsh images with song tras nd people have an ope bit which take thi cont teat worse: our eye auromatically reinforces boundarcs 30 tht ‘hey read sharper than they ae, For exaipey 2 esl cart with sips of different col set next to each ober will appear at though there are dik lines between the srg, These contra and hard boundaries are unpleunt—objects appear to have a hard character, and cur eyes, usable to adja to the contrat ‘anaot pickup the desi For all these ressns, we have a natural deste to dias Hight ith yp shades or indirect ighting, xo thatthe lage rcated + ‘bythe light wil be “sor” hati that the Boundaries peresned ate not sharp, there is es contrat fewer thadan and the detail ae ener to uc. This is bo why photographers se reflected Tight instead of direct light when’ photographing hist they Dik up devils which otherwne wud be etm shade, 2. The second rexon: to reduce the glare around the window. When there is bright light coming in through the window, it eats gave agsns the darks of the wall around the window ‘ce one exveaus (233). Fikrig the Fight wyecilly a the 1106 238 riereReD sigur edges of the window cus down the glre by letting in Jew light. 3+A thind rem which i pore comjerture: ic may simply be that an object which has ssl cle patterns of ligt dancing ite sensual pleasing, and simlates w biologically. Some fine makers chim the poy of light upon the retina is nately vense- 05 al by isl ‘To erente Bere light, parily cover thaw windows which get direct sunlight, with vines and Intices, Leaves are specie became they more. And the edge of the window can have fine traery—that i the edge of the gl telly not the frame, © thatthe High ening in is pradally stronger from the edge to fe center of the windows the tracery is bet toward the top of the ‘window where the light is stongert. Many old windows combine thee eat. Therefor: . 4 roof is silhouetted againet the shy, make a richy detailed taspestry of light and dark, to break up the light and soften it vesceny You can do this, teal, with climbing plants trained to limb around the ouside of the vvindow-—ensmnina. Law's (246). If there are mo pnt, you can alo doi bestfally with simple canvas awnings—~eanvas moors (246), perhaps colored — twanae cots (250). You cam ab help to Att light Bp making the panes smaller, more deity an more elaborate high in the window where the Tight ie strang—saasa Pants (339). = + + 107239 SMALL PANES* + thitpatiern give the gluing forthe windows ia nersmon Wwnbows (194), natenat mans ayn otis (33), wintows cit ora wine (236), and wotan mnie wisi exe (299), 4m mest cases the glazing can be bik ay 2 continuation of the Prats se ricxentn eoens (285) When plate glass windows became posible, people thought that they would put us more directly ia touch with nature. Infact, they do the opposite. ‘They alienate we from the view. The smaller the windows aey snd the amaler the panct af, the more intensely window help onnect as with what iron the aher ie, ‘This is an important paradox. ‘The clea plate window seem 1 thogh it ought to bring nate clr to us, jest besos it ‘eemi to be more lie an opening, sore like the sit. Bot, in fet, I ur contact with the vow, oar tomact withthe things we ee through windows ie feted by the may the window frames then When we conider window as an eye though which to a 4 em me tnst recognize that i tthe extent to which the window frames the view, that inctester the riew, inca its intensity, increwes its variety, even incre the numberof views we see to we—and i je beau of thin that windows which me broken into amller windows, and windows which are filed wih ey et, put us 40 intimately in touch with what kon the othee fide, Is beaut they create far more framers and tthe mol tude of frames which mates the view. ‘Thomas Markus, who how sedied windows extemieyy has aired st the same conclusion: windons which ste brolen 4p smuk for wore intersting tiews. ("The Function of Window ‘A Reappraisal” Building Science, Vel. 2. 196p. phe toned) He points out that small an narrow windows Afoeddifereet view fom different py roomy while the view tends to be the tame throagh lire wins o horizontal once We believe that the same thing, alm easly, happen | nos: v9withis the windoi frame itll ‘The following pictte shows a tinpe Indcape, eaten op a it might be by se place Te Head of ene view, we se sx views “The new beats yh because the small panes wae its, Another argument for small punee: Madera architecture sad building have deliberately tried to. male, windows lee Windows and meres thogh thre ws nothing Betneea oa na ‘the outdoors Yet tht entirely contradic the ature of toate Ie the fonction of windows to ofer 2 view and provide ye Ship to the euide eve. But this dor et cnn th hey thosld wot a the sae ine like the wall and fol, pve yen ‘ove of protection and sheler fram the cutie, Ih eae forable ofc tht thet thing betneen you sid the soni, when in ft you ae inside a boiling, Ie the nator ot aoe dows to give you a telationship to the wuts an at de tentoaf enloate. re 239) SMALL Panes ot only that Big reas of dear gla até sometimes even tineeow Perle wok into pate ghw wisdom, Dees they bol ike ai. By compaton, winks with aml pone aie, clea fnetional mussge—ie frases of the panes etal ell you'that something is there separating you lem the euside: od ‘hey help to crentewisremun suet (298) ‘Therefor Divide each window into small panes. These panes can be very small indeed, and should hardly ever be ion than 4 foot square. To get the exact size of the panes, divide the width and eight of the window by the nember of panes Then cach window will have diferem sized ponce According to its height and wi Jn certain cacs sou may want to mae the uml) panes even finer nar the window ele, ther the ight svund! the ape ge of windows which snd ait gaint the symone etre (238). As for the mantis, they ean he wade Ina he ‘sme materi a trim—tassersen vant (s4o),240° HALF-INCH TRIM** ad ts pater fnshor dhe joints ffiecen sory sine Wwanas (245), oF ware arson wauas C244) snl the vaiou aos ad aes tones ae enamente wie ate set inte the elk: ton einarome (216), cheuea eas (217), rroencenane vavicrs (219), Pees as TNCKENED ces (225), and etnancenr (249). ‘Totalitarian, machine buildings do not require tiny be ‘cause they are precise enough to do withgut. But they buy te prcson ats dread price: by kill the poss of freedo boiling plan, ee acre Tar cea AT edun—if the boards cute ste it ie eral that the ct fan be inaccurate within bal-inch or wy, Ct ha 10 be more corte, there will he a prest waste etting time and labor will incre, an and eos ce vety poi biliy of adapting eh por of the hung tothe exact aubetes ofthe pli and site willbe in jena Ins in ssponse to dius of thi ort that madcem stem building ha arizn, Here tolerance are very low indeed 36 inch and even lower—and there is no need for trim to over Op imcuracie. However, the yrecson of the campenents can only be obtained by the most tyrannical contol over the pan, Thi fone aspect of coniucton hss ty ibelf destroyed the builder's capacity to mabe 3 bul sturalonanis and adapted tothe ite 1,28 we sugget, the wiling procedure i lor and allows smuch lige tlerance—esem mises om the onder af ball 2 inch ‘or more—then the we af tim to corer the camnetion between wei Become exert Inco within this atid to builde ing, the trim ie not > trivia slecoratign aided 3s 3 ishing touch, but an cental pine of the contruction, We sey then, insthat trim, 0 often sociated with older buildings, and ested gf an emblem of nocalga, i in fat a vital part of the proces ef king buildings nara, Finally, i ie worth ang » ote about the stat size af the ‘rim picts. Buiklings buile in the lve 25 yeata oft mae + te out of boldnes nd there it» tendency to use very lage orenized. pieces of tin itstead of small pices Within the framework ofthis phileophr, ie might sci right to we pices, of trim 2 or incher thick for thei eflsct and heaviness We believe that this i werong: Trim which is too large, or 100 {ick dose do its job. This isnot 3 mater of ye. Thre in Paychological reson for making sare that erey compoiens in the building has 3t lear some pistes of trim which are of the order of half an inch ofan inch thick and wo mere, ‘Compare the flloming to examples of ti, For sme resin the righthand ong, im which the trim i finer i Coce and beter alspted to oor fctngs hin the lelhand ane Chants tim ‘The reat fF thie seams tobe the fllosing. Oar own bodies and the natoralsacoundings in which oe evoked contin + ontinvoet hierarchy of detily ranging all the way from the molecular fine-structure to grou festree lke army and egy (in ‘our ovn bodies) and trunks and branches (in ovr mauea sre routings). = We ns: frm rele cauiive psychos that any one sep jin this hierarchy canbe no mote than 3,177, or 1110 if we ae to perceive iv at » niturl Bierachy. We enomot understand 4 hierarchy in which there is 3 jmp in se of 1:20 oF more. It Bs thi fact which makes i ezeuary for oar surroundings, shen ‘shen man-made 0 dip ini continuum of detail, ‘Most material are some Lind of natura ieous or crystalline 240° HALF-INCU TRIN ftrectare at the scale of stout Yq inch. But if the smallest bwilding del dimensions are of the order of oF 3 inches, this leas jump of 1:40 oF 160 Between thee detail and the ine stroctre ofthe material. ter to allow us fo perceive» connection between the fine ling contrction an the fine sructure of the mattis i it coal that she smallest baling details be of the ander of half inch orto, © that iti no mote than about to times the size ofthe granular snd fibro texture of the material, ‘Therefore ‘Wherever two materials meet, place a piece of trim over the edge of the connection. Choose the picees of trim 30 that the smallest piece, in each component, is always of the order of ¥4 inch wide. The trim can be wood, plaster, terracotta... é Tn many ene you may beable to wie the win to form the fornaments—onvantent (249); and trims aay ocesonally be Colored: even tiny amount en help to make the light in a teom swarm conan (250). ais‘itd outdoor details to fish the outdoors as fully asthe indoor spacer; 4 242, 243. 244. 45. 246. 247. 248. ay241 SEAT SPOTS** m8 sssume thatthe main suuctere ofthe builling complete, eile it peel complete you nee to bl inthe deta of the gene athe tere Tithe Duling, I woe cae, you wil probly have Linke the wall nd flancrs and seis at feat in roogh online; but itis atally eat to make the fina dessins about them afer the bulking i realy there—wo that you can mate then ft the building and help foie Ht in frrroundinge—rarns sare (121), acrivery rocneT: (124), Parrare-vanines on-rie svar (140), murepne so (169), Sonne ruace (161), ot-rmn neat (103), conser TO HS axa (168); rusts wnax (174), extorn sear (176), et int the outdoor vex, publican privat, Where outdoor seats are set down without regard for view and climate, they will almost certainly be useless. We made random sot checks on wlctd benches in Berkey, CCalornis, and recorded the fat shoot cach Bench: Was ft ‘excpied or empiy? Did it gine a view of extrem aivity oF not! Was tin the tan or not? What war the crest ssnd velity? ‘Three ofthe cleven benches were ceupiel eight were empty ‘At the moment of observation, all thre occupied. bercher looked oat ststy were in the sm, snd ad swind veloc of Tem than 1.5 feet per sccond, A the moment of eherration, none ofthe eight empty benches had all three of thee character, ‘Thiee of them bad shelier and activity but no sin; three of them had activity bit no sun, and wind reater than fest per secind; fv of Um hal na al sheer but natn. ‘A second serer of lverratons compared the numbers of old people sting in Union Syste at 3:00 hat, om a sunny Jay with the number at 5200 maton > cou dip 65 people om the sunay day and 31 onthe clndy day, ever dha the air tm penture wa the ame on both days 1h ebviows, of coree—hut the point thie—vehen you are sing to mark in pot in your projet for the lrtion of atdoorseat ding wallets ent garden seas, lok for places with there characteris: Te Benches facing disc omte pedro 2 tenshos pen tothe sath fo un espe slaring winter oct 1 A wall on theses where the watef wind qin down 4, In hoe cliter—cover to give sum prcetion daring the nidday hour of summer wont, and the bench open to the Aiection of the eumane! bere ‘New England ence Therelre Choosing good spots for outdoor seats is far more im portant than building fancy benches. Indeed, if the spot {sight the most simple kind of satis perfect. Tn cool climates, choose them to face the sun, and to be ‘protected from the winds in hot climates, put them in shade and open to summer breezes. In both cases, place them to face activites. swindbea view activity 1 thee seats ean be made continaoue with sits er uiling catrancer or low walt of hllatades, so much the beter fan sears (123), PHORT noon naneH” (242), ATANE WALL (43) | | i re les 5. FRONT DOOR BENCH*star arom (241), sting within several Inger pater, restr an atmoaphore atound the edge of the buling hick invites Tingering—senous (149), momsine rc (160), sunny mack (151), cownerion ro rie nant (168) it mat marked and mow important nese the entance—ENTRINEE, ‘noone (130). This pattern dence apc rear sror (344): 3 bench which Helps to form the entrance room and the bulling edge around the entrance, It is always iporants but pera tat important of al tthe door of sn ou» Ace c@rTace(153)- ane People like to waich the sieet. Bat they do not always want great desl of fiveltement with the street, The proces of hanging out requires + continuum of depres of iarclrement with the sect ning all. the way from the mor private Kind to the most public Kind, A yeung gid stching the strct say ant tobe able to withdraw the moment tnvone loot at her tao intents. At ther sme poople may aa to be watching the rect near enough to it to ak to someone ‘who conte pn, ye ail protected enough so that they cam ithe {rae into thir own domain ata manent notice ‘The mon public kind of involsement with the nec editing cut, Many people, epeilly eer people, pull chars cut fo the front door oF lea apsint the fant of thet hoa either while Front dor benches Pra 242 FRONT DOOR BENCH they ate working a semething or jst for the pleasure of watche ing urct lif, Mu soce there eure reluctance tobe to public, this activiy: ryuirr 9 bench on mat hich i ery pl fren though in the public world. It is best ef all when the bench is placed so that pcople are sitting om the edge of heir weld on private land—set 1p plsced thatthe perma space it Tan that ie eplly publi, Build. a special bench outside the front door where people from inside can sit comfortably for hours on end and watch the world go by. Place the bench to define a haléprivate domain in front of the house. A low wal, plant- ing,a tre, can lel to create the same domain. ‘The bench may help 10 mate the entrance raver (110); it an he part of 4 wall—strrse WA swith Homers inthe sndhine next tina rans (348 Pace it with ie, ecrding to the eles given in Sear sPore Gaye. nas243 SITTING WALL* if al i wel, the outdoor areas are largely made up of pote pacer rerio ttre tracts (106); in sme ation you have mated loundaries hetween gardens and weet, between races and guidens, between outdoor rooms aid teracs, be= tween play ares and gad—ensra stunts (S1)y reoes aan fmezr (100), ustamunoioe canon (111), wiRaanenY oF foven srace (114), Patit mare (421), acHETY POCKETS (124), Puivare nentact ow "Hie staner (140), ov FDR ooat (163), OveNING To 4HE same (165), OALLERY #0R- ono (166), canbe okowne wo (173). With this pater, you can help these nateral boondaric take on thee proper cher- Sater, by building walls, jyst low enough to ston, and high ‘enough to mark the boundries Tf you have ako marked the place where it makes sense to lid Seau—ssar snore (2gt), PONY boom newen (242)——you can Ail two binds with une taney eing the wall 5 seats which Ip enclae the outdoor spce whereer ite postive character is wetlet. In many places walls and fences between outdoor spaces ate to high; but no boundary at all doce injustice to the subtlety ofthe divisions between the space. Gomider, for example, + gaden on 2 quiet ret, At Jat somewhere along the edge been the two there is» need for 8 ‘eam splice which unites the twoybut des wo-withowt breaking dawn the fact that they are separate place, I there is igh wallet 3 hedge, then the people in the paren have no. way of being conneried to the sicts the people in the set have no way of, being connected to she garden. Hut if there ie no Baeier at allthen the division between the tho is hard to staintin. Stay dogs can camer in and tat will tis even tncomforuble to sit inthe garden, hecabe i i eseatialy TieThe protiem can ony be wleed by 4 Kind of barrier sehich neti aa barrier which separates, and at am echich jn, ‘A low wall of Balueae, jst atthe ight height for sii in perfect. Tt crests atrce which separates. But because it ite ‘tes people to ait on it-invies them to sit Bt with thir ge. fon onesie, then with ther lege on tap, then to swivel round fll farther tthe other sd, er tosit stride t—it so functions 1 4 scam, which makes + postive connection between the (wp lace ‘Example; A low wall withthe chidcens andbor on one side, cirealtion path en the other; low wall tthe front of the garden, connecting the howe to the public pathy 2 siting wal hati 2 Tetsining wall, with plint on one side, where people on st ‘let the ower and ext their Tate. Rosin drier iting wall he experieneds Last samner I was lodging for litle while in = cotage in the coun, ad infront of my low window there were, fet some bed St da thn stow of foonterry and curane Bushes aod hen Show will about the fet alive whe ground, covered ih sone: ‘rea Oude corm ey with te green ear lenin nthe Sm, Sind feld path throug iy jo atthe arden pe. From sindow t culd se every penant ‘of the vilage who peed hat tee wih set om ae fret ae om shoul for fed Witn'l war incline for soley, Tcould Teas over my. wall, {alto ansbodyy wien {marci for wee, T coed boanae sllsoog the top of my walter wete four ae jp over my ave in a Chitin country, no a thing which you eat et making sounelf lok Ike's wil tea, Took at ut of your window i the morning without expecting Jc stnivody ned ope inthe nigh Cohn Ruskiny rhe Fae Pais, New York: Everyman's Libary, 9075-203) ‘Thersioe Surround any natural outdoor area, and make minor ‘boundaries between outdoor areas with low walls, about 26 inches high, and vide enough to sit on, at least 12 inches wide. 1136 243 sirrine want 4 tN ct wide tp / =e “mbigvous boundary Phice the wall to coincide sith natura seat spots 40 that zur beaches temo necnag—innt ores (Eat) me tne ttre or hy pices ns ane nee eat Hoy tut wo stew of gh diet he ete thes wah hols to make them lutre—anwastnwr (249). Where they are in the am, and can be large enough, plant fomers in them ‘or agint them —nasrn Pues (245)244 CANVAS ROOFS* around exery bulking there ae noo canvens (148), sncanes.(419)4 rniveri stances mnie some (140), UTHO0H Hons (463), cansay snmeinin (165), PHAR wate (174)y and sintnne Pra (IMO een ants, Pause ors (103), which all bene me subi and mote beautiful with canvas rots snd avnings. And the soning slays help to este rrrmin sae (298), ‘There is a very special beauty about tents and canvas amnings. The canvas has a softncts a suppleness, which is in harmony with wind and light’ and sun. A” house of any building built with some canvas will touch all the ee ‘ments more nearly thai it éan when itis made only with Igrd conventional materials. Jn conventional bulking, it ie aay tw think that was and rools mutt ther be sli or mixing algther. But cloth and cava ie just exciyHlfay in betcen, They are translcent Jet a litle breeze pas throu and the are very toroll up and eae to pul dan, Weean ently thee 1, Awnings—sunshades over winds retratable, nd wed to ier very Bright het sunlight, 4, Curtine—moveable, blf-ayen wall on oot soem, bale onic and gallerce—places that se wcepied day, bt might bene frm extra wind preci 3. Tentlike roofs on esto tonme—s tent which ean hold of 3 drizsle and mate eutdcor rns, or telies, or courtyards habitable inthe spring anasto might. Here is Frank Lloyd Wright sesribing hit we of the eaneat oF inthe yery cary strates 3¢ Taliesin West reaps and ex (he Tati Fellow inca ‘hich the boys, srk a Ti ns ive canes tops a ther with mel, are noe buiaing Mary of te baling ent redewoo Teaming wting. on msivestone walls made by pacing the Aat dent stone into weed bore nd throwing in woner and conte Ihind thm Mor f the canst ames may be open or Reps. Tit canvas even Twine a Tie sp rahing ket ebembive exc way in thee owes with aii paper wall ae sho} Future of Architecture, Landon: Foe Avcietral row, 933 ass6) “Another example: In tly, the canas awning is uicd gute commonly 8 simple swning ever suth and seit windows. The ‘amas is often a bight and bevutilal orange, giving calor tothe fret an warm glow tthe Interior roms, ‘3s 3 baal example, we report our own we of his ptern inthe housing project in Lim, We roofed interior patio with ‘morable erat materi I hot wether the cover are elle ack, and a breeze blows throagh the hose. In eal! weather, the ‘ams is rolled out, sealing the house, andthe patio ie sill, tefl In Tims, there isa winter dew which normally ker patio Boor damp and cold for eight monthe in the yer, The over onthe patios hep het dry ant atm and ep hee tefl Hic. They ctininate the need for gla windows set temtrely. The seindows which lok into patio give light to rome tnd may be catsined for visas] contel—bet since the cold and amp ate Lept aut bythe patio canes there need be 10 gs in the windows and no expeoive morng part, ne fle cover in Bem “Therefore: are spaces which need softer light or partial shade in sum- SR gain 244. CANVAS ROOFS ‘mer, or partial protection from mist and dew in autumn inter. Build them to fold avvay, with ropes or wires nys0 that they can easily be opened. \ : oN E i dH Aen} weer Lay Use the cams awningt, epeily, to ier Tight over those vindows which fae west and south and lare Beene they face the tyrone cite (238). Colered canon will add ‘special lfe—onnaseewr (249), wats cotons (350), nseperce neces that the Hower ae placed in positions where people veally ean fxjoy them-—and not empl at ormament ouside favorite wine dows slong taeled. paths, neat entrances and round. doomayy, by outdoor seat 246 CLIMBING PLANTS ‘Therefore: Soften the edges of buildings, path, and olatdoor areas with flowers. Raise the flower beds so that people can touch the flowers, bend to smell them, and ‘And build the Hower beds with solid edges, 0 that people ‘an sit on them, among the flowers too. sad flere 3 fet high VE«two calice patterns con be elped by lining pnts Inova the balding? yastasean wat (074) onl ralteign tacit (238). see ‘A building finaly becomes a part.of its surroundings when the plants grow over parts of it as frely as they {grow along the ground. ‘There is no daub tht beilings with toes or vines or honey= sulle growing on th mean mich more to us than buildings ‘whore walle ate blank and bare. That is reason enough to pla wil clematis round the ouuide af building, to make boxes to ‘encourage plants to grow higher story, and to make famee {nd relist for them to limb on. ‘We can think of four waye to ground this ftution in fane- 1. One argument, comintent with others in the book, it thet lining plant effect 2 sooth teanston between the bail and ‘he natal. A sot of lasing ofthe edges 2. The quality of light. When the plans grow around the openings of buildings, they erates opel Kind offered light inside. ‘Thi light sof, reduce: glte, and stark shadows— eran wieare (338). P 5. The sete of teach, Climbing and hanging pnts alo give the outide wall a doe and subi texture. The sime Kind of texture can be ackired nthe beilding material ba i ‘niguelybessifal when it comer from 2 tine groting aeras # wall or winding sound the ener ofan ateale. Then, the texture Inter you to touch and sell to pick of lest. Peehaps met limporent, the textre of climbing plants is ever diferent iti ely Seren from doy to dey, w the wind and ean poy wpon ies andi greatly dileret from sson to son 4. Tending the plntz, When they se welcnled, heathy pliats and flowers growing around the windows and out of flower Boxes in the upper sors, make the weet feel more u36 246 cLimmixe Pianrs Conortabe, They berpenk weal order of some repo within the btitings, aid therfore i it comfortable to be on the west ane fees ot ae. 1 eat i the plane were 2 lt fromm the people inside to people on the cet. he conribaion the sree ‘Therefore (On sunay walls, train climbing plants to grow up round the openings in the wall—the windows, doors, porches, arcades, and trellises.24.7 PAVING WITH CRACKS BETWEEN THE STONES** sc amany pattern call for phe and tcrrces and places where {Ge outdoor are around + building feel connected to the fartb—onuan. rans (51), vsti sare (134), PRAT ‘remace on cur Freier (140); ourrooon moos (163), cor terion 70 sate rar (10H), sawacs stare (169). T patter providers way of building the ground weface hat ma these ager patter came 10 ie Asphalt and concrete surfaces outdoors are easy to wash down, but they do nothing for us, nothing for the paths, ‘and nothing forthe rainwater and pi “Lao ats simple path, made by lying brick or paving stones, ety inthe earth, with ample cacks between the sone. It i {eat to wall on, good forthe plants, food forthe pammee of tine, gond for the rain. You wa from stone to stone, and fel the earth directly under fot. Ie docs not erchy bese 26 the ‘ath sete, the ston move with the earth and gradually rake fons rich oneven character, Ae tne goce yy the ery age and Kato ofall the moment on that path are almost recorded in iit onevennen, Plante andrea sal Rowers grow bee tween the crack ‘The cracks slo help preserve the delicate cology af worms and ince and bcs andthe arity of plant species And when it rainy, the water fect direety to the ground eg ee cece ge earner ot arn 0s ha of water inthe ground around the path All these are good reatne to ct paving stoner lols. A for the Mat aot, hard conercte and. aphaltsrlacs, they have mot nothing to recommend thom. They ate built when people forget the small advantages that come’ about when paving made ott of individual wones with cracks betwen the ones "Therefore: (On paths and terraces, lay paving stones with a x inch cack between the stones, so that grass and mosses and 139construction small fowere can grow between the stones. Lay the stones mote vce (160), comnterion 20 tit: yamrie (HOB), cARDEN wa (173), sinbow riack (380), Conn Dome (196)y FRAMED A Tuiexiwrn xocrs (235), convun viace (226), eouMN conngeriow (227), noor cats (232), oPr WSIBE WALLS (235), terrae wats. (243), and 40 on-—it tie topo in the Snishing touches, to fil the gaps 10 mark the boundarien by making ‘All people have the instinct to decorate their surround: ings. But decorations and ornaments will only work when they are operly made: for rnsments and decoration are not only born fom the maul exuberance and love for scmething happy im = buildings they ale have faction, which isa len, and deine 2 any other Tunction in building The jop and eauherance of carvings and color wil lp werk if they se made in harmeny with this fungtion. And, further, the function ie» ncesry ene the ofeaments are not jue! eptonsl ations which may, oF may not be alded to a bulking, according athe sirt mover yous building needs them, jest a much a cols doors and Windoos Tn-order o-undettand the fenton of ermament; we mat bee tin by undentanding the matre of space in generale Space, when propery forme is whole. Hvery part af it every part of town, 4 nighbothou 2 balling,» paucn, or 2 room, fe whele, inthe sense that iti both am integral eniy, fn lf, and at the tame time, jeined to some other enti to form a lager whole. This proces hinges Iegly om the loundarion Wt is ne tecident that 20 many of the pater in ths pattem language foncern the importance of the boundaries feteen things, 8 Flkcer that afe 98 importast 2+ the things themselves—for exAmple suncuurure nounpane (13), neicunonto09 novNDane (13), sneams (i10), moseaine sce (160), catteee sexe oun (166), comN rion THN HARE (36H), Leo ‘watts (193), Te wats (197), PaaS TateRaNk HES (23s), sateen ane (ago), srrne wala. (243) 2 thing is whale only when ic is itt etre and ko joined to ite oui to form leper emy. ‘But this em only happen when the boundary bebwees the two its thick, vo eh, so aibiguods thatthe two ate not sharply separated, but ca function either a epeate entities ora one larger whole which hat no inner large in it H Ie Split... and etal In the lefehand diagram where there it eleaiage that ie sharp, the thing and fis eubide are dict nthiee—they Fane tion indvidelly a wholer—bat ther donot function toner 2 Tnrer whole, In thi ee the werd i pit Um the ght ‘ingrm where there is ambiguous space between then the too entities are indivdlly entre a Before, but they ate sho centre togeter st a lager whole. In this exe the world is whale. ‘This principle extend throughost the material univer from the larut organic stractres in our surroundings, to the very some an lel. treme exampler of this principle at work in manmade ‘bjecs are in the elle wiles of ehjct from the so-called ‘dark ages” and in the eqrpets and tlework of ‘Turtew and Penis, Leating aide the profound meaning of there “ome siete” it ie fact hat they fonction mainly by cfesting ere in which cach port i smultaneandy figure anf boundary and in which the dtign aca boundary and figure at serra ifer= ent evel simtancou. 249 ORNAMENT A decoration ebih i ele, become comet be bots fate fer. Since none of the part can be acpraicd fsom shir serroued= ing beeate each por acts a ure and ae oundaryy a evra level this ancient carpet ie wholey oan extraordinary depee ha sin prpoie of ermament tn the emirenment ia builds ings, runs, avd pic ipceris to make the eerld more whale by ing ober i ray the sy cre TF the pater in unifying boonlarcs will seealy come inte existence without is Ingo ate wl corey then thee fermament at shmow all the stat where they are neceuary in spaces and mera 1 wil happen inthe large spacey like the Entrance teaston or the balding eg. Ady ol courts hape pens of its wn acord, in those wnaler sectors which occur within 'the materiale thenscver-in the for of woody im the ‘ain of brick and ston, lot there ie an intermediate range of fete a evlight ne, whore wilt happen ol is nv aor Wists ange of wale that onament Sil the pp As far ap specie ways af ing i are emeerncdy there are handreds of roure. In this lorale the moment made catizely of the howndars the ape Tetoren the board The bona ate cut in atch 3 was, shat whew they ane jie fetes in the fence th lc ing of hee fenA balutrae, Hire ina more complicated ene—the entrance to 2 Romaneigee arb ‘The orsament i bik wp atound the edge of'he entante. It crencs 2 anifying seam between the entrance spare andthe tone. Withoat the ornament, there would be'a gp beter the sch of the ent andthe pomage ill the ornament orks on he ‘eam, betreen the two, ad holds them together. Tt i especially lavish and developed in this place, beesate just tit scat—dhe loundary of the entrance tthe chareh—is 0 important, sme Inlay othe people who worship thee s In fact, dors and windows ae slays important fo ornament, tecaue they ate places af conection bettcen the cements of ‘uiking an the Hf in and aroun them, I sexy likely that we shall nd s conentation of ormment atthe else of doors and windows, as people try to tie together thee edgss with the ‘pace sound then 50 249 onwamenr 8s oi Natio door. And exzetly the same happent at hundrele of ether places in the environment; in rooms around aur hours inthe Kithen, on 4 wall along the surface 6 path, on toys of oly sound ‘olum—in fact, ansthere at all where thee se edges between ‘hings which are imperfectly bit tether, where materials or objets meet, and where they change, ‘Most generally of all the thing that makes the difference in the ue of arson inthe sss forthe signifvant opin the cane tinwum: the-place where the cntinuss fare of fterlack and sonnstvityt-huken. When-saaisent-i applied edly ii alvars pat into ste place where these connections are not realy rising, 30 ie opellons, frvehass, When i sell acd, slays aplied in s plore wise there a genvine gap, aed for a Title more sirdetare, 2 noo for what we may all melee Phorially “some extra hinting ences” to knit the ff together whet ttn much apa. Thetelor Search around the building, and find those edges and ttansitions which need emphasis or extra binding energy.Seem pcs whee mater met dor tame wit dows, main entrances, the place where one wall meets ap- ‘thes, the garden gate, a fence—all these are natural places ‘which call ou for ornament. ‘Now find simple themes and apply the elements'af the ‘theme over and again to the edges and boundaries which you decide to mark, Make the ornaments work as seams ‘along the boundaris and edges so that they knit the two sides together and make them one. _ At ‘Whoneser it is posible, make the ofnament while ros are bulding—not ater—from:the planks nd boards and sles and srface of which the buildings actolly made—wasa, eae uane (218), reates at THieKeMrD ences (223), LAPRED ‘ovraok watts (354), 40PF nse watss (293), 08 Tuy AND mica (248). Use clr for ermment—wanatcovons (250); we the smaller tema which corr. joins ay ernamcat--wat~ent ‘itt (240); and embelsh the rome themaches with pars of Your life which become the matursl ornaments aroun “ramet row woun tire (453). hse 250 WARM COLorRs** this pattern helps to erente and generate the right ind of oom warenins (207), FLion suneace (233), s0rr iNebe watts (235). Where posible ave the matenals tele satel sate, Jus 34d enough calor for decoration, and to make the Tight inside alive ad warm, ‘The greens and greys of hospitals and office corridors ste depressing and cold, Natural wood, sunlight, bright colors are warm. In some way, the warmth of the colors in 4 room makes a great deal of difference between comfort and discomfort. Bat just what are warm cules and cold colon? In a very Simple minded seme, réd ad yellow and orange snd brown ar var; blue snd green and grey are cold, But, obveuly, i not tude that rooms with red and yellow fel goods while rome with blue and prey feel cll. ‘There i ome seperia tat to this simple stement: it ie tre that reds and. browse and ellos Beip to male rome comfort; but its ako true hat ite and blue and green cam all male peuple cmfortable ton, Alter all the shy hue, and gre geeen Obviguly, we fel carnfontable oo in the ween gra of 9 meadow, under the Ble ‘The explanation ic simple and fascinating 1s no the calor of the thing, the surfs, which mae place warn or col dat the econ othe light. What exsetly da ths ean? We ean fstimate the olor of the fight ta parclar point in space by Dlding a perfectly white srtsce there Ifthe light i warm, the surlce wil be alight tnt tnaed the yellow-red. Hf the ight col this surface wil be slightly tinted toward the blue-green "his tntng il be very sigh: indeed, om » mall white seface jtemay be wo hard to see that you ned apecrometcr to doh M53consrRucTION x when you realize tht everthing in that spice is Tightly pet Pee nee Ge eee eee thing-—it nots hard to ace that tht cam hate 3 huge eect | ‘he emotional gut that people experience ther ‘Now the coor ofthe light in space does not depend in Soy simple way on the color af the srface.t depenis on 2 com= plex interaction between the calor ofthe light soatées and the trap thi ight then Bounces on and off the many surfaces. In 2 ng ‘dy, the sunlight bouncing of the green il warm Tght—tht i inthe ellow'sh redsh range. 12 hoopial corridor, Ui by Asrecent ube, bouncing ‘off green valli cok Tigh—in the gieenblue range. In 2 oor with Tot of nataral Tight, the oerall ight i warm. In 2 oom shove wndwsface onto 2 grey bulding across the sect, the light maybe col nlee thre ie» very strong concentration of yellow and rd bic. Ifyou are in any doubt about the objective characte of the light i the room and you dos’ hae = spectrometer, all you need to doi oir to ae colt lm, If the Hight i wat andthe film is properly expe white walk will come out sight pin. If the Tight cle, white vals will ome out slightly Ue. ‘So, in order to make 2 room comfortable, You must we + callection of colors which together with the scuces of light and the’ efleting surface eattde the room, combine to mate the efleced light which exits in the mill of the foam warm, that i, tovard the yello-red. Yellow and red colors will abs eit, Blues and preene and whites will nly dit in the proper Blas fined wih er ey and when he ight its helping. ‘To complete the dcesion weno mae the concept of watt Tighe prec in cme of chromates. Conde the ih ing on sy given surface inthe middle f the room. This ight conains 2 vesvlength, It charset i spied, ext, on of apectal enerpien p(A), which gives the relative proportions of diferent watlengts present in his ight ‘We know that any light whatoever—inshert, any p(A)—ean te pled ata single point en the color tiangle—more formal orn ae the two-dimensional chromaticity diogram—by means of the standard color matching fonction given in Gunter Wsezechi 250. WARM coLons and W. S. Stiles, Color Science, New Vor, 1967, pp. 228-317. “The coordinates of» pt fn this color range define the cbromar tity of any piven ene Chromatic diogram We may now Slentily 9 ron om the chromaiciy diagram wskich we sll eal the esr region. Iie shown hatched nthe diong "This hatched ars ie bred oa number of empirial resus, Fr example we hnow tht people hare a clear subjective ime prosion of the relive warmth, or cols, of diferent spaces Sc, for instance, Committe on Calerimcry of the Optical So- ety of Amerie, Phe Science of Color, New Voth, 1953 P= 168. ‘pe study which acm to Alene the objective correlates of pevesied "wiemth” ie, M, Newhal, "Wari and Coolne of Gator Pasehalgical Record, 4, 194%, pp. oR-a42, This ud reveslel a masimam for *etmes™ judjinen's at dominant Sgere-knpth G10 mlimiromn which ici the middle of the tirmge range. And individual observer atblity in sich judgmen Te tigh. Thos, one ody iter relay coeficiens of 0.95 for ‘ath and for cules —N. Callin, The Appropriatene {1 Certain Cole Combinations in Avstixing,” M.A thei, Cor Tombia Univers, New Vor, 1924. ‘Finally ic vial to somember that thie pater requires onl thatthe ight—the ttl ight Jn the mille of 3 room, coming {rom sonighy aria igh, rfetons from wall, efletions ftom nts, rca =the total ght, es in that part ofthe Color wiagle we call ann.” Hr doce not reqite that any ine Sivas clor sfc in dhe tomy should be red or orange orYellon-only that the combined effect of ll the sarc snd Tights together, cent light inthe mide of the room which lies inthe waem pat ofthe color wane. “Therelre Choose surface colors which, together with the color of the natural lighy, reflected light, and artificial fights create ‘warm light inthe rooms. swarm ihe S07) low - Re coh ‘This means that yellows rede, and oranges will often be needed to pik out iim and lampshades and occasional detals— aueivert TM (240), ORmiMENT (249), POOLS OF CHET (253). Colored cates oors (244) and sors vias nmsex (24H) alto help to make eam colored Tight. Blus and. greens and grey are uch harder to wey epecilly on the north side Ivhete the light scold and grey Dot they cam sla Be wed for ‘ornament where they lp to 1&t off the warmer colon—onNhe diewr (249) 1156 251 DIFFERENT CHAIRS 137when you ate ready te farnith rooms, choose the variety of fnrnitre a estetully ae yoa have male the bilding, so that each ieee of frniture, lowe or bul in, har the ane nique and ‘exgmie individeahiy” a8 the roone and sores have-—cach Afferent, aceording' to the place it oxcupiereeQUENcE oF forme traces (142), THING conch (185), nun HeATE (Go). People are different sizes; they sit in diferent ways. ‘And yet there is a tendency in modern times to make all chair ale. (Of couse, this tendency to make sll chi alee fueled by the-demandsof petabention” and the wppexed écoonies of seae, Designer hare for years been resting") chair that em be anilactared cheaply in mn These chars Imade tobe comfortable for the average pesos. And the inti tions that buy hice bave been “peruaded that buying. thew claire in bo nce all their ne ‘But what it meas ie that some people are chronically uncom: forte; and the variety of maols among peopl wting get en: ely aie ‘Obrious the “average ehse” ix god for some, bet not for ‘exerrone. Short and tall people ate likely to be uncomforsable ‘And shbough situations are rooghly uniorm—in 2 resioran creryane jr eating in an ofce ereryone ik working at table ‘ren 2, there are important distinctions: people sting for if ferent lengths of tines people siting back at musings, people siting aggresively forward in 2 hot dicosion; people’ sing fecmaly, waiting for few minats. I the cha ate all the sme, theve diferences ae reprene, and some people ate vncamfort- sae, ‘What is Jess obvious, and yet perhaps most important ofa, is this we project oar moods and. personals into the chr we sit ine Im one mood 3 big ft chair i jut rights in another ns 251. DIFFERENT cHains ‘mood 2 rocking chair; fot another, tf upright; and yet asin, 2 soa or sofa. And, of coun, it ie only that we lke to ewich According to our moods ome of them sont favor chai, the one {hat aes we mest scare aa confertaey and that again i di “ferent for each person. A sting titi all of har all ightly ferent, immetintely creates an sosphre which supports ih experiences sting which contain csi that ae all ihe pate ‘eubile ssight jacket on experience, "Therefore ‘Never furnish any place with chaits that are iemticlly the satne. Choose a variety of different chairs, some big, some small, some softer than others, some rockers, some very old, some nev, with arms, without arms, some wicker, some wood, some cloth. _ODR 6 4, Tot den can Q ed 0 yy 9. Where thle are placed slone and where chairs ate gathered, reinforce the character of the places which the cis crete with oois or sscarr (352), exch Jel to the group of chain i marks ns9252 POOLS OF LIGHT** ee ee rn (179) and worssescesnetowen (183), larger pacer ike {ComMon amas Ar TIne MARE (129), ENHANCE ROOM (130), and surzinus orricx sehce (146), and the farnithing of roe like marine arwosruene (182), rnc cineux (185), and ‘burrenoer cuains (251) It orem help to generate WARM Coton! (350). Uniform illumination—the’ sweetheart of the lighting cengincers—serves no useful purpose whatsoever. In fac, it destroys the social nature of space, and makes people fel disoriented and unbounded. ‘Look this pctv. 10 in an egg-crate ceiling, with douéns of ‘ren spaced fluorescent lights sbore it It is meant to make the Tighe ae at anderen a pole ina misalen effort to iitte ey Fite

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