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Prime Numbers - The Most Mysterious Figures in Math
Prime Numbers - The Most Mysterious Figures in Math
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John Wiloy 8 Sons, lnc.
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John Wiloy 8 Sons, lnc.
Copyright 2005 ly DaviJ Wolls. All rights rosorvoJ
PullishoJ ly John Wiloy 8 Sons, lnc., Holokon, Nov Jorsoy
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Wolls, D. G. (DaviJ G.)
Primo numlors: tho most mystorious liguros in math DaviJ Wolls.
p. cm.
lncluJos lilliographical roloroncos anJ inJox.
lSBN-13 98-0-41-46234- (cloth)
lSBN-10 0-41-46234-9 (cloth)
1. Numlors, Primo. l. Titlo.
QA246.W35 2005
512.'23-Jc22 200401994
PrintoJ in tho UnitoJ Statos ol Amorica
10 9 8 6 5 4 3 2 1
-
- xi
K- xiii
1
-
alc conjocturo 6
alunJant numlor
AKS algorithm lor primality tosting 8
aliguot soguoncos (sociallo chains) 9
almost-primos 11
amicallo numlors 11
amicallo curiositios 12
AnJrica`s conjocturo 13
arithmotic progrossions, ol primos 13
Aurilouillian lactorization 14
avorago primo 15
Bang`s thoorom 16
Batoman`s conjocturo 16
Boal`s conjocturo, anJ prizo 16
BonlorJ`s lav 1
Bornoulli numlors 19
Bornoulli numlor curiositios 20
BortranJ`s postulato 20
Bonso`s inoguality 21
Brior numlors 21
BrocarJ`s conjocturo 22
Brun`s constant 22
Buss`s lunction 23
Carmichaol numlors 23
Catalan`s conjocturo 24
Catalan`s Vorsonno conjocturo 25
Champornovno`s constant 26
champion numlors 26
Chinoso romainJor thoorom 26
cicaJas anJ primo porioJs 2
circlo, primo 2
circular primo 28
Clay prizos, tho 28
compositorial 29
concatonation ol primos 29
conjocturos 30
consocutivo intogor soguonco 32
consocutivo numlors 32
consocutivo primos, sums ol 32
Convay`s primo-proJucing machino 33
cousin primos 33
Cullon primos 34
Cunningham projoct 34
Cunningham chains 35
Jocimals, rocurring (porioJic) 36
tho porioJ ol 113 36
cyclic numlors 3
Artin`s conjocturo 38
tho ropunit connoction 38
magic sguaros 39
Joliciont numlor 40
Jolotallo anJ truncatallo primos 40
Domlo numlors 40
Joscriptivo primos 41
Dickson`s conjocturo 41
Jigit proportios 42
Diophantus (c. AD 200, J. 284) 42
Dirichlot`s thoorom anJ primos in arithmotic sorios 44
primos in polynomials 45
JistrilutoJ computing 45
Jivisilility tosts 48
Jivisors (lactors) 48
hov many Jivisors? hov lig is ()? 49
rocorJ numlor ol Jivisors 50
curiositios ol () 50
Jivisors anJ congruoncos 51
tho sum ol Jivisors lunction 51
tho sizo ol () 52
{ -
a rocursivo lormula 52
Jivisors anJ partitions 53
curiositios ol () 53
primo lactors 54
Jivisor curiositios 54
oconomical numlors 55
Eloctronic lrontior lounJation 55
olliptic curvo primality proving 56
omirp 5
Eratosthonos ol Cyrono, tho siovo ol 58
P
orrors 63
EucliJ (c. 330-20 BC) 64
uniguo lactorization 65
2 is irrational 65
EucliJ anJ tho inlinity ol primos 66
consocutivo composito numlors 6
primos ol tho lorm 4 3 6
a rocursivo soguonco 6
EucliJ anJ tho lirst porloct numlor 68
EucliJoan algorithm 68
Eulor, IoonharJ (10-183) 69
Eulor`s convoniont numlors 0
tho Basol prollom 2
Eulor`s constant 3
Eulor anJ tho rociprocals ol tho primos 3
Eulor`s totiont (phi) lunction 4
Carmichaol`s totiont lunction conjocturo 5
curiositios ol ()
Eulor`s guaJratic
tho Iucky Numlors ol Eulor 8
lactorial 80
lactors ol lactorials 80
lactorial primos 80
lactorial sums 81
lactorials, Joullo, triplo . . . 82
lactorization, mothoJs ol 82
lactors ol particular lorms 84
lormat`s algorithm 85
IogonJro`s mothoJ 86
- {
congruoncos anJ lactorization 8
hov Jillicult is it to lactor largo numlors? 8
guantum computation 88
loit-Thompson conjocturo 89
lormat, Piorro Jo (160-1665) 89
lormat`s Iittlo Thoorom 91
lormat guotiont 92
lormat anJ primos ol tho lorm
2
2
92
lormat`s conjocturo, lormat numlors, anJ lormat primos 94
lormat lactorization, lrom
5
to
30
95
GonoralizoJ lormat numlors 9
lormat`s Iast Thoorom 9
tho lirst caso ol lormat`s Iast Thoorom 99
Wall-Sun-Sun primos 99
lormat-Catalan oguation anJ conjocturo 100
lilonacci numlors 101
Jivisilility proportios 102
lilonacci curiositios 103
JouarJ Iucas anJ tho lilonacci numlors 104
lilonacci composito soguoncos 105
lormulao lor primos 106
lortunato numlors anJ lortuno`s conjocturo 108
gaps lotvoon primos anJ composito runs 109
Gauss, Johann Carl lrioJrich (1-1855) 110
Gauss anJ tho Jistrilution ol primos 111
Gaussian primos 112
Gauss`s circlo prollom 113
Gillroath`s conjocturo 113
GlVPS-Groat lntornot Vorsonno Primo Soarch 115
Giuga`s conjocturo 116
Giuga numlors 116
GolJlach`s conjocturo 11
gooJ primos 119
Grimm`s prollom 119
HarJy, G. H. (18-194) 119
HarJy-IittlovooJ conjocturos 121
houristic roasoning 123
Hillort`s 23 prolloms 124
homo primo 125
hypothosis H 126
{ -
illogal primo 126
inconsummato numlor 128
inJuction 128
jumping champion 131
-tuplos conjocturo, primo 131
knots, primo anJ composito 132
IanJau, EJmunJ (18-1938) 134
lolt-truncatallo primo 134
IogonJro, A. V. (152-1833) 134
Iohmor, Dorrick Norman (186-1938) 135
Iohmor, Dorrick Honry (1905-1991) 135
Iinnik`s constant 13
Iiouvillo, Josoph (1809-1882) 13
IittlovooJ`s thoorom 138
tho primo numlors raco 138
Iucas, JouarJ (1842-1891) 139
tho Iucas soguonco 142
primality tosting 144
Iucas`s gamo ol calculation 145
tho Iucas-Iohmor tost 146
lucky numlors 14
tho numlor ol lucky numlors anJ primos 148
ranJom` primos 148
magic sguaros 149
Vatijasovic anJ Hillort`s 10th prollom 150
Vorsonno numlors anJ Vorsonno primos 151
Vorsonno numlors 152
hunting lor Vorsonno primos 152
tho coming ol oloctronic computors 153
Vorsonno primo conjocturos 155
tho Nov Vorsonno conjocturo 156
hov many Vorsonno primos? 156
Elorhart`s conjocturo 15
lactors ol Vorsonno numlors 15
Iucas-Iohmor tost lor Vorsonno primos 158
Vortons constant 159
Vortons thoorom 159
Vills` thoorom 160
Wright`s thoorom 161
mixoJ lag 161
multiplication, last 162
- {
Nivon numlors 163
oJJ numlors as 2
2
164
Opporman`s conjocturo 164
palinJromic primos 164
panJigital primos 165
Pascal`s trianglo anJ tho linomial coollicionts 165
Pascal`s trianglo anJ Siorpinski`s gaskot 16
Pascal trianglo curiositios 16
patonts on primo numlors 168
K
porloct numlors 10
oJJ porloct numlors 12
porloct, multiply 12
pormutallo primos 14
, primos in tho Jocimal oxpansion ol 14
Pocklington`s thoorom 15
Polignac`s conjocturos 15
Polignac or olstinato numlors 15
povorlul numlors 16
primality tosting 1
prolalilistic mothoJs 19
primo numlor graph 180
primo numlor thoorom anJ tho primo counting lunction 181
history 181
olomontary prool 182
rocorJ calculations 183
ostimating () 185
calculating () 185
a curiosity 185
primo protonJor 186
primitivo primo lactor 18
primitivo roots 18
Artin`s conjocturo 188
a curiosity 188
primorial 188
primorial primos 189
Proth`s thoorom 189
psouJoporloct numlors 190
psouJoprimos 190
lasos anJ psouJoprimos 192
{ -
psouJoprimos, strong 192
pullic koy oncryption 193
pyramiJ, primo 194
Pythagoroan trianglos, primo 195
guaJratic rosiJuos 195
rosiJual curiositios 196
polynomial congruoncos 196
guaJratic rociprocity, lav ol 19
Eulor`s critorion 198
Pamanujan, Srinivasa (188-1920) 198
highly composito numlors 199
ranJomnoss, ol primos 200
Von Stornach anJ a primo ranJom valk 202
rocorJ primos 203
somo rocorJs 203
ropunits, primo 204
PhonJa numlors 206
Piomann hypothosis 206
tho laroy soguonco anJ tho Piomann hypothosis 209
tho Piomann hypothosis anJ (), tho sum ol Jivisors
lunction 210
sguarolroo anJ lluo anJ roJ numlors 210
tho Vortons conjocturo 211
Piomann hypothosis curiositios 211
Piosol numlor 212
right-truncatallo primo 212
PSA algorithm 212
Vartin GarJnor`s challongo 214
PSA lactoring Challongo, tho Nov 215
Puth-Aaron numlors 216
Schork`s conjocturo 21
somi-primos 21
soxy primos 218
Shank`s conjocturo 218
Siamoso primos 219
Siorpinski numlors 219
Siorpinski strings 219
Siorpinski`s guaJratic 219
Siorpinski`s () conjocturo 219
Sloano`s - 220
- {
Smith numlors 221
Smith lrothors 222
smooth numlors 222
Sophio Gormain primos 223
salo primos 224
sguarolroo numlors 224
Storn primo 225
strong lav ol small numlors 225
triangular numlors 228
trivia 228
tvin primos 229
tvin curiositios 230
Ulam spiral 232
unitary Jivisors 233
unitary porloct 234
untouchallo numlors 235
voirJ numlors 235
Wiolorich primos 235
Wilson`s thoorom 236
tvin primos 23
Wilson primos 23
Wolstonholmo`s numlors, anJ thooroms 238
moro lactors ol Wolstonholmo numlors 239
WooJall primos 240
zota mystorios: tho guantum connoction 241
- - 245
- 249
-- 251
253
265
{ -
-
l am JolightoJ to thank, onco again, DaviJ Singmastor lor his assis-
tanco anJ tho uso ol his lilrary: on this occasion l can also noto that
his thosis suporvisor vas D. H. . l am happy to acknovloJgo
tho lolloving pormissions:
Tho Amorican Vathomatical Socioty lor pormission to roproJuco,
slightly moJilioJ, tho illustration on pago 133 ol primo knots vith
sovon crossings or loss lrom Pasolov anJ Sossinsky (199), -
- - -, Translations ol Vathomatical Vono-
graphs 154:33, liguro 3.13.
Chris CalJvoll lor pormission to roproJuco, slightly moJilioJ, tho
graph on pago 156 shoving tho Vorsonno primos, lrom his Primo
Pagos Wol sito.
Tho graph on pago 184 comparing various historical ostimatos ol
tho valuos ol () is in tho pullic Jomain, lut l am happy to noto that
it is aJaptoJ lrom tho Jiagram on pago 224 ol Boilor (1966),
- -, pullishoJ ly Dovor Pullications.
K-
Torms in , throughout tho look, rolor to ontrios in alphalotical
orJor, or to ontrios in tho list ol contonts, anJ in tho inJox.
Throughout this look, tho vorJ vill rolor to a positivo into-
gor or vholo numlor, unloss statoJ othorviso.
Iottors stanJ lor intogors unloss othorviso inJicatoJ.
Notico tho Jilloronco lotvoon tho Jocimal point that is on tho lino,
as in
1
8 0.125, anJ tho Jot inJicating multiplication, alovo tho lino:
20 2 2 5
- anJ lactor: thoso aro almost synonymous. Any Jilloroncos aro
puroly convontional. As Hugh Williams puts it, il JiviJos , thon
vo call a - (or ) ol . Sinco 1 anJ aro alvays Jivisors
ol , vo call thoso lactors tho Jivisors (or lactors) ol .`
(Williams 1998, 2)
On tho othor hanJ, vo alvays talk alout tho primo lactorization
ol a numlor, locauso no vorJ liko - oxists! lor this
roason, vo also talk alout linJing tho lactors ol a largo numlor such
as 2
31
1.
Similarly, ly convontion, tho Jivisor lunction (), vhich is tho
numlor ol Jivisors ol , is novor calloJ tho lactor lunction. AnJ so on.
Tho moanings ol (), (), anJ () aro oxplainoJ in tho glossary.
Tho natural logarithm ol , tho log to laso , is vritton as log . This
Joos moan tho usual logarithm to laso 10, vhich voulJ lo vrit-
ton log
10
.
Tho oxprossion 8 5 moans that 8 is groator than 5. Similarly, 5 8
moans that 5 is loss than 8.
Tho oxprossion 5 (5 ) moans that is groator than or ogual to
5 (5 is loss than or ogual to ).
Tho oxprossion 4 12 moans that 4 JiviJos 12 oxactly.
Tho oxprossion 4 13 moans that 4 Joos JiviJo 13 oxactly.
linally, instoaJ ol saying, Whon 30 is JiviJoJ ly it loavos a
romainJor 2,` it is much shortor anJ moro convoniont to vrito,
30 2 (moJ )
This is a congruonco, anJ vo say that 30 is congruont to 2, moJ .`
Tho oxprossion stanJs lor -, locauso this is an oxamplo
ol moJular arithmotic. Tho iJoa vas invontoJ ly that groat matho-
matician --, anJ is moro or loss iJontical to tho clock arithmotic
that many roaJors vill havo mot in school.
ln clock (or moJular) arithmotic you count anJ aJJ numlors as il
going arounJ a clocklaco. ll tho clocklaco goos lrom 1 to only, thon
8 is tho samo as 1, 9 2, 10 3, anJ so on.
ll, hovovor, tho clocklaco goos lrom 1 to 16 (lor oxamplo), thon
1 1, 2 18, anJ 3 9 11.
ll you count in (say) 8s arounJ tho traJitional clocklaco shoving
12 hours, thon your count vill go: 8, 4, 12, 8, 4, 12, ropoating onJ-
lossly anJ missing all tho hours 4, 8, anJ 12. ll you count in
5s, hovovor, it goos liko this: 5, 10, 3, 8, 1, 6, 11, 4, 9, 2, , 12, 5, anJ
ly tho timo you start to ropoat you havo visitoJ ovory hour on tho
clock. This is locauso 8 anJ 12 havo a common lactor 4, anJ lut 5
anJ 12 havo no common lactor.
Vathomaticians uso tho sign instoaJ ol , tho ogual sign, to inJi-
cato that thoy aro using moJular arithmotic. So instoaJ ol saying that
primo numlors aro alvays ol tho lorm 6 1 or 6 1, locauso
6 2 anJ 6 4 aro ovon anJ 6 3 is Jivisillo ly 3, vo can vrito
6 1 (moJ 6).
Vost statomonts maJo in this look havo no roloronco. Eithor thoy aro
voll-knovn, or thoy can lo lounJ in sovoral placos in tho litoraturo.
Evon il l Jo knov vhoro tho claim vas lirst maJo, a roloronco is not
nocossarily givon, locauso this is a popular look, not a vork ol
scholarship.
Hovovor, vhoro a rosult appoars to lo Juo to a spocilic author or
collaloration ol authors anJ is not viJoly knovn, l havo givon thoir
{ K-
namos, such as (lung anJ Williams). ll a Jato is aJJoJ, as in (lung
anJ Williams 1990), that moans tho roloronco is in tho lilliography.
ll this roloronco is lounJ in a particular look, it is givon as (lung anJ
Williams: Guy).
Tho soguoncos vith roloroncos to Sloano` anJ an A numlor aro
takon lrom Noil Sloano`s -,
at vvv.rosoarch.att.com-njassoguoncos. Soo also tho ontry in this
look lor Sloano`s -, as voll
as tho Somo Primo Wol Sitos` soction at tho onJ ol tho lilliography.
Tho inJox is vory lull, lut il you como across an oxprossion such as
() anJ vant to knov vhat it moans, tho glossary starting on pago
251 vill holp.
K- {
108
10
8
236
10
9
586
10
10
142
(Gupta)
--
- Thoro is no knovn amicallo pair in vhich ono numlor is a
sguaro.
- Tho numlors in amicallo pairs onJ in 0 or 5 surprisingly olton,
lor no knovn roason.
{ --
- Vost amicallo numlors havo many Jilloront lactors. Can a
povor ol a primo, j
u
, lo ono ol an amicallo pair? ll so, thon
j
u
10
1500
anJ u 1400.
- lt is not knovn vhothor thoro is a pair ol coprimo amicallo
numlors. ll thoro is, tho numlors must oxcooJ 10
25
anJ thoir
proJuct must havo at loast tvonty-tvo Jistinct primo lactors.
K-
Dorin AnJrica conjocturoJ that j
u 1
j
u
1 lor all u. This is
roally a conjocturo alout tho gaps lotvoon primo numlors anJ is not
ovon a vory strong conjocturo, yot it has novor loon provoJ. Tho
largost valuo ol tho Jilloronco lor u loss than 1000 is 11
0.6083 . . . vhich is voll lolov 1.
lmran Ghory has usoJ Jata on largost primo gaps to conlirm tho
conjocturo up to 1.3002 10
16
.
--- -
ln an arithmotic progrossion (or soguonco) tho Jilloroncos lotvoon
succossivo torms aro constant, lor oxamplo:
3 11 15 19 23 2 31 35 39 43 . . .
vith constant Jilloronco 4. This happons to alroaJy contain sovon
primos, vith ono soguonco ol throo consocutivo primos.
Tho curront rocorJ lor tho largost numlor ol ccusccvtitc primos in
arithmotic progrossion has ton primos. lt vas sot 11:56 a.m. on Varch
2, 1998, ly VanlroJ Toplic ol Klagonlurt, Austria, in a typical oxamplo
ol uistributcu computing. Tho lirst torm is tho primo 100 9969 2469
1424 638 66555 8969 84032 95093 24689 19004 18036 0341 5890
4341 03348 88215 9062 2919, anJ tho common Jilloronco is 210.
Tho samo toam also sot tho provious rocorJ ol nino consocutivo
primos, on January 15, 1998. Tho toam vas loJ ly Harvoy Dulnor anJ
Tony lorlos. Voro than sovonty pooplo, using alout tvo hunJroJ
machinos, soarchoJ noarly lilty rangos ol a trillion numlors oach.
Tho longost knovn arithmotic progrossion ol nonconsocutivo
primos vas JiscovoroJ ly PritcharJ, Voran, anJ Thysson in 1993. lt
is tvonty-tvo torms long, starting vith tho primo 1141033850553
--- - {
anJ vith common Jilloronco 4609098694200. On April 22, 2003,
anothor tvonty-tvo-torm soguonco vas lounJ ly Varkus lrinJ.
Tho largost triplo ol primos in arithmotic progrossion is tho 13,44-
Jigit soguonco starting 459645 2
44640
1 vith common Jilloronco
459645 2
44639
2, JiscovoroJ ly Horranon anJ Gallot in 1998.
Tho largost guaJruplo ol primos in arithmotic progrossion is tho
1,815-Jigit soguonco starting 14499605 2
6000
1 vith common Jil-
loronco 20510280 2
6000
, lounJ ly Poonguthai anJ Gallot in 1999.
Tho sot ol smallost primo progrossions starts:
no. ol torms minimum Jilloronco smallost progrossion
2 1 2, 3
3 2 3, 5,
4 6 5, 11, 1, 23
5 6 5, 11, 1, 23, 29
6 30 , 3, 6, 9, 12, 15
150 , 15, 30, . . .
8 210 199, 409, 619, . . .
9 210 199, 409, 619, . . .
10 210 199, 409, 619, . . .
11 2310 6085819, . . .
Tho longost knovn arithmotic progrossion ol primos is tvonty-
tvo torms long, starting lrom 11,410,33,850,553 vith Jilloronco
4,609,098,694,200.
ln 1939 van Jor Corput provoJ that an inlinity ol triplos ol primos
in arithmotic progrossion oxists. Bon Groon ol tho Univorsity ol
British Columlia anJ Toronco Tao ol tho Univorsity ol Calilornia at
Ios Angolos provoJ in 2004 that primo arithmotic progrossions ol any
longth Jo oxist, though thoir prool, liko so many prools, is noncon-
structivo, so thoy cannot actually gonorato any oxamplos.
Scc Dickson`s conjocturo, Dirichlot, HarJy-IittlovooJ conjocturos
Sinco c
2
/
2
cannot lo lactorizoJ into tvo algolraic lactors, unliko
c
2
/
2
(c /)(c /), vo might assumo that u
4
1, vhich is also
tho sum ol tvo sguaros, cannot lo lactorizoJ. Not so!
u
4
1 (u
2
u 1)(u
2
u 1)
{
Nov vo can soo a connoction: c
2
/
2
(c /)
2
4c/ (c c/
/)(c c/ /), vhich normally Joosn`t count` locauso ol tho
sguaro roots. lt lollovs that u
4
1 is alvays composito, oxcopt vhon
u
2
u 1 1 anJ u 0 or 1.
This is an oxamplo ol an Avrifcvillicu lactorization, namoJ altor Ion
lranois Antoino Aurilouillo, vho JiscovoroJ a spocial caso in 183:
2
4 2
1 (2
2 1
2
1)(2
2 1
2
1)
KnovloJgo ol this lactorization voulJ havo savoJ tho many yoars ol
his lilo that lortun IanJry spont lactoring 2
58
1, linally linishing in
1869. IanJry`s gargantuan lactorization is just a trivial spocial caso!
2
58
1 (2
29
2
15
1)(2
29
2
15
1)
JouarJ Iucas lator lounJ moro Aurilouillian lactorizations, vhich aro
rolatoJ to tho complox roots ol unity. Horo aro tvo moro oxamplos:
3
6k 3
1 (3
2k 1
1)(3
2k 1
3
k
1)(3
2k 1
3
k
1)
5
5/
1 (5
/
1)IM, vhoro I 1
2
15
k
5
/
anJ
M 1
2
15
k
5
/
anJ 1 5
/
1, / 2k 1.
Aurilouillian lactors havo othor usos. lor oxamplo, il I
u
is tho uth
Iucas numbcr, anJ u is oJJ, thon
I
5u
I
u
A
5u
P
5u
vhoro A
5u
5P
u
2
5P
u
1 anJ P
5u
5P
u
2
5P
u
1
ll S(k) is tho sum ol tho lirst k primo numlors, thon tho avorago ol
tho lirst k primos is S(k)k. This is an intogor lor thoso valuos ol k:
k j
k
S( j
k
) S( j
k
)k
1 2 2 2
23 83 84 38
53 241 5830 110
853 6599 2615298 3066
11869 126551 123380 60020
1126 15449 86810649294 40282
339615 4864121 941200530 2340038
3600489 606863 1058453431438 29380602
9664328 196619431 9254230121204102 9556546
(Pivora, Puzzlo 31)
{
K-
Doos ovory torm in a soguonco contain at loast ono primo lactor that
has not appoaroJ loloro in tho soguonco? Such a primo lactor is
calloJ primitivc.
ll c 1 is lixoJ, thon ovory numlor c
u
1 has a primitivo primo
lactor, vith tho solo oxcoption ol 2
6
1 63. Similarly, il c 1, thon
ovory numlor c
u
1 has a primitivo primo lactor, vith tho solo
oxcoption ol 2
3
1 9. This vas provoJ ly Bang in 1886, anJ inci-
Jontally ollors anothor vay to provo that thoro is an inlinity ol primo
numlors.
ZsigmonJy provoJ tho samo thoorom lor tho moro gonoral lunctions
c
u
/
u
anJ c
u
/
u
, vith tho samo conJition anJ tho samo oxcop-
tions. Tho soguonco lor 1 2
u
3
u
starts:
u 1 2 3 4 5 6 8 9 10
1 5 13 35 9 25 93 2315 681 20195 6003
5 13 5 9 5
2
11 13 61 5 463 1 401 5 5 13 4621
K-
1 2 2
2
2
3
2
4
1 5 5
2
31
ls this tho only sum ol this kinJ, using jric numlors? No ono
knovs. ll composito numlors aro allovoJ, thoro is at loast ono othor
solution:
1 2 2
2
2
3
. . . 2
12
1 90 90
2
8191
K-
Tho Toxas millionairo AnJrov Boal, tho lilty-ono-yoar-olJ lounJor ol
tho Boal Bank anJ Boal Aorospaco Tochnologios that luilJs rockots
lor satollito launchos, anJ a numlor onthusiast, is olloring a rovarJ
to tho lirst porson to provo (or Jisprovo) this conjocturo, vhich is a
gonoralization ol Icrmat`s Iast Thcorcm:
{ K-
ll
,
u
.
r
vhoro , ,, ., , u, anJ r aro all positivo intogors, anJ
, u, anJ r aro groator than 2, thon , ,, anJ . havo a common lactor.
Without tho conJition that , u, anJ r must lo groator than 2, thoro
aro many solutions, incluJing all Pythagoroan triplos starting vith
3
2
4
2
5
2
anJ 5
2
12
2
13
2
, anJ tho solutions to tho Icrmat-Catalan
conjccturc. lt lollovs, lrom a thoorom ol lalting, that lor any partic-
ular choico ol , u, anJ r, thoro can only lo a linito numlor ol solu-
tions, lut aro thoro any at all?
Tho conjocturo anJ prizo voro originally announcoJ in 199 in tho
prostigious Acticcs cf t/c Acriccu Mct/ccticcl Sccict,, originally
vith a prizo ol $5,000 rising ly $5,000 a yoar to a maximum ol
$50,000. Sinco thon tho prizo has loon incroasoJ to $100,000 lor
oithor a prool or a countoroxamplo. Tho prizo monoy has loon
hanJoJ to tho Amorican Vathomatical Socioty lor salokooping anJ
tho intorost is loing usoJ to lunJ tho annual ErJos Vomorial Iocturo.
Just in caso anyono thinks that thoy can vork out tho ansvor on a
scrully pioco ol papor, tho avarJ vill lo givon only vhon tho solu-
tion has loon rocognizoJ ly tho mathomatics community. This
incluJos that oithor a prool has loon givon anJ tho rosult has
appoaroJ in a roputallo rolorroJ journal or a countoroxamplo has
loon givon anJ vorilioJ.` (vvv.loalconjocturo.com)
Tho solution is suro to lo Jillicult locauso tho conjocturo is lasoJ
on oxtonsivo numorical tosts. Boal anJ a colloaguo spont thousanJs
ol hours soarching lor solutions lor various valuos ol tho oxpononts,
only to linJ that vhon solutions appoaroJ, a pair out ol , ,, anJ .
alvays haJ a common lactor. Honco tho conjocturo, vhich is sur-
prisingly novol. (A similar lut not iJontical iJoa vas conjocturoJ ly
Viggo Brun in 1914.)
ll tho abc conjccturc is truo, thon thoro aro no solutions to Boal`s
oguation vhon tho oxpononts aro largo onough, anJ Darmon anJ
Granvillo shovoJ in 1995 that in olloct thoro aro at most a linito num-
lor ol solutions. But aro thoro any?
Scc lormot-Catalan oguation anJ conjocturo.
K-
ll numlors in gonoral voro ogually likoly to start vith any ol tho Jig-
its 1 to 9, thon out ol tho 8,498 primo numlors loss than 1,000,000
K- {
vo voulJ oxpoct alout ono-ninth ol thom to login vith tho Jigit 1,
or alout 8,00, lut no, thoro aro 9,585 such primos starting vith tho
Jigit 1. ln lact, lrom lirst Jigit 1 to lirst Jigit 9, tho numlor ol primos
in oach catogory Jocroasos.
Why this Jilloronco? Bocauso in vory many circumstancos (not all)
numlors login vith tho Jigit 1 moro olton than vith othor Jigits.
This vas lirst noticoJ ly tho ninotoonth-contury astronomor Simon
Novcoml, vho claimoJ, That tho ton Jigits Jo not occur vith ogual
lroguoncy must lo oviJont to anyono making uso ol logarithm tallos,
anJ noticing hov much lastor tho lirst pagos voar out than tho last
onos. Tho lirst signilicant liguro is oltonor 1 than any othor Jigit anJ
tho lroguoncy Jiminishos up to 9.`
His conclusion vas takon up again ly BonlorJ, a physicist vork-
ing lor tho Gonoral Eloctric Company in 1938. Ho concluJoJ that tho
lirst Jigit is c vith prolalility log
10
(1 1c), vhich lor c 1 is ap-
proximatoly 0.30103.
initial Jigit 1 2 3 4 5 6 8 9
BonlorJ`s lav .301 .16 .125 .09 .09 .06 .058 .051 .046
Thoso aro tho lroguoncios ol lirst Jigits among tho lirst 100 Iibonacci
numbcrs, closoly matching BonlorJ`s lav:
initial Jigit 1 2 3 4 5 6 8 9
lroguoncy 30 18 13 9 8 6 5 4
lt is somotimos assumoJ, vithout any sounJ roason, that Bon-
lorJ`s lav is univorsal, that it applios to ovory sot ol numlors, any-
vhoro, as il it voro a luilt-in charactoristic ol our numlor systom.`
This isn`t so. A countoroxamplo is tho povors ol 2, at loast lor lov
povors. Horo aro tho lroguoncios ol tho lirst Jigits ol 2
u
lrom u 0
to 60:
Jigit 1 2 3 4 5 6 8 9
lroguoncy 19 12 6 6 6 4 2 5 1
BonlorJ`s lav 18 11 6 5 4 3 3 3
Tho match is gooJ to start vith, lut thon poor, vith a markoJ spiko
at 8. (Paimi 196)
{ K-
-
Tho Bornoulli numlors aro JolinoJ ly this oguation:
P
0
. . .
Tho lirst lov valuos aro:
P
0
1 P
1
1
2 P
2
1
6 P
3
P
5
P
. . . P
2u 1
0
P
4
1
30 P
6
1
42 P
8
1
30 P
10
5
66 P
12
691
230
P
14
6 P
16
361
510 P
18
4386
98
P
4
4
4!
P
3
3
3!
P
2
2
2!
P
1
1!
1
- {
-
ln 1840 Charlos Ballago askoJ his collalorator AJa Iovolaco,
Jaughtor ol IorJ Byron, to aJJ hor ovn notos to a manuscript on his
Analytical Engino. Tho machino usoJ carJs lasoJ on thoso usoJ to
control tho JacguarJ loom (anJ vhich voro lororunnors ol tho
Holorith carJs usoJ in oarly moJorn computors).
ln hor notos Iovolaco omphasizoJ (as vo voulJ put it toJay) tho
intorplay lotvoon programming anJ machinory, soltvaro anJ harJ-
varo:
ln onalling mochanism to comlino togothor gonoral symlols in succos-
sions ol unlimitoJ varioty anJ oxtont, a uniting link is ostallishoJ lotvoon
tho oporations ol mattor anJ tho alstract montal procossos ol tho most
alstract lranch ol mathomatical scionco. A nov, a vast, anJ a povorlul lan-
guago is JovolopoJ lor tho luturo uso ol analysis.
Sho concluJoJ ly oxplaining hov tho ongino coulJ computo tho
Bornoulli numlors, anJ maJo anothor commont that toJay`s com-
putor programmor vill rocognizo at onco:
Wo may horo romark, that tho avorago ostimato ol throo Variallo-carJs com-
ing into uso to oach oporation, is not to lo takon as an alsolutoly anJ
litorally corroct amount lor all casos anJ circumstancos. Vany spocial cir-
cumstancos, oithor in tho naturo ol a prollom, or in tho arrangomonts ol tho
ongino unJor cortain contingoncios, inlluonco anJ moJily this avorago to a
groator or loss oxtont.
This is gonorally consiJoroJ to lo tho lirst account ol a computor
algorithm. (Vonalroa 1842)
Bornoulli numlors can also lo calculatoJ using tho linomial coolli-
cionts lrom Pascal`s trianglc:
P
0
1
2P1 1P0 0 so P1
1
2
3P
2
3P
1
P
0
0 so P
2
1
6
4P
3
6P
2
4P
1
P
0
0 so P
3
0
5P
4
10P
3
10P
2
5P
1
P
0
0 so P
4
1
30
anJ so on.
Thoro is also a connoction lotvoon tho Bornoulli numlors anJ tho
Piomann zota lunction:
P
u
(1)
u 1
u (1 u)
--
- Tho Jonominator ol P
u
is alvays squarcfrcc.
- Tho Jonominator ol P
2u
oguals tho proJuct ol all tho primos j
such that j 1 2u.
- Tho lractional part ol P
u
in tho Jocimal systom has a Jocimal
porioJ that JiviJos u, anJ thoro is a singlo Jigit loloro that
porioJ. (Convay anJ Guy 1996, 10-10)
- G. J. loo anJ S. Ploullo havo computoJ P
200,000
, vhich has
alout 800,000 Jigits.
K- -
Josoph BortranJ (1822-1900) vas a prococious stuJont vho pul-
lishoJ his lirst papor, on oloctricity, at tho ago ol sovontoon, lut
thon locamo moro notallo as a toachor than as an original matho-
matician.
BortranJ`s postulato statos that il u is an intogor groator than 3, thon
thoro is at loast ono primo lotvoon u anJ 2u 2. (This is tho prociso
thoorom. lt is olton claimoJ that thoro is a primo lotvoon u anJ 2u,
vhich is a voakor claim.)
Strangoly, although it continuos to lo calloJ a postulato, it is actu-
ally a thoorom: it vas provoJ ly Tcholycholl in 1850 altor BortranJ
in 1845 haJ vorilioJ it lor u loss than 3,000,000. lt is also a rathor
voak thoorom that can lo strongthonoJ in sovoral vays:
{ K- -
- ProviJoJ u is largo onough, thoro aro at loast k primos
lotvoon u anJ 2u, hovovor largo tho valuo ol k.
- ll u is at loast 48, thon thoro is at loast ono primo lotvoon u
anJ 9u8.
- ll u is groator than 6, thon thoro is at loast ono primo ol tho
lorm 4k 1 anJ at loast ono ol tho lorm 4k 3 lotvoon u anJ
2u.
- ll u is groator than or ogual to 118, thon tho intorval u to 4u3
inclusivo contains a primo ol oach ol tho lorms 4u 1, 4u 1,
6u 1, anJ 6u 1.
- ll u is groator than 15, thon thoro is at loast ono numlor
lotvoon u anJ 2u that is tho proJuct ol throo Jilloront primos.
lt also lollovs lrom BortranJ`s postulato that:
- Thoro is at loast ono primo ol any givon Jigit longth loginning
vith tho Jigit 1, in any laso, not just laso 10.
- Tho lirst 2k intogors can alvays lo arrangoJ in k pairs so that
tho sum ol tho ontrios in oach pair is a primo.
- Thoro is a numlor c such that tho intogral parts ol 2
c
, 2
2
c
,
2
2
2
c
, . . . aro primos. Tho constant c is approximatoly
1.2516459905. Tho lirst lour primos aro 2, 5, 3,
13438953481. Tho numlor c is not sulliciontly accuratoly
knovn to calculato tho noxt primo in tho soguonco. (P. I. Gra-
ham, D. E. Knuth, 8 O. Patashnik)
-K-
This statos that il j
u
is tho uth primo, thon
j
u 1
2
j
1
j
2
j
3
. . . j
u
proviJoJ u 3.
-
A Ricscl numbcr is an intogor k such that k 2
u
1 is composito lor
any intogor valuo ol u, anJ a Sicrpinski numbcr is an intogor k such
that k 2
u
1 is composito lor any intogor valuo ol u.
- {
What alout tho Pricr uv/crs, vhich aro simultanoously Piosol
anJ Siorpinski? Eric Brior vas tho lirst to linJ ono:
2936469566012354328115025405114452910889
\vos Gallot lounJ throo smallor Brior numlors in January 2000.
Tho smallost is tvonty-sovon-Jigits: 8850312234924101526292
469. (Pivora, Prollom 29)
Scc Piosol numlor, Siorpinski numlors
K-
BrocarJ conjocturoJ in 1904 that tho only solutions ol
u! 1
2
aro u 4, 5, anJ . Thoro aro no othor solutions vith u 10
9
. (BornJt
anJ Galvay n.J.)
Anothor ol BrocarJ`s conjocturos is that thoro aro at loast lour
primos lotvoon tho sguaros ol any tvo consocutivo primos, vith tho
oxcoption ol 2 anJ 3. This is rolatoJ to Schinzol`s conjocturo that, pro-
viJoJ is groator than 8, thoro is a primo lotvoon anJ (log )
2
.
Scc Opporman`s conjocturo
K- -
ln 1919 Viggo Brun (1885-198) provoJ that tho sum ol tho rocipro-
cals ol tho tvin primcs convorgos to Brun`s constant:
1
3
1
5
1
5
1
1
11
1
13
1
1
1
19 . . . 1.9021605 . . .
lt vas in 1994, vhilo ho vas trying to calculato Brun`s constant,
that Thomas P. Nicoly JiscovoroJ a lamous llav in tho lntol Pontium
microprocossor. Tho Pontium chip occasionally gavo vrong ansvors
to a lloating-point (Jocimal) Jivision calculations Juo to orrors in livo
ontrios in a lookup tallo on tho chip. lntol spont millions ol Jollars
roplacing tho laulty chips.
Voro rocontly, Nicoly has calculatoJ that tho valuo ol Brun`s con-
stant lasoJ on all tho pairs ol tvin primos loss than 5 10
15
is
1.902160582582 0.000000001620. (Nicoly 2004a) Thoso aro tho lirst
lov approximato sums:
{ K-
limit no. ol tvin primo pairs approx. sum ol rociprocals
1,000 35 1.5180
10,000 205 1.6169
100,000 1,224 1.628
1,000,000 8,169 1.108
10,000,000 58,980 1.384
Viggo Brun`s mothoJs havo loon usoJ to stuJy Golubach`s conjcc-
turc anJ tho tvin primos conjocturo anJ to provo that thoro oxist inli-
nitoly many intogors u such that u anJ u 2 havo at most nino primo
lactors, anJ that all largo ovon intogors aro tho sum ol tvo intogors
oach having at most nino primo lactors.
Scc Vortons constant
--K-
lrank Buss has JolinoJ a lunction, P(u), that sooms to gonorato only
primos. lt is calculatoJ liko this:
f (1) 1
P(u) |noxt primo to ( f (u) 1)l f (u)
f(u) f(u 1) P(u 1)
Tho soguonco starts:
u 1 2 3 4 5 6
f(u) 1 2 6 30 210 230 30030
noxt-primo` 3 5 11 3 223 241 3004
P(u) 2 3 5 13 11 1
Tho conjocturo has loon tostoJ succosslully up to u 603. Hovovor,
liko so many such conjocturos, it sooms likoly that this is a caso ol tho
tho strong lav of small numbcrs. (Pivora, Conjocturo 29)
-
AccorJing to Icrmat`s Iittlc Thcorcm, il j is primo anJ u anJ j aro
coprimo (thoy havo no common lactor), thon u
j 1
1 (moJ j).
Hovovor, somo composito numlors satisly this oguation also, anJ
Jo so lor ctcr, valuo ol u. Thoso aro tho Carmichaol numlors,
- {
namoJ altor Polort Daniol Carmichaol (189-196). Thoy aro somo-
timos calloJ c/sclvtc jscvccjrics locauso thoy aro pscuuoprimcs
to ovory laso.
Thoy aro an annoyanco il you aro using lormat`s Iittlo Thoorom to
tost lor primality, locauso il your numlor just happons to lo a
Carmichaol numlor, it vill pass tho tost lor any laso-anJ still lo
composito.
lortunatoly, tho Carmichaol numlor is guito raro. Thoso loss than
100,000 aro: 561, 1105, 129, 2465, 2821, 6601, 8911, 10585, 15841,
29341, 41041, 4665, 52633, 6245, 6393, anJ 5361.
Thoro aro only 2,163 loss than 25,000,000,000, anJ 105,212 loss
than 10
15
, oach vith at most nino primo lactors.
ll u is a Carmichaol numlor, thon it is squarcfrcc, tho proJuct ol at
loast throo Jistinct primos, anJ lor ovory primo j Jivisor ol u,
j 1 JiviJos u 1, anJ convorsoly. lor oxamplo, 561 is tho smallost
Carmichaol numlor anJ 561 3 11 1, anJ 2, 10, anJ 16 all JiviJo
560. Tho largost knovn Carmichaol numlor vith throo primo lactors
vas lounJ ly Harvoy Dulnor. lt has 10,200 Jigits.
Tho smallost vith lour Jistinct lactors is 41041 11 13 41,
anJ 41040 is Jivisillo ly 6, 10, 12, anJ 40. Tho smallost vith livo Jis-
tinct primo lactors is 825265 anJ tho smallost vith six Jistinct primo
lactors is 32119185.
Carmichaol conjocturoJ in 1910 that thoro is an inlinito numlor ol
Carmichaol numlors. AllorJ, Granvillo, anJ Pomoranco provoJ this
in 1994 ly shoving hov suitallo smooth numbcrs coulJ lo multi-
plioJ togothor to lit tho Carmichaol Jolinition.
Whothor thoro is an inlinity ol Carmichaol numlors vith a givon
numlor ol lactors (at loast throo) is not knovn, hovovor, nor
vhothor Carmichaol numlors can lo lounJ vith an arlitrarily largo
numlor ol lactors.
K-
Anyono might notico as a curiosity that 8 anJ 9 aro 2
3
anJ 3
2
, rospoc-
tivoly, anJ that othor small povors, such as 25 anJ 2, aro not con-
socutivo. Eugno Charlos Catalan (1814-1894) conjocturoJ in 1844
that 8 anJ 9 aro inJooJ tho only consocutivo povors.
{ K-
Iovi lon Gorson (1288-1344) haJ shovn that thoso aro tho only
povors ol 2 anJ 3 Jilloring ly 1, anJ Fulcr provoJ that 9 anJ 8 aro
tho only sguaro anJ culo Jilloring ly 1.
Polort TijJoman provoJ in 196 that tho oguation
j
,
q
1 has
at most a linito numlor ol solutions: il thoro is a solution, thon j anJ
q aro loss than a cortain (unknovn!) constant, c.
Computor chocks shov that il
j
,
q
1, thon j anJ q must
oxcooJ 10
1 M
12
c
4
2
c
3
1 2
12
1 M
12
101411834604692313168303158841052
anJ so on . . .
Unlortunatoly, c
5
has moro than 10
38
Jigits anJ so cannot lo tostoJ
Jiroctly, though Curt Noll has vorilioJ that c
5
has no primo Jivisor
loss than 5 10
50
. Iiko so many conjocturos ol this kinJ, it is likoly
that a composito torm appoars guito soon.
Scc Vorsonno numlors anJ Vorsonno primos, strong lav ol small
numlors
K- - {
K- -
DaviJ Champornovno (1912-2000) JiscussoJ c/cjcructucs ccu-
stcut in 1933: 0.1234568910111213 . . . lt is transconJontal (Vahlor
1961: Mct/Wcrlc) anJ normal in laso 10, moaning that oach Jigit 0
to 9 occurs ono-tonth ol tho timo, oach pair ol Jigits lrom 00 to 99
occurs ono-hunJroJth ol tho timo, anJ so on.
-
Convay anJ OJlyzko call tho Jilloronco j
u 1
j
u
a champion lor
,` JonotoJ ly c(), il it happons that it occurs most lroguontly lor
all tho consocutivo primos loss than .
c() sooms to tako only tho valuo 4, plus tho valuos 2, 6, 30, 210,
2310, . . . vhich aro tho primorials, tho rosult ol multiplying tho con-
socutivo primos togothor. ls this truo? Varok Woll, OJlyzko, anJ
Pulinstoin say yos. (Pivora, Conjocturo 10)
-
Sun Tsu Suan-ching (lourth contury AD) posoJ this prollom: Thoro
aro cortain things vhoso numlor is unknovn. DiviJoJ ly 3, tho
romainJor is 2, ly 5 tho romainJor is 3, anJ ly tho romainJor is 2.
What vill lo tho numlor?` Tho solution is 23. (Wolls 1992, 23)
This is an oxamplo ol tho Chinoso romainJor thoorom, vhich says
that il you knov tho romainJors vhon A is JiviJoJ ly u numlors,
t/ic/ crc ccjric iu jcirs, thon you can linJ a uniguo smallost
valuo ol A, anJ an inlinity ol othor solutions, ly aJJing any intogral
multiplo ol tho proJuct ol tho u numlors (or sultracting il you aro
satislioJ vith nogativo solutions).
ln Sun Tsu Suan-ching`s puzzlo, 3 5 105, so tho solutions aro
23, 23 105, 23 210, 23 315, anJ so on, anJ 23 105 82 is tho
smallost nogativo solution.
Tho Chinoso romainJor thoorom can also lo oxprossoJ in torms ol
congrucnccs: il
{ K- -
r
1
(moJ
1
)
r
2
(moJ
2
)
r
3
(moJ
3
)
. . .
r
u
(moJ
u
)
thon thoro is a uniguo solution, X, lor lying lotvoon 0 anJ
2
. . .
u
, anJ tho gonoral solution is congruont to X (moJ
2
. . .
u
).
Ono uso ol tho Chinoso romainJor thoorom is to Jo arithmotic on
largo numlors ly choosing a sot ol moJuli
1
,
2
, . . .
u
anJ thon
troating oach numlor as a sot ol romainJors, r
1
, r
2
, r
3
, . . . r
u
, rathor
than as a soguonco ol Jocimal or linary Jigits. Thon you Jo tho
arithmotic on tho romainJors anJ rocovor tho solution ly using tho
Chinoso romainJor thoorom.
- -
CicaJas ol tho gonus Mcgicicccc appoar onco ovory , 13, or 1
yoars. ls it just a coinciJonco that thoso aro primo numlors? Eric
Golos, Olivor Schulz, anJ Vario Varkus havo lounJ ovolutionary
proJator-proy moJols that havo primo porioJs-vhich thoy thon
usoJ to gonorato largo primo numlors. (SugJon 2001, 1)
ls it alvays possillo to arrango tho numlors lrom 1 to 2u in a circlo
so that oach aJjacont pair sums to a primo?
Antonio lilz calls such an arrangomont a primo circlo. lor oxamplo,
thoso aro tho ossontially uniguo primo circlos lor u 1, 2, anJ 3:
1 4 1 6
1 2 4 5
2 3 3 2
Thoro aro tvo primo circlos lor u 4 anJ lorty-oight lor u 5. lt is
not knovn il thoro aro primo circlos lor all valuos ol u.
{
A primo is circular il all tho cyclic pormutations ol its Jigits aro primo.
Thoso primos anJ thoir cyclic pormutations aro circular, in laso 10:
2, 3, 5, , P
2
, 13, 1, 3, 9, 113, 19, 199, 33, 1193,
39, 11939, 1993, 193939, 199933, P
19
, P
23
, P
31
, P
1031
vhoro P
u
stanJs lor tho uth rcpunit primc.
Waltor SchnoiJor has chockoJ that thoro aro no moro up to 10
22
.
Scc pormutallo primos
-
ln Paris at tho Collgo Jo lranco on Vay 24, 2000, almost oxactly ono
hunJroJ yoars sinco DaviJ Hilbcrt`s 23 problcms voro prosontoJ to
tho vorlJ, sovon nov Villonnium Prizo Prolloms` voro announcoJ,
lor vhich tho Clay Vathomatics lnstituto ol CamlriJgo, Vassachusotts,
is olloring prizos ol $1 million to tho lirst solvor ol oach prollom.
All tho Clay prolloms aro, ol courso, oxtromoly Jillicult, anJ havo
rosistoJ tho attompts ol mathomaticians lor many yoars, lut ono
prollom is outstanJing: tho only ono lrom Hillort`s original 23 that
appoars in tho Clay list is tho Ricmann hypothcsis.
As a protoction against tho naivo or lrivolous claims that such a
largo prizo is suro to provoko, solvors must not sonJ thoir claims
Jiroctly to tho Clay lnstituto lut must got thom pullishoJ in a math-
omatics journal ol vorlJviJo roputo anJ tho claimoJ solution must
thon lo accoptoJ ly tho mathomatics community. Tvo yoars is
allovoJ lor this procoss. ll tho solution survivos scrutiny, only thon
vill it lo consiJoroJ ly tho Sciontilic AJvisory BoarJ ol tho Clay
Vathomatics lnstituto.
Tho procoJuro is slightly Jilloront il tho claim is lor a countoroxam-
plo, so il you think you havo lounJ a zoro ol tho Piomann zota lunc-
tion that Joos not havo roal part
1
2, soo tho Clay lnstituto Wol sito lor
vhat to Jo. Hovovor, sinco AnJrov OJlyzko has calculatoJ a million
zoros noar zoro numlor 10
20
anJ tcu /illicu zoros noar zoro numlor
10
22
, anJ tho ZotaGriJ uistributcu computing notvork is calculating
moro than a lillion zoros a Jay, you`J lottor got your skatos on!
{
Thoro is a soconJ Clay prizo challongo that is rolovant to tho
primos: tho P vorsus AP prollom. lt is currontly vory harJ to lactor-
izo largo numlors lut guick anJ oasy to chock tho lactorization onco
it is lounJ. ls thoro roally no vay to lactorizo largo numlors guickly?
ll you Jo Jiscovor a mothoJ, you might plausilly oarn lar moro
than tho Clay lnstituto`s $1 million ly solling your Jiscovory to com-
morcial organizations-or govornmonts-vho uso numlors that aro
tho proJuct ol tvo largo primos lor public kcy cncryption anJ voulJ
lo vory intorostoJ to hoar that thoir socuro communications can lo
lrokon using your mothoJ!
Scc AKS algorithm, JistrilutoJ computing, lactorization, pullic koy
oncryption, Piomann hypothosis
-
Tho proJuct ol all tho composito numlors loss than or ogual to u is
u! (u-factorial) JiviJoJ ly tho proJuct ol tho primos loss than or
ogual to u, or u-primorial, JonotoJ ly u=. lago Camloa has sug-
gostoJ calling this u-ccjcsitcricl. (CalJvoll, Pric Pcgcs) Just as u!
anJ u= havo many lactors, so Joos u!u=, so u!u= 1 is rolativoly
likoly to lo primo.
u!u= 1 is primo lor u 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 8, 14, 20, 26, 34, 56, . . .
u!u= 1 is primo lor u 4, 5, 6, , 8, 14, 16, 1, 21, 34, 39, . . .
Scc clsc lactorial, primorial
-
Tho concatonation ol tho primos givos tho soguonco:
2, 23, 235, 235, 23511, . . .
Tho uth torm is primo lor u 1, 2, 4, 128, 14, 342, 435,
1429, . . . vith no othors loss than 83. (Woisstoin, 2001)
Tho CopolanJ-ErJos constant is tho Jocimal 0.235111311923 . . .
CopolanJ anJ ErJos (1946) shovoJ that it is normal in laso 10. lt is
also irrational, as is tho Jocimal numlor .0110101000101000101 . . .
in vhich tho uth Jigit is 1 il u is primo anJ 0 othorviso.
Scc Champornovno`s constant
- {
-
Tho thoory ol numlors, moro than any othor lranch ol puro
mathomatics, has logun ly loing an ompirical scionco. lts most
lamous thooroms havo all loon conjocturoJ, somotimos a hun-
JroJ yoars or moro loloro thoy havo loon provoJ, anJ thoy havo
loon suggostoJ ly tho oviJonco ol a mass ol computation.
-G. H. Hcrc, /12u, 511
Ono ol tho Jolights ol primo numlors is that thoir comlination ol
strict Jolinition vith apparont irrogularity amounting almost to ran-
Jomnoss invitos mathomaticians loth prolossional anJ amatour to
proposo moro anJ moro prolloms anJ conjocturos, tho lost-knovn
namoJ altor thoir proposors.
Vany ol thoso conjocturos aro oxtromoly Jillicult to sottlo. Tho
primo numlors aro just tcc mystorious anJ Jillicult!
Whon a suJJon illumination invaJos tho mathomatician`s minJ . . . it somo-
timos happons . . . that it vill not stanJ tho tost ol vorilication . . . it is to lo
olsorvoJ that almost alvays this lalso iJoa, il it haJ loon corroct, voulJ
havo llattoroJ our natural instincts lor mathomatical ologanco. (Honri Poin-
car n.J.)
Thoy aro also too tompting. As Poincar`s commont suggosts, it is
oh so oasy to spot an ologant pattorn anJ assumo that it goos on lor-
ovor. Hov olton it Joosn`t! Hov olton vo aro JisappointoJ!
As G. H. HarJy also notoJ, Somo lranchos ol mathomatics havo
tho ploasant charactoristic that vhat sooms plausillo at lirst sight is
gonorally truo. ln |analytic primo numlorl thoory anyono can mako
plausillo conjocturos, anJ thoy aro almost alvays lalso.` (HarJy
1915, 18)
Tho simplost conjocturos aro oasy to mako anJ may lo oasy to provo,
though not as oasily as in tho joko alout a physicist vho noticos that
3 is primo, 5 is primo, is primo, 9 is not-lut that`s an oxporimon-
tal orror!-11 is primo, 13 is primo . . . anJ so concluJos that all oJJ
numlor aro primo!
Tho most important conjocturos tonJ to lo maJo ly tho most
lrilliant mathomaticians vho havo lookoJ oxtraorJinarily Jooply
into tho suljoct anJ vhoso intuition tolls thom that a cortain lact`
{ -
is likoly to lo truo, although thoy cannot provo it. Such Joop con-
jocturos havo contrilutoJ onormously to tho progross ol matho-
matics.
Icrmat`s Iast Thcorcm, laloloJ a thoorom` only locauso lormat
claimoJ to havo provoJ it, vas lor conturios a plausillo conjocturo
until it vas linally provoJ ly AnJrov Wilos.
ToJay`s most lamous anJ harJost mathomatical prollom is ly
common consont tho Ricmann hypothcsis, a conjocturo alout tho
Jistrilution ol tho primo numlors.
Conjocturos alout primo numlors havo anothor loaturo that can lo
loth intriguing anJ inluriating. Bocauso tho primos aro guito lro-
guont among tho small` intogors, thoro aro many tompting conjoc-
turos that lail as soon as vo got out a moJorn oloctronic calculator or
a povorlul computor.
Icrmat`s conjccturc that 2
2
u
1 is alvays primo must havo soomoJ
vory tompting to lormat, lut tho vory lirst valuo that ho JiJ not cal-
culato, locauso it vas so largo, turnoJ out to lo composito! lt is
inJooJ oasy to linJ lunctions that soom to proJuco many primos lor
small valuos ol u, lut vhich start to proJuco compositos as u
incroasos. Hov tompting to conjocturo that vo havo JiscovoroJ a for-
mula for primcs anJ hov Jisappointing vhon tho lormula lails!
PicharJ Guy has rolorroJ to this phonomonon as tho strong lav of
small numbcrs.
On tho othor hanJ, somo conjocturo may soom vory voll lounJoJ
inJooJ, locauso tho lirst countoroxamplo is so vory largo. ln 1919,
Goorgo Plya, author ol Mct/ccticcl Discctcr, anJ Mct/cctics
cuc Plcvsi/lc Rccscuiug, conjocturoJ that tho numlor ol intogors
A vith an oJJ numlor ol primo lactors is novor loss than tho num-
lor ol intogors A vith an ovon numlor ol primo lactors. (lor tho
purposos ol this conjocturo, ropoatoJ lactors aro countoJ, A 1 is
countoJ as having no primo lactor, anJ a primo is countoJ as having
ono primo lactor.)
lor noarly lorty yoars this vas loliovoJ to lo truo, though no ono
coulJ provo it. Thon in 1958 it vas provoJ that it is lalso lor inlinitoly
many A, anJ in 1980 V. Tanaka shovoJ that tho smallost countorox-
amplo is vhon A 906,150,25. (Haimo 1995)
\ou may voll linJ yoursoll making a conjocturo or tvo as you roaJ
this look: moanvhilo, many voll-knovn conjocturos havo thoir ovn
ontrios or aro listoJ in tho inJox.
Scc inJuction, Piomann hypothosis, strong lav ol small numlors
- {
- -
Tho consocutivo intogor soguonco goos: 1, 12, 123, 1234, 12345, . . .
Thoro aro no primos among tho lirst 13,500 torms. (Woisstoin, Mct/-
Wcrlc)
- -
Sylvostor provoJ in 1892 that ovory proJuct ol u consocutivo intogors
groator than u is Jivisillo ly a primo groator than u.
ln lact, although tho proJuct ol livo consocutivo intogors 6 8
9 10 is Jivisillo ly just ono primo, , groator than 5, tho proJuct
200 201 202 203 204 is Jivisillo ly livo primos, 6, 101, , 29,
anJ 1. This suggosts that Sylvostor`s rosult is rathor gonorous:
inJooJ, tho proJuct ol just tvo consocutivo numlors is alvays Jivis-
illo ly a primo groator than A, il tho proJuct is largo onough.
Sinco tho triangular numlors havo tho lormula
1
2u(u 1), vo coulJ
rophraso this to say that lor cu, numlor A, all tho triangular numlors
lrom a cortain point onvarJ aro Jivisillo ly a primo groator than A.
Bolov oach ol thoso nino composito numlors is ono ol its primo
lactors, anJ all thoso lactors aro Jilloront:
1802 1803 1804 1805 1806 180 1808 1809 1810
53 601 41 19 43 139 113 6 181
ln gonoral, givon u consocutivo intogors groator than u
u 1
1, thon
oach ol thom has a primo lactor that JiviJos nono ol tho othors.
(Grimm 1969)
- - --
ln hov many vays can a numlor, u, lo vritton as tho sum ol cuc cr
crc consocutivo primos? ll vo call it f (u), thon f (5) 2, locauso
5 5 anJ 2 3, anJ f(41) 3, locauso 41 11 13 1 2 3
5 11 13.
Ioo Vosor has provoJ that tho avorago valuo ol f (u) lrom u 1 to
A is log 2 as A tonJs to inlinity. (Guy 1981, C2)
Scc clsc GolJlach`s conjocturo
{ - -
K-
This cunning Jovico consists ol a rov ol lractions, vhich aro laloloJ
lor oasy roloronco:
A B D H E l l P P S T I V N
\ou alvays start vith tho numlor 2. A stop involvos multiplying tho
curront numlor ly tho oarliost lraction in tho machino that makos tho
ansvor a vholo numlor.
Tho machino pausos vhonovor a povor ol 2 is roachoJ, anJ tho
output is tho oxponont ol that povor ol 2. Horo is hov it starts:
2 15 825 25 1925 225 425 390 330
V N E l T A B S E
290 0 910 10 156 132 116 308 364 68 4
l T A B S E l T A P
lt takos 19 stops lor tho numlor 4 2
2
to appoar, anJ 2 is tho lirst
primo! Continuing, altor anothor 50 stops, 8 2
3
appoars, anJ 3 is tho
soconJ primo. Altor anothor 211 stops, tho noxt povor ol 2 is 32 2
5
,
anJ 5 is tho thirJ primo. AnJ so on. (Convay anJ Guy 1996, 130,
14) (Guy 1983)
- -
Cousin primos aro pairs Jilloring ly 4, so thoy aro rathor moro Jis-
tant than tvin primcs lut loss Jistant than scxy primcs. Thoro aro
lourtoon pairs ol tvin primos loss than 200, anJ also lourtoon pairs
ol cousin primos: 3-, -11, 13-1, 19-23, 3-41, 43-4, 6-1, 9-83,
9-101, 103-10, 109-113, 12-131, 163-16, anJ 193-19. Thoro aro
tvonty-six moro pairs lolov 1000.
ll tho lirst ol tho Haruy-Iittlcvoou conjccturcs is truo, thon tho tvin
anJ cousin primos havo tho samo Jonsity, as vo movo to inlinity.
55
1
15
2
15
14
13
11
11
13
1
1
19
95
23
29
29
33
23
38
19
51
8
85
1
91
- - {
BasoJ on tho cousin primos up to 2
42
, anJ omitting tho oxcoptional
initial pair, 3-, locauso 3 is not ol tho lorm 6u 1, tho sorios,
1
1
11
1
13
1
1
1
19
1
23
1
3
1
41
has tho sum 1.190449 . . . (Woll 1996)
Scc soxy primos, tvin primos
-
Numlors ol tho lorm c
u
u 2
u
1 aro namoJ altor tho PovoronJ J.
Cullon, vho noticoJ in 1905 that apart lrom c
1
3 anJ ono othor
possillo oxcoption, thoy aro all composito lor u 1 to 100. Tho
oxcoption vas c
53
, vhich vas lounJ ly Cunningham to lo Jivisillo
ly 5591.
Although lor lov valuos ol u, Cullon primos aro raro, it has loon
conjocturoJ that thoro is an inlinito numlor ol thom.
Tho knovn Cullon primos occur vhon u 1, 141, 413, 595, 6611,
18496, 32292, 32469, 59656, 90825, 262419, 36125, anJ 481899.
Numlors ol tho lorm u /
u
1, calloJ gonoralizoJ Cullon numlors,
aro also raroly primo.
Whon / 3, u 3
u
1 is primo lor u 2, 8, 32, 54, 114, 414, 1400,
1850, 2848, 484, 268, 19290.
Tho largost knovn Cullon primo is c
481899
ol 145,02 Jigits, Jiscov-
oroJ ly Vasakatu Vorii in 1998.
Scc WooJall primos
Iioutonant Colonol Allan Josoph Cunningham (1842-1928) rotiroJ
lrom tho British army in 1891 anJ JovotoJ himsoll to numlor thoory,
ospocially tho lactorization ol numlors ol tho lorm c
u
/
u
.
ln 1925 ho got togothor vith H. J. WooJall to pullish a look ol
all that thoy haJ JiscovoroJ alout tho lactors ol such numlors.
D. H. Iohmor JovotoJ much timo to oxtonJing thoir rosults, in vhat
is nov calloJ tho Cunningham projoct. Ol courso, thoro voro many
numlors in thoir tallos that at tho timo coulJ not lo lactoroJ vith
{ -
tho oguipmont availallo. D. H. Iohmor anJ Emma Iohmor lactoroJ
many ol thom. Tho last numlor in tho original look vas lactoroJ
in 1992.
Tho projoct is continuing. Tho rosults ol tho Cunningham projoct
voro originally colloctoJ in J. Brillhart ot al., Pcctcri.cticus cf /
u
1,
/ 2, , 5, , 7, 1u, 11, 12 vj tc /ig/ jctcrs, pullishoJ ly tho Amor-
ican Vathomatical Socioty in 1988. Tho rosults aro nov on tho Wol,
vhoro thoy aro rogularly upJatoJ at this sito run ly Stan Wagstall:
vvv.corias.purJuo.oJuhomosssvcun. This sito incluJos a calcu-
lator that givos tho knovn primo lactors ol tho numlors /
u
1
(vhoro / 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, , 8, 9, 10, 11, 12).
Scc GlVPS, Vorsonno primos
-
ll j anJ 2j 1 aro loth primo, thon j is a Sophic Gcrmain primc. A
Cunningham chain is a chain ol Sophio Gormain primos, apart lrom
tho last primo in tho chain. Tvo small oxamplos: 2, 5, 11, 23, 4, anJ
89, 19, 359, 19, 1439, 289.
Thoso aro somotimos calloJ Cunningham chains ol tho lirst kinJ, to
Jistinguish thom lrom Cunningham chains ol tho soconJ kinJ, in
vhich all tho torms aro primo anJ oach is Joullo tho provious primo,
lcss 1: lor oxamplo, 2, 3, 5, or 19, 3, 3.
ll tho strong primo -tuplcs conjccturc is truo, thon Cunningham
chains can roach any longth.
Tony lorlos lounJ on Docomlor 5, 199, tho longost Cunningham
chain ol tho lirst kinJ, vith 14 torms, anJ tho longost ol tho soconJ
kinJ, ol longth 16, starting vith 3203000195902981.
Tho largost chain ol tho lirst kinJ ol longth 3 starts at
11556629.2
4319
1, anJ tho largost ol tho soconJ kinJ ol longth 3
starts at 3425203.2
5000
1, loth JiscovoroJ ly Warut Poonguthai. lt
is no coinciJonco that loth loaturo numlors ol tho lorm k 2
u
1.
Although any oJJ numlor can lo oxprossoJ in thoso lorms, il k 2
u
thon tho numlor can lo tostoJ lor primality vory olliciontly. Sinco
2(k 2
u
1) 1 k 2
u 1
1, a Cunningham chain may consist ol
a soguonco ol torms ol this lorm. Similarly, 2(k 2
u
1) 1 k
2
u 1
1, loaJing naturally to chains ol tho soconJ kinJ.
- {
-
Tho lraction 1 as a Jocimal is 0.14285 14285 . . . Tho numlor
14285 has many curious proportios, olton sharoJ (moro or loss) vith
tho porioJs ol othor primos. lor oxamplo, splitting tho porioJ in tvo
halvos or throo thirJs:
142 85 999, anJ 14 28 5 99
Sguaro anJ split into halvos anJ aJJ: 14285
2
20,408,122,449, anJ:
20,408 122,449 14285
Vultiplying 14285 ly any numlor lrom 2 to 6 rosults in a pormuta-
tion ol its Jigits:
14285 2 28514
14285 3 42851
14285 4 51428
14285 5 14285
14285 6 85142
But, 14285 999999
Tho lraction 113 0.06923 06923 . . . has porioJ longth 6 (13
1)2. Thoso proportios match thoso ol 1:
06 923 999 0 69 23 99
Tho soconJ proporty nooJs only to lo slightly aJjustoJ:
06923
2
005,91,14,929, anJ aJJing tho six-Jigit split halvos vo got,
005,91 14,929 153,846 2 06923
Tho thirJ proporty is also somovhat Jilloront. Vultiplying 06923 ly
tho numlors 2 to 12:
06923 2 153846 06923 3 23069
06923 4 30692 06923 5 384615
06923 6 461538 06923 538461
06923 8 615384 06923 9 69230
06923 10 69230 06923 11 846153
06923 12 92306
{ -
livo ol tho proJucts aro cyclic pormutations ol 06923 lut tho othor
six aro cyclic pormutations 153846.
Wo can put thom into a simplor soguonco il vo start vith 06923
anJ just Joullo anJ Joullo again, roJucing moJulo 13, so that 16 3
(moJ 13) anJ 32 6 (moJ 13) anJ so on. Tho soguonco ol multiplos
lrom 2 to 12 thon roaJs: 2, 4, 8, 3, 6, 12, 11, 9, 5, 10, , anJ tho proJ-
ucts aro cyclic pormutations ol 0923 anJ 153846 cltcructcl,.
Tho Jocimal rociprocals ol composito numlors aro, naturally, moro
complicatoJ anJ loss olviously ologant. lor oxamplo, 121
0.04619 anJ 04619 21 999999 anJ 04 6 19 Joos ogual 99-
lut 04 619 666, not 999.
-
Tho porioJs ol tho rociprocals ol tho primos aro also knovn as c,clic
uv/crs. Thoso aro tho porioJs ol tho othor primos lolov 100,
oxcluJing 2, 3, 5, anJ 11:
porioJ 1j
13 06923
1 05882352941164
19 0526315894368421
23 04348260869565213913
29 0344825862068965512413931
31 032258064516129 |tho smallost vith porioJ (j 1)2l
3 2
41 02439 |tho smallost vith porioJ (j 1)8l
43 02325581395348832093
4 02126595446808510638298234042553191489361
53 018869245283 |tho smallost vith porioJ (j 1)4l
59 0169491525423288135593220338983050844562118644
069661
61 016393442622950819621311454098360655304918032
868852459
6 0149253313432835820895522388059
1 014084500422535211266056338028169
3 01369863
9 012658228481
83 012048192108433349395903614458313253
- {
ccutiuvcc cu uct jcgc
89 011235955056195280898864044943820224191
9 01030928350515463915253195862886599381443298
ll tho porioJ ol a primo j is ol longth j 1, it is a fvll jcricc jric
(also calloJ a rcjtcuc or lcug jric). ln all othor casos tho porioJ
longth is a lactor ol u 1, as Iamlort noticoJ in 169.
K-
Thirty-oight ol tho lirst hunJroJ primos aro lull porioJ, starting vith
, 1, 19, 23, 29, 4, 59, 61, . . . lut no gonoral mothoJ is knovn lor
JociJing vhich primos aro lull porioJ.
Thoro is a connoction horo vith primitivo roots: il j is a primo loss
than 5, thon tho Jocimal oxpansion ol 1j has tho maximum possi-
llo porioJ ol j 1 in laso 10 il anJ only il 10 is a primitivc root
moJulo j.
Poughly, it sooms ly calculation that 3 ol all primos in laso 10
aro lull porioJ. Emil Artin conjocturoJ that tho oxact liguro shoulJ lo,
fcr cu, /csc ct cll:
I . . . 0.339558 . . . C
Tho lractions aro ( j
2
j 1)( j
2
j) lor oach primo, 2, 3, 5, . . .
D. H. anJ Emma Iohmor thon JiscovoroJ oxporimontally that Artin`s
conjocturo is not guito right. lt roguiros a corrocting lactor that
JoponJs on tho laso. ln laso , lor oxamplo, tho proportion is con-
jocturoJ to lo 42C41.
Thoro is a simplo connoction lotvoon rociprocal primo porioJs anJ
tho rcpunits, numlors vhoso Jigits aro all 1, vhich vo can illustrato
vith tho casos ol 1 anJ 113:
1 0.14285 14285 . . .
anJ 1 1 0.999999 999999 . . .
so, 14285 999999 9 111111
Similarly, 113 0.06923 06923 . . .
anJ 13 113 1 0.999999 999999 . . .
so, 13 06923 999999 9 111111
1 I 5 I 19 I 41 I 109 I 155 I 21
2 I 6 I 20 I 42 I 110 I 156 I 22
{ -
ln othor vorJs, all tho intogors vhoso rociprocals havo porioJ 6 must
JiviJo 999999 3
3
11 13 3. As it happons, 3, 11, anJ 3 havo
porioJs loss than 6, so only 1 anJ 113 actually havo porioJ 6. Sim-
ilarly, sinco 111,111,111 3 3 3 33366, tho only primo vith ro-
ciprocal porioJ longth 9 is 33366. Thoso primos havo uniguo porioJ
longths: 3, 11, 3, 101, 33366, 9091, 9901, 909091, P19, P23, 99990001,
999999000001, 909090909090909091, . . . (Sloano V2890)
--
Tho porioJs ol 1, 2, . . . 6 lorm an imporloct magic sguaro,
locauso although tho rovs anJ columns havo tho samo sum, tho
Jiagonals Jo not:
1 4 2 8 5
2 8 5 1 4
4 2 8 5 1
5 1 4 2 8
1 4 2 8 5
8 5 1 4 2
Tho Jocimal porioJs ol 119, 219, . . . , 1819, hovovor, Jo lorm a
truo magic sguaro.
119 0 5 2 6 3 1 5 8 9 4 3 6 8 4 2 1
219 1 0 5 2 6 3 1 5 8 9 4 3 6 8 4 2
319 1 5 8 9 4 3 6 8 4 2 1 0 5 2 6 3
419 2 1 0 5 2 6 3 1 5 8 9 4 3 6 8 4
519 2 6 3 1 5 8 9 4 3 6 8 4 2 1 0 5
619 3 1 5 8 9 4 3 6 8 4 2 1 0 5 2 6
19 3 6 8 4 2 1 0 5 2 6 3 1 5 8 9 4
819 4 2 1 0 5 2 6 3 1 5 8 9 4 3 6 8
919 4 3 6 8 4 2 1 0 5 2 6 3 1 5 8 9
1019 5 2 6 3 1 5 8 9 4 3 6 8 4 2 1 0
1119 5 8 9 4 3 6 8 4 2 1 0 5 2 6 3 1
1219 6 3 1 5 8 9 4 3 6 8 4 2 1 0 5 2
1319 6 8 4 2 1 0 5 2 6 3 1 5 8 9 4 3
1419 3 6 8 4 2 1 0 5 2 6 3 1 5 8 9 4
1519 8 9 4 3 6 8 4 2 1 0 5 2 6 3 1 5
1619 8 4 2 1 0 5 2 6 3 1 5 8 9 4 3 6
119 8 9 4 3 6 8 4 2 1 0 5 2 6 3 1 5
1819 9 4 3 6 8 4 2 1 0 5 2 6 3 1 5 8
- {
Tho rov, column, anJ Jiagonal sums aro all 81. Notico tho pattorns
in tho lirst anJ last columns. (CalJvoll, Pric Pcgcs)
A numlor is Joliciont il tho sum ol its jrcjcr Jivisors, moaning all its
Jivisors oxcopt tho numlor itsoll is loss than tho numlor: so all primo
numlors aro Joliciont.
Tho numlor 8 is Joliciont, locauso 1 2 4 . ln lact, all pov-
ors ol 2 aro Joliciont just locauso tho propor lactors ol 2
u
aro 1, 2, 4,
8, . . . , 2
u 1
anJ 1 2 4 . . . 2
u 1
2
u
1. Tho povors ol primos
groator than 2 aro ovon moro Joliciont.
Tho opposito ol a Joliciont numlor is an abunuant numbcr.
Scc alunJant numlor, porloct numlor
-
Chris CalJvoll Jolinos a cclctc/lc jric to lo ono that romains
primo as tho Jigits aro JolotoJ in somo choson orJor. This is his
oxamplo: 41025693, 4125693, 412563, 41563, 4563, 456, 46,
6, . lt is not knovn vhothor thoro is an inlinity ol such primos.
-
A right-truncatallo numlor is primo anJ romains primo as tho Jigits
aro romovoJ lrom tho right. lt thoroloro contains no zoro Jigit, anJ
tho Jigits 2 anJ 5 can only lo tho loltmost Jigit.
Thoro aro oighty-throo right-truncatallo primos in laso 10, starting,
2, 3, 5, , 23, 29, 31, 3, 53, 59, 1, 3, 9, 233, 239, 293, 311, 313,
31, 33, . . .
Thoro is an inlinity ol lolt-truncatallo primos il zoros aro allovoJ,
lor oxamplo, 108. ll zoros aro JisallovoJ, thoro aro 4,260 lolt-
truncatallo primos in laso 10, starting 2, 3, 5, , 13, 1, 23, 3, 43, 4,
53, 6, 3, 83, 9, 113, 13, 16, 13, . . .
-
Tho original Domlo numlors aro tho palinJromos 1, 121, 12321,
1234321, 123454321, . . . , 123456898654321. Tho prollom is thon,
{
-K- {
hov to continuo tho soguonco?-anJ tho usual solution is to notico
that tho Domlo numlors aro tho sguaros ol tho lirst lov rcpunits:
11
2
121
111
2
12321
1111
2
1234321
. . .
P
9
2
111111111
2
123456898654321
This suggosts that Domlo-10 shoulJ lo JolinoJ as,
P
10
2
1111111111
2
12345690098654321
anJ so on.
- -
ln a Joscriptivo (or soll-Joscriptivo or Iook anJ Say) soguonco, oach
torm ccscri/cs tho provious torm. lor oxamplo,
2 12 1112 3112
ono 2 ono 1, ono 2 throo 1s, ono 2 . . .
Starting vith 1, tho soguonco continuos 1, 11, 21, 1211, 111221,
312211, 13112221, . . . Tho lirst tvo primos aro 11 anJ 312211.
Aro thoro Joscriptivo soguoncos vhoso torms aro all primo? G. I.
Honakor Jr. lounJ this ono: 33, 13113, 11131111113, 31133113113.
Unlortunatoly, tho noxt torm is composito. Carlos Pivora, Viko Koith,
anJ Waltor SchnoiJor havo sulsoguontly lounJ six-torm soguoncos,
anJ SchnoiJor has lounJ a sovon-torm soguonco starting vith
19,92,66,609. (SchnoiJor 2003) (Pivora, Puzzlo 36)
-K-
IoonarJ Eugono Dickson (184-1954) is lost knovn toJay lor his
oxtraorJinarily JotailoJ throo-volumo Histcr, cf t/c 1/ccr, cf Av-
/crs, vhoso lirst volumo is on Ditisi/ilit, cuc Priclit,. Ho conjoc-
turoJ in 1904 that il vo havo a soguonco ol linoar oxprossions vith
intogor coollicionts, vith all tho c
i
positivo,
c
1
u /
1
, c
2
u /
2
, c
3
u /
3
, . . . , c
k
u /
k
thon thoro is inlinito numlor ol valuos ol u lor vhich ovory ono ol thoso
oxprossions vill lo primo simultanoously (apart lrom casos vhoro
thoro is a numlor vhich JiviJos at loast ono tho oxprossions lor ovory
valuo ol u). Tho gualilication is nocossary to oxcluJo casos such as,
2u 3 2u 5 2u
ono ol vhich must alvays lo Jivisillo ly 3: tho lirst il 3u, tho soc-
onJ il 3u 1, tho thirJ il 3u 1.
Dickson`s gonoral conjocturo incluJos many othors: tho tvin primcs
conjocturo is tho caso lor u anJ u 2. ll it is truo lor u anJ 2u 1,
thon thoro is an inlinity ol Sophic Gcrmain primos. lt also implios, il
truo, tho primo -tuplcs conjccturc, that thoro aro inlinitoly many
triplos ol consocutivo scmiprimcs, anJ that thoro is an inlinity ol
composito Vcrscnnc numbcrs.
Scc hypothosis H
-
Tho largost primo using tho Jigits 1 to 9 is 9865431. ll 0 can lo usoJ
as voll, it is 98654103.
- 85193191 is tho largost primo such that tho lirst u Jigits aro
Jivisillo ly tho uth primo, lor u 1 to 10. (Viko Koith: CalJ-
voll, Pric Pcgcs)
- 113 is tho smallost throo-Jigit primo such that all roarrangomonts
ol its Jigits aro also primo. Tho othors aro 33 anJ 199. Tho
rcpunits P
19
anJ P
23
aro tho noxt numlors vith this proporty.
- 200 is tho loast numlor that cannot locomo a primo ly chang-
ing ono Jigit. With 202, 204, 206, anJ 208 it lorms an arith-
motic progrossion ol numlors vith tho samo proporty.
Scc Jolotallo anJ truncatallo primos
-
Diophantus vas ono ol tho groat lato Grook mathomaticians. Six
looks ol his Arit/cticc, out ol thirtoon, aro oxtant. Ho also vroto
Ou Pcl,gcucl Av/crs.
{ -
Tho Arit/cticc is a colloction ol solvoJ prolloms, incluJing
this ono: vhich numlors can lo tho hypotonuso ol a right-angloJ
trianglo?
AccorJing to Pythagoras`s thoorom, in a right-angloJ trianglo c
2
/
2
c
2
. Tho simplost oxamplo is 3
2
4
2
5
2
anJ tho noxt simplost is
5
2
12
2
13
2
. Tho gonoral lormula lor solutions to Pythagoras`s
oguation is:
c
2
u
2
/ 2u c
2
u
2
ll anJ u havo no common lactor, thon c, /, anJ c vill lo coprimo
also.
lrom tho spocilic oxamplos that Diophantus choso in solving his
prolloms, critics havo concluJoJ that ho knov that any primo num-
lor ol tho lorm 4u 1 is a possillo hypotonuso, moaning that it is ol
tho lorm
2
,
2
.
Ho also knov that no numlor ol tho lorm 4u 3 is tho sum ol tvo
sguaros, anJ numlors ol tho lorm 8u aro not tho sum ol throo
sguaros, though any numlor is tho sum ol up to lour sguaros.
His Arit/cticc incluJos tho prollom ol roprosonting numlors as tho
sum ol tvo sguaros, vhich voro rational rathor than intogral, lor
oxamplo:
2
,
2
13, vith
2
anJ ,
2
groator than 6
Ho linJs tho solution is (25101)
2
anJ (258101)
2
, vhich is oguiva-
lont to 25
2
258
2
13 101
2
, an improssivo loat! (ToJay, ironically,
Diophantino` moans solullo in intogors only.)
Ho also usoJ rolationships such as 8 timos a triangular numlor 1
a sguaro numlor,
2
u
2
2u is a sguaro, tho sum ol tvo culos
is also tho Jilloronco ol tvo culos (rational rathor than intogral), anJ
(
2
u
2
)
2
(2u)
2
(
2
u
2
)
2
. This last roprosonts tho siJos ol a
right-angloJ Pythagoroan trianglo.
Ho also usoJ tho lormulao,
(c
2
/
2
)(c
2
c
2
) (cc /c)
2
(cc /c)
2
anJ (c
2
/
2
)(c
2
c
2
) (cc /c)
2
(cc /c)
2
- {
vhich ho usoJ to linJ lour right-angloJ trianglos vith tho samo
hypotonuso. lor oxamplo,
(1
2
2
2
)(3
2
1
2
) (1 3 2 1)
2
(1 1 2 3)
2
5
2
5
2
50
anJ so
(1
2
2
2
)(3
2
1
2
) (1 3 2 1)
2
(1 1 2 3)
2
1
2
2
50
Thoso algolraic iJontitios aro moro than a curiosity. Thoy mako a
crucial anJ Joop link lotvoon loing a sum ol tvo sguaros` anJ lac-
tors anJ proJucts, anJ thoy suggost guostions such as:
A. Can tho lactors ol cu, ccjcsitc numlor that is tho sum ol
tvo sguaros lo vritton thomsolvos as tho sum ol tvo sguaros?
B. Can a primo numlor that has no propor lactors lo vritton
as tho sum ol tvo sguaros?
C. ln hov many vays can a numlor vith throo lactors, oach ol
vhich is tho sum ol tvo sguaros, lo vritton as tho sum ol tvo
sguaros?
Tho vorks ol Diophantus voro pullishoJ ly, among othors, Bachot
Jo Vziriac in 1621, vhoso look vas stuJioJ ly Icrmat.
Tho guostions proposoJ anJ ansvoroJ ly Diophantus proviJo a link
lrom Pythagoras anJ tho oarliost Grook mathomatics to lormat anJ
othor mathomaticians ol tho sovontoonth anJ oightoonth conturios
vho maJo thoso tho lirst Joop prolloms in moJorn numlor thoory.
Scc clsc EucliJ, lormat
K- -
--
Gustav Potor Iojouno Dirichlot (1805-1859) vas a proJigy vho as a
young man carrioJ vith him on his travols his Jog-oaroJ copy ol
Gauss`s Disqvisiticucs Arit/cticcc. At tho ago ol only tvonty, ho
prosontoJ to tho lronch AcaJomy ol Scioncos a papor on oguations
ol tho lorm,
5
,
5
A .
5
A lov vooks lator ho provoJ that Icrmat`s Iast Thcorcm vhon u 5
has no solution.
Fucliu provoJ that thoro is an inlinity ol primos among tho positivo
intogors, lut hov many aro thoro in arithmotic progrossions such as
{ K- - --
1 5 9 13 1 21 25 29 . . .
or 2 12 1 22 2 32 3 . . . ?
Dirichlot provoJ in 183, a conjocturo maJo ly Gauss: il c anJ / aro
coprimo positivo intogors, thon tho arithmotic progrossion c, c /,
c 2/, c 3/, . . . contains inlinitoly many primos. Ho JiJ so ly prov-
ing that il j is a primo ol tho lorm cu /, vith c anJ / coprimo, thon
tho sum ol all tho primos j ol this lorm loss than is approximatoly,
log log
as tonJs to inlinity. ln othor vorJs, it incroasos vithout limit, alloit
vory slovly, anJ so tho primos ol that lorm cannot lo linito in num-
lor. Ho also provoJ that tho numlor ol primos in tho soguonco loss
than u tonJs to
as u incroasos.
This prool roprosontoJ tho lirth ol cucl,tic numlor thoory, vhich
usos calculus to Jrav conclusions alout tho intogors.
Whoro Joos tho lirst primo occur in an arithmotic soguonco? Soo Iin-
nik`s constant lor a partial ansvor.
- -
Dirichlot also provoJ that il c, 2/, anJ c havo no common primo lac-
tor, thon tho guaJratic oxprossion c
2
2/, c,
2
takos an inlinity
ol primo valuos.
Scc HarJy, HarJy-IittlovooJ conjocturos
-
Hov much ol tho povor ol your computor Jo you actually uso?
Almost cortainly, vory littlo. Ono vay to uso tho vastoJ` povor is to
got togothor vith othor computor usors, tako a vory Jillicult prollom
that can lo split into many smallor prolloms-anJ cistri/vtcc via tho
lntornot-anJ tacklo ono small prollom oach. That`s JistrilutoJ
computing!
u
(c) log u
1
(c)
- {
\ou might lo allo to crack a vory Jillicult coJo, analyzo goologi-
cal Jata, or calculato tho shapos ol moloculos-or you coulJ attompt
to communicato vith an alion civilization ly joining tho SETl4homo
projoct soarching lor signs ol lilo in signals lrom tho raJio toloscopo
at tho Arocilo Olsorvatory in Puorto Pico: so lar moro than 0,000
onthusiasts havo signoJ up.
Tho liggost numlor-thoorotic opportunitios incluJo lactoring vory
largo numlors anJ linJing rocorJ-lroaking primo numlors. Arjon
Ionstra anJ Vark Vanasso organizoJ tho lirst lntornot lactoring proj-
oct in 1988. Soon thoir voluntoors voro lactoring 100-Jigit numlors
vith oaso, anJ in 1993 a toam ol six hunJroJ succosslully lactoroJ
PSA-129 lor a prizo ol $100, anJ rathor moro glory.
Among tho many projocts nov running, tho JistrilutoJ computing
soarch lor Icrmat numbcr Jivisors has its Wol aJJross vvv
.lormatsoarch.orgparticip. Tvonty-oight rosoarchors lrom Brazil, lin-
lanJ, Gormany, Grooco, lran, ltaly, Japan, Spain, SvoJon, Pussia,
anJ tho USA aro taking part, incluJing Tony lorlos, author ol tho
VlAC program that vas usoJ to linJ a lactor ol P
31
.
Tony lorlos is also organizing an intornational soarch lor a lactor
ol MM61 2
M61
1. This is a Vcrscnnc numbcr vith a Vorsonno
primo oxponont, anJ tho smallost vhoso primality has not loon
JociJoJ.
Tho Sicrpinski numbcrs ollor anothor challongo. ln Varch 2002 thoro
voro only sovontoon canJiJato valuos ol k lolt to chock: 484, 5359,
10223, 19249, 21181, 22699, 243, 2653, 28433, 33661, 44131,
4615, 546, 55459, 6556, 660, anJ 69109. So Iouis K. Holm anJ
DaviJ A. Norris startoJ thoir Sovontoon or Bust` projoct. By tho onJ
{ -
ln rounJ orJors ol magnituJo, a typical porsonal computor vill soon
oxocuto 100 million instructions por soconJ, it vill havo 100 moga-
lytos ol momory anJ a gigalyto ol Jisk storago, it vill consumo
100 vatts ol oloctricity anJ cost $1,000, 100 million ol thoso machinos
vill lo attachoJ to tho lntornot. Vultiply it out: 10 guaJrillion instruc-
tions por soconJ, 10 lillion mogalytos ol momory, 100 million giga-
lytos ol Jisk storago, 10 gigavatts ol oloctric-povor JomanJ, a prico
tag ol $100 lillion. lt`s prolally vorth rovriting your soltvaro to
gain accoss to such a machino. (Hayos 1998)
ol 2002 thoy haJ oliminatoJ livo canJiJatos. On Novomlor 2, 2002,
Stophon Gilson roportoJ that 4615 2
u
1 is a primo vhon u
69820. On Doc. 2, 2002, Jamos Burt JiscovoroJ that 6556 2
u
1
is a primo vhon u 1013803.
Throo Jays lator (!) tho computor ol an anonymous participant
shovoJ that 44131 2
u
1 is a primo vhon u 99592. On Docom-
lor , Soan DiVicholo roportoJ that 69109 2
u
1 is a primo vhon
u 115446, anJ Potor Cools has JiscovoroJ that 546 2
u
1 is a
primo vhon u 13382. This primo has 402,569 Jigits, making it
tho sovonth largost knovn primo.
Tho goal ol ZotaGriJ, organizoJ ly Solastian WoJonivski ol lBV, is
to calculato zoros ol tho Ricmann zota lunction. So lar thoy havo cal-
culatoJ noarly 400 lillion. Currontly, ZotaGriJ links moro than 10,000
vorkstations, has a porlormanco rato ol alout 5649 GlIOPS, anJ
calculatos moro than 1 lillion zota lunction zoros ovory Jay.
Not surprisingly, JistrilutoJ computing can lo highly compotitivo!
AccorJing to tho ZotaGriJ Wol sito, tho Top Toam lor tho last
Jays` on SaturJay, Novomlor 6, 2004, vas Dolian Iinux Usors
Evoryvhoro,` vith tvo activo momlors, anJ thirty-six computors that
calculatoJ 321,992,600 zoros.
ll moro glory Joosn`t gral you, thon thoro aro prizos. ZotaGriJ is
olloring tho lolloving lour prizos in accorJanco vith |thosol rulos:
- $10 (USD) vill lo avarJoJ to tho lirst porson vho Jiscovors
tho lirst tvo zoros that havo a Jistanco loss than 10
6
, using tho
soltvaro proviJoJ ly ZotaGriJ.
- $100 (USD) vill lo avarJoJ to tho lirst porson vho Jiscovors
tho lirst tvo zoros that havo a Jistanco loss than 10
, using tho
soltvaro proviJoJ ly ZotaGriJ.
- $1,000 (USD) vill lo avarJoJ to tho lirst porson vho Jiscov-
ors a nontrivial zoro that is not on tho critical lino, using tho
soltvaro proviJoJ ly ZotaGriJ, lut only il this constitutos tho
lirst Jisprool ol tho Ricmann hypothcsis ly any mothoJ.
- Up to $1 million (USD) vill lo avarJoJ to tho lirst 100 top
proJucors ol ZotaGriJ il Solastian WoJonivski vins tho $1
million prizo lor tho prool ol tho Piomann hypothosis lrom
Clay Vathomatics lnstituto ly using tho rosults ol tho statistical
summarios ol ZotaGriJ.
Scc Eloctronic lrontior lounJation, GonoralizoJ lormat numlors,
GlVPS, PSA lactoring Challongo
- {
- --
An intogor in laso 10 is Jivisillo ly 2 il tho last Jigit is ovon, ly 3 il
3 JiviJos tho sum ol tho Jigits, ly 9 il 9 JiviJos tho sum ol tho Jig-
its, anJ ly 5 il tho last Jigit is 5 or 0.
Thoro aro many tosts lor Jivisilility ly , nono ol thom vory short.
Horo aro tvo:
1. Vultiply tho lolt-hanJ Jigit ly 3 anJ aJJ to tho noxt Jigit.
PoJuco tho ansvor moJulo (moaning, tako only tho romainJor
vhon it is JiviJoJ ly ). Popoat. ll tho linal ansvor is Jivisillo ly
, so vas tho original numlor.
Examplo: 645: 6 3 4 22, vhich roJucos to 1, thon 3 1 10, roJuc-
ing to 3, thon 3 3 5 14, vhich is a multiplo ol .
2. Doullo tho last Jigit anJ sultract it lrom tho romaining
numlor. Popoat. ll tho linal rosult is 0 or , tho original numlor
is Jivisillo ly .
Examplo: 1106 110 12 98 9 16
Examplo: 3989 398 18 380 38 3 16 21
So loth numlors aro Jivisillo ly .
Thoro aro simplo tosts lor somo othor numlors. lor oxamplo, 100c
/ is Jivisillo ly 19 il anJ only il c 4/ is, locauso 4(100c /)
400c 4/ c 4/ (moJ 19). ll you tost a numlor that cyclos, such as,
1064 10 256 266 2 4 66 266 . . .
ropoating, onJlossly, thon you`ro okay, tho original numlor is Jivisi-
llo ly 19 (1064 19 56).
-- -
Van has long loon avaro that somo numlors aro moro roaJily
JiviJoJ into parts than othors, anJ that this can lo a sourco ol con-
vonionco. Tho Balylonians JiviJoJ tho sky anJ tho circlo into 360
Jogroos-suggostoJ, plausilly, ly tho 365
1
4 Jays in tho yoar-tho
Jay into 12 hours, tho hour into 60 minutos, anJ thoy countoJ in 60s.
Plato in Book V ol his Icts claims, Thoro is no Jilliculty in por-
coiving that tho tvolvo parts aJmit ol tho groatost numlor ol Jivi-
sions ol that vhich thoy incluJo, or in sooing tho othor numlors
{ - --
vhich aro consoguont upon thom,` anJ ho vont on to arguo that in
his iJoal ropullic,
Tho numlor ol our citizons shall lo 5040, this vill lo a convoniont num-
lor. . . . Evory logislator ought to knov so much arithmotic as to lo allo to
toll vhat numlor is most likoly to lo usolul to all citios, anJ vo aro going
to tako that numlor vhich contains tho groatost anJ most rogular anJ
unlrokon sorios ol Jivisions. Tho vholo ol numlor has ovory possillo Jivi-
sion, anJ tho numlor 5040 can lo JiviJoJ ly oxactly lilty-nino Jivisors
|sixty incluJing itsolll, anJ ton ol thoso procooJ vithout intorval lrom ono
to ton, this vill lurnish numlors lor var anJ poaco, anJ lor all contracts anJ
Joaling, incluJing taxos anJ Jivisions ol tho lanJ.
Whon tho anciont Grooks lirst consiJoroJ alunJant, porloct, anJ
Joliciont numlors, thoy tonJoJ to think ol Jivisors as loing loss than
tho numlor, so tho numlor itsoll vas oxcluJoJ: 28 vas porloct
locauso 28 1 2 4 14.
Hovovor, thoro is a vory gooJ anJ typically logical roason lor
incluJing u vhon calculating c(u). Tho lunction c(u) is vltijlicc-
titc, moaning that proviJoJ c anJ / aro coprimo, thon c(c/)
c(c)c(/). So c(u) can oasily lo calculatoJ lor any numlor vhoso
primo lactors aro knovn. ll vo oxcluJo tho numlor itsoll, so vo aro
consiJoring c(u) u, this is not multiplicativo, anJ all our calcula-
tions locomo moro complicatoJ.
-- -
A primo numlor, j, has tvo Jivisors, 1 anJ j. Povors ol 2, 2
u
, havo
u 1 Jivisors, 1, 2, 4, . . . , 2
u
, anJ tho proJuct ol throo Jistinct
primos, jqr, has oight lactors: 1, j, q, r, qr, rj, jq, jqr.
ln gonoral, il u is vritton as tho proJuct ol primo lactors: u
j
a
q
l
r
c
. . . thon tho numlor ol Jivisors, c(u) (c 1)(/ 1)(c 1) . . .
Sinco hall ol all intogors aro Jivisillo ly 2, anJ a thirJ ly 3, anJ so on,
vo might think that most intogors havo guito a lov Jivisors. This is
lalso. Tho opposito, corroct argumont is that hall ol all intogors aro
ovon, 1 in 6 is Jivisillo ly 2 anJ 3, 1 in 12 ly 2, 3, anJ 4, only 1 in 30
is Jivisillo ly 2, 3, anJ 5, anJ only 1 in 210 is Jivisillo ly 2, 3, 5, anJ
. So numlors vith ovon a hanJlul ol scll Jivisors aro inlroguont.
ln lact, G. H. HarJy provoJ that a typical` numlor, u, has alout log
log u Jivisors. Only a tiny proportion has many moro Jivisors than this.
Tho typical intogor rounJ alout 10
8
has just throo primo lactors, anJ you
havo to go up to alout 10
0
to got an avorago ol livo primo lactors.
-- - {
Tho sum ol tho numlor ol Jivisors ol all tho numlors up to u, c(1)
c(2) c(3) . . . c(u) is approximatoly u log u. Voro procisoly it
oguals u(log u 2 1) as utonJs to inlinity, vhoro is Fulcr`s constant.
- --
Wo roach a rocorJ vith c(u) vhonovor vo got to tho smallost num-
lor vith a givon numlor ol Jivisors. This, apart lrom 1, is alvays ol
tho lorm 2
a
3
l
5
c
J
. . . vhoro c / c c . . . Tho soguonco ol
such numlors starts,
u 2
a
3
l
5
c
. . . c(u)
2 2
1
2
4 2
2
3
6 2 3 4
16 2
4
5
12 2
2
3 6
64 2
6
24 2
3
3 8
36 2
2
3
2
9
48 2
4
3 10
1024 2
10
11
60 2
2
3 5 12
4096 2
12
13
192 2
6
3 14
144 2
4
3
2
15
120 2
3
3 5 16
--
- Tho lirst pair ol consocutivo numlors vith tho samo numlor ol
Jivisors is 2 anJ 3, vith tvo oach. Tho sulsoguont pairs start,
u 14, 15 21, 22 26, 2 33, 34, 35 38, 39 44, 45
c(u) 4 4 4 4 4 6
Iargor oxamplos aro 242 to 245, all vith c(u) 6, anJ 11605
to 11609, vith c(u) 8. (Pivora: CalJvoll, Pric Pcgcs)
- Tho proJuct uc(u) has ogual valuos lor oach ol tho triplot 168,
192, anJ 224. Thoro aro throo smallor pairs lor vhich uc(u)
has tho samo valuos: 18 anJ 2, 24 anJ 32, 56 anJ 64. (Guy
1981, 68)
{ -- -
- Tho proJuct ol tho harmonic moan anJ arithmotic moan ol
tho Jivisors ol a numlor is tho numlor itsoll. lor oxamplo, 20
has Jivisors 1, 2, 4, 5, 10, 20. Tho harmonic moan is tho roc-
iprocal ol (11 12 14 15 110 120)6 2
1
106
20. So tho harmonic moan is 20. Tho arithmotic moan is
426 .
- Call tho maximum povor ol a primo that JiviJos A a principal
Jivisor ol A. So 3 anJ 4 aro principal Jivisors ol 12. Thon any
oJJ intogor Agroator than 15 that is not a primo povor is groator
than tvico tho sum ol its principal Jivisors. (Alspach 2004)
-- -
Tho simplost conclusions alout Jivisilility como lrom looking at
romainJors. lor oxamplo, tho romainJors vhon 2
u
is JiviJoJ ly aro
only ovor 1, 2, or 4. ln othor vorJs,
2
u
1, 2, or 4 (moJ )
lt lollovs that 2
u
k can only lo Jivisillo ly vhon k 6, 5, or 3.
lor oach valuo ol u, only ono ol thoso vill apply. lor oxamplo, 2
2
3 5 9 15 23 33 45 59 5
2 1 2 5 3 3 5 (moJ )
So
2
3 5 1, 2, 3, or 5 (moJ ) anJ its valuos aro novor Jivis-
illo ly .
- --
Tho sum ol all tho c(u) Jivisors ol u is vritton (u). Iiko c(u), (u)
is multiplicativo: il j anJ q aro coprimo, thon (jq) (j) (q).
ll j is primo, thon (j) j 1, so il u j
c
q
/
r
c
. . . thon,
(u) ( j
c 1
1)(q
/ 1
1)(r
c 1
1) . . . (j 1)(q 1)(r 1) . . .
Tho soguonco ol intogors that aro novor valuos ol (u) starts:
2, 5, 9, 10, 11, 16, 1, 19, 21, 22, 23, 25, 26, 2, 29,
33, 34, 35, 3, 41, 43, 45, 46, 4, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, . . .
(Sloano A00369)
(u) is oJJ il anJ only il u is a sguaro or Joullo a sguaro.
-- - {
- -
lor all u 1, 1
anJ lor all u oxcopt u 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, anJ 12, 6
2
(Annapurna 1938)
As u tonJs to inlinity, (u) is ol tho orJor ol u log log u. Tho uppor
limit ol (u)u log log u as u tonJs to inlinity is c , vhoro is Fulcr`s
constant.
Tho sum ol tho Jivisors (u) Joos not jump arounJ as much as
c(u), anJ tho sum (1) (2) (3) (4) . . . (u) is ovon
smoothor: it is approximatoly ogual to
2
u
2
12 plus a lactor that is
proportional to u log u.
lor oxamplo, tho sum (1) (2) (3) . . . (1000) 823081
anJ
2
1000
2
12 82246 to tho noarost intogor. (Iohmor 1940)
-
Eulor JiscovoroJ an oxtraorJinary anJ oxguisito rocursivo lormula
lor calculating (u):
(u) (u 1) (u 2) (u 5) (u ) (u 12)
(u 15) (u 22) (u 26) (u 35) (u 40) . . .
\ou stop vhon you roach nogativo valuos, sinco () is not JolinoJ.
ll you roach c(0), thon (0) u lor tho sako ol this lormula.
Eulor lounJ tho soguonco involvoJ, 1, 2, 5, , 12, 15, 22, 26, 35, 40,
51, 5, 0, . . . ly multiplying out,
(1 )(1
2
)(1
3
)(1
4
) . . .
1
2
5
12
15
. . .
Tho soguonco can also lo JorivoJ lrom tho jcutcgcucl uv/crs.
Thoir lormula is
1
2u(3u 1), anJ thoir valuos lor positivo anJ noga-
tivo valuos ol u go liko this:
u 5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5
1
2u(3u 1) 40 26 15 2 0 1 5 12 22 35
Tho soguonco can also lo constructoJ ly noting its lirst Jilloroncos:
(u)
u u
(u)
u u
{ -- -
1 2 5 12 15 22 26 35 40 51 5 0
1 3 2 5 3 4 9 5 11 6 13
in vhich tho counting numlors anJ tho oJJ numlors lrom 3 altor-
nato.
Horo`s an oxamplo ol hov it vorks:
(10) (10 1) (10 2) (10 5) (10 )
(9) (8) (5) (3)
13 15 6 4
18
lt is thought-provoking that although (u) apparontly JoponJs on
tho lactors ol u, it can also lo calculatoJ via tho lactors ol a soloction
ol numlors loss than u.
-- -
Evon moro surprisingly, almost oxactly tho samo lormula, vith tho
samo conJition on stopping, givos tho numlor ol partitions ol u:
j(u) j(u 1) j(u 2) j(u 5) j(u ) j(u 12)
j(u 15) j(u 22) j(u 26) j(u 35) j(u 40) . . .
Tho only Jilloronco is that il you roach j(0) this is givon tho valuo 1.
Horo is anothor connoction: tako any numlor, anJ vrito Jovn its par-
titions into an ccc numlor ol ciffcrcut positivo intogors, lor oxamplo,
11 1 2 8 1 3 1 4 6 2 3 6 2 4 5 11
AJJ tho lirst torms: 1 1 1 2 2 11 18.
Nov partition 11 into ovon numlors ol Jilloront positivo intogors:
11 1 10 2 9 3 8 4 5 6 1 2 3 5
AJJ tho lirst torms: 1 2 3 4 5 1 16. Tho Jilloronco, 18
16 2, vhich is c(11). This is a gonoral rosult. (Bing, lokkink, anJ
lokkink 1995)
-- -
- Tho oguation (u) (u 1) has only nino solutions in pos-
itivo intogors loss than 10,000. Thoy aro u 14, 206, 95, 1334,
1364, 1634, 2685, 294, anJ 4364.
-- - {
- Tho oguation (u) 2 (u 2) is satislioJ vhonovor u anJ
u 2 aro a primo pair, lut thoro aro throo othor solutions lor
u unJor 9998: u 434, 855, anJ 8825. (Vakovski 1960)
- Tho valuos ol (u) poak at thoso u that havo many small lac-
tors. Tho poak at (60) 168 loats tho provious poak ol
(48) 124 ly 44. Tho noxt rocorJ-lroaking Jilloronco is
lotvoon tho poaks at (108) 280 anJ (120) 360.
-
- Tho prolalility that tho groatost primo lactor ol a ranJom into-
gor u is groator than u is log 2.
- Tho prolalility that a numlor A, choson at ranJom, has a
primo lactor lotvoon A
c
anJ A
c (1 c)
is approximatoly ogual to
c, inJoponJontly ol tho sizo ol c, proviJoJ that c is small.
(Piosol 1994, 161)
- Tho group 64, 65, 66 is tho smallost triplo ol intogors vith,
rospoctivoly, ono, tvo, anJ throo Jistinct primo lactors. Tho noxt
is 103, 104, 105, lollovoJ ly 163, 164, 165 anJ 193, 194, 195.
- ll u is groator than 239, thon tho largost primo lactor ol u
2
1
is at loast 1. (CalJvoll, Pric Pcgcs)
- Tho numlor 140 is tho start ol tho smallost soguonco ol sovon
consocutivo intogors oach vith an ovon numlor ol primo lactors.
- Tho numlor 10 is tho start ol tho samo rocorJ lor an oJJ
numlor ol primo lactors. (Honakor: CalJvoll, Pric Pcgcs)
- Six consocutivo intogors, loginning vith 88, aro Jivisillo ly
tho lirst six primo numlors, rospoctivoly.
- Tho triplos 3, 4, 5 anJ 8, 9, 10 aro tho smallost non-ovorlapping
sots ol consocutivo numlors sharing tho samo sot ol primo lac-
tors: 2, 3, anJ 5. ErJos has conjocturoJ that thoro is only a
linito numlor ol such sots.
- --
Tho pair 230 2 5 23 anJ 231 3 11 aro tho lirst pair ol con-
socutivo intogors vith throo primo Jistinct lactors oach. Tho noxt pair
is 285 3 5 19 anJ 286 2 11 13. Tho lirst triplo ol such con-
socutivo intogors is 1309 11 1, 1310 2 5 131, anJ 1311
3 19 23.
Scc ApponJix B |arithmotic lunctionsl, lactors ol givon lorm, lac-
tors, primo, prolalility, |Pamanujan`sl highly composito numlors,
sguarolroo numlors
{ -- -
-
ll a numlor vritton as tho proJuct ol its primo lactors has no moro
Jigits than tho numlor itsoll, tho numlor is laloloJ oconomical. Tho
soguonco ol oconomical numlors starts: 2, 3, 5, , 10, 11, 13, 14, 15,
16, 1, . . .
ll it roguiros lovor Jigits, it is lrugal, il it roguiros tho samo numlor,
oguiJigital, anJ il it roguiros moro, it is oxtravagant.
lrugal numlors, not surprisingly, aro rolativoly scarco. AccorJing
to Santos anJ Pinch tho numlors ol oach kinJ lor 2
500,000,000 aro:
lrugal 1,455,952
oguiJigital 86,441,85
oxtravagant 412,102,13
livo soguoncos ol sovon oconomical numlors start at 15, 10849,
10999, 121981, anJ 143421. Thoro is a soguonco ol longth nino start-
ing at 1034429199538124. Pinch has chockoJ up to 10
6
anJ only
lounJ - ol consocutivo lrugal numlors, incluJing 434 2 3
anJ 435 5
4
.
Hovovor, Pinch has also provoJ that il -K- is cor-
roct, thon thoro aro soguoncos ol consocutivo lrugal numlors ol any
spocilioJ longth. (CalJvoll, -)
Tho Eloctronic lrontior lounJation, colounJoJ ly John Gilmoro,
ollors largo cash prizos in its Ell Cooporativo Computing AvarJs,`
vhich aro olloroJ to oncourago orJinary lntornot usors to collalo-
rato to solvo hugo sciontilic prolloms.` Tho omphasis is on coop-
oration.
Thoy havo alroaJy avarJoJ $50,000 lor tho lirst primo numlor ol
moro than ono million Jigits, avarJoJ on April 6, 2000, lor tho Jis-
covory ly Nayan Hajratvala ol tho 38th - , 2
692593
1,
vhich actually has moro than tvo million Jigits, as part ol tho
projoct.
Iargor prizos aro olloroJ lor largor rocorJ-lroaking primos:
{
10,000,000 Jigits $100,000
100,000,000 Jigits $150,000
1,000,000,000 Jigits $250,000
Tho Ell loarJ vill avarJ tho prizos lasoJ on tho rocommonJa-
tion ol tho computing avarJ aJvisory panol, incluJing Curt Noll
anJ Chris CalJvoll. Thoro aro rulos lor Jistriluting tho prizo
monoy lotvoon tho momlors ol a collalorativo group, such as
GlVPS.
ll you vant to tako part, visit vvv.oll.orgavarJscoop.html.
GlVPS, Vorsonno primos
Tho olliptic curvo mothoJ lor lactorization anJ primality tosting
JoponJs on an unusual proporty ol a spocial typo ol curvo. Elliptic
curvos voro lirst stuJioJ in attompts to linJ tho arc-longth ol an
ollipso. Thoir oguations havo tho lorm,
2
3
ProviJoJ 4
3
2
2
is not zoro, tho curvo looks liko tho liguro on pago
5, cutting tho -axis at throo points, tho roal roots ol
3
0.
Tho unusual proporty is that vo can aJJ` any tvo points on tho
curvo to got a thirJ point. Wo Jo it ly Jraving a lino through tho
points vo vish to aJJ, such as anJ , anJ linJing vhoro this lino
moots tho curvo again, at . Wo thon rolloct in tho -axis to
oltain tho sum` .
Thoro sooms to lo an oxcoption to this possilility vhon tho points
anJ lio on a vortical lino. Hovovor, vo got arounJ that apparont
Jilliculty ly tho typically mathomatical tactic ol Jolining a
, JonotoJ ly .
This procoss ol aJJition` has all tho proportios ol a
, so vo can Jrop tho guotation marks anJ simply think ol
JolinoJ on tho points ol tho curvo, vith thoso group
proportios:
1. ll anJ aro points on tho curvo, thon is on tho
curvo.
{
2. ( ) ( ). This is tho -- proporty.
3. Thoro is an olomont such that vhon aJJoJ to any
point , tho rosult is . ln this caso tho iJontity is tho point
at inlinity, , locauso accorJing to our Jolinition,
.
4. Thoro is an invorso lor oach point, so that givon vo can
linJ such that . This is so locauso is simply tho
point vhoro tho vortical lino through cuts tho curvo again.
Tho proportios ol this group can nov lo usoJ to tost primality anJ to
linJ lactors. PoaJors vho vish to go lurthor into this romarkallo
mothoJ vill linJ oxcollont accounts in BrossouJ (1989) anJ CranJall
anJ Pomoranco (2001).
is
tho Jilloronco lotvoon succossivo primos, aro thoro an inlinity ol
lor vhich
1
2
? ErJos vas so cortain this conjocturo,
vhich ho coulJ not provo, vas truo that ho olloroJ $100 lor a prool
lut $25,000 lor a Jisprool! (Bakor, Bollols, anJ Hajnal 1990, 469)
Ono Jay, Holmut Vaior vas giving ErJos a lilt into tovn anJ mon-
tionoJ a thoorom ho haJ just provoJ. Vaylo l olloroJ a prizo lor
that,` saiJ ErJos, so ol courso thoy haJ to go to tho lilrary to chock.
\os, inJooJ, ErJos haJ olloroJ $100 lor a prool, anJ ho paiJ up at
onco. That`s a protty oxponsivo taxi riJo,` romarkoJ Vaior, anJ ErJos
roaroJ vith laughtor.` (Pomoranco, guotoJ in Soilo 2002)
ErJos vas also a supportor ol olomontary mothoJs: this Joos
moan - mothoJs, lut mothoJs that Jo not uso calculus. His vory
lirst papor, pullishoJ vhon ho vas ninotoon, usoJ olomontary moth-
oJs that an unJorgraJuato coulJ unJorstanJ to provo K- -
.
ln 1949 ho anJ Atlo Sollorg lounJ an olomontary prool ol tho
that JiJ vithout tho analytical tools usoJ ly
HaJamarJ anJ Vall Poussin. G. H. HarJy haJ proviously saiJ that
such a prool sooms to mo oxtraorJinarily unlikoly.` Tho primo num-
lor thoorom, HarJy thought, vas oxtromoly Joop,` lut an olomon-
tary prool voulJ shov that this vas lalso, anJ in consoguonco it
voulJ lo nocossary lor tho looks to lo cast asiJo anJ lor tho tho-
ory to lo rovritton.` Curiously, tho prool ly ErJos anJ Sollorg JiJ
not havo this olloct at all. (HarJy 1966)
Bocauso ho collaloratoJ vith so many colloaguos, tho iJoa ol ErJos
numlors vas invontoJ. Vathomaticians vho havo thomsolvos col-
laloratoJ vith ErJos in vriting a papor havo ErJos numlor 1. Thoso
vho havo collaloratoJ vith an ErJos numlor 1 colloaguo havo
ErJos numlor 2, anJ so on.
ln 1996, 462 coauthors voro listoJ, starting vith Goorgo Szokoros
in 1934 vith livo joint papors anJ Paul Turn, also 1934, vith thirty.
P {
By lolruary 1999 tho list haJ grovn to 492 coauthors, anJ in lolru-
ary 2004 it vas 509, partly locauso, liko Eulor, his papors havo con-
tinuoJ to lo pullishoJ altor his Joath.
lt is a voll-knovn claim, somotimos calloJ Six Dogroos ol Kovin
Bacon,` that anyono can lo connoctoJ to anyono olso in tho vorlJ
ly at most six links, so it is no surpriso that many lamous matho-
maticians anJ ovon physicists, somo nov JoaJ, can lo connoctoJ
to ErJos anJ havo thoir ovn ErJos numlor. PicharJ DoJokinJ
(1831-1916) has ErJos numlor , Allort Einstoin is a 2, Wornor
Hoisonlorg anJ Paul Dirac aro loth 4, tho oconomist Konnoth Arrov
is a 3, Noam Chomsky is 4, Stophon Havking is also 4, anJ Bill Gatos
is a 4. AhmaJ Chalali, vho holpoJ` Bush anJ Blair to justily` tho
attack on lrag, is a 6.
Horo aro just a hanJlul, litorally, ol ErJos`s many rosults anJ conjoc-
turos rolatoJ to primo numlors:
Thoro aro inlinitoly many pairs ol consocutivo povorlul numlors, lut
ErJos conjocturoJ that thoro cannot lo throo consocutivo
-.
ErJos`s 2
.
ErJos also conjocturoJ that tho samo sot ol intogors, 2
, aro
- lor inlinitoly many .
Thoro aro inlinitoly many primos, , such that ovory ovon numlor
loss than 2 can lo oxprossoJ as tho Jilloronco ol tvo primos loss
than or ogual to . lor oxamplo, il 23,
2 19 1 4 1 13 6 1 11 8 19 11 10 1
12 19 14 19 5 16 19 3 18 23 5 20 23 3
This is a caso vhoro it voulJ guito nico il 1 voro countoJ as a primo:
thon 22 23 1, olviously!
ll
1
2
2
3
3
5
4
5
11
6
13
1
8
19
9
23 . . .
conjocturos, gooJ primos, ranJomnoss
{ P
-
ln tho oightoonth contury, iJoas ol mathomatical rigor voro not voll
JovolopoJ, anJ a mathomatician as lrilliant as coulJ uso, lor
oxamplo, Jivorgont sorios anJ Jrav conclusions that voro usually
corroct, locauso his intuition vas so povorlul, lut also somotimos
vrong. So ho claimoJ to havo provoJ a vorsion ol tho
, lut orroJ locauso a sorios vas not alsolutoly convorgont.
(ErJos anJ DuJloy 1983)
Vaking conjocturos alout tho primos is ospocially oasy anJ ospo-
cially tompting, so in tho history ol tho primos many - havo
turnoJ out to lo lalso. Thoro havo also loon orrors ol calculation.
thought in 1906 that ho haJ provoJ that tho valuos ol
K- , (), novor occur onco only, lut tho prool`
containoJ an orror, so in 1922 ho pullishoJ a corroction anJ pro-
sontoJ tho prollom as a conjocturo-unprovoJ to this Jay. Thon in
1948 ho pullishoJ a corroction ol anothor claim in his original papor,
anJ in 1949 ho pullishoJ a list ol misprints in tho 1948 papor! (Kloo
1969)
Tallos ol primos prior to tho aJvont ol moJorn computors
inovitally containoJ orrors. Kulik constructoJ a tallo ol tho lactors ol
numlors up to 100,330,200, oxcluJing multiplos ol 2, 3, anJ 5, titloJ
- - - -
-- -
- - - Ho spont tvonty yoars
ol lilo on this mammoth task, anJ vhon ho JioJ tho manuscript vas
JopositoJ in tho AcaJomy ol Scioncos in Vionna. Unlortunatoly,
lounJ many mistakos in Kulik`s vork. To aJJ insult to injury,
tho soconJ ol tho oight volumos vas alroaJy missing vhon D. N.
Iohmor chockoJ tho manuscript, anJ has novor loon lounJ.
Tho Danish mathomatician Bortolson claimoJ in 1893 that thoro aro
50,84,48 primos loss than 10
9
. ln 1959, gavo tho cor-
roct liguro, 50,84,534.
Eulor`s many volumos ol colloctoJ papors contain a numlor ol
orrors. Ho onco announcoJ that 1000009 vas primo, only to roalizo
his mistako lator. Wo shoulJ sympathizo: Eulor vas sovonty at tho
timo, anJ haJ loon llinJ lor yoars. (CalJvoll, -)
Stioltjos claimoJ in 1885 that ho haJ provoJ tho --,
lut ho JiJn`t pullish his prool anJ JioJ soon altor in 1894 vithout
- {
Joing anything lurthor to support his claim. lt is likoly that his
prool containoJ an orror-or JiJ ho soo somothing that ovoryono
sinco has missoJ? (Apolstol 2000, 10)
Carmichaol anJ Vason listoJ lilty multiporloct numlors, lut thoy
mistakonly thought that 13561 151 911 anJ 485581 2 153
voro primo. (Guy 1994, 49)
Voro rocontly, a numlor ol claimoJ rosults anJ prools havo turnoJ
out to lo vrong. \ou might think that mathomaticians voulJ lo just
too carolul to oxposo thomsolvos to pullic humiliation, lut, to lo
lair, curront prools aro gotting moro anJ moro complox anJ vith tho
lost vill in tho vorlJ, mistakos aro oasy to mako.
AnJrov Wilos announcoJ in 1994 that ho haJ provoJ K- -
. Tho lrilliant solution ol a conturios-olJ prollom maJo tho
lront pagos-only lor a gap to lo spottoJ, vhich ho anJ his col-
loaguo PicharJ Taylor took moro than a yoar to lill.
Carmichaol`s totiont lunction conjocturo montionoJ alovo claims
that tho valuos ol tho () aro novor uniguo.
lilip SaiJak claimoJ to havo provoJ tho conjocturo in 199, lut his
prool vas orronoous.
Pogorzolski in 19 thought ho haJ provoJ K- ,
lut his prool is not gonorally accoptoJ` ly othor numlor thoorists.
(Woisstoin, : GolJlach Conjocturo`)
Dan GolJston anJ Com \ilJirim announcoJ in 1985 that thoy haJ
maJo a giant stop tovarJ solving tho - conjocturo. Soon
altor, AnJrov Granvillo anJ K. SounJararajan lounJ an orror. GolJ-
ston anJ \ilJirim`s conclusion JoponJoJ on tho sizo ol tho orror
torm in ono ol thoir lormulao. Thoy haJ loliovoJ that tho orror torm
vas lounJ to lo ospocially small, making tho lormula ospocially
accurato. lt vasn`t.
Vorsonno primos, lormat, Polignac or olstinato numlors, Wilos
P
Tho Grook mathomatician EucliJ is most lamous lor vriting his
-, vhich systomatically prosontoJ tho olomontary goomotry ol
his Jay, starting vith axioms anJ postulatos anJ thon proving a long
soguonco ol thooroms. lt vas so popular that it vas still loing usoJ
as a school toxtlook in tho oarly tvontioth contury. Hovovor, tho
- also incluJoJ lasic numlor thoory, in Book Vll, proposi-
{ P
tions 22-32, on primo numlors, anJ propositions 33-39, on loast
common multiplos, anJ in looks Vlll anJ lX.
Tho lunJamontal thoorom ol arithmotic statos that oach positivo intogor
can lo oxprossoJ as tho proJuct ol primos in ossontially ono vay only.
lor oxamplo, 43 3 3 43
anJ, 6111 3
2
9
This conclusion is not as olvious as it sooms. Supposo that vo con-
siJor only tho ovon intogors,
2, 4, 6, 8, 10, . . .
Wo can lactorizo 8 into 2 4, anJ similarly, 20 2 10. Hovovor, 10
has no lactors vithin tho sot, locauso 1 anJ 5 aro not in tho sot. Tho
primos` vithin tho sot ol ovon numlors aro 2, 6, 10, 14, . . . (Joullo
tho usual primos) anJ tho compositos aro 4, 8, 12, . . .
lt nov turns out that 60 2 30 anJ 60 6 10, tvo Jistinct lac-
torizations into primo` numlors!
Anothor oxamplo consists ol tho orJinary intogors vith multiplos ol
6 aJJoJ. So somo samplo intogors in tho sot aro 1 6, 2 6,
4 3 6, anJ so on.
ln this systom ol numlors it can lo provoJ that 2 anJ 5 aro primo,
anJ so 10 2 5 is a primo lactorization ol 10. But vo might also
notico that 10 (4 6)(4 6), vhich is anothor lactorization, in
vhich noithor 2 nor 5 JiviJo 4 6 or 4 6.
Tho lunJamontal thoorom vas ovontually statoJ, cloarly anJ oxplic-
itly anJ rathor lato in tho Jay, ly --, lut EucliJ got vory closo.
Book lX, proposition 14, statos, ll a numlor lo tho loast that is moa-
suroJ ly primo numlors, it vill not lo moasuroJ ly any othor primo
numlor oxcopt thoso originally moasuring it.` A numlor vas moa-
suroJ` ly anothor il tho othor JiviJoJ it vithout romainJor, so this
sounJs liko tho lunJamontal thoorom ol arithmotic. Proposition 30 ol
Book Vll claims that il a primo moasuros tho proJuct ol tvo intogors,
thon it must moasuro at loast ono ol tho intogors. (Collison 1980)
-
No mattor hov many primo lactors an intogor has,
2
vill havo an
numlor. So tho ratio ol any tvo sguaros ol intogors also has an
P {
ovon numlor ol primo lactors, anJ sinco lactorization into primos is
uniguo, thoro is no vay that this can lo changoJ to an oJJ numlor
ol primo lactors.
So intogor vith an numlor ol primo lactors can lo tho
sguaro ol a rational numlor. ln particular, 2, 3, 5, , 11,
13, anJ 1 aro all , as aro all tho sguaro roots ol tho lol-
loving primos. (AnJ so aro tho culo roots, 4th roots, 5th roots, otc.)
Strangoly, tho Grook ThooJorus, Plato`s tutor, lollovoJ EucliJ anJ
provoJ that tho roots lrom 3 up to 1 voro irrational-anJ thon
stoppoJ!
-
EucliJ in Book Vll ol his - JolinoJ a primo numlor as that
vhich is moasuroJ ly unity alono.` ln Book lX ho provoJ that tho
numlor ol primos is inlinito, liko this: start vith tho primos lrom 2 to
11, anJ calculato,
2 3 5 11 1 2311
Tho ansvor cannot lo Jivisillo ly 2, 3, 5, , or 11, anJ so it is
oithor primo itsoll or has at loast tvo primo lactors. (ln lact it is
primo.) Eithor vay, vo havo proJucoJ at loast ono primo groator
than 11.
Nov assumo that thoro aro only a linito numlor ol primos. Do tho
samo, multiplying thom all togothor anJ aJJing 1. Onco again vo
shall croato at loast ono nov primo-vhich contraJicts tho assump-
tion that tho numlor ol primos is linito. Thoroloro it is inlinito.
Tho samo iJoa can lo usoJ to start lrom any sot ol primos anJ linJ
a primo not in tho sot. lor oxamplo, vo can calculato that,
2 5 11 1 21
Thon oithor 21 is primo, or it has a primo lactor that is not 2, 5, 11,
or 1. ln lact 21 31.
Or vo coulJ tako tho lirst lour primos, 2, 3, 5, anJ , anJ lorm
thoso sums anJ Jilloroncos:
2 3 5 23, 3 3 5 2 103, 10
5 2 3 6, 3 2 3 5 3, 4
5 2 3 29, 41 3 2 5 11, 31
3 5 2 1, 29
Sinco 8, 9, anJ 10 aro olviously Jivisillo ly oithor 2 or 3, any ansvor
that is loss than 11
2
must lo primo, or unity.
{ P
Tho samo calculation using 2
2
, 3, 5, anJ proJucos unity, plus tho
primos 13, 23, 41, 43, 4, 53, 6, 9, 89, 101, 109, 13, anJ tho proJ-
uct ol tvo nov primos, 143 11 13.
- - -
EucliJ`s iJoa also suggosts hov vo can linJ strings ol consocutivo
composito numlors as long as vo liko. This oxprossion,
1 2 3 4 5 6 . . .
vill lo composito il is any numlor lrom 2 to . So il vo vant 100
consocutivo composito numlors, 101! , 2 to 101 vill Jo.
-
Wo can uso EucliJ`s mothoJ slightly aJaptoJ to provo that thoro is an
inlinity ol primos ol tho lorm 4 3.
Tho proJuct ol sovoral numlors ol tho lorm 4 1 is alvays ol tho
samo lorm, anJ tho proJuct ol an numlor ol numlors ol tho
lorm 4 3 is also ol tho lorm 4 3: lut tho proJuct ol an
numlor ol numlors ol tho lorm 4 3 is ol tho lorm 4 1.
Thoroloro, il vo multiply, say, tho lirst six torms in tho 4 3
soguonco,
3 11 19 23 31 43 4 . . .
anJ aJJ : 3 11 19 23 31 2
vo got a numlor ol tho lorm 4 3 that is not Jivisillo ly 3, , 11,
19, 23, or 31. lts primo lactors cannot all lo ol tho lorm 4 1, so at
loast ono lactor must lo a nov` primo ol tho lorm 4 3. Call it ,
anJ lorm tho oxprossion,
3
2
11 19 23 31 2
Onco again vo havo a proJuct ol an ovon numlor ol numlors, 4
3, vith a lactor ol that lorm. So thoro is an inlinity ol 4 3 primos.
Vatching mothoJs shov that thoro is an inlinity ol primos ol tho
lorm 5 4, 8 3, 8 5, anJ 8 . (Siorpinski)
- -
Starting vith any sot ol primos, vo can multiply thom togothor anJ
aJJ 1, vo thon linJ tho smallost primo lactor ol tho rosult anJ aJJ it
to tho original list. Do this starting vith 2 anJ vo got this soguonco:
2 3 43 13 53 5 . . .
P {
Which primos ovontually appoar in this soguonco? Tho lirst primo
that has not yot appoaroJ in any calculation ol tho soguonco is 31.
Anothor vay ol shoving that thoro is an inlinity ol primos is to pro-
Juco an inlinito soguonco ol rolativoly primo numlors. Ono oxamplo
is tho -, 2
2
2
0
3
. . .
1
. Sinco all
aro oJJ,
1
is primo thon 2
1
(2
2
, anJ lounJ a mothoJ ol -.
Eulor oxtonJoJ lormat`s Jiscovorios on tho lorms ol lactors ol cor-
tain numlors. Ho shovoJ that il
2
11
2
anJ 5
2
14
2
.
Eulor vas tho lirst to Jovolop a spocilic mothoJ. Ho lounJ a total
ol sixty-livo convoniont numlors, incluJing all tho intogors 1 to 13,
anJ oxprossoJ his loliol that thoro voulJ lo an inlinito numlor ol
thom, anJ soarchoJ lor thom up to 10,000, though tho largost ho
coulJ linJ vas 1848, lrom vhich ho provoJ that
18518809 19
2
1848 100
2
is primo, a romarkallo loat lor that timo. Evon moro romarkally, vo
nov knov that Eulor`s list ol convoniont numlors vas vory likoly
comploto: thoro is at most ono moro to lo JiscovoroJ, anJ il it oxists
it is groator than 10
65
-a triluto to Eulor`s oxtraorJinary povors ol
calculation.
Eulor lounJ his sot ol convoniont numlors ly using tho thoorom that
is a convoniont numlor il anJ only il ovory intogor
2
4 is
oithor an oJJ primo or Joullo an oJJ primo, or tho sguaro ol an oJJ
primo or a povor ol 2. (Actually, it is nov knovn that this critorion
is nocossary lut may not lo sulliciont.)
Ho gavo thoso liguros to shov that 13 is a convoniont numlor:
13 1
2
14 Joullo an oJJ primo
13 2
2
1 oJJ primo
13 3
2
22 Joullo an oJJ primo
13 4
2
29 oJJ primo
13 5
2
38 Joullo an oJJ primo
13 6
2
49 sguaro ol an oJJ primo
Ho also claimoJ many proportios lor his convoniont numlors,
though ho JiJ not provo thom all, incluJing thoso truo lacts:
- Tho lorm
2
2
is convoniont il anJ only il
2
2
is.
- ll an intogor 4 1 is convoniont, thon so is 4(4 1), anJ il
3 1 is convoniont, thon so is 9(3 1).
- ll
2
is convoniont, thon so is .
- Tho only sguaro convoniont numlors aro 1, 4, 9, 16, anJ 25.
Thoro is anothor connoction lotvoon Eulor`s convoniont numlors
anJ a thomo that appoars ropoatoJly lrom Diophantus anJ lormat
onvarJ: tho iJoa that a primo is ol tho lorm
2
2
il anJ only il it
is ol tho lorm 4 1, anJ similarly lor othor lorms.
P {
lt turns out that primos ol tho lorm
2
2
can lo charactorizoJ
ly a conJition such as 4 1 il anJ only il is a convoniont
numlor. (Oro 1948, 61-63) (lroi 1985)
-
Eulor locamo immoJiatoly lamous in 135 vhon ho solvoJ tho Basol
prollom, so namoJ locauso Jacol Bornoulli, vriting lrom Basol, haJ
loggoJ in ono ol his looks lor a solution to a prollom that so many
groat mathomaticians, incluJing Jacol, Johann, anJ Daniol Bornoulli
anJ Ioilniz anJ Jo Voivro haJ trioJ anJ lailoJ to solvo. Eulor
shovoJ that tho sum ol tho sorios,
11
2
12
2
13
2
14
2
15
2
. . .
is ogual to
2
6. Ho also shovoJ that,
11
4
12
4
13
4
14
4
15
4
. . .
4
90
anJ 11
6
12
6
13
6
14
6
15
6
. . .
6
945
Ho lator calculatoJ that,
1 13
2
15
2
1
2
19
2
. . .
2
8
anJ 11
26
12
26
13
26
14
26
15
26
. . .
Eulor also haJ tho lrilliant iJoa ol stuJying tho gonoral sorios,
1 12
13
14
15
18
19
. . .
Ho noticoJ that this is tho proJuct ol all thoso inlinito sorios, ono lor
oach primo:
(1 12
12
2
12
3
. . .)(1 13
13
2
13
3
. . .)(1 15
15
2
15
3
. . .)(1 1
1
2
1
3
. . .) . . .
Summing oach ol thoso goomotric sorios, tho sum original sum
oguals
. . .
an inlinito proJuct ol torms, 1(1 1
1
1
5
1
1
1
3
1
1
1
2
1
2
24
2! 6992
26
{ P
moro, loth tho sum anJ tho proJuct aro - that can lo
manipulatoJ liko any othor lunctions-so horo, in this romarkallo
translormation, Eulor vas croating a lriJgo lotvoon tho primo num-
lors as Jiscroto intogors, anJ analysis that Joals vith continuous
guantitios, anJ so taking tho thoory ol primo numlors into ontiroly
nov torritory.
ToJay, mathomaticians consiJor tho sorios:
(-) 11
-
12
-
13
-
14
-
15
-
. . .
Tho lamous -- rolatos to this sorios, in vhich tho
intogor has locomo tho complox numlor -.
K- -
Tho sorios
1
1
1
2
1
3 . . .
1
Jivorgos as tonJs to inlinity. Eulor
shovoJ not only that it is approximatoly log , lut also that
1
1
1
2
1
3 . . .
1
log
tonJs to a constant, Eulor`s constant, JonotoJ ly tho Grook lottor
gamma, , vhich ho calculatoJ to sixtoon Jocimal placos in 181. lt
is approximatoly 0.5215664901532860 . . . lt is not knovn vhothor
it is rational. ll it is, anJ
F, thon 10
244662
.
This is ono ol tho most mystorious constants in mathomatics, vhich
turns up in somo unoxpoctoJ placos. lor oxamplo: il a largo intogor
is JiviJoJ ly oach intogor , 1 , thon tho avorago lraction ly
vhich tho guotionts lall short ol tho noxt intogor is not
1
2, lut .
lt has loon conjocturoJ that il () is tho numlor ol primos ,
such that tho Vorsonno numlor 2
)
1
( 1).
Iiko tho tvo Jivisor lunctions, J() anJ (), () is multiplicativo,
moaning that il anJ aro coprimo, thon () () (), so il
vo can vrito as tho proJuct ol its primo lactors, vo can at onco
calculato (). ln particular, il is tho proJuct ol Jistinct primos ,
, , thon () ( 1)( 1)( 1), . . . , lor oxamplo,
(105) (3 5 ) 2 4 6 48
Thoro is a rolatoJ Jivisilility proporty: il JiviJos , thon ()
JiviJos ().
Apart lrom (1) anJ (2), () is alvays ovon. ll has Jistinct oJJ
primo lactors, thon 2
JiviJos ().
Not all ovon numlors, hovovor, aro valuos ol (). lor oxamplo,
2
2
vhon is largo.
D. H. Iohmor conjocturoJ that il is composito, thon () novor
JiviJos 1. No countor-oxamplo is knovn. ll it oxists it is groator
than 10
20
anJ has moro than thirtoon primo lactors. (Pilonloim 1995,
3) Hovovor, () JiviJos il anJ only il tho only primo lactors ol
aro 2 or 3, or loth.
ll is primo, thon () 1 anJ () 1 anJ so () ()
2. This is also a sulliciont conJition: no composito numlor has this
proporty. What alout tho oguation () () 3? This has solu-
tions, 312, 560, 588, 1400, 85632, . . .
Tho oguation () () 4 has solutions 2360, 59400, 15320,
anJ 4563000.
PicharJ Guy also notos that il is primo, thon () () is 1 loss than
a porloct sguaro, anJ this also occurs lor 6, 22, 33, 44, 69,
6, . . . (Guy 199)
K-
Wo havo alroaJy notoJ among lamous - that con-
jocturoJ that, il () , thon thoro is anothor numlor, , such that
() also, anJ loliovoJ that ho haJ provoJ this. His prool vas
laulty, lut tho conjocturo is nov knovn to lo truo lor all valuos ol
() up to 10
1360000
.
ErJos JiJ provo that il thoro is an intogor , lor vhich ()
has solutions, thon thoro aro inlinitoly many intogors vith tho samo
proporty. (ErJos anJ DuJloy 1983)
HarolJ Donnolly provoJ that il () Joos havo a uniguo solution,
thon 2
2
3
2
2
43
2
JiviJos . (Donnolly 193)
P {
lt isn`t knovn vhothor thoro aro an inlinito numlor ol pairs, such as
15 anJ 16, such that () ( 1). Hovovor, Siorpinski provoJ
that thoro is at loast ono solution to tho oguation,
() ( )
lor ovory valuo ol . Tho lirst lov solutions aro:
1 2 3 4 5 6 8 9 10
1 4 3 8 5 24 5 16 9 20
lt vas provoJ ly D. J. Novman that thoro must lo a valuo ol lor
vhich (30 1) (30), lut actual tosts shovoJ that thoro is no
such 20,000,000. Thon Grog Vartin lounJ tho smallost that sat-
islios tho inoguality. lt is
232 909 810 15 496 93 814 049 684 205 233 80 004 859 885 966
051 235 363 345 322 05 888 344 528 23 154 52 984 260 16 895
854 182 634 802 90 109 21 610 432 28 652 96 90 46 54 362
400 134 090 318 355 962 121 46 85 12 891 544 538 210 966 04
036 990 885 292 446 155 135 69 1 565 808 063 66 383 846 220
120 606 143 826 509 433 540 250 085 111 624 90 464 541 380 934
486 35 688 208 918 50 640 64 629 942 465 499 369 036 58 640
331 59 035 99 369 302 685 31 156 22 245 466 396 22 865 621
951 101 808 240 692 259 960 203 091 330 589 296 656 888 011 91
011 416 062 631 565 320 593 2 28 118 913 28 608 99 901 91
216 356 108 665 46 306 080 40 121 528 236 888 680 120 152 49
138 32 451 088 404 280 929 048 314 912 122 84 89 58 304 016
832 436 51 532 255 185 640 249 324 065 492 491 511 02 521 585
980 54 438 48 689 30 159 363 481 233 965 802 331 25 033 663
862 618 95 168 94 043 54 448 89 663 21 91 081 445 619 618
89 985 42 04 303 100 303 636 08 82 23 695 551 162 089 25
435 110 246 01 964 021 045 849 081 811 604 42 331 22 553 83
590 821 510 091 60 56 18 842 569 56 699 548 038 21 63 11
895 383 249 326 800 66 432 993 531 186 43 659 910 632 865 419
892 30 95 22 154 266 351 039 808 548 150 828 868 968 820 65
198 820 381 135 523 646 361 202 383 915 218 51 01 801 463 011
491 108 84 343 253 284 393 511 650 254 506 59 923 969 653 616
813 89 10 621 56 693 82 41 154 01 151 222 320 443 34 408
180 04 964 860
{ P
Onco again, tho conjocturo lasoJ on ompirical oviJonco that a solu-
tion to a prollom Joos not oxist is ovorturnoJ ly a solution that takos
a vory long timo to appoar! (Vartin 1999)
--
- 30 is tho largost intogor vith tho proporty that ovory smallor
intogor that is primo to it is itsoll a primo.
- () is novor ogual to 10. Tho soguonco ol valuos novor
takon ly () continuos: (10) 26 34 50 52 58 86 100 . . .
- () unloss 2 or 6.
- Carl Pomoranco noticoJ that 210 is primo lor all primos
lotvoon 105 anJ 210. lt vas provoJ in 1993 that this is tho
only numlor vith this proporty.
orrors, lormat`s Iittlo Thoorom, strong lav ol small numlors,
IittlovooJ`s thoorom, Siorpinski`s () conjocturo
K-
O`Toolo novor lully comprohonJoJ vhat oxactly vas moant ly
tho oxprossion guaJratic primo.` Hovovor ho JiJ unJorstanJ,
anJ vas lascinatoJ ly, tho lact that tho string 41, 43, 4, 53, 61,
1, 83, 9, . . . , vhoro oach succossivo numlor vas computoJ ly
incroasing tho Jilloronco lrom tho provious numlor ly 2, rosultoJ
in oxactly lorty consocutivo primo numlors. Tho soguonco onJoJ
only vhon tho lorty-lirst numlor in tho string turnoJ out to lo a
non-primo, namoly 41 I 41 1681.
O
Eulor JiscovoroJ in 12 that tho lormula
2
41 is primo lor
1 to 40, anJ lor many valuos thoroaltor. Thon noticoJ
in 198 that tho guaJratic
2
41 is primo lor 0 to 39, anJ
this is, ironically, nov knovn as Eulor`s polynomial. ln lact it is com-
posito lor 40, 41, 44, 49, 56, 65, 6, 81, 82, 84, 8, 89, 91, anJ 96
(Sloano A00634) anJ primo lor all othor valuos up to 100 inclusivo.
Ol tho lirst 1,000 valuos, 581 aro primo. (CalJvoll, -)
IogonJro also noticoJ that 2
2
29 is primo lor 0, 1, . . . , 28.
ln gonoral, tho polynomial 2
2
, vith 3, 5, 11, or 29, givos
primo valuos lor 0, 1, . . . , 1.
Eulor`s lormula vas usoJ ly Charlos Ballago to Jomonstrato tho
capalilitios ol his Dilloronco Engino. As ho oxplainoJ in a lottor to Sir
Humphroy Davy in 1822, tho machino coulJ calculato lut not print,
P {
so an assistant haJ to vrito Jovn tho numlors as thoy voro pro-
JucoJ:
|Tho Dilloronco Enginol procooJoJ to mako a tallo lrom tho lormula
2
2
9 1601, vhich proJucos oighty primos in soguonco lrom
0 to 9, lut thoy aro JuplicatoJ.
Thoro is a Joop roason vhy tho lormula
2
41 givos a primo lor
all valuos ol lotvoon 0 anJ 39, anJ a simplor roason vhy vo might
oxpoct it to givo an unusually largo numlor ol primos lor any valuo
ol . Horo is tho simplo roason.
lirst,
2
is ovon, so vo aro not surprisoJ that 41 is oJJ. Simi-
larly,
2
0 or 2 (moJ 3), anJ vo notico that 41 2 (moJ 3),
so
2
41 1 or 2 (moJ 3). Iikoviso,
2
0, 1, or 2 (moJ
5), anJ vo notico that 41 1 (moJ 5), so
2
41 1, 2, or 3
(moJ 5). Continuing vith , anJ comlining tho rosults, vo linJ that
2
41 is novor Jivisillo ly 2, 3, 5, or . Voro gonorally, il
11, 1, 41, 101, 13, or 16 (moJ 210), thon
2
vill novor lo
Jivisillo ly oithor 2, 3, 5, or .
Tho numlor ol primos ol tho lorm
2
lor 0 1000, anJ
thoso valuos ol aro:
11 1 41 101 13 16
primo valuos ol
2
288 366 582 453 339 285
(Primo ProJucing Polynomials,` vvv.glasgovg43.lroosorvo.co
.ukprimpoly.htm)
-
lt is a thoorom that no polynomial, (), vith intogor coollicionts can
lo a primo lor all or lor all sulliciontly largo , unloss it is a con-
stant. Hovovor, somo polynomials Jo proJuco oxcoptionally high
proportions ol primos.
Primo numlors, , such as 41, lor vhich tho guaJratic
2
proJucos many primos havo loon calloJ ly Io Iionnais tho Iucky
{ P
Numlors ol Eulor. lor instanco,
2
2999 2248541 proJucos
oighty Jilloront primos lrom 1460 to 1539. (Boilor 1966, 220)
As a rosult ol computor soarchos, othor lorms ol guaJratics aro
knovn that givo moro primos. Boogor in 1938 JiscovoroJ that
2
2941 proJucos moro primos among its lirst million valuos, lrom
0 onvarJs, than Joos
2
41, 286128 to 261080. Gillort lung
JiscovoroJ,
103
2
3945 34381 lor 0 to 45
Pussoll Puly lounJ: 36
2
810 253, vhich is primo lor 0,
1, . . . , 44.
AccorJing to ono ol tho -, tho Jonsity ol
primos among tho valuos ol thoso guaJratic oxprossions as tonJs
to inlinity vill alvays lo log , vhoro vill vary vith tho
oxprossion. Eulor`s lormula has 3.31932, vhoroas tho lormula
2
1328429528931 has 5.080883.
Puly anJ lung also lounJ tho soconJ rocorJ polynomial, 4
2
2
112,32986,61656,081
has a rocorJ-lroaking asymptotic Jonsity, moaning that as tonJs to
inlinity, it has tho largost knovn proportion ol primos among its
valuos.
Siorpinski has provoJ that lor any intogor , you can linJ a numlor
such that
2
has at loast primo valuos. lt has sinco loon
provoJ that this holJs lor any polynomial ol Jogroo groator than 1,
vith intogral coollicionts. (Alol anJ Siolort 1993)
Eulor`s constant, Eulor anJ tho rociprocals ol tho primos, Eulor`s
totiont (phi) lunction, Piomann hypothosis
P {
1
2
! is 2
2
1
. (Iarivioro)
Tho proJuct ol any consocutivo positivo intogors is Jivisillo ly ! .
- Pascal`s trianglo, Wilson`s thoorom
-
lactorial primos aro ol tho lorm ! 1. Both lorms havo loon tostoJ
to 10,000:
- ! 1 is primo lor 1, 2, 3, 11, 2, 3, 41, 3, , 116, 154,
320, 340, 399, 42, 82, 14, 6380, 26951, . . .
- ! 1 is primo lor 3, 4, 6, , 12, 14, 30, 32, 33, 38, 94, 166,
324, 39, 469, 546, 94, 1963, 350, 3610, 691, 21480,
3490, . . .
Thoso aro tho livo largost knovn lactorial primos, vith tho yoar ol
thoir Jiscovory, anJ thoir Jiscovoror. (CalJvoll, -)
{
3490! 1 142,891 Jigits 2002 Varchal, CarmoJy, Kuosa
26951! 1 10,0 Jigits 2002 Davis, Kuosa
21480! 1 83,2 Jigits 2001 Davis, Kuosa
691! 1 23,560 Jigits 1998 CalJvoll
6380! 1 21,50 Jigits 1998 CalJvoll
Thoso lactorial primos aro also tho suljoct ol an lntornot-lasoJ soarch,
soo tho lox on this pago.
--
Tho sums in this soguonco,
3 3! 2! 1! 5
4 4! 3! 2! 1! 19
5 5! 4! 3! 2! 1! 101
6 6! 5! 4! 3! 2! 1! 619
! 6! 5! 4! 3! 2! 1! 4421
-- {
(lrom http:povorsum.Jhis.org)
Tho purposo ol this pago is to coorJinato ollort to soarch lor tho
noxt primos ol tho lorm n! 1 anJ n! 1.
At tho momont our purposo is to soarch tho rango lotvoon 30,000
100,000.
All numlors in tho rango havo loon trial lactoroJ ly Phil CarmoJy
up to 6,320,124,029. Tho noxt stop is porlorm a prolallo primality
tost lor ovory romaining numlor. Tho numlor 35,000! is 143,845 Jig-
its long anJ tho numlor 100,000! is 456,54 Jigits.
Ploaso join us in tho soarch!
- -
On Vay 16, 2002, Ioon Varchal lounJ 3490! 1 is primo!
This primo is 142891 Jigits long.
- -
On Vay 22, 2002, Kon Davis lounJ 26951! 1 is primo!
This primo is 100 Jigits long.
aro all primo. Also 8 anJ 10 loaJ to primos, lut vhon 9,
tho sum is 326981 9 4139.
lrom 11 to 28 thoro aro just tvo moro primos, so this looks
liko anothor caso ol tho - - -.
Kollor has lounJ that 160! 159! 158! . . . 3! 2! 1! is primo.
(Kollor: CalJvoll, -)
Tho sum 1! 2! 3! 4! . . . ! is only a sguaro lor 1 or 3.
(Koshy 2002)
-
Tho Joullo lactorial ol is !! ( 2)( 4) . . . anJ tho triplo
lactorial is !!! ( 3)( 6) . . . anJ so on, stopping loloro tho
lirst torm that is oithor nogativo or zoro.
Tho lunction !! 1 is ovon vhon is oJJ, anJ contains vory lov
primos vhon is ovon. Tho primo valuos ol !! 1 up to 5898
aro just 1, 2, anJ 518. Tho lourth anJ lilth primos ol this lorm aro
33416!! 1 anJ 3310!! 1. (Harvoy: CalJvoll, -) Curi-
ously, !! 1, to tho samo limit, is primo lor all tho valuos 2, 4,
6, 8, 16, 26, 64, 82, 90, 118, 194, 214, 28, 842, 888, anJ 2328. (Pilon-
loim 1995, 2)
Tho largost knovn primo ol tho lorm !! 1 is 9682!! 1. (Jo Wator:
CalJvoll, -)
Tho largost knovn triplo lactorial primo is 3406!!! 1. (Harvoy: CalJ-
voll, -)
-
Pick up a calculator, koy in tvo numlors, anJ multiply thom to-
gothor, say, 10 I 3463 329651. Nov ask a lrionJ to toll you vhat
numlors you multiplioJ! Tricky! Vory tricky!
lt isn`t Jillicult locauso you usoJ a calculator-il you voro taught
to Jo long multiplication in school you coulJ vork tho proJuct out
{ -
lor yoursoll on a scrap ol papor in a lov minutos at most. But to
vork -! Ah! Thoro`s tho rul!
lt is ono ol tho curiositios ol arithmotic that it is so oasy to multiply
numlors togothor, yot to lactorizo ovon guito a small numlor is lar
harJor anJ cannot lo Jono ly any roally guick anJ simplo mothoJ.
Vultiplication vith a hanJ calculator is so oasy it`s trivial: lut orJi-
nary calculators Jo not havo a lactor` koy, anJ linJing lactors on a
calculator is long-vinJoJ anJ toJious, or ovon impossillo.
A corrosponJont onco askoJ vhothor 100,895,598,169 is primo,
anJ lormat roplioJ immoJiatoly that it is composito, tho proJuct ol
898,423 anJ 112,303. HovJiJ ho Jo it? No ono knovs, anJ tho numlors
aro so largo-prior to tho ago ol oloctronic calculators-that it has loon
spoculatoJ that lormat haJ a socrot mothoJ ol lactorization, sinco lost.
Olivor Sacks Joscrilos in his look - -
- tho tvins John anJ Vichaol, vho,
givon a numlor ol up to tvonty Jigits, coulJ say oxtromoly guickly
vhothor it vas primo, though thoy haJ Jilliculty vith olomontary
arithmotic. (Sacks 1985)
- {
- P
Ono ol tho most oxtraorJinary mootings in tho history ol mathomat-
ics vas JoscriloJ ly E. T. Boll in -
:
At tho Octolor, 1903, mooting in Nov \ork ol tho Amorican Vathomatical
Socioty, Colo haJ a papor on tho programmo vith tho moJost titlo, On tho
lactorization ol Iargo Numlors.` Whon tho chairman calloJ on him lor his
papor, Colo-vho vas alvays a man ol lov vorJs-valkoJ to tho loarJ
anJ, saying nothing, procooJoJ to chalk up tho arithmotic lor raising 2 to
its 6th povor. Thon ho carolully sultractoJ 1. Without a vorJ ho movoJ
ovor to a cloar spaco on tho loarJs anJ multiplioJ out, ly longhanJ:
193,0,21 I 61,838,25,28
Tho tvo calculations agrooJ. . . . Colo took his soat vithout uttoring a vorJ.
NoloJy askoJ him a guostion.
Only lator JiJ Colo aJmit that ho haJ loon vorking on this prol-
lom lor tho provious tvonty yoars.
Tho simplost mothoJ is tho siovo ol ---, vhich can lo
implomontoJ vory olliciontly on a computor to linJ primo lactors ol
numlors up to sovoral million. ln moJorn lactorization mothoJs, tho
iJoa ol a siovo has loon rovivoJ. Tho lost-knovn algorithm lor lac-
toring largo numlors is tho gonoral numlor liolJ siovo.
Tho soconJ mothoJ is trial Jivision, vhich is tho natural approach
vith a hanJ calculator. \ou notico lrom tho last Jigit anJ tho sum ol
Jigits that tho numlor is not Jivisillo ly 2, 5, or 3, anJ thon you start
JiviJing ly , 11, 13, 1, . . . Sinco at loast ono ol tho primo lactors ol
must lo at most , you nooJ only mako a limitoJ numlor ol tri-
als-lut that numlor coulJ lo vory largo. To tost 2053, lor oxamplo,
you nooJ to JiviJo ly all tho primos up to 2053 45.3 . . .
lor a largo numlor, this vill tako a long timo! lt voulJ lo simplor
il you coulJ knov in aJvanco vhat ol lactors you voro look-
ing lor, in orJor to oliminato tho rost. This can somotimos lo Jono.
- -
provoJ that il a primo JiviJos
2
2
lut Joos not JiviJo
loth anJ , thon is tho lorm
2
2
. Similarly, il JiviJos
2
2
2
or
2
3
2
, thon unJor tho samo conJition it must lo ol tho lorms
2
2
2
or
2
3
2
, rospoctivoly.
lormat JiscovoroJ that tho primo lactors ol 2
2
2
1, il 2, is ol tho lorm 2
2
1.
Sinco primos ol tho lorm 4 1 can lo vritton as tho sum ol tvo
sguaros in ono vay only, anJ primos ol tho lorm 4 3 not at all,
you can provo that a numlor is composito ly vriting it as a sum ol
tvo sguaros in at loast tvo vays. Eulor provoJ that 1,000,009 is com-
posito ly shoving that it coulJ lo vritton as:
1,000,009 1000
2
3
2
235
2
92
2
Tho samo lact also allovs tho lactors to lo calculatoJ.
{ -
Convorsoly, somo lorms aro alvays composito. Evory torm ol tho
soguonco ol numlors 855 2
1 2
1
1 9 3
3
2 10 5
2
3 3
2
11 3
4 12 1
5 3 13 3
6 5 14 5
3 15 3
2
11
8 16
Tho primo lactor 3 appoars lirst at 1 (markoJ in lolJ) anJ thon
at 3, 5, , 9, . . . Tho primo lactor 5 appoars lirst at 2 (markoJ
in lolJ) anJ thon at 6, 10, 14, 18, . . . Tho primo lactor 11 appoars
at 5 anJ thon at intorvals ol 10, anJ tho primo lactor 1 appoars
lirst at 4 anJ thon at intorvals ol 8, vhich is
1
2(1 1).
ll appoars lor tho lirst timo as a lactor ol 2
1, thon 1 (moJ
). ll 2
1, thon 2
1
(2
1) 2
1
2
1
2
1
1
(2
1
1) anJ sinco 2
1
1 ly K- , 2
1
1. Thoroloro is a lactor at intorvals ol - 1. (VcIoan 2002,
466-6)
Voroovor, this mothoJ vill linJ ovory pair ol lactors in thoory. Wo
simply calculato hall tho sum anJ hall tho Jilloronco ol tho lactors.
lor oxamplo, 11,983 12 929:
1
2(12 929) 528 anJ
1
2(929 12) 401
anJ 528
2
401
2
11,983.
This illustratos, hovovor, tho Jilliculty vith this mothoJ. \ou havo
to aJJ a lot ol sguaros in soguonco to 11,983 loloro you aJJ 401
2
.
This mothoJ is only roally olliciont vhon you aro conliJont that tho
lactors aro protty ogual in sizo. Hovovor, tho samo lasic iJoa is usoJ
in moro moJorn anJ sophisticatoJ mothoJs such as tho guaJratic
siovo anJ tho continuoJ lraction algorithm.
K-
(152-1833) consiJoroJ a rolatoJ iJoa. Givon a numlor, ,
that ho vantoJ to lactor, ho took a primo, , anJ soarchoJ lor solu-
tions ol tho congruonco,
2
(moJ )
{ -
-
Whon l givo talks on lactoring, l olton ropoat an inciJont that hap-
ponoJ to mo long ago in high school. l vas involvoJ in a math con-
tost, anJ ono ol tho prolloms vas to lactor tho numlor 8051. A timo
limit ol livo minutos vas givon. lt is not that vo voro not allovoJ to
uso pockot calculators, thoy JiJ not oxist in 1960, arounJ vhon this
ovont occurroJ! Woll, l vas lairly gooJ at arithmotic, anJ l vas suro
l coulJ trial JiviJo up to tho sguaro root ol 8051 (alout 90) in tho
timo allovoJ. But on any tost, ospocially a contost, many stuJonts try
to got into tho minJ ol tho porson vho maJo it up. Suroly thoy
voulJ not givo a prollom vhoro tho only roasonallo approach vas
to try possillo Jivisors lrantically until ono vas lounJ. Thoro must lo
a clovor altornato routo to tho ansvor. So l spont a couplo ol minutos
looking lor tho clovor vay, lut grov vorrioJ that l vas vasting too
much timo. l thon lolatoJly startoJ trial Jivision, lut l haJ vastoJ
too much timo, anJ l missoJ tho prollom.
Tho trick is to vrito 8051 as 8100 49 vhich is 90
2
2
, so vo may
uso algolra, namoly, lactoring a Jilloronco ol sguaros, to lactor 8051.
lt is 83 timos 9.` (Pomoranco 1996)
ln othor vorJs, ho chockoJ vhothor vas a -
(moJ ). ll it is, thon it is also a guaJratic rosiJuo moJulo any primo
lactor ol , anJ this inlormation roJucos tho numlor ol possillo
primo lactors that nooJ to lo consiJoroJ. By linJing moro anJ moro
primos that aro guaJratic rosiJuos ol , moro anJ moro possillo lac-
tors aro oliminatoJ, il ho coulJ oliminato all possillo lactors up to
, thon ho knov that vas primo.
-
Vaurico Kraitchik suggostoJ an ingonious variation on lormat.
lnstoaJ ol solving
2
2
you only try to solvo tho congruonco,
2
2
(moJ )
This moans that JiviJos
2
2
( )( ), so that il JiviJos
noithor nor thon must sharo lactors vith loth or
.
Hov Jo you linJ likoly valuos ol anJ , hovovor? That`s tho Jil-
liculty. ll thoro voro a simplo anJ guick mothoJ ol linJing anJ ,
thon lactorization voulJ lo guick anJ oasy altor all, lut thoro isn`t.
So an olomont ol luck comos in anJ tho moJorn povorlul mothoJs
lor lactorization that aro lasoJ on lormat`s original iJoa all uso ran-
Jom numlors. Tho rosult-ironically-allovs largo numlors to lo
lactorizoJ moro guickly, anJ thoso lactorizations, Jospito tho uso ol
ranJom numlors, aro : thoy aro guito Jilloront lrom tho
- algorithms that aro usoJ to toll you
that a numlor is primo (or composito).
- -
VoJorn mothoJs ol lactorization JoponJ on aJvancoJ mathomatical
tochniguos, such as tho mothoJ, vhich can lo usoJ to
lactor as voll as provo primality.
Such povorlul mothoJs aro nocossary, locauso it takos alout tvico
as much vork to lactorizo 1000 as it Joos to lactor , so lactorizing
a 100-Jigit numlor is lar, lar harJor than lactorizing ovon an 80-Jigit
numlor.
ln 190 it vas still vory Jillicult to lactorizo 20-Jigit numlors that
JiJ not havo any ospocially convoniont lorm, such 2
1. By 1980,
tho Brillhart-Vorrison allovoJ 50-Jigit
numlors to lo lactorizoJ oasily.
ln 1984 tho Association lor Computing Vachinory prosontoJ a
plaguo to tho lnstituto ol Eloctrical anJ Eloctronics Enginoors on tho
- {
occasion ol tho lEEE contonnial. lt vas inscriloJ vith tho primo lac-
torization ol tho numlor 2
251
1 that vas complotoJ that yoar vith
tho rocontly JovolopoJ -
ln 1990 Carl Pomoranco`s guaJratic siovo algorithm haJ JoulloJ
tho longth ol lactorizallo numlors up to a rocorJ 116 Jigits, anJ ly
1994 tho guaJratic siovo haJ loon usoJ to lactorizo tho lamous 129-
Jigit PSA challongo numlor that Vartin GarJnor in a 196
column haJ juJgoJ voulJ lo salo lor 40 guaJrillion yoars.
ln spring 1996, PollarJ`s numlor liolJ siovo locamo tho nov cham-
pion, lactorizing a 130-Jigit PSA challongo numlor in alout 15 ol
tho timo roguiroJ ly tho guaJratic siovo. (Pomoranco 1996)
PicharJ Vollin romarks that thoro has loon a history ol soriously
ovorostimating tho Jilliculty ol lactorizing intogors. Tho surprising
succoss ol tho - suggosts that por-
haps much moro povorlul mothJs ol lactorization aro avaiting Jis-
covory. ll thoy aron`t, thoro is alvays tho possilility ol moro povorlul
machinory in tho lorm ol guantum computors.
Tosting lor primality anJ lactorization ol largo numlors voulJ lo
almost incomparally lastor il guantum computation locomos a roal-
ity. lnstoaJ ol calculating on a string ol numlors, lasically linary
lits, a guantum computor coulJ oporato simultanoously on an -
Jimonsional culo` ol 2
linary lits.
{ -
P
Vaurico Kraitchik vas a Pussian-lorn Bolgian mathomatician vho
vroto on tho thoory ol numlors anJ (liko -) on rocroational
mathomatics, incluJing knight`s tours, rational trianglos anJ tho Eulor
lrick, --, anJ magic tricks, incluJing that knovn toJay
as Total Dostiny. Botvoon 1931 anJ 1939 ho oJitoJ tho journal,
anJ ho pullishoJ
- - anJ - (1943
1960).
Kraitchik conjocturoJ that il 2 1 is primo, thon (2 1)3 is also
primo, lut this lails vhon 89. Hovovor, Kraitchik`s conjocturo
has loon improvoJ to lorm tho -
Tho rosults aro thoorotically amazing. lor oxamplo, Shor in 1994 Jis-
covoroJ a polynomial timo algorithm lor lactorizing intogors, lor a
guantum computor. ll it coulJ lo roalizoJ, tho PSA cryptosystom anJ
all similar systoms voulJ locomo usoloss. AccorJing to AJloman a
DNA computor coulJ porlorm 10
20
oporations por soconJ, or 100 mil-
lion timos lastor than a curront suporcomputor. (Vollin 2001, 26, 269)
olliptic curvo primality proving, lactors ol particular lorms, lor-
mat, GlVPS, Vorsonno numlors, primality tosting
-
Tho conjocturo that thoro aro no primos anJ lor vhich (
1)
( 1) anJ (
2
1, nov incorroctly calloJ a Poll oguation.
Ho also porlormoJ many intogrations anJ Jillorontiations, though
ho novor roJucoJ his argumonts to a mothoJ, anJ so Joos not sharo
vith Novton anJ Ioilniz tho honor ol croating tho calculus.
His vorks voro not pullishoJ Juring his lilotimo locauso ho haJ
an inoxplicallo avorsion to pullication, though ho roaJily sont his
P {
rosults to lrionJs. Explaining ono ol his Jiscovorios to Vorsonno, ho
vroto, l voulJ sonJ you a prool, il l JiJ not loar its loing too long.`
Whon ho croatoJ his ovn lorm ol analytic goomotry (ly 1636), it
vasn`t pullishoJ, vhilo Doscartos pullishoJ his in 163, anJ lor-
mat`s vork in tho thoory ol numlor vas approciatoJ ly almost no
ono until roJiscovoroJ it.
lormat vas tho lirst moJorn numlor thoorist. Ho roaJ Viota, vho
haJ introJucoJ a nov symlolic algolra, anJ ho stuJioJ tho
ol -. Somo ol his most important conclusions,
incluJing his statomont ol K- - , voro only pro-
sorvoJ locauso his olJost son Samuol pullishoJ an oJition ol Dio-
phantus to vhich ho aJJoJ his -- - lasoJ
on his lathor`s marginal annotations.
lronically, although ho claimoJ to havo a gonoral mothoJ that lay
lohinJ his many rosults, lormat novor rovoaloJ it, apart lrom his ono
iJoa ol inlinito Joscont.` Ho also claimoJ to lo allo to provo vhat
Diophantus haJ conjocturoJ, that all positivo intogors aro tho sum ol
at most lour sguaros. Unliko Diophantus, ho only sought lor solu-
tions in intogors, not lractions, vhich loJ him to omphasizo primo
numlors anJ Jivisilility.
ln tho alsonco ol loarnoJ journals in vhich to sharo thoir rosults,
mathomaticians ol that ora haJ a custom ol challonging oach othor to
solvo cortain prolloms. ln 1640, lroniclo Jo Bossy challongoJ lormat
to linJ a ol tvonty Jigits or tho noxt ono lolloving
it.` ln tackling this prollom, vhich vas roally alout -
-, ol tho lorm 2
1 aro
all ol tho lorm 2 1, vhoro is a positivo intogor. (Williams 1998,
36)
Thoso voro oxtromoly signilicant Jiscovorios. Tho lirst typically
shovs that il a numlor involving a povor has a cortain proporty, tho
inJox has a proporty also.
Tho thirJ shovs that vo can say somothing vory rostricting alout
tho lactors ol cortain numlors, vhich at onco makos thom much oas-
ior to lactorizo. lormat usoJ it to shov that 223 JiviJos 2
3
1.
Tho soconJ conclusion is tho lasis lor K- (to
Jistinguish it lrom K- - ).
{ P
lormat`s vork ovontually haJ a prolounJ inlluonco. Whon Eulor
JiscovoroJ lormat`s rosults, ho vas promptoJ to try to provo many ol
thom, vith lrilliant succoss, anJ vhon Augustin-Iouis Cauchy`s lathor,
vriting in 1812, vantoJ to oncourago him in his ollorts to locomo
accoptoJ, ho vroto, \our last papor on polyhoJra maJo a Joop
improssion on tho AcaJmio |Jos Scioncosl. ll you provo ono ol lor-
mat`s thooroms, |on polygonal numlorsl tho vay vill lo viJo opon
lor you. Tho momont is lavourallo lor you. Do not lot it slip ly.`
Cauchy JiJn`t. ln 1815 ho prosontoJ a sonsational papor in vhich
ho provoJ lormat`s claim in a lottor to Vorsonno ol 1636, that Evory
numlor is tho sum ol throo culos, ol lour sguaros, anJ so on, inJol-
initoly.`
K-
ll is primo thon,
(moJ )
Wo can provo this ly linking it to tho , vhich says
that ( 1)
is ogual to
1
2
. . . 1
1 (moJ )
anJ so, ( 1)
( 1)
(moJ )
So tho valuo ol (
1 0. That is,
(moJ
), vhich is vhat vo vantoJ to shov.
ll anJ aro coprimo, thon vo can JiviJo ly anJ concluJo that
1
1 (moJ )
This looks liko a promising lasis lor a primality tost-cortainly much
lottor than -K- , locauso
1
is oasior to calculato than a
lactorial. Unlortunatoly thoro is a snag: thoro aro many numlors, , that
aro primo lut that satisly tho oguation. Thoso aro calloJ -
- anJ it is thoir oxistonco that makos primality tosting so much
harJor. To tost a numlor, , lor primality using lormat`s Iittlo Thoorom,
( 1)
2
P {
vo can calculato
1
lor somo valuo ol , JiviJo ly , anJ soo il tho
romainJor is 1. ll it is not, thon is composito. ll tho oguation is satis-
lioJ, hovovor, thon coulJ still lo primo or composito.
What alout trying Jilloront valuos ol ? \os, vo can Jo that, anJ
tho chancos aro that il is actually composito, soonor or lator vo vill
linJ a valuo ol that provos this. Unlortunatoly-yot again-thoro is
a snag. Somo numlors aro composito anJ yot thoy satisly lormat`s
critorion lor ovory valuo ol vithout oxcoption. Thoso aro tho
-.
gonoralizoJ lormat`s Iittlo Thoorom (in 160), vhich only
applios to primo numlors. Ho provoJ that il is composito, anJ il
anJ aro coprimo, thon
()
1 (moJ )
lormat`s Iittlo Thoorom implios that il is primo thon JiviJos
2
2 thon must lo
primo, has loon attrilutoJ, guito vrongly, to tho anciont Chinoso,
Juo to a mistranslation lrom tho Chinoso classic -
Tho Gorman philosophor anJ mathomatician Ioilniz, vho
invontoJ tho calculus at tho samo timo as Novton, JiJ loliovo tho
convorso vas truo, unJorstanJally, locauso tho lirst oxcoption Joos
not occur until 341.
- AKS algorithm lor primality tosting, primality tosting,
Eulor`s totiont (phi) lunction
By lormat`s Iittlo Thoorom, tho guotiont (
1
1) is an intogor il
is primo anJ anJ aro coprimo. lt is usually JonotoJ ly
() anJ
lohavos a lit liko a logarithm:
ll Joos not JiviJo or , thon
()
()
()
-
(8 ).
Ho also knov that all primos ol tho lorm 8 1 or 8 3 aro ol tho
lorm
2
2
2
, all primos ol tho lorm 3 1 can lo oxprossoJ as
2
3
2
, anJ il a numlor is tho proJuct ol tvo primos ol tho lorm
20 3 or 20 , thon it is ol tho lorm
2
5
2
. Ho also noticoJ
that thoro voro no matching proportios lor somo lorms such as
2
5
2
.
Thoro aro othor rolationships ol this kinJ, ol vhich tho simplost is:
any primo ol tho lorm 3 1 is also ol tho lorm
2
2
. lor
oxamplo, 1
2
1 1 2
2
, 13 1
2
1 3 3
2
, 19 2
2
2 3 3
2
.
Similarly, any primo ol tho lorm 6 1 can lo vritton as
2
3
2
,
anJ ovory primo ol tho lorm 8 1 is also ol tho lorm
2
2
2
. Sinco
2
2
2
(3 4)
2
2(2 3)
2
, it lollovs that thoro is an inlinity
ol such roprosontations. lor oxamplo,
1 5
2
2 2
2
23
2
2 16
2
133
2
2 94
2
. . .
K- -
-
lormat also stuJioJ tho soguonco ol numlors 2
2
3 5 1 25 6553 composito
lormat knov that tho lirst livo aro all primo, anJ ho lamously con-
jocturoJ that thoy all aro: vhich turnoJ out to lo an ogually lamous
mistako. Eulor provoJ in 132 that 641 is a lactor ol
5
, using tho lact
that ho haJ alroaJy provoJ that any primo lactor ol
, il 2, is ol
{ P
tho lorm 2
1
1. (- lator shovoJ that must lo ovon, so this
locomos 2
2
1.) So all its primo lactors aro ol tho lorm 128
1, anJ tho tvo smallost primos ol this lorm aro 25 anJ 641. As it
happons, 25
3
anJ ovory pair ol lormat numlors is coprimo,
locauso ol this iJontity:
2
. . .
1
2
, anJ
so provoJ that 641 JiviJos
5
:
5
2
32
1 (16)2
28
1 (641 5
4
)2
28
1 641 (5 2
)
4
1 641 (641 1)
4
1 641 1 1 641
Tho simplost - lor lormat numlors is K- -.
lt has loon conjocturoJ that tho numlor ol lormat primos is linito:
lut also that it is inlinito.
Tho lamous unrosolvoJ casos usoJ to lo (2
148
1)1 (iJontilioJ in
1951 ly A. lorrior ly using a hanJ-computing mothoJ), anJ 180
(2
12
1)
2
1 (sottloJ in 1951 ly Villor anJ Whoolor). ToJay all tho
lormat primos up to 2 lillion Jigits aro knovn.
Anothor unrosolvoJ conjocturo is that all lormat numlors aro
-. lt is knovn that il
5
132 Eulor lounJ tvo lactors: 641 anJ 60041.
6
1856 Iucas provoJ that it vas composito vithout
shoving tho lactors-tho lirst such achiovo-
mont.
6
1880 IanJry (agoJ oighty) complotoly lactorizoJ it:
2
64
1 24,1 6,280,421,310,21.
8
1981 Bront anJ PollarJ complotoly lactorizoJ it.
9 1993 A. K. Ionstra, H. W. Ionstra Jr., V. S. Vanasso
anJ J. V. PollarJ complotoly lactorizoJ it.
10
1999 PicharJ P. Bront complotoly lactorizoJ it, lour
lactors ol 8, 10, 40, anJ 252 Jocimal Jigits.
11
1899 Cunningham provoJ it to lo composito.
11
1988 Bront anJ Vorain complotoly lactorizoJ it.
Thoso mathomaticians provoJ that
12
to
30
aro composito:
lormat
numlor yoar provor
12
18 l. V. Porvushin anJ E. Iucas
13
1960 G. A. Paxson
14
1961 A. Hurvitz anJ J. I. SollriJgo
15
1925 V. Kraitchik
16
1953 J. I. SollriJgo
1
1980 G. B. Gostin
18
1903 A. E. Wostorn
19
1962 H. Piosol
20
198 Buoll anJ \oung
21
1963 C. P. Wrathall
22
1993 CaranJall, Doonias, Norrio, anJ \oung
23
188 l. V. Porvushin
24
1999 CranJall, Vayor, anJ PapaJopoulos
25
1963 C. P. Wrathall
26
1963 C. P. Wrathall
2
1963 C. P. Wrathall
28
199 Taura
29
1980 G. B. Gostin anJ P. B. VcIaughlin
30
1963 C. P. Wrathall
To Jato, 21 lormat numlors aro knovn to lo composito. WillriJ
Kollor koops an oxtromoly JotailoJ account ol lormat numlors, thoir
lactors, lactoring status, novly lounJ lactors, anJ so on, at vvv
.prothsoarch.notlormat.html. His latost Novs llash (as ol Novomlor
5, 2004) is:
{ P
- -
On Octolor 5, 2004, Payam SamiJoost JiscovoroJ this nov lactor ol a lor-
mat numlor: 89 2
42099
1 JiviJos l4209.
Kollor`s tvo provious llashos announcoJ that a nov largost knovn
composito lormat numlor haJ loon JiscovoroJ ly John Cosgravo
anJ his Proth-Gallot Group at St. Patrick`s Collogo (Dullin, lrolanJ)
on Octolor 10, 2003: 3 2
24885
1 JiviJos l
24882
, anJ that on
Novomlor 1, 2003, Craig Kitchon lounJ anothor nov lactor ol a lor-
mat numlor: 105405 2
8300
1 JiviJos l
8298
, lringing to 250 tho total
numlor ol thon knovn primo lactors.
-
Thoso aro numlors ol tho lorm,
2
)
2
5
1,
vhoro ono ol anJ is oJJ anJ tho othor ovon. (\vos Gallot,
soo http:porso.vanaJoo.lryvos.gallotprimosinJox.html)
K- -
l think it`s vory important that pooplo aro oncouragoJ to vork on
vory harJ prolloms. Tho tonJoncy toJay is to vork on short anJ
immoJiato prolloms.
O -
P {
lormat haJ his ovn copy ol tho vorks ol - as translatoJ
ly Bachot Jo Vziriac in 1621. ln tho margin ho vroto, in 163, orig-
inally in Iatin:
To JiviJo a culo into tvo othor culos, a lourth povor or in gonoral any
povor vhatovor into tvo povors ol tho samo Jonomination alovo tho soc-
onJ is impossillo, anJ l havo assuroJly lounJ an aJmirallo prool ol this,
lut tho margin is too narrov to contain it.
To vhich ho aJJoJ, AnJ porhaps, postority vill thank mo lor hav-
ing shovn it that tho ancionts JiJ not knov ovorything.` (Burton
196)
lormat`s only pullishoJ prool, in 1659, vas ol lormat`s Iast Thoo-
rom lor tho caso 4, in vhich ho usoJ his lamous mothoJ ol
-, shoving that il ono solution oxistoJ, thon anothor,
smallor, solution must also oxist, anJ thon a smallor solution
still . . . anJ so on, roJucing tho prollom to alsurJity.
lov loliovo lormat haJ such a prool, anJ AnJrov Wilos lounJ tho
lirst accoptoJ prool in 1994, somo 350 yoars lator, lut only altor oight
yoars ol vorking socrotly, Juring vhich ho pullishoJ occasional
minor papors to put colloaguos oll tho scont anJ allay any suspicions
as to vhat ho vas roally up to.
ErJos, tho groat collalorator, not surprisingly oljoctoJ to Wilos`s
socrocy anJ claimoJ that tho prollom voulJ havo loon solvoJ
soonor il Wilos haJ loon opon: maylo yos, lut maylo not ly Wilos!
Vathomaticians aro as compotitivo as anyono-anJ ErJos himsoll
haJ an unlortunato oxporionco vith Atlo Sollorg ovor thoir olomon-
tary prool ol tho , lor vhich Sollorg lut not
ErJos von tho liolJs VoJal in 1950. (Hollman 1998, 183)
{ P
Tho philosophor anJ logician W. V. Quino pointoJ out that lormat`s
Iast Thoorom is oguivalont to this claim alout sorting oljocts into
lins:
Supposo that thoro aro lins in total, anJ that lins aro not
paintoJ roJ, anJ lins aro not paintoJ lluo. Tho romaining lins aro
uncoloroJ. \ou havo oljocts to sort into tho lins.
Thon lormat`s Iast Thoorom is oguivalont to tho statomont that:
Tho numlor ol vays ol sorting thom that shun loth colors is ogual
to tho numlor ol vays that shun noithor.` (Quino 1988)
- - K- -
Primo numlors havo appoaroJ moro than onco in attompts to sottlo
lormat`s Iast Thoorom, ly Kummor, , anJ .
Tho lirst caso is vhon , , , anJ aro coprimo. Tho soconJ caso
is vhon JiviJos at loast ono ol , , anJ . Tho Jistinction vas lirst
maJo ly Sophio Gormain in 1832, vho provoJ that lor a primo ,
12
.
Kummor provoJ lormat`s Iast Thoorom lor all oJJ primo oxpo-
nonts loss than 165, oxcopt lor thoso oight irrogular primos: 3, 59,
6, 101, 103, 131, 149, anJ 15.
Tho soguonco ol rogular primos starts, 3, 5, , 11, 13, 1, 19, 23, 29,
31, 41, 43, 4, 53, 61, 1, 3, 9, 83, 89, 9, . . . lut it is not knovn il
thoro is an inlinity ol thom.
Tho proportion ol rogular primos among tho primos loss than 10
6
is
462849 0.606 . . . vhich lits tho conjocturo that tho Jonsity
tonJs to
12
0.6065 . . . ( is tho laso ol natural logarithm).
Jonson provoJ in 1915 that thoro is an inlinity ol irrogular primos, anJ
all tho irrogular primos up to 12,000,000 havo nov loon calculatoJ.
-
D. D. Wall, Z. H. Sun, anJ Z. W. Sun provoJ in 1992 that il tho lirst caso
ol K- - is lalso lor , thon
2
JiviJos ( ( 5))th
, vhoro 5 is tho IogonJro symlol usoJ to oxpross
P {
tho lav ol . (This notation is to Jo vith
5 moaning JiviJos 5 oxactly`!)
Wo nov knov that lormat`s Iast Thoorom is novor lalso, lut it still
romains an unknovn guostion vhothor any Wall-Sun-Sun primos
oxist.
- Boal`s conjocturo, Bornoulli numlors, lactorization, lormat-
Catalan oguation anJ conjocturo, psouJoprimos, Sophio Gormain
primos, Wiolorich primos
K- anJ K- - aro loth spocial
casos ol tho lormat-Catalan oguation:
p
g
r
Horo , , anJ aro positivo, coprimo intogors anJ tho oxpononts aro
all primos vith 1 1 1 1.
Tho lormat-Catalan conjocturo is that thoro aro only linitoly many
solutions to this systom. Thoso solutions incluJo:
1 2
3
3
2
1
3
2
1
2
2
2
5
3
4
11
4
3
5
122
2
13
2
3
2
9
Voro rocontly, l. Boukors anJ D. Zagior havo lounJ thoso solutions,
making a total ol ton knovn solutions:
1549034
2
33
8
15613
3
2213459
2
1414
3
65
15312283
2
9262
3
113
621
3
1
21063928
2
96222
3
43
8
3004290
2
(CranJall anJ Pomoranco 2001, 383)
Boal`s conjocturo
{
-
IoonarJo Pisano (c. 115-1250), nicknamoJ lilonacci, in his
lrought tho HinJu-Aralic numoral systom to Wostorn Europo
in 1202. Ho also listoJ tho primos lrom 10 to 100 anJ pointoJ out that
to chock vhothor a numlor vas primo you only nooJoJ to JiviJo it
ly tho primos loss than its sguaro root. Ho also incluJoJ prolloms
similar to -, such as hov to linJ a sguaro that romains a
sguaro vhon 5 is aJJoJ or sultractoJ. His ansvor, in lractions, is,
(4112)
2
5 (4912)
2
(4112)
2
5 (3112)
2
lilonacci is nov romomloroJ lor this prollom:
A cortain man put a pair ol rallits in a placo surrounJoJ on all siJos ly a
vall. Hov many pairs ol rallits can lo proJucoJ lrom that pair in a yoar
il it is supposoJ that ovory month oach pair logots a nov pair vhich lrom
tho soconJ month on locomos proJuctivo?
Assuming that tho rallits aro immortal, this is tho numlor ol nov
pairs oach month:
1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89 . . .
Each torm is tho sum ol tho provious tvo torms.
This oxtraorJinary soguonco has so many proportios that thoro is a jour-
nal, , JovotoJ ontiroly to it. lor oxamplo, tho
ratio ol succossivo torms,
1
2
1
2
(1)
- {
'lor simplicity anJ momoralility, vo aro using lor loth tho th lormat numlor anJ tho th
lilonacci numlor. This shoulJ not causo conlusion as thoy novor soom to occur togothor!
Thoro aro many othor lormulao connocting tho lilonacci numlors,
such as:
2
1
2 1
1
(1)
proviJoJ 1
2
(1)
proviJoJ 2
3
2
2
(1)
proviJoJ 3
4
3
2
(1)
proviJoJ 4
5
5
2
(1)
proviJoJ 5
anJ so on. Tho coollicionts ol (1)
2
(1)
1
(
2
2
(1)
1
(
2
)
Thoro aro similar lormulao lor
2 1
.
Vornon Hoggatt Jr. anJ Varjorio Bicknoll-Johnson provoJ much
moro: tho - noighlor ol ovory povor ol a lilonacci numlor is
composito, vith tho oxcoption ol
3
2
4.
Tho noighlors ol all povors ol
JiviJos
, so il
anJ
,
is alvays anothor lilonacci numlor vhoso inJox is tho groatost
common Jivisor ol anJ .
A rolatoJ thoorom is that il anJ only il thon
, so you can
stuJy tho Jivisilility ol tho lilonacci numlors ly stuJying thoir
inJox numlors, anJ Jrav conclusions such as:
{ -
2 il anJ only il 3
3
il anJ only il 4
5 il anJ only il 5 anJ so on . . .
Wo can also provo that thoro is at loast ono lilonacci numlor Jivis-
illo ly any givon numlor : in lact, it can lo lounJ among tho lirst
2
numlors in tho soguonco. lt thon lollovs that thoro aro an inlinity
ol such numlors. ln particular, lor ovory numlor, , thoro is a
lilonacci torm that is Jivisillo ly , anJ it occurs among tho lirst
1 torms.
Chooso 1 lilonacci numlors lrom tho sot
1
,
2
,
3
, . . . ,
2
: thon
ono ol tho choson numlors JiviJos anothor, oxactly. (Woinstoin
1966)
ll is a primo groator than 2 (moJ 5) or 4 (moJ 5)
2 1 is also primo (a conJition rominiscont ol tho
conJition), thon (2 1)
1 is alvays composito.
- {
- Evory positivo can lo vritton as a sum ol Jistinct lilonacci
numlors.
- Tho primo numlor 1 is tho only primo that is tho avorago ol
tvo consocutivo lilonacci numlors. (Honakor: CalJvoll,
-)
- ll is primo, thon
vhoro is sguaro-lroo.
-
1
,
2
,
6
8 anJ
12
144 aro tho only lilonacci numlors that
aro povors.
- ll
2
1
1
1, lor
1
1. lor
oxamplo, il
1
2, tho soguonco starts 1, 3, , 43, 180,
3263443, . . . (EJvarJs 1964)
- - - satisly a lilonacci-liko oguation:
1
3
2
1
- -
Iucas lactorizoJ all tho lirst sixty lilonacci numlors, anJ lirst notoJ
that il , thon
lut Jo
not JiviJo any smallor lilonacci numlor. A primitivo lactor ol
is
congruont to 1 (moJ ), vith tho oxcoption 5.
5 2
10
2
- 10
2 1
10 oxp ( 1)
2
-
rocovors thom, lut tolls you nothing you JiJn`t alroaJy knov --
thoro voro a moans ol calculating - inJoponJontly, vhich no ono
oxpocts.
G. H. HarJy managoJ to linJ an oxact lormula lor (), tho largost
primo lactor ol a numlor . Without making tho slightost attompt to
oxplain it, horo it is!
)
2
l
0
(DuJloy 1983)
- Eulor`s guaJratic, Vills` thoorom
- K-
Tako tho soguonco ol -, tho proJucts ol tho primos in
soguonco:
2 6 30 210 2310 30030 . . .
aJJ 1 3 31 211 2311 30031 . . .
tako tho noxt primo 5 11 3 223 2333 3004 . . .
tako tho Jilloronco 2 4 6 12 22 16 . . .
aJJ 1 3 5 13 23 1 . . .
Tho longths somo pooplo vill go to proJuco primo numlors! Poo
lortuno, vho vas an anthropologist anJ onco marrioJ to Vargarot
VoaJ, thought up this ono anJ conjocturoJ, naturally, that all tho
- aro primo.
Tho soguonco goos: 3, 5, , 13, 23, 1, 19, 23, 3, 61, 6, 61, 1, 4,
10, 59, 61, 109, 89, 103, 9, 151, 19, 101, 103, 233, 223, 12, 223,
191, 163, 229, 643, . . .
Tho conjocturo may voll lo truo, sinco tho th lortunato numlor
is not Jivisillo ly any ol tho lirst primos, anJ yot is rolativoly small.
Thus tho lourth lortunato numlor is not Jivisillo ly 2, 3, 5, or , anJ
is only 13, so it must lo primo (ovon il vo JiJn`t knov that alroaJy!).
lnJooJ, vo coulJ roplaco tho noxt primo` ly tho noxt primo-lut-
ono` anJ still oxpoct to got primos:
{ - K-
2 6 30 210 2310 . . .
aJJ 1 3 31 211 2311 . . .
tako tho noxt primo 13 41 22 23339 . . .
tako tho Jilloronco 4 6 10 16 28 . . .
aJJ 1 5 11 1 29 . . .
Tho conjocturo coulJ only lail il thoro is a sulliciontly largo gap
lotvoon tvo primos, so that tho noxt primo,` on at loast ono occa-
sion, is vory largo inJooJ, anJ this is thought unlikoly. (Goloml
1981)
- - - -
Tho gap () lotvoon tho primos () anJ ( 1) is usually
JolinoJ to lo tho numlor ol composito numlors lotvoon thom, so
() is 1 loss than tho Jilloronco.
Sinco tho primos slovly locomo scarcor anJ scarcor, () must
incroaso on avorago. ln lact, vo can linJ gaps ovontually as largo as
vo ploaso. Hovovor, thoro aro an inlinito numlor ol lor vhich
( 1) ().
Wo say that () is a maximal gap il () () lor all . A
maximal gap is a rocorJ-lroaking gap, tho lirst occuronco ol a gap
that largo, up to that point.
Tho soguonco ol maximal gaps starts vith 1, 2, 4, 9, 24, 30, 99,
154, 189, 21, 1183, 1831, 2225, 3385, 1435, 30802, . . .
Cramr`s conjocturo is that tho largost gap lotvoon primos rounJ
alout is alvays loss than (log )
2
. ll Cramr`s conjocturo is truo,
thon so is K- , at loast lor largo valuos ol .
ll 48, thon thoro is a primo lotvoon anJ 98, inclusivo.
ll 11, thon tho intorval to 43 inclusivo contains a primo
numlor ol oach ol tho lorms 4 1, 4 3, 6 1, anJ 6 5.
Thoso thooroms roguiro Jillicult prools. ln contrast, computors havo
loon usoJ to Jiscovor many curious statistics, such as:
- Among tho lirst six million primos (up to 104,395,289), tho
largost Jilloronco lotvoon consocutivo primos is 220, anJ tho
- - - - {
smallost Jilloronco that Joos not appoar in this rango is 186.
(Gruonlorgor anJ ArmorJing)
- Tho lirst pair ol consocutivo primos Jilloring ly 100 aro
396,33 anJ 396,833.
- Tho lirst gap ol at loast 1,000 is tho surprisingly largo gap ol
1,132 lolloving tho primo 16931823184631, JiscovoroJ ly
Thomas Nicoly anJ Bortil Nyman.
- Harvoy Dulnor has lounJ a gap ol at loast 50,206 noar 3
10
1883
.
-- P
Vathomatics is tho guoon ol tho scioncos anJ numlor thoory is
tho guoon ol mathomatics.
O--
Gauss vas a gonius vho contrilutoJ to almost all liolJs ol puro anJ
applioJ mathomatics, ospocially calculus, goomotry, algolra, prola-
lility, gooJosy, anJ ol courso numlor thoory, as voll as-liko Nov-
ton-astronomy anJ optics.
As a chilJ ho vas a calculating proJigy, lut unliko most proJigios
ho rotainoJ this usolul alility all his lilo. lt contrilutoJ to tho pattorn
ol his vork, vhich comlinoJ oxtonsivo ompirical invostigations vith
Joop insight anJ an omphasis on prool, not moroly to conlirm vhat
ho vas alroaJy convincoJ vas truo, lut as a sourco ol illumination.
Ho pullishoJ six prools ol tho lav ol (a sov-
onth vas lounJ among his papors), oach ono aJJing to his-anJ
othor mathomaticians`-unJorstanJing ol this Joop prollom.
Ho shovoJ at tho ago ol ninotoon that a rogular -siJoJ polygon
can lo constructoJ vith a rulor anJ compassos il anJ only il is tho
proJuct ol a povor ol 2 anJ ono or moro Jistinct -. Just
as EucliJ haJ onJoJ his - vith tho construction ol tho Jo
JocahoJron anJ icosahoJron, Gauss onJoJ his oarly mastorpioco,
--- , pullishoJ in 1801 vhon ho vas tvonty-
lour, vith tho solution to this prollom anJ a list ol possillo numlors
ol siJos up to tho limit ol 300.
ln tho samo yoar ho usoJ novol mothoJs to proJict tho position ol
tho minor planot Coros, vhich haJ loon lost,` a sonsational rosult
{ -- P
altor vhich ho vas lamous as loth a mathomatician anJ an as-
tronomor.
Gauss also provoJ that ovory numlor is tho sum ol throo triangular
numlors, a conclusion that lormat haJ Jravn lut coulJ not provo.
Gauss roJucoJ it to tho prollom ol roprosonting a numlor as tho
sum ol throo sguaros ly pointing out that il,
1
2( 1)
1
2( 1)
1
2( 1)
Thon 8 3 (2 1)
2
(2 1)
2
(2 1)
2
Ho thon provoJ anothor ol lormat`s claims, that any intogor is tho
sum ol at most lour sguaros.
Ho rolusoJ to sponJ timo on K- - , roplying to tho
astronomor Ollor`s urging ly saying, l conloss that lormat`s Thoo-
rom as an isolatoJ proposition has vory littlo intorost lor mo, locauso
l coulJ oasily lay Jovn a multituJo ol such propositions, vhich ono
coulJ noithor provo nor Jisposo ol.` (Novman 1956)
-- - -
Gauss, in a lottor to Encko on Christmas Evo 1849, vroto, As a loy
l consiJoroJ tho prollom ol hov many primos thoro aro up to a
givon point. lrom my computations, l JotorminoJ that tho Jonsity ol
primos arounJ , is alout 1log().` Ho claimoJ to havo maJo many
ol his Jiscovorios through systomatic, palpallo oxporimontation.`
(Vackay 1994)
Givon a lov minutos` sparo timo ho voulJ calculato primo num-
lors. Ho is supposoJ Juring his lilotimo to havo calculatoJ all tho
primos up to 3,000,000. Hovovor, ho also omployoJ anothor calcu-
lating proJigy, Zacharias Daso (1824-1861), vho vas no mathomati-
cian, to Jo calculations lor him. Iiko many calculating proJigios,
Daso touroJ viJoly giving oxhilitions ol his alilitios. Ho calculatoJ
sovon-liguro tallos ol logarithms anJ tho valuo ol to tvo hunJroJ
placos, anJ maJo a lactor tallo ol tho numlors lotvoon anJ 10
million.
Gauss lator conjocturoJ on tho lasis ol ompirical oviJonco that (),
tho numlor ol primos loss than , is approximatoly ogual to
()
2
anJ that tho numlor ol primos up to is alout (log ).
log
-- P {
This is tho tallo that ho sont to Encko, as corroctoJ ly D. N.
Iohmor.
primos () log Jilloronco
500,000 41,538 41,606 68
1,000,000 8,498 8,628 130
1,500,000 114,155 114,263 108
2,000,000 148,933 149,055 122
2,500,000 183,02 183,245 13
3,000,000 216,816 216,91 155
-- -
Gaussian intogors aro ol tho lorm vhoro 1. Iiko tho nat-
ural numlors, Gaussian intogors can lo uniguoly lactorizoJ. Hov-
ovor, cortain orJinary primos aro composito vhon rogarJoJ as
Gaussian intogors vith 0.
ln lact, sinco all orJinary primos ol tho lorm 4 1 can lo
oxprossoJ as tho sum ol tvo sguaros, such as
13 2
2
3
2
thoy aro Gaussian compositos, locauso
2
2
3
2
(2 3)(2 3)
A Gaussian primo lits thoso conJitions: il anJ aro non-zoro,
thon is a Gaussian primo il anJ only il
2
2
is an orJinary
primo. ll oithor or 0, thon tho alsoluto valuo ol tho othor must
lo an orJinary primo ol tho lorm 4 3.
Ono moasuro ol tho sizo` ol a Gaussian intogor, , is its ,
2
2
. Tho soguonco ol Gaussian primos in tho lirst guartor ol tho
ArganJ Jiagram starting vith tho smallost norm is: 1 , 2 , 3, 3
2, 4 , 5 2, , 5 4, , 2, 6 5, 8 3, 8 5, 9 4, . . .
ll is a Gaussian primo, thon so aro , , anJ
, so tho Gaussian primos aro symmotrical alout tho origin vhon
thoy aro plottoJ on an ArganJ Jiagram. This is tho pattorn thoy
mako, lor all anJ such that
2
2
1000, moaning that thoy
lio vithin a circlo vith raJius 10 10.
This pattorn has loon usoJ lor tallocloths anJ tiling lloors, as voll
as prompting guostions such as: il tho Gaussian primos aro stop-
ping-stonos` to inlinity, vhat is tho largost stop you ovor nooJ to
tako? lt is knovn that you nooJ to cross gaps ol at loast 5. (Gothnor,
Wagon, anJ Wick 1998)
{ -- P
--K-
Hov many points aro thoro on or insiJo a circlo vhoso contor is a lat-
tico point? ll tho raJius is , thon tho total is,
(0) (1) (2) (3) . . . (
2
)
vhoro () is tho lormula lor tho numlor ol vays in vhich is tho sum
ol tvo intogral sguaros. ( lormat anJ primos ol tho lorm
2
2
.)
Tho points on a sguaro lattico that aro visillo lrom tho origin aro
just tho points vhoso coorJinatos aro : so thoir Jonsity is
ogual to tho prolalility that tvo intogors choson at ranJom aro
coprimo, vhich is 6
2
.
lormat, primo numlor thoorom
K-
Vako up a tallo ol ropoatoJ alsoluto Jilloroncos ol tho primo num-
lors in soguonco, liko this:
K- {
2 3 5 11 13 1 19 23 29 31 3 41 43 4 53 59 61 6 1
1 2 2 4 2 4 2 4 6 2 6 4 2 4 6 6 2 6 4
1 0 2 2 2 2 2 2 4 4 2 2 2 2 0 4 4 2
1 2 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 2 0 0 0 2 4 0 2
1 2 0 0 0 0 2 2 2 2 0 0 2 2 4 2
1 2 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 2 0 2 0 2 2
1 2 0 0 2 2 0 0 2 2 2 2 2 0
Tho pattorn is protty much irrogular, oxcopt lor tho lolt-hanJ oJgo,
vhich altor tho initial 2 sooms to alvays lo 1. Proth lirst noticoJ this
pattorn in 188 anJ claimoJ, mistakonly, to havo provoJ it. Iator
Gillroath spottoJ it vhon ho vas a stuJont at tho Univorsity ol Cali-
lornia at Ios Angolos in tho lato 1950s, anJ it is nov calloJ Gil-
lroath`s conjocturo. lt has loon vorilioJ lor primos loss than 10
13
.
(OJlyzko 1993)
Ono ingonious suggostion is that this proporty has nothing spo-
cilically to Jo vith primos at all, lut is truo ol any starting so-
guonco that logins vith 2 anJ continuos vith oJJ numlors that
incroaso lairly slovly anJ Jon`t havo too groat gaps. Horo is an
oxamplo, in vhich tho initial rov is a mixturo ol primos anJ com-
positos:
2 3 5 9 11 13 15 19 25 2 33 3 39 41 45 4 51
1 2 4 2 2 2 4 6 2 6 4 2 2 4 2 6
1 2 2 0 0 2 2 4 4 2 2 0 2 2 4
1 0 2 0 2 0 2 0 2 0 2 2 0 2
1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 0 2 2
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 2 0
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 2
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 2 2
1 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0
1 0 0 0 0 2 2 0
1 0 0 0 2 0 2
1 0 0 2 2 2
1 0 2 0 0
1 2 2 0
1 0 2
1 2
1
But vhy? No ono knovs.
{ K-
O
-
GlVPS is tho lost-knovn oxamplo ol - . ln 1995
Goorgo Woltman collatoJ all tho knovn rosults on - -
anJ in January 1996 put thom on tho Wol, togothor vith a last pro-
gram lor tosting vhothor a Vorsonno numlor is primo. Soon scoros
ol oxports anJ thousanJs ol amatour onthusiasts voro joining tho
hunt, incluJing schooltoachors vho havo usoJ tho GlVPS phonomo-
non to motivato thoir stuJonts, vho can run tho lroo soltvaro thom-
solvos as a class projoct.
ToJay, tho GlVPS usos Entropia`s PrimoNot systom, vhich por-
lorms 2 trillion calculations por soconJ, ovory soconJ, all Jay, vhilo
its tamo computors aro Joing othor tasks, ovon vhilo thoir ovnors
aro asloop-nothing stops it!
Tho rosults aro incroJillo: GlVPS spont thirtoon thousanJ yoars ol
computor timo to linJ tho thon rocorJ-lroaking primo 2
13,466,91
1,
JiscovoroJ ly Vichaol Camoron in 2001.
Ono GlVPS onthusiast, Nayan Hajratvala ol Plymouth, Vichigan,
von $50,000 in 1999, ono ol tho `s
cooporativo computing avarJs, lor Jiscovoring tho lirst million-Jigit
primo, 2
6,92,593
1, vhich has 2,098,960 Jigits.
ll you vant to join tho lun, moro inlormation anJ tho lroo soltvaro
aro availallo at vvv.morsonno.orgprimo. Tho stato ol play is ro-
corJoJ on tho GlVPS status pago, at vvv.morsonno.orgstatus.
All tho Vorsonno numlors loss than 10
1,000,000
havo loon tostoJ at
loast onco, most ol thom moro than onco. Both ol tho largost knovn
primos voro lounJ ly GlVPS momlors. On Docomlor 11, 2003,
CNN hoaJlinoJ, StuJont linJs largost knovn primo numlor.` A
GlVPS momlor, Vichaol Shalor, a graJuato stuJont at Vichigan Stato
Univorsity, haJ lounJ tho latost vorlJ rocorJ primo on his Doll com-
putor, ono ol moro than tvo hunJroJ thousanJ computors involvoJ
in tho soarch, making lotvoon thom 9 trillion calculations por soc-
onJ. lt is 2
20,996,011
1, is 6,320,430 Jigits long, anJ voulJ tako hun-
JroJs ol pagos to print out.
O - {
K-
AccorJing to K- , il is primo thon oach ol tho
1 torms on tho lolt-hanJ siJo is ogual to 1 (moJ ), so thoir sum
oguals 1 (moJ ):
1
1
2
1
3
1
. . . ( 1)
1
1 (moJ )
Giuga conjocturoJ in 1950 that il this congruonco is truo, must lo
primo.
Ho also provoJ that
3
3
3
.
- Conjocturo P: Thoro aro inlinitoly many primo pairs ol tho lorm
2
1,
2
3.
Dospito tho hositation thoy oxprossoJ in tho guotation alovo, thoso
conjocturos ly tvo vorlJ-class mathomaticians havo stooJ tho tost ol
timo-ovon as prools aro still lacking.
HarJy anJ IittlovooJ also conjocturoJ that ( ) () ().
This conjocturo, hovovor, is inconsistont vith tho conjocturo that
thoro aro an inlinito numlor ol triplos ol primos ol tho lorms 6 1,
6 1, 6 5 anJ 6 1, 6 5, 6 . Which plausillo conjoc-
turo is lalso? Prolally tho lormor. (HarJy anJ IittlovooJ 1923)
lormulao lor primos, tho primo numlors raco
{ P
-
Thoro is an inlinito numlor ol primos ol tho lorm
2
4
(lvanioc
anJ J. lrioJlanJor) anJ ol tho lorm
3
2
3
.
4
1 is primo lor 1, 2, 4, 6, 16, 20, 24, 28, 34, 46, 48, . . . (Sloano
A000068) (Ial 196)
Thoro is an inlinity ol primos ol tho lorm
2
2
or
2
2
1. ll
2
4 is a porloct sguaro, thon
2
has algolraic lactors.
Othorviso, anJ il , , anJ aro coprimo in pairs anJ il anJ
aro not loth ovon, thon thoro is an inlinity ol primos
2
- -
Nov lor tho . . . houristic argumont. Tho roaJor shoulJ lo varnoJ
that tho lolloving Jiscussion involvos somo largo loaps ol laith.
O
G. H. HarJy consiJoroJ tho numlor ol vays in vhich an ovon num-
lor 2 can lo vritton as tho sum ol tvo primos, anJ arguoJ liko
this:
ll anJ is largo, tho chanco that is primo is approximatoly 1: log
. ll thon vo vrito in ovory possillo vay in tho lorm , tho chanco
that loth anJ aro primo is approximatoly 1: (log )
2
. Wo shoulJ thoro-
loro oxpoct tho orJor ol magnituJo . . . to lo (log )
2
. (HarJy 1966)
This is an oxamplo ol a - argumont. lt is loss than convincing
locauso, as HarJy notoJ, tho arithmotical lorm ol makos a Jillor-
onco to tho ansvor. lor a start, must lo ovon, unloss is 2 moro
than a primo.
lt turns out that to got a moro accurato rosult that takos into
account tho lact that anJ 2 loing primo aro actually inJo-
ponJont ovonts, vo havo to multiply this houristic ostimato ly a lac-
tor 1.32032 . . . This makos a largo Jilloronco in practico: tho rosult is
incroasoJ lor largo ly noarly ono-thirJ, yot tho - argumont
vas cortainly on tho right linos anJ takos tho mathomatician a long
vay tovarJ tho corroct conclusion.
(Brun provoJ that ovory ovon numlor is tho sum ol tvo numlors
vith at most nino oJJ primo lactors, anJ that tho numlor ol such
roprosontations is also proportional to at loast (log )
2
.)
Plya notoJ that vhilo thoro aro only oight pairs ol tvin primos loss
than 100, thoro aro tvico as many, sixtoon, primos such that 6
is also primo: 5-11, -13, 11-1, 13-19, 1-23, 23-29, 31-3, 3-43, 41-
4, 4-53, 53-59, 61-6, 6-3, 3-9, 83-89, anJ 9-103. Tho propor-
tion ol 1:2 continuos vhon highor primos aro chockoJ. Up to
30,000,000 thoro aro 152,892 tvin primo pairs anJ 304,86 pairs Jil-
loring ly 6.
Having noticoJ this lact, Plya, vriting in 1959 vhon computors
voro still guito voak, usoJ Jata calculatoJ ly D. H. anJ Emma
- - {
Iohmor up to tho limit 3 10
() is approximatoly ogual to
2
() ( 1)( 2)
vhoro tho proJuct is calculatoJ ovor all tho oJJ primos that JiviJo .
Plya thon continuoJ his argumont ly introJucing an argumont
lasoJ on , anJ got tho ansvor ho vantoJ,
: to corroct` tho llav, ho intro-
JucoJ an oxtra lactor anJ got tho corroct` rosult, vhilo aJmitting
that l Jo not protonJ to unJorstanJ vhy tho introJuction ol tho
uppor lounJ - yiolJ tho right rosult.`
At this point vo can loavo Goorgo Plya`s lrilliant spoculations, vhilo
Jraving tho oncouraging conclusion-vhich vill astonish thoso poo-
plo vho lalsoly loliovo that mathomatics is alvays rock-soliJ anJ
puroly logical-that such imaginativo houristic roasoning can loaJ to
corroct ansvors anJ so contriluto to mathomatical progross, ly point-
ing tovarJ moro comploto anJ linal argumonts. (Plya 1959)
K- -
DaviJ Hillort (1862-1943) vas among tho groatost mathomaticians
ol all timo. Ho is ol most intorost to us locauso ol a lamous spooch
that ho JolivoroJ to tho SoconJ lntornational Congross ol Vatho-
maticians in Paris on August 8, 1900, on Tho Prolloms ol Vatho-
matics.` With tho conliJonco that charactorizoJ his ovn vork-his
cry, Wo must knov. Wo vill knov` is inscriloJ on his toml in Got-
tingon-ho proclaimoJ:
This conviction ol tho solvalility ol any mathomatical prollom is a strong
incontivo in our vork, it lockons us: this is tho prollom, linJ its solution.
\ou can linJ it ly puro thinking sinco in mathomatics thoro is no lgnora-
limus!
{ K- -
Ho thon introJucoJ his 23 lamous prolloms. Tho oighth vas
- Hillort askoJ lor a prool ol tho
--, lollovoJ ly an oxact count ol tho numlor ol primo numlors loss
than , anJ an ansvor to tho guostion vhothor tho occasional con-
Jonsation ol primo numlors vhich has loon noticoJ in counting
primos` is Juo to cortain torms in ono ol Piomann`s lormulao.
Hillort thon turnoJ to K- anJ tho guostions
vhothor thoro aro an inlinito numlor ol pairs ol primo numlors
vith tho Jilloronco 2, or ovon tho moro gonoral prollom, vhothor
tho linoar Jiophantino oguation
0
(vith givon intogral coollicionts oach primo to tho othors) is alvays
solvallo in primo numlors anJ .`
Tho ninth prollom vas: prool ol tho most gonoral rociprocity lav in
arlitrary numlor liolJs. This rolors to gonoralizations ol tho lav ol
.
Tho tonth prollom vas: Jocision on tho solvalility ol a Diophantino
oguation. This vas ovontually ansvoroJ ly -, vhoso solu-
tion involvoJ an oxtraorJinary roprosontation ol tho primo numlors.
GolJlach`s conjocturo, Vatijasovic, guaJratic rociprocity, lav
ol, Piomann hypothosis
Start vith any numlor anJ lorm a nov numlor ly concatonating its
primo lactors, starting vith tho loast. Thon ropoat: 30 2 3 5
235 5 4 54, vhich is primo, anJ tho ol 30.
Similarly, tho homo primo ol 4 is 211:
4 2 2 22 2 11 211
lor 2, 3, . . . tho homo primos aro 2, 3, 211, 5, 23, ,
333111396533863510, 311, 3, . . . (Sloano A0324)
Argumonts lrom prolalility suggost that thoro is zoro chanco that
any soguonco vill not contain a primo, lut it has not loon provoJ
that no oxcoptional soguoncos oxist.
{
Tho largost homo primo, HP(), lor 100 is knovn to lo HP(49)
HP(), although it has not loon calculatoJ. Tho soguonco starts, 49,
, 11, 339, 31109, 132393, 344131, . . . lut calculation has stuck at
stop 100, vhich has a 204-Jigit composito colactor vhoso primo lac-
tors aro unknovn.
Tho noxt largost HP() lor 100 is HP(80) 313,169,138,
2,14,145,210,044,94,146,858,220,29,81,91,489. (Do Goost anJ
Kruppa, )
--
-K- vas gonoralizoJ in 1958 ly Siorpinski anJ
Schinzol to polynomials in gonoral. Thoy calloJ thoir gonoralization
hypothosis H.
Supposo that you havo a numlor ol polynomials in , oach vith no
algolraic lactors, vith positivo loaJing coollicionts, -
- -- -
x: thon thoro is an inlinity ol valuos ol that makos thom all
primo simultanoously.
Tho italicizoJ conJition oxcluJos casos such as
2
2 anJ
2
1,
sinco thoir proJuct, (
2
2)(
2
1), vill lo ovon vhothor is oJJ
or ovon.
Hypothosis H implios thoro aro inlinitoly many primos ol tho lorm
2
1 simultanoously ol tho lorms
2
1 anJ 2
2
1 (such as 3
anJ 3 vhon 6, or 5 anJ 1153 vhon 24).
lt also proJicts, lor oxamplo, that thoro aro inlinity ol intogral
Pythagoroan trianglos tvo ol vhoso siJos aro primos, such as 3-4-5,
5-12-13, 11-60-61, anJ 19-180-181, sinco thoso siJos vill havo tho
lorm
2
2
, 2, anJ
2
2
, anJ tho lirst anJ last oxprossions
voulJ lo primo simultanoously. (CalJvoll, -)
UnauthorizoJ playing ol DVDs is illogal, so tho Votion Picturo Asso-
ciation ol Amorica has suoJ to stop tho Jistrilution ol tho DoCSS
coJo, vhich can lo usoJ to unscramllo tho Contont Scramllo Systom
usoJ to protoct DVDs. Not ovoryono is improssoJ, anJ this coJo, as
voll as othors vith tho samo lunction, has loon pullishoJ lrooly on
tho lntornot anJ ovon printoJ on T-shirts. Tho coJo can also lo trans-
{ --
lormoJ into a numlor. Altor all, computors vork on linary lits, so
that any program can lo vritton as an intogor.
Vathomatics prolossor Phil CarmoJy has roprosontoJ tho DoCSS
coJo as a primo, not locauso ho Joosn`t loliovo in protocting artists`
rights-ho Joos-lut locauso ho thinks tho curront lav lavors multi-
national pullishors against consumors. Tho rosult is a 1,401-Jigit
primo that il translormoJ into hoxaJocimal voulJ roprosont tho
DoCSS coJo. Courts in tho USA havo JociJoJ that this program anJ
any vorsion ol it aro an illogal circumvontion Jovico` accorJing to
tho Digital Villonium Copyright Act, or DVCA, locauso thoy allov
copyright matorial to lo sharoJ vithout paymont. Horo it is:
48565089653982930984189469428613044208351359240196
5203668698513401042344696894399261151093010244
52804905883138403549099890965395522011121502594666
9932402268345966196060348514249358468518855645025125
449996482194184655100841190862591694909915200486609
959235960613202593999361886063169144358830024533692
81813914995551339994939488289984691836100182598901031
60196183503434489568053845208538045842415654824889333804
458112833959896852232544608408911191269412095862440
541613210050064598201696118094811362200223448222493
2325954234688002926499061481298404283452014634896854
16908235438356619218622496943162216663939055430241564
329248552489912253946654862140482111381243882116029
841255244644450558346281448833563190225319590439283836
40391689125924055015620889816335999108808490815909
5480192856845198859630532382349055809203299960323441140
601984163531161130856084862236302835010496125956818
4685965333100019916146442549228334869160006458591
462812126900351830924153010630289329566584366200080046
896984382090961985949364630938058633621469695950296
812052499666698056145338204120315933030994915246918
35659362102220068126982344560938020304491224980919
55938381210005886668925844800402552490604446521213
04043211826101035911864666296385849508448493346861420
880529443
CarmoJy has sinco translormoJ tho lannoJ CSS Joscramllor coJo
into a 1,905-Jigit primo.
{
-
lt is a voll-knovn rulo that il tho Jigit-sum ol a numlor is 9, thon 9
JiviJos tho numlor oxactly, lut this is oxcoptional. Vost numlors,
loyonJ tho Jigits 1 to 9 thomsolvos, aro not Jivisillo ly thoir Jigit-
sum. Thoso that aro lorm this soguonco:
10 12 18 20 21 24 2 30 36 40 42 45 48 50 . . .
(Jigit-sum) 10 4 2 10 4 3 10 4 10 5 4 10 . . .
Somo numlors, , aro such that no numlor in laso 10 is timos tho
sum ol its Jigits. John Convay has laloloJ thoso tho inconsummato
numlors, anJ thoir soguonco (Sloano A00365) lor laso 10 starts:
62, 63, 65, 5, 84, 95, 161, 13, 195, 216, 261, . . .
Thoy oxist, ol courso, lor othor lasos also. Thoso aro tho smallost
inconsummato numlors lor lasos 2 onvarJ (Sloano A052491):
13, 1, 29, 16, 2, 30, 42, 46, 62, 68, 89, . . .
3 is
JiviJoJ ly , lrom 2 onvarJs,
1 2 1 4 1 6 5 5 1 10 . . .
thon you only havo 4. lillion anJ a lit torms to go loloro tho lirst
zoro appoars.
Anothor misloaJing rosult is that (30 1) (30) lor all valuos
ol up to 20,000,000, yot it has loon provoJ that ovontually thoro is
an lor vhich (30) (30 1). (Novman 199, 256-5)
G. H. HarJy romarkoJ ol K- , Tho numorical
oviJonco lor tho truth ol tho |conjocturol is ovorvholming. lt has loon
vorilioJ up to 1000 ly Cantor anJ . . . up to 10,000 ly Haussnor.`
ToJay, GolJlach`s conjocturo has loon chockoJ up to 4 10
14
, lut as
mathomaticians knov only too voll, inlinity is much liggor than 10
.
conjocturos, orrors, Piomann hypothosis, strong lav ol small
numlors
{
An intogor is a jumping champion il it is tho most lroguontly occur-
ring Jilloronco lotvoon consocutivo pairs ol primos. Tho iJoa vas
suggostoJ ly Harry Nolson in 198-199, though tho namo vas
givon thoso numlors ly John Convay in 1993. (Nolson 198-9)
Thoro aro occasionally sovoral jumping champions in a rango. Tho
champion is 2 lor thoso rangos ol numlors: -100, 103-106, 109-
112, . . . Both 2 anJ 4 aro joint champions lor tho rangos, 101-102,
10-108, 113-130, . . .
lor 1000, tho champion is mostly 2, 4, or 6. Tho champion up
to alout 1.4 I 10
35
is 6, altor vhich 30 proJominatos. Tho noxt
champion, 210, ontors at alout 10
425
. Sinco 2, 6, 30, 210, . . . is tho
soguonco ol -, it is naturally conjocturoJ that tho soguonco
ol jumping champions consists ol 1 anJ 4, anJ tho primorials, tho
noxt loing 11= 2310. (OJlyzko, )
-
Hov many triplos ol consocutivo primos aro thoro? Wo oxcluJo 3-5-
locauso it is ono ol a kinJ. Also, tho romainJors vhon vo JiviJo tho
pattorn , 2, anJ 4 ly 3 must lo 0, 2, anJ 1 in that cyclic
orJor, so ono ol thom is alvays Jivisillo ly 3.
So vo locus on triplos such as 5--11 anJ -11-13, ol tho lorm ,
2 4, 6. Thoy oxist lor thoso valuos ol :
5, , 11, 13, 1, 3, 41, 6, 9, 101, 103, 10, 191, 193, 223, 22,
2, 30, 34, 45, 613, 641, . . . (Sloano A00529)
Ol thoso, ton aro ol tho , 2, 6 lorm anJ tvolvo aro ol tho ,
4, 6 lorm. Up to 10
8
thoro aro 55,600 triplos ol tho lorm (,
2, 6) anJ 55,556 ol tho lorm (, 4, 6). (CalJvoll,
-) Tho HarJy-IittlovooJ primo -tuplos conjocturo implios that
tho total is alout 55,490.
ln a Jilloront kinJ ol triplo, tho miJJlo primo is tho avorago ol its
noarost noighlors. Thoso aro tho miJJlo primos:
5, 53, 15, 13, 211, 25, 263, 33, 563,
593, 60, 653, 33, . . . (Sloano A006562)
- {
lt is not knovn il thoro is an inlinity ol guaJruplos ol primos, or ol
-tuplos in gonoral, in arithmotic progrossion. Primo guaJruplots,
somotimos knovn as a locauso thoir linal Jigits in
laso 10 must alvays lo 1, 3, , anJ 9, cannot havo tho lorm ,
2, 4, 6 lor tho samo roason as loloro-ono ol thoso numlors
must lo a multiplo ol 4.
Wo also oxcluJo 2-3-5- anJ 3-5--11, vhich loth incluJo tho
pathological` triplo, 3-5-, not to montion tho uniguo ovon primo!
So vo consiJor tho sot, , 2, 6, anJ 8, anJ tho guaJru-
plots that start vith 5--11-13, anJ continuo vith 11-13-1-19, 101-
103-10-109, 191-193-19-199, 821-823-82-829.
Sulsoguont sots start vith thoso valuos ol : . . . 1481, 181, 2081,
3251, . . . (Sloano A00530) Tho soguonco incluJos tho smallost
primo guaJruplot ol lilty Jigits. (Stovons 1995, 1-22)
1000000000000000000000000000000000000000005853891,
1000000000000000000000000000000000000000005853893,
100000000000000000000000000000000000000000585389,
1000000000000000000000000000000000000000005853899
Tony lorlos koops Jotails ol tho largost knovn primo -tuplos at his
sito, vvv.ltkz.Jomon.co.ukktuplots.
Dickson`s conjocturo, HarJy-IittlovooJ conjocturos
- -
A primo numlor is ono that cannot lo composoJ` ol tvo othor
numlors, so it is no surpriso that primo` is usoJ motaphorically to
Joscrilo othor mathomatical oljocts that cannot lo littoJ togothor
lrom othor (primo) piocos.
- knots can lo lormoJ ly joining togothor on tho samo
string tvo othor knots, calloJ knots. Knots that aro not com-
posito aro Thoro is ovon a primo knots lactorization thoorom.
Tho orJinary troloil knot is primo:
{ - -
Thoso aro tho sovon primo altornating knots vith sovon crossings:
- - {
This liguro shovs hov you can aJJ` tvo primo knots to croato a
composito knot:
To lactorizo tho right-hanJ knot, cut it at tho narrov nock` anJ join
tho looso onJs to ro-croato tho tvo primo knots on tho lolt.
P
ln 1903 IanJau pullishoJ a prool ol tho that
vas simplor than thoso ol HaJamarJ anJ Jo la Vallo Poussin.
Thon in an aJJross at tho lilth lntornational Congross ol Vatho-
maticians in CamlriJgo, EnglanJ, in 1912 ho JoscriloJ lour prol-
loms that ho saiJ voro unattackallo` in tho prosont stato ol
knovloJgo. Thoso voro K- , tho - con-
jocturo, tho oxistonco ol an inlinity ol primos ol tho lorm
2
1, anJ
tho prollom ol tho oxistonco ol a primo lotvoon
2
anJ ( 1)
2
.
Iolt-truncatallo primos romain primo vhon tho lolt-hanJ Jigit is
ropoatoJly romovoJ. AccorJing to Chris CalJvoll thoro aro 4,260
such primos, ol vhich tho throo longost aro
959 18918 9965 33196 9396 . . . (23 Jigits)
966 86312 64621 6566 2913 . . . (23 Jigits)
356 86312 64621 6566 2913 . . . (24 Jigits)
(CalJvoll, -)
P
IogonJro JiscussoJ tho lav ol , anJ mistakonly
loliovoJ that ho haJ provoJ a thoorom that vas lator provoJ ly
Dirichlot: in ovory arithmotic soguonco vhoso torms Jo not havo a
common lactor, thoro aro an inlinito numlor ol primos.
ln 1823 IogonJro pullishoJ his prool that lormat`s oguation,
5
5
5
, has no solution in intogors, anJ ho provoJ that ovory num-
lor not ol tho lorm 8 is tho sum ol throo sguaros.
Ho also proJucoJ ono ol tho oarliost ostimatos ol (), conjoctur-
ing in 198, anJ again in 1808, that (), tho numlor ol primos loss
than , tonJs to
{ P
() (log() )
as tonJs to inlinity: ho supposoJ lrom his oxporimontal oviJonco
that tho lost valuo ol vas 1.08366 . . . knovn as IogonJro`s con-
stant, vhich ho pullishoJ in his in 198. ln
1850, Tcholycholl shovoJ that tho lost liguro, il tho limit oxists, is 1,
lut ho vas unallo to provo that tho limit JiJ inJooJ oxist.
P
D. N. Iohmor vas an unusual mathomatician: ho pullishoJ anJ
oJitoJ pootry anJ stuJioJ North Amorican lnJians, collocting thoir
logonJs anJ storios, as voll as thoir music, vhich ho usoJ to com-
poso throo musical vorks lasoJ on lnJian culturo.
ln 1914 ho pullishoJ a - -
unusually listing 1 as a primo. Ho haJ alroaJy pullishoJ in 1909 a
tallo in look lorm ol tho largost lactors ol all tho numlors up to
10,01,000, oxcluJing numlors vith tho olvious lactors, 2, 3, 5, anJ
tho loss olvious . Ho vas also a lounJor ol tho
.
P
Dorrick Honry Iohmor continuoJ his lathor`s vork on primo num-
lors, aiJoJ ly his vilo anJ covorkor Emma Iohmor (1906- ), vho
vas originally his lathor`s graJuato assistant. At ago ninoty, Emma
Iohmor has linishoJ hor rosoarch vork, vritton up hor huslanJ`s
unlinishoJ vork, anJ ovorsoon tho pullication ol thoso matorials.
D. H. Iohmor vas ono ol tho lounJors, in 1943, ol tho journal
- - , vhich in 1959 locamo
- ln his PhD thosis ho proposoJ tho -
- lor Vorsonno primos. Ho also vorkoJ on ENlAC, tho lirst
oloctronic computor in tho UnitoJ Statos. Ho vas lascinatoJ lrom his
stuJont Jays vith numlor siovos, oloctromochanical machinos that
tostoJ numlors to soo il thoy satislioJ cortain congruoncos.
Iohmor`s machinos soarchoJ a soguonco ol numlors, chocking
automatically, ly mochanical, oloctrical, or optical moans or a com-
lination ol mothoJs, lor numlors that lolt tho roguiroJ romainJor
vhon JiviJoJ ly cortain primos.
P {
His lirst oloctromochanical numlor siovo vas constructoJ in 1926,
using ninotoon rotating licyclo chains. ln 1932 ho luilt a largor
machino using thirty-tvo goar vhools, vhich coulJ chock 300,000
numlors ovory minuto. Thoso Jovicos voro lollovoJ ly othors using
16mm lilm, thon vacuum tulos anJ Jolay linos.
Tho 1932 goaroJ siovo vas JomonstratoJ at tho Chicago Contury-
ol-Progross Expositions. Siovos aro still in uso, lor oxamplo at tho
Univorsity ol Vanitola, vhoro lung anJ Williams usoJ ono to linJ
guaJratics vith many primo valuos (- K- ). Thoir
siovo solvos 133,000,000 linoar congruoncos por soconJ. (Pulinstoin
n.J.) (lung anJ Williams 1990, 346)
A Iohmor Conloronco vas holJ at tho onJ ol August 2000 at tho
{ P
-
ly Dorrick N. Iohmor
On tho 19th ol Octolor a littlo group ol mathomaticians gathoroJ in
tho Burt Ialoratorios in PasaJona, Calilornia, arounJ a mystorious
machino to vatch it attack a prollom in mathomatics. lt vas a sim-
plo onough prollom to stato. lt haJ only to linJ tvo numlors vhich
vhon multiplioJ togothor voulJ givo 5,283,065,53,09,209. Any
porson vith a lov hunJroJ yoars ol loisuro timo on his hanJs coulJ
vork it out. . . .
AnJ altor all vo haJ takon only an important outvork in tho
assault upon a roal lortross. This victory haJ moroly cloaroJ tho
Jocks lor action against anothor anJ much largor numlor vhich vas
unJor gravo suspicion ol loing a primo, that is, not tho proJuct ol
any tvo smallor numlors. This numlor is tho groat unconguoroJ lac-
tor ol 2
95
1. lt is tho ninotoon Jigit numlor 3,011,34,49,614,
249,131.
On tho 9th ol Octolor, just altor tho Jiscovory ol tho imp` tho
machino vas sot to Jo somo roal vork in tho thoory ol numlors.
Thoro vas a largo lactor ol 2
93
1, namoly tho numlor
1,53,228,62,093,301,419 vhich vas knovn ly a vory povorlul tost
to lo composito, lut tho tost voulJ not lurnish tho lactors. Tho
smallost lactor vas knovn also to lo largor than 300,000, anJ might
lo largo onough to occupy tho timo ol a skilloJ computor lor ovor
tvonty-livo yoars to linJ it. ( , Soptomlor 1932)
Univorsity ol Calilornia at Borkoloy to honor tho vork anJ inlluonco
ol all throo momlors ol tho Iohmor lamily.
Cunningham projoct, Iohmor, Dorrick Norman
K- -
Dirichlot`s thoorom provoJ that thoro aro an inlinito numlor ol
primos in tho arithmotic soguonco,
, , 2, 3, . . . ,
lut vhon Joos tho lirst primo occur? \uri VlaJimirovich Iinnik
(1915-192) shovoJ in 1944 that thoro is a numlor , Iinnik`s con-
stant, such that tho lirst primo is at most
, inJoponJontly ol tho
valuo ol , proviJoJ it is largo onough.
Pogor Hoath-Brovn provoJ in 1992 that 5.5, lut it is conjoc-
turoJ that 2, vhich is cortainly tho corroct liguro lor almost all
valuos ol
VinograJov`s cololratoJ prool ol tho tornary K-
statos that all largo onough oJJ numlors can lo vritton as tho sum
ol throo primos. Iinnik shovoJ that lor largo vo can vrito as tho
sum ol tvo primos anJ povors ol 2, vhoro is nov knovn to lo
at most 12.
- P
Iiouvillo, among many achiovomonts, provoJ tho lolloving oxtraor-
Jinary proporty ol tho Jivisors ol tho Jivisors ol a numlor:
Start vith a numlor, say, 10, anJ vrito Jovn its Jivisors: 1, 2, 5, 10.
Nov vrito Jovn tho numlor ol Jivisors ol oach Jivisor. Thoy havo
1, 2, 2, anJ 4 Jivisors, rospoctivoly.
Thon: (1 2 2 4)
2
81 1
3
2
3
2
3
4
3
Similarly, tho Jivisors ol 24 aro 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 12, anJ 24, anJ tho
numlor ol thoir Jivisors aro 1, 2, 2, 3, 4, 4, 6, anJ 8, rospoctivoly, anJ
(1 2 2 3 4 4 6 8)
2
1
3
2
3
2
3
3
3
4
3
4
3
6
3
8
3
900
- P {
This thoorom also implios that il is Joullo an oJJ numlor anJ has
no lactors ol tho lorm 4 3 (that romarkallo Jistinction again!) anJ
il vo vrito Jovn tho vays in vhich its ovon lactors can lo oxprossoJ
as tho sum ol tvo oJJ sguaros, thon tho sum ol tho culos ol tho
numlors ol vays vill ogual tho sguaro ol thoir sum. lor oxamplo,
50 1
2
2
2
1
2
5
2
5
2
10 3
2
1
2
1
2
3
2
anJ 2 1
2
1
2
anJ so: 3
3
2
3
1
3
(3 2 1)
2
6
2
(Dickson 1952, vol. 1, 286)
K-
John EJonsor IittlovooJ (1885-19) is lost knovn lor his long col-
laloration vith G. H. on analytic numlor thoory.
ln 1914 ho provoJ a vory surprising thoorom alout tvo lunctions
lor tho numlor ol primos loss than or ogual to (), anJ Ii().
AccorJing to tho tallo on p. 185, () is alvays loss than Ii(), anJ
inJooJ it is knovn that () Ii() lor all 10
12
. Novortholoss Iit-
tlovooJ shovoJ that () Ii() is lalso inlinitoly olton, Jospito tho
apparontly ovorvholming numorical oviJonco to tho contrary.
lt is nov knovn that thoro is a countoroxamplo lolov 10
400
.
This prool that a lunction vhich is rolatoJ to tho
-- can svitch in valuo so lar lrom tho origin naturally unJorminos
tho oviJonco that Piomann`s hypothosis is truo, lasoJ on tho calcu-
lation ol its lirst lov lillion zoros. Who knovs vhat might happon a
lov lillion larthor on?
-
A similar phonomonon appoars in tho primo numlors raco, though
tho svitch occurs much soonor. All primos lrom 5 onvarJ aro ol ono
ol tho lorms 4 1 or 4 3. ll vo start counting tho numlor in oach
class, it sooms that 4 3 alvays vins, lut this is misloaJing: at
26861 tho loaJ svitchos. Up to that limit, thoro aro 1,43 primos ol
tho lorm 4 1 anJ only 1,42 ol tho lorm 4 3. (Iooch 195)
Tho succossion ol primos 4 1 anJ 4 3 is vory irrogular, as
might lo oxpoctoJ. Thus tho raco lotvoon primos 4 1 anJ 4 3
is tioJ at: 2, 5, 1, 41, 461, 26833, 26849, 26863, 26881, 26893, 26921,
{ K-
61569, 61693, 616829, 616843, . . . (Sloano A00351) Tho primo
26861 is ol tho lorm 4 1 anJ puts 4 1 into tho loaJ lor tho lirst
timo, lut tho loaJ is immoJiatoly lost.
Tho ropoatoJ oguality at livo valuos lotvoon 26833 anJ 26921, lol-
lovoJ ly a largo gap, suggosts somo rosomllanco lotvoon this
primo raco anJ a ranJom valk. As long as tho ranJom valk is noar
tho origin, it has a signilicant chanco ol roturning to tho origin in tho
noar luturo. Tho larthor it movos avay, tho longor it is likoly to stay
avay.
lor most ol tho lirst lov lillion numlors, 4 3 is vinning ovor
4 1. Tho sixth anJ largost knovn rogion lor vhich 4 1 is loaJ-
ing strotchos lrom 18,465,126,293 to 19,033,524,538.
Tho soguonco
11593 1159 1161 11621 11633
1165 116 11681 11689
is a soguonco ol nino consocutivo primos ol tho lorm 4 1, Jiscov-
oroJ ly Don Haan, anJ 241603 is tho start ol thirtoon consocutivo
primos ol tho lorm 4 3. (Guy 1994, 13)
Tho raco lotvoon 3 2 anJ 3 1 initially lavors 3 2, though
thoro is an inlinity ol valuos ol lor vhich 3 1 is loaJing, starting
vith 608,981,813,029, lounJ ly Cartor Bays anJ PicharJ HuJson on
Christmas Day 196. Tho loaJ thon changos ropoatoJly just alovo
608,981,813 10
3
. lt can lo provoJ that tho loaJ in all such primo
numlor racos changos inlinitoly olton.
inJuction
- P
Iucas vorkoJ at tho Paris Olsorvatory as assistant to Io Vorrior (vho
haJ proJictoJ tho position ol tho nov planot Noptuno) anJ lought in
tho lranco-Prussian War (180-1) in tho artillory. Ho is roputoJ to
havo livoJ in Paris in a houso on tho sito ol tho houso vhoro Pascal
JioJ. Ho himsoll JioJ a lizarro Joath. At a languot, a plato vas
JroppoJ anJ a chip llov up anJ cut his chook. Ho JioJ soon altor
lrom orysipolas at tho ago ol lorty-nino.
Ho vas Jooply intorostoJ in numlor thoory anJ its history. Ho vas
a momlor ol tho committoo that oJitoJ lormat`s vorks lor pul-
lication, anJ ho vroto papors on astronomy, goomotry, analysis,
- P {
comlinatorics, anJ calculating Jovicos, as voll as numlor thoory.
(Williams 1998, 53)
Ho also vroto sovoral papors on tho thoory ol voaving, a suljoct
that has a surprising connoction vith computing: tho prollom ol
proJucing tho most complox pattorns in vovon silk vas solvoJ ly
JacguarJ ly using punchoJ carJs that soloctoJ tho throaJs usoJ Jur-
ing tho voaving ol a particular pattorn, making tho JacguarJ loom
tho lirst storoJ program` machino. Charlos Ballago also usoJ
punchoJ carJs to instruct his Dilloronco Engino, vhich ho usoJ to
calculato tho valuos ol K- , anJ thoso in turn voro tho
ancostors ol tho Holorith carJs lirst usoJ in a UnitoJ Statos Consus
anJ lator in oloctronic computors. (Williams anJ Shallit 1994)
ln 189 Iucas startoJ a column on rocroational mathomatics in
K, anJ lator in
, anJ lotvoon 1882 to 1894 pullishoJ a lour-volumo
, vhich incluJoJ -- anJ tho Tovor
ol Hanoi, a puzzlo that ho invontoJ in 1883 anJ pullishoJ unJor tho
anagram N. Claus Jo Siam` (or Iucas J`Amions) as a gamo ol com-
lination JosignoJ to oxplain tho linary systom ol numoration,` as
tho insiJo covor ol tho vorsion solJ to tho pullic oxplainoJ.
Tho oljoct is to translor all tho rings lrom pog A to pog C, lollov-
ing tho rulos that:
1. Only ono ring may lo movoJ at a timo.
2. No ring may lo placoJ on top ol a smallor ring.
Tho puzzlo croatoJ a sonsation anJ vas soon oxploitoJ in an
aJvortising vorsion, tho Eight Puzzlo, in vhich oach Jisk aJvortisoJ a
Jilloront proJuct. Iucas also maJo a giant vorsion moro than a motor
high lor pullic Jisplay. lt vas solJ vith a story ol tho priosts at tho
{ - P
Tomplo ol Bonaros, vhoro thoro is, lonoath tho Jomo vhich marks
tho contor ol tho vorlJ, a lrass plato in vhich aro lixoJ throo Jia-
monJ nooJlos. On ono ol thoso nooJlos GoJ placoJ at tho Croation
sixty-lour Jisks ol puro golJ. . . . Day anJ night uncoasingly tho
priosts translor tho Jisks lrom ono JiamonJ nooJlo to anothor.`
Whon tho sixty-lour Jisks havo all loon translorroJ, rolatos Iucas,
thon tovors, tomplo, anJ priosts aliko vill crumllo into Just, anJ
vith a thunJorclap tho vorlJ vill vanish.`
Tho point ol his lallo is that tho minimum numlor ol movos
nooJoJ to translor Jisks lrom ono pog to anothor spocilioJ pog is
2
2
2(1)
2
1
1
5(1)
anJ
3
1
2
5(1)
1
1
anJ
2
1
2(5
) anJ so
2
1
2(5
2
)
JiviJos
il anJ only il 3 ,
. lor oxamplo,
9
6.01315 . . . anJ
9
6.
Tho soguonco ol primo Iucas numlors starts: 3, , 11, 29, 4, 199,
521, 220, 351, 9349, anJ thon tho vory largo 3010349, 54018521,
30248451, 664383889, . . . (Sloano A00549)
Iucas also consiJoroJ moro gonoral soguoncos that ho usoJ in his
vork on primality tosting. Binot haJ provoJ in 1843 that tho
lilonacci numlors can lo JolinoJ ly this oguation:
vhoro anJ aro (1 5)2 anJ (1 5)2, tho roots ol tho
oguation
2
1 0. Although thoso roots aro irrational, thoso
lunctions ol thom aro alvays intogors-tho numlors in tho lilonacci
soguonco.
Iucas consiJoroJ instoaJ oguation
2
0, vhoro anJ
aro coprimo. ll its roots aro anJ , thon ho JolinoJ
anJ also
- P {
Onco again, ovon il anJ aro irrational, anJ vill alvays lo
intogors, anJ thoy satisly tho samo rocurronco rolationship as tho
lilonacci numlors: oach torm is tho sum ol tho provious tvo torms.
What is tho point ol thoso Jolinitions? What aro thoso
- usolul lor? lt vas tho gonius ol Iucas to roalizo,
anJ to shov in a long papor pullishoJ in 188, that thoy voro
rolatoJ to a voalth ol prolloms, incluJing, as ho vroto, tho tho-
ory ol Jotorminants, comlinations, continuoJ lractions, Jivisilility,
Jivisors ol guaJratic lorms . . . guaJratic rosiJuos, Jocomposition ol
largo numlors into thoir primo lactors, otc.` (Williams 1998, 1) Ho
also pointoJ out that thoy lohavoJ in somo vays liko tho trigono-
motrical lunctions, sino anJ cosino! Thoy coulJ also lo usoJ lor
-.
-
Iucas vas tho lirst mathomatician to roalizo anJ Jomonstrato that
ovon vory largo numlors coulJ lo tostoJ lor primality vithout
rocourso to toJious anJ impracticallo trial Jivision. Ho JiJ this in a
sorios ol thirtoon papors all vritton lotvoon 185 anJ 188. (During
tho samo porioJ ho vroto moro than sovonty papors on various othor
suljocts-oxtraorJinary proJuctivity.)
By 18, ho haJ lactorizoJ tho lirst sixty -.
(Vollin 2001, 2-28) ln 186 ho shovoJ that tho gigantic (lor that
ora) -
12
2
12
1 is primo. Ho usoJ this tost,
vhich roguiroJ a groat Joal ol calculation:
Iot 2
4 3
1, vhoro 4 3 is primo. lorm tho soguonco,
3, , 4, 220, 48084, . . .
in vhich
1
3 anJ
1
2
2. Thon is primo il tho loast valuo
ol such that
is 4 2.
This tost is simplo in thoory lut roguiros an onormous amount ol
computation. Hov JiJ Iucas Jo it, ly hanJ? With typical ingonuity,
ho usoJ linary arithmotic anJ turnoJ tho calculation into a kinJ ol
gamo, oxploiting tho lact that multiplication is moJ , using a 12-ly-
12 chossloarJ. This is hov ho oxplainoJ his mothoJ, aJaptoJ lrom
tho account ly Williams anJ Shallit (1994, 491-92), using tho simplor
oxamplo ol
.
{ - P
-K-
ConsiJor
1 12. Wo havo
1
3,
2
,
3
4,
4
4
2
2 48 (moJ 12),
5
48
2
2 16 (moJ 12),
6
16
2
2 0 (moJ
12).
So 12
6
lut no smallor torm, anJ so 12 is primo.
Noxt, Iucas notoJ that il
1, thon 2
2
(moJ
). ln
this caso,
12 2
1 anJ so 2
2
(moJ 12).
Tho main oporation ol tosting involvos sguaring, sultracting 2, anJ
roJuction moJulo 12. To porlorm this on
3
to calculato
4
, vo lirst
vrito
3
in linary, as 101111. Noxt, vo start to sguaro it ly long mul-
tiplication:
1 0 1 1 1 1
1 0 1 1 1 1
1 0 1 1 1 1
1 0 1 1 1 1
1 0 1 1 1 1
1 0 1 1 1 1
0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 1 1 1
Hovovor, locauso vo only nooJ to linJ tho ansvor moJulo 12, anJ
vo knov that 2
2
(moJ 12), so 2
2
0
, 2
8
2
1
, 2
9
2
2
, anJ
so on, vo can put tho six linos ol tho long multiplication into this
sguaro array:
No. ol column 6 5 4 3 2 1
1 0 1 1 1 1
1 0 1 1 1 1
0 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 0
0 0 0 0 0 0
1 1 1 0 1 1
Iucas suggostoJ using part ol a chossloarJ, vith pavns lor onos anJ
ompty sguaros lor zoros. Nov that tho piocos aro arrayoJ, vo lollov
thoso tvo rulos:
- P {
1. Tako (vhon possillo lut only onco) a pavn avay lrom col-
umn 2. This corrosponJs to sultracting 2 lrom tho sguaro. ll a
pavn novor appoars in column 2, thon 2 must lo sultractoJ lrom
tho linal ansvor.
2. lor oach pair ol pavns in any column, romovo ono lrom tho
loarJ anJ movo tho othor into tho column to tho lolt, romom-
loring that tho column to tho lolt ol column is column 1.
Continuo porlorming thoso oporations until tho only pavns romain-
ing aro in tho lirst rov. ln our caso vo got tho lirst rov to lo,
No. ol column 6 5 4 3 2 1
0 1 1 0 0 0 0
vhich roprosonts
4
48 in Jocimal.
Iucas claimoJ that thoso oporations, vith practico, coulJ lo por-
lormoJ vory guickly, anJ this vas hov ho shovoJ that
12
is primo.
On tho othor hanJ, it voulJ soom oasy to mako a small mistako, vith
no rocorJ lolt lohinJ to lo chockoJ, so this no Joult oxplains vhy
Iucas alvays shovoJ a slight uncortainty as to vhothor ho roally haJ
provoJ
12
primo.
- -
Tho convorso ol K- is lalso: thoro aro numlors
that satisly it lut aro not primo. Hovovor, Iucas in 186 aJJoJ an
oxtra conJition to croato a tost lor primality. Supposo vo vant
to knov il is primo. ll thoro is a numlor such that
1
1
(moJ ) (so satislios lormat`s Iittlo Thoorom), anJ also
is
congruont to 1 (moJ ) lor 1 to 2, thon is primo.
This took a lot ol calculation, hovovor, ospocially loloro moJorn
computors voro invontoJ, so in 1891 Iucas shortonoJ it. lt vas thon
improvoJ ly Iohmor anJ Kraitchik. This is tho rosult:
Supposo than 1. Thon il lor ovory primo lactor ol 1 thoro
is an intogor such that
1
1 (moJ ), anJ
( 1)
is not con-
gruont to 1 (moJ ), thon is primo.
This tost JoponJs on tho comploto lactorization ol 1.
K- is an improvomont that roguiros only tho partial lac-
torization ol 1.
{ - P
Eulor`s guaJratic, lilonacci numlors, Iucas-Iohmor tost, pri-
mality tosting
-
ln 1955 Stanislav Ulam (1909-1984) anJ throo colloaguos at tho Ios
Alamos Sciontilic Ialoratory usoJ an oarly computor to invostigato a
soguonco that strongly rosomllos tho primo numlors.
Tho siovo ol -- loavos lohinJ tho primo numlors. lt can
oasily lo moJiloJ to loavo lohinJ Jilloront soguoncos ol numlors.
Writo Jovn tho natural numlors anJ Joloto ovory soconJ
numlor:
1 3 5 9 11 13 15 1 19 . . .
Tho lirst numlor romaining is 3, so Joloto ovory thirJ numlor, start-
ing vith 5. This loavos:
1 3 9 13 15 19 21 25 2 31 33 3 39 . . .
(This moans that all numlors ol tho lorm 3 2 havo loon struck
out.) Tho lirst unusoJ` numlor is nov , so Joloto ovory sovonth
numlor. Tho noxt unusoJ` numlor is 9, so Joloto ovory ninth num-
lor. AnJ so on. Tho linal rosult is tho soguonco ol -:
1, 3, , 9, 13, 15, 21, 25, 31, 33, 3, 43, 49, 51, 63, 6, 69, 3, 5, 9,
8, 93, 99, 105, 111, 115, 12, 129, 133, 135, 141, 151, 159, 163, 169,
11, 189, 193, 195, 201, 205, 211, . . . (Sloano A000959)
Tho largost knovn lucky numlor is 9,999,999,99. (SchnoiJor 2002)
Thoro aro lovor` lucky numlors than primo numlors, moaning that
although thoro is an inlinity ol oach, tho primo numlors aro Jonsor,
thoy occur in any largish linito intorval vith groator lroguoncy.
Ulam anJ his colloaguos usoJ an oloctronic computing machino`
to linJ tho lucky numlors up to 48,000. Thoro voro 4,523, comparoJ
to 4,94 primos in tho samo intorval. Thoy notoJ that tho numlors ol
luckios ol tho lorms 4 1 anJ 4 3 voro roughly ogual, as thoy
aro lor tho primos. Iikoviso, tho gaps lotvoon succossivo lucky
numlors soom to roughly match thoso lotvoon primos, anJ ovory
ovon intogor lotvoon 1 anJ 100,000 is tho sum ol tvo lucky num-
lors. Tho numlor ol lucky tvin pairs (Jilloring ly 2) is roughly that
- {
ol tho tvin primos. Thoy also noticoJ that thoro aro 15 numlors that
aro loth primo anJ lucky, up to 48,600 (though no ono knovs il
thoro is an inlinity ol primo lucky numlors). (GarJinor, Iazarus, Vo-
tropolis, anJ Ulam 1956)
Waltor SchnoiJor in Vay 2002 calculatoJ all lucky numlors up to
10
10
anJ vorilioJ K- to tho samo limit.
- -
limit luckios primos tvin luckios tvin primos
10
3
153 168 33 35
10
4
1,118 1,229 18 205
10
5
8,2 9,592 1,162 1,224
10
6
1,918 8,498 ,669 8,169
(SchnoiJor 2002)
NM -
Thoso parallols lotvoon tho lucky numlors anJ tho primos suggost
that many ol tho proportios ol tho primo numlors JoponJ only on
tho lact that thoy can lo croatoJ ly a siovo. This conclusion is roin-
lorcoJ ly othor mothoJs ol croating primo` numlors. lor oxamplo,
HaralJ Cramr in 1936 imaginoJ putting llack anJ vhito lalls into a
soguonco ol jars roprosonting tho numlors 1, 2, 3, 4, . . . so that tho
prolalility ol Jraving a vhito lall lrom tho th jar vill lo 1log .
Thon ho choso ono lall lrom oach jar in soguonco anJ calloJ thoso
ranJom primos.`
Ho thon shovoJ ly prolalility thoory that thoro is an inlinity ol
tvin ranJom primos,` anJ 1 (unliko orJinary primos, consoc-
utivo numlors can turn out to lo ranJom primos), anJ ho Jrov othor
conclusions that matchoJ tho actual or conjocturoJ lohavior ol tho
orJinary primos.
DaviJ Havkins has stuJioJ anothor kinJ ol ranJom primo. Start vith
tho natural numlors,
2, 3, 4, 5, 6, , 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15,
16, 1, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, . . .
lut instoaJ ol striking out ovory ovon numlor, striko out oach num-
lor vith prolalility ono-hall, lor oxamplo, ly tossing a coin vhon
you roach tho numlor anJ throving it out il you toss hoaJs. This
{ -
vill, on avorago, oliminato hall tho numlors. Supposo tho numlors
romaining aro
3, 4, 5, , 10, 11, 13, 14, 1, 18, 19, 23, . . .
Tho lirst romaining numlor, 3, counts as tho lirst ranJom primo.
Noxt, throv out ovory numlor vith prolalility ono-thirJ. Tho ro-
maining numlors coulJ lo
3, 5, , 10, 11, . . .
So 5 is tho noxt ranJom` primo numlor. Nov striko out oach num-
lor groator than 5 vith prolalility ono-lilth, anJ so on. Tho rosult is
a soguonco ol ranJom` primos.
What can lo saiJ alout thoso ranJom` primos? Woll, vith prola-
lility 1, tho is truo: tho numlor ol ranJom
primos loss than tonJs to log as incroasos. Thoro is also in
oach soguonco ol ranJom primos, vith prolalility 1, an inlinity ol
tvin ranJom primos,` anJ 1, anJ thoir numlor tonJs to (log
)
2
as tonJs to inlinity. - argumonts suggost tho samo lor-
mula lor tho actual tvin primos. (Havkins 1958)
--
Pouso Ball in his - --- prosontoJ
this magic sguaro composoJ ontiroly ol primos, croatoJ ly tho groat
English puzzlist Honry Ernost DuJonoy.
6 1 43
13 3 61
31 3
(DuJonoy 191, prollom 408) (Pouso Ball 1939, 211)
Vartin GarJnor onco olloroJ through his column
$100 lor a 3-ly-3 magic sguaro all ol vhoso ontrios aro consocutivo
primos. Harry Nolson colloctoJ tho prizo ly using tho primo
148002811 in tho contral coll, anJ arounJ it tho primos 12,
18, 30, anJ 42.
Tho magic sum in this magic sguaro ol sixtoon consocutivo primos is
much smallor, 258:
-- {
3 53 89 9
83 61 6 4
9 1 59 31
41 3 43 101
(Gilos Blanchotto: CalJvoll, -)
- K-
Ono ol tho most notorious ol K- - vas tho 10th:
Joos thoro oxist a univorsal algorithm lor solving Diophantino ogua-
tions, that is, polynomial oguations vith intogral coollicionts anJ
intogral solutions?
lt vas solvoJ ovor many yoars ly Vartin Davis, H. Putnam, anJ
Julia Polinson, vho took tho lirst stops, anJ \uri Vatijasovic, vho
took tho linal stop in 190, using tho Jivisilility proportios ol tho
-.
Tho solution vas nogativo: no such algorithm oxists, yot this noga-
tivo conclusion haJ somo vory positivo implications. Vatijasovic`s
prool implios that thoro is a polynomial in tvonty-throo variallos,
vhoso positivo valuos, only, lor intogor valuos ol tho variallos, aro
tho sot ol primos.
ln 196 J. P. Jonos, D. Sato, H. WaJa, anJ D. Wions pullishoJ thoir
vorsion, a polynomial in tvonty-six variallos vhich, vory convo-
niontly, can lo vritton Jovn using tho tvonty-six lottors ol tho
alphalot:
( 2)1 | l
2
|( 2 1)( ) l
2
|2
l
2
|16( 1)
3
( 2)( 1)
2
1
2
l
2
|
3
( 2)(
1)
2
1
2
l |(
2
1)
2
1
2
l
2
|16
2
4
(
2
1) 1
2
l
2
|((
2
(
2
))
2
1)( 4
2
) 1 ( )
2
l
2
| l
2
|(
2
1)
2
1
2
l
2
| 1 l
2
| ( 1)
(2 2
2
2 2) l
2
| ( 1) - (2 2
2
2 2) l
2
| ( ) (2
2
1) l
2
4
(
2
1) 1
2
0 ((
2
(
2
))
2
1)( 4)
2
1 ( )
2
0
0 (
2
1)
2
1
2
0 1
0 ( 1) (2 2
2
2 2)
0 ( 1) -(2 2
2
2 2)
0 ( ) (2
2
1)
Vatijasovic`s construction can lo applioJ to othor sots ol numlors, in
lact to any sot that is - , moaning roughly that it
is gonoratoJ ly aJJition, multiplication, Jocisions lasoJ on in-ogual-
itios, anJ solocting an olomont lrom a list. lor oxamplo, tho sot ol
- - is tho sot ol positivo valuos ol this polynomial, in
thirtoon variallos, vhoro tho variallos rango ovor tho non-nogativo
intogors.
- - - -
Tho lriar Varin Vorsonno (1588-1648), a momlor ol tho orJor ol
Vinims, vas a philosophor, mathomatician, anJ sciontist vho vroto
on music, mochanics, anJ optics, suggostoJ to Christian Huygons
that a ponJulum might lo usoJ to moasuro timo, anJ JolonJoJ
Christianity against Skopticism. Ho also occupioJ a uniguo rolo as a
corrosponJont vho linkoJ togothor no lovor than sovonty-oight
philosophors anJ mathomaticians across Europo, incluJing Dos-
cartos, lormat, tho English philosophor Thomas Hollos, Blaiso Pas-
cal anJ his lathor, Etionno, vho mot as Vorsonno`s guosts, anJ othors
vho corrosponJoJ through him-ho vas a kinJ ol intornational post
lox-incluJing Huygons, Torricolli, anJ Galiloo.
- - - - {
- -
ll 2
1 voulJ JiviJo 2
1. ll , thon
2
1 (2
1)(2
. . . 2
3
2
2
2
1)
Tho convorso, hovovor, is not alvays truo. ll is primo, 2
1 may
lo oithor primo or composito.
Vorsonno lamously spoculatoJ in his look -
(1644) that 2
6
anJ
25
aro composito, anJ tho missing
61
,
89
, anJ
10
aro
primo-lut thoso orrors voro not linally JomonstratoJ until throo
hunJroJ yoars lator, ly A. lorrior in 194.
- -
- ln 1536 HuJalricus Pogius shovoJ that 2
11
1 204 23 89
is not primo.
- ln 1603 Piotro CatalJi corroctly announcoJ that
1
anJ
19
voro primo, anJ lalsoly claimoJ lor
23
,
29
, anJ
3
. lormat
corroctoJ him on
23
, anJ
3
in 1640.
- ln 150 Eulor, vho haJ alroaJy corroctoJ CatalJi on
29
,
shovoJ that
31
is primo. This vas tho largost knovn primo
lor ovor a hunJroJ yoars, lrom 12 to 186.
- ln 186 Iucas concluJoJ that
12
101411834604692313168303158841052
is primo, though ho novor soomoJ ontiroly convincoJ ly his
ovn calculations. This vas tho rocorJ largo primo until 1951,
anJ tho largost ovor to lo calculatoJ ly hanJ.
- ln 1883 Porvouchino shovoJ that 61 is primo, missing lrom
Vorsonno`s list.
- Povors announcoJ in 1911, in Tho Tonth Porloct Numlor`
( 18), that
89
is primo, also
corrocting Vorsonno. Ho also shovoJ that
10
is primo, in
1914.
{ - - - -
- ln 1903 l. N. Colo provoJ that 6, on Vorsonno`s list, is com-
posito.
- Vorsonno`s list vas linally anJ complotoly chockoJ only altor
WorlJ War ll: Vorsonno numlors aro primo lor 2, 3, 5, ,
13, 1, 19, 31, 61, 89, 10, anJ 12, up to tho limit 25.
-
ln 1952 Polinson provoJ that
521
,
60
,
129
,
2203
, anJ
2281
aro
primo, tho lirst succossos using a moJorn computor. Tho aJvont ol
oloctronic computors has maJo tho hunt lor Vorsonno primos moro,
not loss, compotitivo. Whon Gillios ol tho Univorsity ol lllinois lounJ
tho 23rJ Vorsonno primo, 2
11213
1, tho math Jopartmont changoJ its
postago motor to print 2
11213
1 is primo` on ovory onvolopo.
On Novomlor 14, 198, a pross roloaso announcoJ, Tvo 18-yoar-
olJ youths, Iaura Nickol anJ Curt Noll, havo calculatoJ tho largost
knovn primo numlor, 2 to tho 21,01st povor minus ono, using a
torminal at Calilornia Stato Univorsity, HayvarJ anJ hooking into tho
C\BEP 14 in tho Ios Angolos aroa. Totaling 6,533 Jigits, tho num-
lor vas provoJ to lo primo last Octolor 30 altor throo yoars ol Jili-
gont stuJy anJ vork intorruptoJ at timos ly ollicial anJ porsonal
prolloms.` Tho novs maJo tho lront pago ol tho -
Nickol anJ Noll got hookoJ on computor calculation in high
school, anJ vroto thoir program vith inlormation lrom tho local Cal
Stato Univorsity math Jopartmont. Thoy ran thoir program lor 440
hours vhon tho C\BEP 14 vas not othorviso in uso.
This vas tho 25th Vorsonno primo. Noll vont on to Jiscovor tho
26th,
23209
, vhich has 13,395 Jigits, anJ lator vorkoJ lor Silicon
Graphics, vhoro most ol tho rocont largost primo numlor rocorJs
havo loon sot, ly DaviJ Slovinski, Paul Gago, anJ othors. Noll is
also a momlor ol tho Ell Cooporativo Computing AvarJs Toam, anJ
ono ol tho AmJahl Six vho JiscovoroJ 235235 2
0000
1, a numlor
ol 21,08 Jigits anJ lriolly tho largost non-Vorsonno primo knovn.
Silicon Graphics takos part in , tho Groat lntornot Vorsonno
Primo Soarch.
Currontly vo knov that
is primo thon
is also
primo. lor oxamplo,
2
3, anJ suro onough,
3
is primo:
5
31 anJ
31
is primo, as Eulor provoJ in 150. But tho conjocturo is
novortholoss vrong:
13
8191 is primo, lut
8191
turns out to lo
composito.
in 186 maJo a moro limitoJ conjocturo: tho soguonco ol
Vorsonno numlors
2
2
1 3 2
3
1 2
1 12
anJ 2
12
1 is also primo. Unlortunatoly, tho noxt torm has moro than
10
38
Jigits anJ cannot lo tostoJ at prosont.
-
This is tho Nov Vorsonno conjocturo, maJo ly Paul Batoman, Paul
SollriJgo, anJ Stan Wagstall. Iot lo an oJJ primo: thon tho lollov-
ing tvo statomonts aro oguivalont:
1.
is primo.
2. Thoso tvo statomonts aro oithor loth truo or loth lalso:
a. (2
1)3 is primo.
l. is ol tho lorm 2
1 or 4
3.
- -
lt is not knovn vhothor thoro aro inlinity ol Vorsonno primos, or
inJooJ an inlinity ol Vorsonno compositos. ln - -
, PicharJ K. Guy says ol Vorsonno primos, thoir
numlor is unJoultoJly inlinito, lut prool is hopolossly loyonJ
roach.` Ho thon ollors somo suggostions lor tho sizo ol (), tho
numlor ol primos lor vhich 2
1 is primo.
Gillios suggostoJ () is approximatoly log . Tho constant coulJ
lo , vhoro is K- -. Pomoranco suggostoJ () is
approximatoly (log log )
2
.
{ - - - -
(Baxa 1993)
ll tho Vorsonno primos, 2
vith 2 is alout
1.806 . . .
3. Tho prolalility that
is a
Vorsonno primo, thon
is approximatoly (32)
, il is largo onough.
- - -
Proving that a Vorsonno numlor is composito tolls you nothing
alout its actual lactors, anJ only somo Vorsonno compositos havo
loon lactoroJ. (lnciJontally, Vorsonno numlors vritton in laso 2
consist ol all 1s, anJ so thoy aro linary - anJ thoro is a con-
noction vith tho prollom ol lactorizing tho ropunits in gonoral.)
lt holps to knov somo lasic thooroms alout tho lactors ol Vorsonno
primos. lor oxamplo, il is an oJJ primo, thon any Jivisor ol
is
ol tho lorm 2 1.
Eulor provoJ in 150 that il is a primo ol tho lorm 4 3, thon
2 1 is a lactor ol
is com-
posito, vith tho oxcoption ol tho caso 3, vhon
3
anJ it is
truo that 2 3 1 JiviJos
3
, lut it is not composito.
lor oxamplo,
11
204, anJ 11 is primo anJ 11 4 2 3, anJ 2
11 1 23 is also primo, so 23 204, vhich is truo.
Similarly, il JiviJos
11
2,04 23 89
23
8,388,60 4 18,481
- - - - {
29
233 1,103 2,089
3
223 616,318,1
41
13,36 164,511,353
43
431 9,19 2,099,863
4
2,351 4,513 13,264,529
53
6,361 69,431 20,394,401
59
19,951 3,203,431,80,33
6
193,0,21 61,838,25,28
1
228,49 48,544,121 212,885,833
3
439 2,298,041 9,361,93,132,609
9
2,68 202,029,03 1,113,491,139,6
83
16 5,912,614,113,25,649,08,21
9
11,44 13,842,60,235,828,485,645,66,393
As an oxamplo ol vhat tho latost mothoJs can Jo,
619
vas com-
plotoly lactoroJ ly tho NlSNET toam using tho Spocial Numlor liolJ
Siovo. Tvo lactors voro alroaJy knovn, 110183 anJ 1082099544.
Thoy havo lounJ thoso tvo romaining lactors: 1093 86816105
291956924 8023421390 8123642560 1922510384 55204252439 anJ
253956 68031642 145012902 311820691 3098610826 6999358245
069816383 2424511153 65529011 042045245 5686291833.
- - - -
Tho Iucas-Iohmor tost Jolinitoly Jotorminos vhothor a Vorsonno
numlor is primo or not.
Tho tost vas invontoJ ly Iucas anJ rolinoJ ly Iohmor in alout
1930. This is hov it vorks. Dolino tho soguonco,
(1) 4, (2) 14, (3) 194, (4) 3634, . . .
vhoro ( 1) ()
2
2. Thon
2 1
is primo il anJ only il
2 1
JiviJos (2).
Tho valuos ol () rapiJly locomo vory largo inJooJ, lut lortunatoly
thoy Jo not nooJ to lo calculatoJ Jiroctly to run tho tost. lor oxam-
plo,
13
8191, so this vill JiviJo (12) il anJ only il 8191 is primo.
Sinco vo aro only intorostoJ in Jivisilility, vo can Jo tho ontiro cal-
culation moJulo 8191, liko this, using a hanJ calculator:
(4) 3634 480 (moJ 8191)
(5) 480
2
2 2316898 3953 (moJ 8191)
{ - - - -
(6) 3953
2
2 1562620 590 (moJ 8191)
() 590
2
2 35640898 185 (moJ 8191)
(8) 185
2
2 344844 36 (moJ 8191)
(9) 36
2
2 1294 1294 (moJ 8191)
(10) 1294
2
2 164434 340 (moJ 8191)
(11) 340
2
2 12040898 128 (moJ 8191)
(12) 128
2
2 16382 8191 2 0 (moJ 8191)
AnJ so 8191 is primo. Ol courso, this is not a lrilliant vay ol tosting
a numlor tho sizo ol 8191 vhich vo coulJ also tost ly JiviJing ly
all tho primos loss than 8191 90.5 . . . ! But this mothoJ vorks
olliciontly lor much largor numlors.
GlVPS, primality tosting
- -
Tho sum ol tho - - Jivorgos, lut vory slovly. Iot
()
1
2
1
3
1
5
1
. . .
1
is primo lor
all intogor valuos ol . Evon moro surprisingly, Vills JiJ not givo an
actual valuo lor -his prool vas nonconstructivo.
This is inJooJ a -, lut it is usoloss in
practico locauso you nooJ to knov to a vory largo numlor ol Joc-
imal placos to got ovon a lov primos out, anJ you nooJ to knov tho
primos gonoratoJ loloro calculating .
Tho smallost possillo valuo ol , knovn as Vills` numlor, has loon
calculatoJ as,
1.30638838630806904686144926026051291684585156 . . .
This loaJs to tho soguonco ol primos starting, 2, 11, 1361,
252100888, . . .
Thoro is an inlinity ol othor possillo valuos ol .
{ -K
K-
lnspiroJ ly Vills, E. V. Wright provoJ that thoro is a numlor , such
that il
0
anJ
1
2
thon |
, 1,
is alvays a primo. Ho gavo tho oxamplo 1.928800 . . . vhon
|
1
l 3, |
2
l 13, |
3
l 16381, anJ |
4
l has alout 5,000 Jigits. (Wright
1951)
Thoro is such a cornucopia ol rosults alout primos that thoy coulJ
not possilly lit into a much largor look than this, anJ nor can thoy
all lo oasily anJ noatly classilioJ, so horo is a small lunJlo ol mis-
collanoous rosults.
- Evory soguonco ol sovon consocutivo numlors groator than 36
incluJos a multiplo ol a primo groator than 41. (Gupta: CalJ-
voll, -)
- Evory numlor groator than 45 is tho sum ol Jistinct primos
groator than 11. (Gupta: CalJvoll, -)
- Evory numlor groator than 121 is tho sum ol Jistinct primos ol
tho lorm 4 1.
- Tho numlors 2, 5, 1, 369119, anJ 41504643 aro tho only
knovn numlors that JiviJo tho sum ol all tho primos loss than
thom.
- Tho numlor 1549 is tho only oJJ numlor loss than 10,000 that
is not tho sum ol a primo anJ a povor.
- Tho soguonco ol primo numlors omloJJoJ in tho Jocimal
oxpansion ol pi ( ) goos 3, 31, 314159 anJ thon
31,415,926,535,89,932,384,626,433,832,95,028,841
- Tho soguonco ol primos vith consocutivo Jigits starts: 23, 6,
89, 456, 8901, 68901, 2345689, 4568901, . . . (
- 5:254)
- Tho numlor 1683 is tho only numlor that can lo oxprossoJ
as a sum in oxactly vays using throo Jistinct primos oach
timo (tho orJor ol tho primos in tho sum is irrolovant). (Pivora:
CalJvoll, -)
- Thoro is a primo ol tho lorm 2
Thon, (2
2
2
) 2
( )( ) (2
1)
This has roJucoJ tho original multiplication-vhich vo assumoJ
voulJ tako (2)
2
4
2
multiplications plus a lit ol aJJition-to
throo multiplications ol alout
2
oporations oach.
This in itsoll is a saving ol alout 25. Hovovor, vhon multiplying
vory largo numlors, this procoss can lo ropoatoJ. lt turns out that tho
running timo lor largo multiplications can lo roJucoJ lrom rounJ
alout
2
to
1.585
, a groat saving.
ls this tho limit? No! By ovon moro cunning mothoJs, oxtromoly
largo numlors can lo multiplioJ in a timo that is noarly propor-
tional to tho longth ol tho numlors. Evon lottor, il you havo a
computor vith an unlimitoJ numlor ol compononts all acting
simultanoously, thon it is possillo to Josign a Jovico such that, ll
vo viro togothor sulliciontly many ol thoso Jovicos in a straight
lino, vith oach moJulo communicating only vith its lolt anJ right
noighlours, tho rosulting circuitry vill proJuco tho 2-lit proJuct
ol -lit numlors in oxactly 2 clock pulsos.` (Knuth 1981, 29)
Nov that is magic!
-
Nivon numlors aro namoJ altor lvan Nivon, author ol
- (1960). (Thoy voro also laloloJ
multiJigital numlors, or HarshaJ numlors, ly Kaprokar, -
moaning groat joy` in Sanskrit.) Thoy aro intogors Jivisillo ly tho
sum ol tho Jigits. Thoir soguonco in laso 10 starts
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, , 8, 9, 10, 12, 18, 20, . . .
(Sloano A005349)
ln 1994, GrunJman provoJ that at most tvonty consocutivo Nivon
numlors aro possillo anJ proJucoJ an inlinito lamily ol such
soguoncos, tho smallost ono ol 44,363,342,86 Jigits.
Thoro is an inlinity ol numlors that aro loth Nivon anJ . (Wois-
stoin, )
- {
- -
2
primos in tho gap
2
primos in tho gap
2
2 3 4 5 6
6 5 9 11 12
12 13 16 1, 19 20
20 23 25 29 30
30 31 36 3, 41 42
42 43, 4 49 53 56
56 59, 61 64 6, 1 2
2 3, 9 81 83, 89 90
90 93, 9 100 101, 103, 10, 109 110
. . .
BrocarJ`s conjocturo
-
Thoro aro liltoon palinJromic primos consisting ol throo Jigits: 101,
131, 151, 181, 191, 313, 353, 33, 383, 2, 5, 8, 9, 919, anJ
929. Tho only palinJromic primo vith an ovon numlor ol Jigits is 11.
Tho curront rocorJ lor tho largost knovn palinJromic primo is holJ
ly Harvoy Dulnor, vho lounJ on April 5, 2004, 10
120016
12621
10
60005
1, vhich has 120,01 Jigits. His provious rocorJ vas
(1989191989)
1560
1, containing 15,601 Jigits, announcoJ in Octolor
2001. Tho notation moans that 1989191989 is ropoatoJ 1,560 timos
anJ thon a 1 is put on tho right-hanJ onJ.
{ - -
8
Binomial coollicionts can also lo calculatoJ Jiroctly. Counting tho
unit at tho top ol tho trianglo as rov zoro, tho 4th ontry in tho 8th rov
is 56, anJ
56
lgnoring tho onJ units, vhich ontrios aro Jivisillo ly thoir rov
numlor il vo count tho top unit as rov zoro? A guick chock shovs
that il is primo, thon all ol rov (tho units oxcluJoJ) aro Jivisi-
llo ly .
This is tho pattorn croatoJ. Zoro (0) inJicatos an ontry that is Jivisi-
llo ly tho rov numlor vithout romainJor:
-
- 0 -
- 0 0 -
- 0 - 0 -
- 0 0 0 0 -
- 0 - - - 0 -
- 0 0 0 0 0 0 -
- 0 - 0 - 0 - 0 -
- 0 0 - 0 0 - 0 0 -
- 0 - 0 0 - 0 0 - 0 -
- 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 -
lt is loss olvious, lut truo, that tho ontrios in rov , oxcluJing tho
onJs, aro Jivisillo ly primo il anJ only il is a povor ol .
Tho miJJlo torm in ovory othor rov is (
2
) is novor
squarcfrcc, anJ Sarkosy provoJ it in 1985 lor all sulliciontly
largo . Gootgholuck has conlirmoJ that it is truo il is not a
povor ol 2 anJ il 2
42205184
.
- ErJos, Iacampagno, anJ SollriJgo havo conjocturoJ that il is
tho smallost primo lactor ol tho linomial coolliciont (
), anJ
is at loast 2, thon is at most (
, vhoro is tho
numlor ol 1s in tho linary roprosontation ol . lor oxamplo,
11 1011
2
, so thoro aro oight oJJ ontrios in rov 11. ln partic-
ular, in rovs 3, , 15, 31, . . . all tho ontrios aro oJJ.
- lor positivo intogors anJ anJ 2, (
)
is not sguaro-lroo il 23. Voroovor, lor somo
, JoponJing
on , il
) is Jivisillo ly an th
povor ol somo primo. (ErJos anJ EynJon 1992)
- -
Tho lost-knovn uso ol numlor thoory in tho roal vorlJ is tho uso ol
primos in public kcy cncryption. This makos cortain largo primos anJ
algorithms commorcially valuallo. So Pivost, Shamir, anJ AJloman
liloJ patont numlor 4,405,829 on Docomlor 14, 19, titloJ Crypto-
graphic Communications Systom anJ VothoJ,` on thoir RSA algo-
rithm. A company vas lormoJ, calloJ PSA Data Socurity, anJ vas
grantoJ an oxclusivo liconso on tho PSA patont. Hovovor, sinco it
vas pullishoJ loloro tho patont application, it coulJ not lo patontoJ
unJor Europoan anJ Japanoso lav. Amorican roaJors may lo
oncouragoJ to knov that tho PSA patont oxpiroJ in 2000!
Palph Vorklo anJ Vartin Hollman voro loss lortunato. On August
19, 1980, thoy liloJ a patont, No. 4,218,582, lor a Pullic-Koy Cryp-
tographic Apparatus anJ VothoJ,` lasoJ on tho knapsack prollom,
vhich roguiros itoms ol Jilloront sizo to lo littoJ into a knapsack ol
givon volumo. Tvo yoars lator IoonarJ AJloman solvoJ tho simplost
vorsion ol Vorklo`s prollom. Vorklo promptly aJvortisoJ in tho
pagos ol magazino a rovarJ ol $1,000 lor anyono vho coulJ
lroak a ropoatoJ itoration knapsack prollom. Again ho lailoJ: Ernio
Brickoll crackoJ an itoration prollom vith lorty itorations in just ono
{ - -
hour on a Cray-1 suporcomputor. That vas tho onJ ol Vorklo`s knap-
sack mothoJ lor all practical purposos.
Voro rocontly, Pogor Schlally oltainoJ U.S. Patont 5,33,560 in
1994 lor tvo primos, ol vhich this is tho smallor, roprosontoJ in
hoxaJocimal notation:
98A3Dl52AEAE999325CB258D6EBD1l4630E9B9E21
32A4AlB1624BA6Dl911466AD8DA960586l4A0D5E3C36
Al099660BDDC15E54A9l402334433ACB14BCB
Sinco Schlally is a momlor ol tho Ioaguo lor Programming lrooJom,
vhich is opposoJ to patonting computor soltvaro, ho prosumally
haJ his tonguo in his chook.
PSA algorithm
K
lathor Joan Ppin (1826-1904) vas a Josuit priost vho pullishoJ sov-
oral papors on mothoJs ol lactorization. ln 18 ho pullishoJ his tost
lor tho primality ol Icrmat numbcrs.
() is primo il anJ only il 1 anJ 5
( () 1)2
1 is Jivisillo ly ()
lor oxamplo, (2) 1 anJ 5
(1 1)2
1 5
8
1 390626 1 2298
Tho tost is usually prosontoJ toJay vith 3 in placo ol 5.
lronically, hovovor, locauso so lov lormat primos aro knovn, Ppin`s
tost has novor loon usoJ succosslully to shov that a lormat numlor is
primo!
ln 1905 J. C. VoorhoaJ anJ A. E. Wostorn loth usoJ Ppin`s tost to
shov that
(2
9
116,503,103,64,643 1)
(2
9
11,141,91,095,088,142,685 1)
ln 1909 VoorhoaJ anJ Wostorn collaloratoJ to provo that
8
is com-
posito, using Ppin`s tost. (Koshy 2002)
Tho largost lormat numlor that has loon tostoJ using Ppin`s thoo-
rom is
24
in 1999 ly Vayor, PapaJopoulus, anJ CranJall. (Pivora,
Conjocturo 4)
K {
-
lt is rocorJoJ that all GoJ`s vorks voro complotoJ in six Jays,
locauso six is a porloct numlor. . . . lor this is tho lirst numlor
maJo ol Jivisors, a sixth, a thirJ, anJ a hall, rospoctivoly, ono,
tvo, anJ throo, totaling six.
O - Tho City ol GoJ
A porloct numlor is tho sum ol all its propor Jivisors (so it is noithor
abunuant nor ucficicnt). Tho soconJ porloct numlor is 28, vhich
Plutarch notoJ vas tho numlor ol momlors in tho Sonato at Sparta.
On tho othor hanJ, Alcuin (35-804), vho vas Charlomagno`s
toachor, notoJ that sinco tho human raco vas JosconJoJ lrom oight
souls in Noah`s Ark, anJ 8 is Joliciont, thoroloro this soconJ croation
vas inlorior to tho lirst. (Oro 19481988, 94)
EucliJ prosontoJ porloct numlors in his - Ho JolinoJ thom in
Vll, Dolinition 22, anJ thon in Book lX proposition 36, claimoJ that:
ll as many numlors as vo ploaso loginning lrom a unit lo sot out continu-
ously in Joullo proportion, until tho sum ol all locomos primo, anJ il tho
sum multiplioJ into tho last mako somo numlor, tho proJuct vill lo porloct.
ln othor vorJs, you aJJ up tho soguonco 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, . . . until you
got a primo anJ thon multiply tho sum ly tho last torm. So tho lirst
lour porloct numlors aro:
6 (1 2) 2
28 (1 2 4) 4
496 (1 2 4 8 16) 16
8128 (1 2 4 8 16 32 64) 64
anJ suro onough, oach numlor is tho sum ol its propor lactors:
6 1 2 3
28 1 2 4 14
496 1 2 4 8 16 31 62 124 248
8128 1 2 4 8 16 32 64 12 254
508 1016 2032 4064
EucliJ claimoJ that ovory numlor ol this lorm is porloct, lut not that
ovory (ovon) porloct numlor is ol this lorm: that vas provoJ ly Eulor
in 14. lt lollovs that linJing porloct numlors amounts to linJing
{ -
Vcrscnnc primcs anJ tho largost knovn porloct numlor vill lo
JorivoJ Jiroctly lrom tho rocorJ Vorsonno primo.
Tho lirst lour porloct numlors voro knovn to Nicomachus ol Gorasa
(c. AD 100), anJ to lamllichus, vho vroto a commontary on Nico-
machus`s , anJ suggostoJ that thoro might lo ono porloct
numlor lor oach numlor ol Jigits, suggosting that thoro is somothing
spocial alout laso 10. This is lalso.
lt vas also a natural assumption that sinco 2, 3, 5, anJ proJuco
porloct numlors, tho noxt voulJ lo lor 11, vhich is also lalso: 2
11
1 204 23 89.
Tho porloct numlors also soom to onJ in oithor 6 or 8, vhich is
truo, anJ to Jo so altornatoly, vhich is again lalso. Tho linal Jigits ol
tho knovn porloct numlors go, 6, 8, 6, 8, 6, 6, 8, 8, 6, 6, 8, 8, 6, 8, 8,
8, 6, 6, 6, 8, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 8, 8, 6, 8, 8, 6, 8, 6, 6, . . . (Sloano
A094540)
Tho lilth porloct numlor vas lounJ in 1536 ly HuJalricus Pogius,
vho shovoJ that 2
13
1 8191 is primo, so 33550336 2
12
(2
13
1)
is porloct. Thon J. Schloyll in 1555 lounJ tho sixth: 8589869056
2
16
(2
1
1). Piotro Antonio CatalJi (1548-1626) roJiscovoroJ tho lilth
anJ sixth anJ aJJoJ tho sovonth: 13438691328 2
18
(2
19
1).
CatalJi, liko Vorsonno lator, thon maJo an orror. Ho corroctly claimoJ
that 2
. (Guy 1994)
Tho only ovon porloct numlor ol tho lorm
vith 1, anJ
anJ coprimo, is 28.
porloct, multiply, Siorpinski numlors, unitary porloct
A numlor is multiply porloct il () , vith 2, so orJinary por-
loct numlors aro Joully porloct. Tho lirst triply porloct numlor (
3
)
lor vhich () 3 is 120 2
3
3 5: (120) 360.
lormat lounJ tho soconJ triply porloct numlor, 62 2
5
3 lor
vhich (62) 2016 3 62. Tho thirJ
3
, 5236 2
9
11 31,
vas JiscovoroJ ly lathor Jumoau in 1638.
{
Doscartos announcoJ this
3
: 146304896 2
13
3 11 31
anJ thoso six
4
s: 30240 2
5
3
3
5
3260 2
3
3
2
5 13
23569920 2
9
3
3
5 11 31
142990848 2
9
3
2
11 13 31
6643320320 2
13
3
3
5 11 43 12
403031236608 2
13
3
2
11 13 43 12
anJ also this
5
: 14182439040 2
3
4
5 11
2
1 19.
Tho common primo lactors in thoso oxamplos aro Juo to Doscartos`s
mothoJ lor croating nov multiply porloct numlors lrom olJ, vhich
incluJoJ thoso rulos:
1. ll is a
3
not Jivisillo ly 3, thon 3 is a
4
.
2. ll a
3
is Jivisillo ly 3, lut ly noithor 5 nor 9, thon 4 5
3
is a
4
.
3. ll a
3
is Jivisillo ly 3, lut not ly , 9, or 13, thon 3 13
3
is a
4
.
(Dickson 1952, vol. 1, 33-35)
D. N. Iohmor provoJ that a
3
must havo at loast throo Jistinct primo
lactors, a
4
at loast lour, a
5
at loast six, a
6
at loast nino, anJ a
at loast lourtoon.
lt is possillo to croato highor-orJor porloct numlors lrom lovor-orJor,
lasoJ on this thoorom: il is primo, is -porloct anJ , thon
is ( 1)-porloct. lor oxamplo, il is 3-porloct anJ 3 , thon 3 is
4-porloct, anJ il is 5-porloct anJ 5 , thon 5 is 6-porloct.
Tho numlor ol knovn multiporloct numlors has rison stoaJily:
1911 1929 1954 1992 2004
251 334 539 c. 00 5,040
Tho numlors ol knovn -multiporloct numlors aro 1, 3, 6, 36, 65,
245, 516, 1134, 2036, 644, 1, 0, . . . incluJing, it is loliovoJ, all thoso
vith inJox 3 to . (Woisstoin, ) Tho curront rocorJs aro:
9-porloct .984249155534198 . . . 10
465
1992 l. W. Holonius
10-porloct 2.8689864419349 . . . 10
923
199 Pon V. Sorli
11-porloct 2.51850413483992918 . . . 10
1906
2001 G. l. Woltman
{
Nono ol thoso aro claimoJ to lo tho smallost possillo lor thoir inJox.
(Achim llammonkamp, vvv.uni-liolololJ.Jo)
Tho Sloano soguoncos lor tho multiporloct numlors start:
- 3-porloct (Sloano A005820): 120, 62, 5236, 459818240,
146304896, 51001180160, . . .
- 4-porloct (Sloano A0268): 30240, 3260, 218540, 23569920,
45532800, 142990848, 13945420, 4386148400, . . .
- 5-porloct (Sloano A046060): 14182439040, 31998395520,
518666803200, 13661860101120, 3082386618560,
4034499488680, 96928461056000, . . .
- 6-multiporloct (Sloano A046061): 1543455560850649600,
9186050031556349952000, 680489641226538823680000,
6205958624555895129342000, . . .
psouJoporloct numlors, voirJ numlors
-
Pormutallo primos romain primo vhon thoir Jigits aro jumlloJ. Por-
mutallo primos aro also circular primcs, anJ liko circular primos thoy
aro likoly to lo only linito in numlor.
Thoso vith not moro than 466 Jigits aro (giving tho smallost pormu-
tation only):
13, 1, 3, 9, 113, 199, 33
- -
ll
1
3
2
31
6
314159
38
314159265358993238462643383295028841
(Sloano A005042)
{ -
EJvarJ Prothro has calculatoJ (Docomlor 2001) that 500 to 1620 aro
all composito, anJ tho noxt primo is
16208
, vhich passos tho
strong psouJoprimo tost, so tho chanco that it is composito is
oxtromoly small. Tho noxt primo can lo oxpoctoJ rounJ alout
561460.
psouJoprimos, strong
K-
Honry Calourn Pocklington (180-1952) vas a physicist anJ a lol-
lov ol tho Poyal Socioty. His contrilution to mathomatics vas a sin-
glo papor vritton Juring tho lirst WorlJ War. D. H. Iohmor in 192
usoJ this papor to proJuco Pocklington`s tost lor primality. Whoroas
K lor tho primality ol JoponJs on tho comploto lactor-
ization ol 1, Pocklington`s nooJs only a partial lactorization.
Supposo that vo can lactorizo 1 into tvo lactors, 1
vhoro anJ aro coprimo anJ . Thon il lor ovory primo lactor
ol thoro is an intogor 1 such that,
1
1 (moJ ),
anJ also tho groatost common Jivisor ol
( 1)
1 anJ is ogual to
1, thon is primo. (Thoro is no nooJ to uso tho samo valuo ol lor
ovory lactor .)
K- -
ln 1849, Alphonso Jo Polignac (181-1890) conjocturoJ that lor
ovory ovon numlor 2 thoro is an inlinity ol primos that Jillor ly 2.
ll 1 this roJucos to tho tvin primcs conjocturo. (Dickson 1952,
424) (Polignac 1849)
Dickson`s conjocturo
- -
Polignac also conjocturoJ that ovory oJJ numlor is tho sum ol a primo
anJ povor ol 2. Ho claimoJ to havo vorilioJ this up to 3,000,000, anJ
il ho JiJ inJooJ go to thoso longths, it vas a monumontal vasto ol
ollort, lor Eulor haJ alroaJy notoJ that 12 anJ 959 cannot lo so. ln
K- - {
lact, ErJos provoJ that thoro is an inlinito arithmotic progrossion ol
oJJ intogors that cannot lo roprosontoJ as sum ol a primo anJ 2
.
Tho numlors that roluto Polignac`s conjocturo havo loon calloJ Polig-
nac numlors or - numlors, ol vhich thoro aro sovontoon loss
than 1000, only ono ol vhich is composito, 905. (Ajax: CalJvoll,
-) Tho soguonco ol lailuros starts: 12, 149, 251, 331, 33, . . .
Curiously, as ClillorJ Pickovor has notoJ, thoro aro many pairs ol
olstinato numlors Jilloring ly 2, such as 905 anJ 90, 3341 anJ
3343, 3431 anJ 3433. Pickovor has also calculatoJ tho smallost titanic
olstinato numlor, 10
999
18919.
ll you vant to join Pickovor in linJing olstinato numlors, you can
sign up lor tho GranJ lntornot Olstinato Numlor Soarch, anothor
oxamplo ol uistributcu computing.
Vost Polignac numlors aro thomsolvos primo. Cohon anJ SollriJgo
shovoJ that tho tvonty-six-Jigit numlor,
4,86,42,232,066,880,04,611,09
is primo anJ noithor tho sum nor tho Jilloronco ol a povor ol 2 anJ
a primo.
-
ll vhon a positivo intogor is lactorizoJ, all its primo lactors appoar at
loast sguaroJ, thon it is Tho soguonco ol povorlul num-
lors starts
4, 8, 9, 16, 25, 2, 32, 36, 49, 64, 2, 81, 100, . . .
Solomon Goloml shovoJ hov to linJ an inlinito numlor ol consoc-
utivo pairs ol povorlul numlors, such as 8 anJ 9, 288 anJ 289, anJ
provoJ that tho numlor ol povorlul numlors is approximatoly
vhoro 2.13 . . . Ho also conjocturoJ that 6 is not tho Jillor-
onco lotvoon tvo povorlul numlors, lut this is lalso:
6 5
4
3
463
2
(Narkiovicz: Guy 1994)
lt turns out that ovory intogor is tho Jilloronco lotvoon tvo povor-
lul numlors.
{ -
Tho pairs ol consocutivo povorlul numlors alroaJy montionoJ aro
rolatoJ to solutions to tho Poll oguation,
2
2
2
1. ll anJ sat-
isly this oguation, thon 8
2
2
anJ (
2
2
2
)
2
aro consocutivo pov-
orlul numlors.
8
2
2
(
2
2
2
)
2
1 1 8 2
3
9 3
2
3 2 288 2
5
3
2
289 1
2
5 9800 2
3
5
2
2
9801 3
4
11
2
1 12 332928 2
5
3
2
1
2
332929 5
2
Tho rulo lor lorming oach nov solution is that
1
anJ
.
As a moro gonoral rulo, il anJ aro consocutivo povorlul num-
lors, thon so aro 4 anJ 4 1. Also, il anJ 4 aro loth pov-
orlul, thon so aro ( 4) anJ ( 4) 4 ( 2)
2
.
Almost all knovn pairs ol consocutivo povorlul numlors havo ono
ol thom a porloct sguaro. Goloml givos this oxcoption: 23
3
1216
anJ 2
3
3
2
13
2
12168. (Goloml 190)
Also, ovory sulliciontly largo numlor is tho sum ol throo povorlul
numlors. (Hoath-Brovn: Guy 1994)
lt has loon conjocturoJ that thoro cannot lo throo consocutivo pov-
orlul numlors. (Goloml 190)
Tho smallor numlor ol oach pair ol consocutivo povorlul numlors is
8, 288, 65, 9800, 1216, 235224, . . . (Sloano A060355)
Vollin anJ Walsh actually provoJ a much strongor rosult: lor ovory
intogor , thoro is an inlinito numlor ol pairs ol povorlul numlors
vhoso Jilloronco is . Also, ovory ovon intogor is tho Jilloronco in an
inlinity ol vays ol tvo povorlul numlors noithor ol vhich is a
sguaro. (Vollin anJ Walsh 1986)
alc conjocturo
-
Tho prollom ol Jistinguishing primo numlors lrom composito
numlors anJ ol rosolving tho lattor into thoir primo lactors is
- {
knovn to lo ono ol tho most important anJ usolul in arithmotic.
lt has ongagoJ tho inJustry anJ visJom ol anciont anJ moJorn
goomotors to such an oxtont that it voulJ lo suporlluous to Jis-
cuss tho prollom at longth. . . . lurthor, tho Jignity ol tho scionco
itsoll sooms to roguiro that ovory possillo moans lo oxploroJ lor
tho solution ol a prollom so ologant anJ so cololratoJ.
O-- Disguisitionos Arithmoticao
Gauss vont on to claim that vith his mothoJs numlors vith sovon,
oight, or ovon moro Jigits havo loon hanJloJ vith succoss anJ
spooJ loyonJ oxpoctation,` though ho aJmittoJ that all mothoJs
that havo loon proposoJ thus lar aro oithor rostrictoJ to vory spocial
casos or aro so lalorious anJ prolix that . . . thoso mothoJs Jo not
apply at all to largor numlors.`
Tho prolloms ol primality tosting anJ lactorization aro inJooJ oxtra-
orJinarily tricky anJ sultlo. lortunatoly, tosting lor primality is tho
oasior ol tho tvo.
Using povorlul oloctronic computors, tho siovo ol Erastosthonos is
olliciont lor numlors up to alout 10
10
, vhilo trial Jivision, JiviJing a
numlor ly tho primos, starting vith 2, 3, 5, , anJ so on up to tho
limit ol , vorks lor numlors vith up to alout tvonty-livo Jigits,
anJ loth thoso mothoJs vill proJuco tho lactors, il thoro aro any: pri-
mality simply moans no propor lactors.
To tost lor primality alono, hovovor, thoro aro moro povorlul moth-
oJs. What is nooJoJ is a thoorom alout primo numlors that can lo
to locomo a tost. Ono canJiJato is Wilson`s thcorcm
that il anJ only il is primo,
( 1)! 1
Hovovor, calculating ( 1)! is oxtromoly oxponsivo ovon on largo
moJorn computors, so this thoorom is moro or loss usoloss. A moro
promising canJiJato is Icrmat`s Iittlc Thcorcm, vhich says il is
primo anJ anJ aro coprimo thon,
1
1 (moJ )
Unlortunatoly, thoro is a lly in tho ointmont!-tho convorso ol lormat`s
Iittlo Thoorom is not truo. Thoro aro pscuuoprimcs, composito num-
lors, , lor vhich tho thoorom is truo lor cortain valuos ol (anJ thoro
{ -
aro ovon alsoluto psouJoprimos, or Carmichacl numbcrs, lor vhich it
is truo lor valuo ol ). Thoso psouJoprimos aro annoying,
although thoy aro rolativoly raro. lor oxamplo, thoro aro moro than 10
9
primos loss than 25 10
9
lut only 21,853 laso 2 psouJoprimos.
So lormat`s Iittlo Thoorom can lo usoJ as a tost lor primality, lut
not as a prool. ll a numlor lails lormat`s Iittlo Thoorom, thon it must
lo composito. But il it passos tho tost, thoro romains a (small) prol-
alility that it is not a roal primo lut only a psouJoprimo. Honco a
numlor that has passoJ tho lormat`s Iittlo Thoorom tost, maylo lor
sovoral valuos ol , is calloJ a , anJ tho numlors aro
its vitnossos.
Supposo that you chooso an oJJ numlor, , at ranJom so that 1
, anJ a laso at ranJom, 1 1, anJ supposo that
1
1 (moJ ) so that is a psouJoprimo to laso . What is tho
chanco that is actually composito, as a lunction ol ?
Kim anJ Pomoranco (1989) shovoJ that il has 60 Jigits, tho
chanco is loss than 0.016, small lut signilicant. Hovovor, il has
100 Jigits, it is loss than 0.00000002, anJ il has 1,000 Jigits, it is
1.6 10
1331
. PsouJoprimos aro a nuisanco, lut as tho rango ol
incroasos thoy locomo loss anJ loss signilicant.
Thoro aro sovoral vays to got arounJ thoso Jillicultios, loaJing to
tho Iucas-Ichmcr tcst, tho spocial Iucas-Iohmor tost lor Vcrscnnc
numbcrs, K , Pocklington`s thcorcm,
Proth`s thcorcm, mothoJs lasoJ on clliptic curvcs, not lorgotting tho
AKS algorithm, anJ novor anJ lar moro povorlul algorithms, many
ol thom -
- -
Prolalilistic primality tosts aro similar to lormat`s Iittlo Thoorom, in
that thoy soarch lor --- (corrosponJing to tho laso in lormat`s
- {
-
Samuol \atos JolinoJ a titanic primo as a primo vith at loast a thou-
sanJ Jigits in 1984 vhon only 110 such primos haJ loon iJontilioJ.
A titan, naturally, vas anyono vho haJ lounJ a titanic primo. Tho
namo has nov loon maJo alsurJ ly aJvancos in computor harJ-
varo anJ programming mothoJs!
thoorom) to tho compositonoss ol a numlor, . ll a vitnoss is lounJ,
tho algorithm vill stop, anJ tho conclusion is cortain that tho numlor
is composito.
So tho stratogy is to chooso somo numlors, say, 200 ol thom, at
ranJom lotvoon 1 anJ 1 anJ tost il thoy aro vitnossos. ll thoy
all aro, anJ tho chanco ol tho numlor not loing composito is ono-
hall lor oach vitnoss, thon you can lo conliJont that is primo,
apart lrom tho minisculo prolalility ol 1 in 2
200
that you aro vrong.
This is cortainly closo onough to cortainty lor so-calloJ inJustrial
graJo primos lor uso in PSA oncryption, lor oxamplo.
lor an introJuction to moro JotailoJ anJ aJvancoJ argumonts, an
oxcollont sourco is Hugh Williams, -
- (1998).
Tho primo numlors can lo illustratoJ ly marking tho points (
)
on a graph:
{
Carl Pomoranco has provoJ that lor ovory numlor , thoro aro
points on tho primo numlor graph that aro collinoar. Tho illustration
shovs tho lirst casos lor 3, 4, anJ 5. (Pomoranco 199)
Tho guostions, Hov many primos aro thoro?` anJ Hov lig is tho
th primo?` aro closoly rolatoJ. ll vo coulJ ansvor oithor ol thom
oxactly vith a simplo lormula, thon vo coulJ also ansvor tho
othor-lut vo can`t. Tho lost mathomaticians havo managoJ is to
got moro or loss closo to tho oxact ansvors.
Tho numlor ol primos loss than or ogual to is JonotoJ ly ().
This shoulJn`t lo misloaJing-thoro is no connoction lotvoon tho
in () anJ tho constant that is rolatoJ to tho circlo.
Sinco all primos oxcopt 2 anJ 3 aro ol tho lorm 6 1, vo can say
that at most ono-thirJ ol numlors aro primo, lut this is a gross ovor-
ostimato. Noticing that thoy aro also ol tho lorm 30 1, , 11, or 13
moans that at most oight out ol thirty, or 26.66, can lo primo, lut
this is also a loollo liguro, not loast locauso tho numlor ol primos
Jocroasos tho lurthor vo go lut this proportion stays tho samo.
Tho primo numlor thoorom assorts that as incroasos, () -
- log , moaning that () log tonJs to 1
as tonJs to inlinity. ln notation: () log . This is a lrilliantly
simplo ostimato, anJ a protty gooJ ono, though not tho lost: it also
turnoJ out to lo vory Jillicult to provo.
Tho approximation log to () also moans that ol tho numlors
1 to , roughly 1log aro primo. Wo coulJ also say that tho prola-
lility ol a ranJom numlor lotvoon 1 anJ loing primo is approxi-
matoly 1log .
lt also moans that tho avorago gap lotvoon tvo consocutivo
primos noar tho numlor is closo to log . Thus, vhon is rounJ
alout 100, log is approximatoly 4.6, so roughly ovory lilth numlor
shoulJ lo primo.
-
IogonJro vas tho lirst to put a vorsion ol tho primo numlor thoorom
into print. ln 198 ho claimoJ in his look
{
- that () is approximatoly (log 1.08366). Ho must havo
loon tomptoJ to concluJo that tho last liguro shoulJ lo 1 (tho lost
valuo), lut ho stuck vith his Jata, vhich only vont up to 400,000.
Tho youthlul Gauss haJ also loon stuJying primo numlors, anJ in
192 at tho ago ol liltoon ho proposoJ tho ostimato,
() is approximatoly Ii()
log
(1.105 . . .)
log
(0.92 . . .)
log
1
log
{
ErJos anJ Atlo Sollorg lounJ a mothoJ ol prool that JiJ not uso tho
Piomann zota lunction or tho thoory ol complox numlors, anJ so is
JoscriloJ as olomontary,` though it is moro complicatoJ anJ harJor
to unJorstanJ than tho analytic prools. DonalJ Bonson rocalls that in
1950 ho attonJoJ a courso ol thirty locturos JovotoJ ontiroly to
oxplaining tho nov olomontary` prool! (Bonson 1999, 231)
-
Tho rocorJ valuo lor () is (10
21
) 21,12,269,486,018,31,928,
calculatoJ ly Xavior GourJon on Octolor 2, 2000. (CalJvoll,
-) Tho provious rocorJ vas (10
20
) 2,220,819,602,560,918,840,
ly Varc Dologliso anJ Paul Zimmormann. (Dologliso anJ Zimmor-
mann 1996)
Thoro aro many ostimatos lor tho valuo ol (). lor oxamplo, il
16, thon log () (log 32) (Williams 1998, 18)
lor 1, ()
lor 54, ()
Tho tallo anJ tho lolloving graph shov hov tho valuos ol () anJ
sovoral Jilloront ostimatos comparo:
() log (log 1) Gauss`s Ii IogonJro
10
3
168 145 169 18 12
10
4
1229 1086 1218 1246 1231
10
5
9592 8686 9512 9630 9588
10
6
8498 2382 8030 8628 8534
10
log 4
log 2
1.125506
log
log
{
mathomatics,` accorJing to G. H. HarJy, vho comparoJ it to tho
numlor ol possillo gamos ol choss in vhich ovory particlo in tho
univorso vas a pioco.
ToJay, Skovos`s numlor is nogligillo (!) comparoJ to cortain num-
lors appoaring in conlinatorics, such as Graham`s numlor, vhich
can only lo oxprossoJ using a spocial notation.
lt is also a vory poor ostimato: in 1986 to Piolo shovoJ that lo-
tvoon 6.62 10
30
anJ 6.69 10
30
thoro aro moro than 10
180
consocu-
tivo intogors lor vhich Ii() is an unJorostimato.
A much lottor approximation than any ol thoso is tho Piomann lunc-
tion, (), vhich is JolinoJ using tho Volius lunction, k(), vhich
is 1 lor 1, 0 il is squarcfrcc, anJ (1)
othorviso, vhoro
is tho numlor ol Jistinct primo lactors in () is tho sum lrom 1 to
inlinity ol k () Ii(
1
)
Ii()
1
2 Ii(
1
2
)
1
3 Ii(
1
3
)
1
5 Ii(
1
5
)
1
6 Ii(
1
6
) . . .
Tho Jilloroncos lotvoon (), Ii(), anJ () lrom 10
2
to 10
16
aro:
{
1 Gauss 2 Legendre 3 Riemann
() Ii() () () ()
10
2
25 5 1
10
4
1,229 1 2
10
6
8,498 130 29
10
8
5,61,455 54 9
10
10
455,052,511 3,104 1,828
10
12
3,60,912,018 38,263 1,46
10
14
3,204,941,50,802 314,890 19,200
10
16
29,238,341,033,925 3,214,632 32,052
(Piosol 1994, 52)
ln tho 180s Voissol JovolopoJ a clovor vay to calculato () lar
loyonJ tho knovn tallos ol primos anJ in 1885 (slightly mis-)cal-
culatoJ (10
9
). Voissol`s mothoJs voro simplilioJ ly D. H. Iohmor
in 1959. lurthor improvomonts lollovoJ, anJ linally in Octolor 2000
Xavior GourJon anJ his uistributcu computing projoct calculatoJ
(10
21
).
-
Tho th primo is JonotoJ ly () anJ is roughly log . A rocont
ostimato is that 0.91 log () 1. log . A lottor ostimato lor
() is (log log log 1), anJ Piorro Dusart has provoJ that
this is alvays an unJorostimato. (Dusart 1999)
lt is ol courso possillo, vith sulliciont computing povor, to calculato
() oxactly, though thoro is no vory simplo lormula.
Horo aro somo rosults:
Tho 1,000,000th primo 15,485,863
Tho 1,000,000,000th primo 22,801,63,489
Tho 10,000,000,000th primo 252,09,800,623
Tho 1,000,000,000,000,000th primo 3,124,508,045,065,43
-
Solomon Goloml, vho coinoJ tho torm in a talk to tho
HarvarJ Vath Clul in 1953 anJ lator invontoJ Goloml`s Gamo,
provoJ that as incroasos, tho ratio () takos in Juo courso ovory
intogor valuo groator than 1. (Goloml 1962)
{
Thoso aro tho lirst valuos ol at vhich tho valuos 2 to 6 appoar:
() ()
2 1 2
2 9 3
96 24 4
330 66 5
1080 180 6
Tho titlo - is givon to any composito num-
lor, , that satislios tho oguation
(moJ ),
ovory primary protonJor is 561.
Convay anJ colloaguos shovoJ that thoro aro only 132 Jistinct pri-
mary protonJors, anJ tho soguonco starts
4, 4, 341, 6, 4, 4, 6, 6, 4, 4, 6, 10, 4, 4, 14, 6, 4, 4, 6, 6, 4, 4, 6, 22, 4,
4, 9, 6, 4, 4, 6, 6, 4, 4, 6, 9, 4, 4, 38, 6, 4, 4, 6, 6, 4, 4, 6, 46, 4, 4, 10,
6, 4, 4, 6, 6, 4, 4, 6, 15, 4, 4, 9, 6, 4, 4, 6, 6, 4, 4, 6, 9, 4, 4, 15, 6, 4, 4,
6, 6, 4, 4, 6, 21, 4, 4, 10, . . . (Sloano A00090)
This soguonco is porioJic, vith this 122-Jigit porioJ:
19568584333460025824534003362898201213829336043363
436229438643954831960991852999259921329236506842360
439300
This numlor is (2 3 5 11 . . . 59)(2 3 5 11 13 1
19 23) or 59= 23= vhoro = is primorial .
ln this proJuct, (59) 2 is tho largost possillo primo lactor, anJ
(9) 23 is tho largost possillo primo lactor, ol a compos-
ito numlor loss than tho Carmichaol numlor 561. (Convay ot al.
199)
{
ln a soguonco ol intogors, a primo lactor ol ono torm is calloJ prim-
itivo il it Joos not JiviJo any provious torm. lor oxamplo, tho lirst
lov torms ol tho lilonacci soguonco havo tho primitivo primo lactors
ontoroJ lolov:
1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55
2 3 5 13 1 11
Bang`s thoorom, Iucas numlors
-
Tho povors ol 3 (moJ 5) aro:
3
3 9 2 81 243 29 . . .
3
(moJ 5) 3 4 2 1 3 4 . . .
Tho rosiJuos ropoat, in tho soguonco 3-4-2-1, vhich incluJos all tho
intogors loss than 5. Thoroloro, 3 is a primitivo root ol 5.
ln gonoral a primitivo root, , ol a primo is such that tho rosiJuos
ol ,
2
,
3
,
4
, . . . ,
1
(moJ ) aro all Jistinct, vhich moans that
thoy aro a pormutation ol tho numlors 1 to 1.
lt isn`t nocossary to actually vork out tho povors ol : it is onough
to roJuco oach povor (moJ ) anJ thon multiply ly . lor oxamplo,
tho lirst lov povors ol 5 (moJ 13) aro:
5 5 (moJ 13)
5
2
25 12 (moJ 13)
5
3
5 12 60 8 (moJ 13)
5
4
5 8 40 1 (moJ 13)
Sinco 5
4
1 (moJ 13), tho soguonco ol rosiJuos nov ropoats, anJ 5
is a primitivo root ol 13.
Any oJJ primo, , has ( ( )) ( 1) primitivo roots. So 13
has (12) 4 primitivo roots, vhich aro 2, 6, , anJ 11.
Not only primos havo primitivo roots. A composito intogor has a
primitivo root il (anJ only il) it is 1, 2, or 4 or is ol ono ol tho lorms
or 2
(
1
3
. . .
)
1
. Thon tho limit ol
as tonJs to inlin-
ity is , tho laso ol natural logarithms. (Puiz 199)
K-
lranois Proth (1852-189) vas a larmor anJ soll-taught mathomati-
cian vho JioJ at tho ago ol tvonty-sovon, having spont his ontiro lilo
in tho villago ol Vaux-Jovant-Damloup noar VorJun. (Williams 1998,
121) Ono ol tho many glorios ol mathomatics is that progross can lo
anJ has loon maJo ly tho humllo anJ tho amatour. This is not to
say that tho rosoarch lounJary` ol mathomatics is not usually lar
Jistant lrom amatour stuJios-it is-lut rathor that mathomatics is so
rich anJ so lortilo, anJ thoro aro so many iJoas lolt to Jiscovor, that
tho amatour on occasion can mako a groat contrilution.
ln 188 ho provoJ Proth`s thoorom: il 2
1 vith 2
anJ
il thoro is an intogor such that JiviJos
( 1)2
1, thon is
primo. This tost is oxtromoly simplo anJ covors Icrmat numbcrs,
Cullon numlors, anJ othors.
K- {
Ono ol tho most popular primo numlor programs on tho lntornot is
tho Proth.oxo program croatoJ ly \vos Gallot in 199, originally to
linJ largor lactors ol tho lormat numlors that aro knovn to lo ol tho
lorm 2
1,
anJ Gcncralizcu Icrmat numbcrs ol tho lorm
2
1. ln 199 Car-
los Pivora usoJ it to linJ tho largost knovn non-Vorsonno` primo,
9183 2
262112
1. ln 1998, Chip Korchnor lounJ tho thon largost
knovn Sophic Gcrmain primc, 92305 2
16998
1.
- -
Siorpinski calloJ numlors that aro tho sum ol somo ol thoir lactors
only, - lor oxamplo, 12 2 4 6. ll vo JiviJo ly 12,
vo got an oxamplo ol Egyptian lractions, vhich sum to unity:
1
1
6
1
3
1
2
Similarly, 20 10 5 4 1 anJ 1
1
2
1
4
1
5
1
20.
Convorsoly, any oxprossion ol tho lorm 1
1
1
1
. . . loaJs to
a psouJoporloct numlor. This is an oxamplo ol a sot ol rociprocals ol
oJJ intogors that sum to 1:
1
1
3
1
5
1
1
9
1
15
1
21
1
2
1
35
1
63
1
105
1
135
(Guy 1981, D11: 89)
lt is oguivalont to:
945 315 189 135 105 63 45 35 2 15 9
voirJ numlors
--
Tho prollom vith tho simplo tosts that a primo numlor must pass is
that somo composito numlors satisly thom also. ln othor vorJs, pass-
ing tho tost is nocossary lut not sulliciont to provo that tho numlor
is primo.
So, lor ovory simplo tost thoro aro somo composito numlors that
pass it. Thoso aro calloJ -- Tho simplost psouJoprimos
aro tho lormat psouJoprimos, vhich satisly Icrmat`s Iittlc Thcorcm,
{ - -
although thoy aro actually composito. (ll tho torm - is
usoJ vithout gualilication a lormat psouJoprimo is moant.)
AccorJing to lormat`s Iittlo Thoorom, il is primo anJ anJ aro
coprimo, thon
1
1 (moJ )
Unlortunatoly tho convorso is not truo. Somotimos,
1
1 (moJ )
although is composito. lor oxamplo,
2
341 1
1 (moJ 341)
although 341 11 31.
This is tho smallost oxcoption vith 2 anJ is thoroloro tho small-
ost lormat psouJoprimo to laso 2, JiscovoroJ ly Sarus in 1819.
(Baso 2 psouJoprimos aro occasionally calloJ Sarus numlors, also
Poulot numlors, altor Paul Poulot, vho pullishoJ an oarly tallo ol
psouJoprimos in 1938, anJ occasionally lormatians.)
Thoro aro also psouJoprimos to othor lasos: tho smallost to laso 3
is 91 13, anJ to laso 5, 21 31. (ll you count psouJo-
primos, thon 124 2
2
31 is tho smallost in laso 5. Somo authors sim-
ply Jon`t count ovon numlors as psouJoprimos, sinco it is so
olvious that thoy aro composito anyvay.)
Wo coulJ havo JiscovoroJ that 341 is composito ly chocking it using
anothor laso, lor oxamplo, 3:
3
341 1
56 (moJ 341)
So 341 is composito altor all. lt is a psouJoprimo to laso 2 lut not to
laso 3. By chocking to soo il a numlor is psouJoprimo to various Jil-
loront lasos, vo can usually Jiscovor guito guickly il it is composito.
Hovovor, somo raro numlors aro psouJoprimos to laso. Thoso
aro tho Carmichacl numbcrs.
Tho soguonco ol psouJoprimos to laso 2 starts: 341, 561, 645, 1105,
138, 129, 1905, 204, . . . (Sloano A00156) Thoso aro all oJJ. D. H.
Iohmor lounJ tho smallost ovon psouJoprimo to laso 2 vhich is
161038 2 3 1103, sinco 2
161038
2 (moJ 161038).
-- {
Thoro is an inlinity ol psouJoprimos to any givon laso, anJ an inlinity
ol psouJoprimos vith oxactly lactors, proviJoJ 1. Hovovor,
psouJoprimos aro much scarcor than gonuino primos. Thoro aro 8,498
primos loss than 1,000,000 lut only 245 psouJoprimos to laso 2.
-- --
To vhich lasos is 91 a psouJoprimo? lt is a psouJoprimo to thirty-six
lasos, starting vith: 1, 3, 4, 9, 10, 12, 16, 1, 22, 23, 25, 2, 29, 30, 36,
38, 40, 43, 48, 51, . . . lt is no coinciJonco that (91) 2 2 36. Tho
ratio ol () to tho numlor ol lasos to vhich it is a psouJoprimo is
1 lor primo numlors anJ Carmichacl numbcrs, anJ 2, 3, 4, or 5 lor
thoso numlors:
2: 4, 6, 15, 91, 03, 1891, 201, 11305, 12403, 13981, 1821,
23001, . . .
3: 9, 21, 45, 65, 105, 133, 231, 341, 481, 645, 1541, 3201, 4033,
431, . . .
4: 8, 10, 12, 28, 66, 85, 435, 451, 946, 138, 204, 32, 336,
5551, . . .
5: 25, 33, 165, 21, 325, 385, 93, 1045, 1065, 2665, 3565, 4123, . . .
(GrarJ Vichon, http:homo.att.not numoricana)
-- -
Starting vith an oJJ numlor, , anJ a laso , vo knov that il,
1
1 (moJ )
thon oithor is primo or it is psouJoprimo to laso . Nov vrito in
tho lorm 2
1. Thon,
1 (moJ )
1 0 (moJ )
So, ly lactorizing
2
1
(
1)(
1)(
2
1)(
4
1) . . . (
2
( 1)
1) 0 (moJ )
Thoroloro, JiviJos ono ol thoso lactors, il it is primo. ll it is com-
posito lut JiviJos ono ol thoso lactors anyvay, thon it is a - -
-
{ -- -
Tosting vhothor Joos inJooJ JiviJo any ol thoso oxprossions is a
strongor tost than tho usual psouJoprimo tost, locauso strong
psouJoprimos aro oxtromoly raro.
Thoro aro just throo strong psouJoprimos loss than 1,000, anJ only
lorty-six lolov 1,000,000, comparoJ to 245 orJinary psouJoprimos
to laso 2. Voroovor, thoro aro no Carmichacl numbcrs among tho
strong psouJoprimos. ll is composito, thon it vill lail tho strong
psouJoprimo tost lor at loast hall tho lasos loss than .
Sulstitution ciphors havo loon lounJ in Egyptian hioroglyphics anJ in
Vosopotamian cunoilorm tallots. Thoy voro lator usoJ ly Julius Cao-
sar, vho gavo his namo to tho Caosar Ciphor. Ioaping lorvarJ across
tvo thousanJ yoars, tho SoconJ WorlJ War vas shortonoJ ly tho suc-
coss ol tho mathomaticians at Blotchloy Park, incluJing Alan Turing,
vho crackoJ tho coJos proJucoJ ly tho Gorman Enigma machino, anJ
vhoro Colossus, tho vorlJ`s lirst oloctronic computor, vas usoJ lrom
1944 onvarJ. Voro rocontly, tho British govornmont has announcoJ
tho croation ol a nov instituto JovotoJ to signals intolligonco,` or tho
stuJy ol communications usoJ ly torrorists anJ criminals.`
TraJitional mothoJs ol sonJing socrot mosagos, although ingo-
nious, sharoJ a prollom, vhich vas that tho sonJor anJ tho rocipi-
ont nooJoJ tho samo koy, anJ oxchanging tho koy vas a risky
lusinoss locauso it coulJ too oasily lo intorcoptoJ.
WhitliolJ Dillio anJ Vartin Hollman in 196 haJ a lright iJoa:
instoaJ ol having tho samo koy lor oncryption anJ Jocryption, vhat
alout having koys? Thon tho oncryption koy coulJ lo
oponly pullishoJ, lut anyono vith tho coJoJ mossago in thoir hanJs
voulJ lo holploss to Jocrypt tho mossago. Thoro voulJ, ol courso,
havo to lo somo connoction lotvoon tho tvo koys, lut this ought to
lo as olscuro as possillo, oxcopt to tho JocoJor. Altornativoly, you
might pullish tho Jocryption koy lut hiJo tho oncryption mothoJ. (lt
vas lator rovoaloJ that tho British Socrot Sorvico haJ alroaJy thought
ol tho samo iJoa lut-lorco ol halit?-kopt it socrot!)
Tho original iJoa that Dillio anJ Hollman pullishoJ in tho prophot-
ically titloJ Nov Diroctions in Cryptography` vont liko this. lirst,
tvo numlors aro maJo pullic, a , anJ a , vhich
{
is choson so that ovory numlor lrom 1 to 1 is ol tho lorm
lor
somo valuo ol .
Alan anJ Botty can thon croato sharoJ socrot koys as lollovs: Alan
choosos his ovn ranJom numlor anJ calculatos
(moJ ), vhilo
Botty choosos hor numlor anJ calculatos
(moJ ),
anJ this vill romain socrot as long as it is impossillo, or simply
impracticallo, to calculato
lrom
anJ
2
2
,
2
2
, lor somo valuos ol anJ .
ll hypothcsis H ol Siorpinski anJ Schinzol is truo, thon thoro is an
inlinity ol Pythagoroan trianglos vith ono log anJ tho hypotonuso
loth primo. Harvoy Dulnor anJ Tony lorlos havo soarchoJ lor such
trianglos. Tho largost thoy lounJ haJ ono log ol 5,35 Jigits anJ a
hypotonuso ol 10,13 Jigits. (Dulnor anJ lorlos 2001)
--
ll vo tako a primo, , anJ sguaro all tho intogors loss than , vo got
a limitoJ numlor ol ansvors. lor oxamplo, il 11, thon
2
1
2
2
2
3
2
4
2
5
2
6
2
2
8
2
9
2
10
2
2
(moJ 11) 1 4 9 5 3 3 5 9 4 1
Tho pattorn is (inovitally) symmotrical. Tho numlors 1, 3, 4, 5, anJ
9 aro tho guaJratic rosiJuos ol 11, or tho guaJratic rosiJuos moJulo
11. Tho numlors 2, 6, , anJ 8 aro non-rosiJuos.
ll is an oJJ primo, it has ( 1)2 guaJratic rosiJuos anJ tho samo
numlor ol non-rosiJuos.
Tho numlor 1 is a guaJratic rosiJuo ol primos ol tho lorm 4 1
anJ a non-rosiJuo ol primos 4 3. lt lollovs that il tho primo
4 1, thon thoro is a multiplo ol that is ol tho lorm 1
2
. Simi-
larly, 2 is a guaJratic rosiJuo ol primos ol tho lorm 8 1 anJ a non-
rosiJuo ol primos 8 3.
-- {
Eulor`s critorion says that is a guaJratic rosiJuo ol il
( 1)2
1
(moJ ) anJ a non-rosiJuo il
( 1)2
1 moJ . Notico that it must
lo ono or tho othor! So tho 5th povors ol 1, 3, 4, 5, anJ 9 1 (moJ
11), vhilo 2, 6, , 8, anJ 10 1 (moJ 11).
Tho proJuct ol tvo rosiJuos or tvo non-rosiJuos is a rosiJuo, lut tho
proJuct ol a rosiJuo anJ a non-rosiJuo is a non-rosiJuo-thoy
lohavo liko positivo anJ nogativo numlors.
ll (moJ ), thon anJ aro oithor loth rosiJuos or loth non-
rosiJuos.
- --
ll is tho maximum numlor ol consocutivo non-rosiJuos ol a primo
, HuJson provoJ tho conjocturo that , il is largo onough.
Tho only oxcoption sooms to lo 13. (HuJson: Guy 1994)
lssia Schur has conjocturoJ that 13 is tho only primo, , vith moro
than consocutivo non-rosiJuos. HuJson has provoJ this is so lor
2
232
. (CalJvoll, -)
QuaJratic rosiJuos olton appoar in applications ol mathomatics, lor
oxamplo in tho Josign ol tho lost rocoption in concort halls, anJ in
noiso alatomont structuros. Concort hall acoustics also croato prol-
loms ol normal moJos ol vilration in culical or noar-culical ros-
onators, vhoso solution JoponJs on roprosonting intogors as tho
sum ol throo sguaros. (SchrooJor 1992)
-
What alout moro complicatoJ polynomials than tho simplo
2
?
Iagrango (136-1813) provoJ that il is a primo, thon tho polyno-
mial congruonco,
1
. . .
1
0
0 (moJ )
has, - solutions (moJ ), proviJoJ is not Jivisillo ly .
lor oxamplo,
3
5 3 0 (moJ ) has tho singlo solution 6
(moJ ), vhilo
3
4 9 has throo solutions (moJ 3), vhich moans
that all its valuos aro Jivisillo ly 3.
Gaussian primos, guaJratic rociprocity, lav ol
{ --
This lav vas JiscovoroJ ly Eulor in 12, partly provoJ ly IogonJro
in 185, anJ roJiscovoroJ ly Gauss, at tho ago ol oightoon, vho
provoJ it in total ol oight Jilloront vays, tho lirst in 196, anJ calloJ
it tho , or golJon thoorom.
lrank Iommormoyor pullishoJ in 2000 a list ol 196 Jilloront prools,
lut this is alroaJy out ol Jato. At vvv.rzusor.uni-hoiJollorg.Jo thoro
is a list ol 20 prools, 8 ol thom in tho nov millonnium, oviJonco ol
tho importanco, Jopth, anJ lascination ol this thoorom.
lt can lo most lriolly oxprossoJ using tho IogonJro symlol:
() oguals: 1 il is a guaJratic rosiJuo ol
1 il is not a guaJratic rosiJuo ol
anJ () oguals: 0 il 0 (moJ )
IogonJro`s lunction might soom lizarro, lut it is actually vory usolul,
not loast locauso it has sovoral simplo proportios. lor oxamplo, il
is an oJJ primo, thon lor any tvo intogors anJ ,
() ()()
(
2
) 1
anJ il (moJ ) thon () ()
- Tho lirst proporty implios that (
) ()
.
- Tho lirst tvo proportios imply that (
2
) ().
Tho lav ol guaJratic rociprocity statos that il anJ aro Jistinct oJJ
primos, thon () ( ) unloss loth anJ aro ol tho lorm
4 3, in vhich caso () ( ).
Notico that, onco again, a sultlo lut striking Jilloronco appoars
lotvoon numlors ol tho tvo lorms 4 1 anJ 4 3!
Tho lav can also lo oxprossoJ as ( ) (1)
( 1)( 1)4)
().
lt can nov lo usoJ to calculato valuos ol (). lor oxamplo, is 152
a guaJratic rosiJuo moJulo 43? Iot`s soo:
(15243) (2343) (4323) (2023)
(2
2
23)(523) (1)(523) (235) (35)
(53) (23) (1) 1
{
Or, altornativoly:
(15243) (2
3
43)(1943) (243)
3
(1943)
(1)
3
(1)(4319) (519) (195) (45) (2
2
5) 1
K-
ll is an oJJ primo, thon lor all , ()
( 1)2
(moJ ).
lt lollovs that: (1) 1 il 1 (moJ 4)
(1) 1 il 3 (moJ 4)
Similarly, (2) 1 il 1 (moJ 8)
(2) 1 il 3 (moJ 8)
Hillort`s 23 prolloms, guaJratic rosiJuos
- P
An oguation lor mo has no moaning unloss it oxprossos a thought
ol GoJ.
O
Srinivasa Aiyangar Pamanujan vas lorn in EroJo, a small tovn in
Tamil NaJu stato, lnJia. Ho vas a soll-taught mathomatician vith an
uncanny alility to manipulato lormulao rominiscont ol Eulor. Sullor-
ing lrom povorty anJ moving lrom ono potty jol to anothor as
ho pursuoJ his mathomatical inspirations, ho ovontually vroto to
ono mathomatician in EnglanJ-no rosponso-thon anothor-no
rosponso-anJ thon linally to G. H. HarJy, vho rocognizoJ his
gonius, oxplaining that his thooroms must lo truo, locauso, il thoy
voro not truo, no ono voulJ havo haJ tho imagination to invont
thom.` (HarJy 1940, 9) HarJy arrangoJ lor him to como to Cam-
lriJgo, porsuaJing VaJras Univorsity to grant him a rosoarch schol-
arship ol \250 a yoar lor livo yoars plus \100 lor his passago to
EnglanJ in 1914.
HarJy haJ a vory high opinion ol Pamanujan, at loast in torms ol
puro natural` talont, lor vhich ho ratoJ him at 100, giving himsoll
25, his longtimo collalorator IittlovooJ 30, anJ tho groat Gorman,
DaviJ Hillort, 80. (HarJy`s juJgmont ol himsoll is suspoct, not to say
lizarro: ho haJ a possimistic stroak in his makoup, vhich camo out
{ - P
in his lamous vork, K- , vhich vas inJooJ
apologotic,` as il his vonJorlul lilo`s vork nooJoJ any oxcuso. On
ono occasion ho trioJ to kill himsoll, as JiJ inJooJ Pamanujan. lor-
tunatoly, thoy loth lailoJ.)
Pamanujan proJucoJ, vith HarJy, somo romarkallo mathomat-
ics, anJ lolt lohinJ him his oxtraorJinary notolooks, vhich havo
sinco loon transcriloJ anJ pullishoJ anJ continuo to lo stuJioJ,
lut tho English climato anJ looJ JiJ not agroo vith him. Ho con-
tractoJ tulorculosis, anJ roturnoJ to lnJia in 1918, to Jio tvo yoars
lator.
Pamanujan haJ his ovn viov ol his talonts: Pamanujan anJ his
lamily voro arJont Jovotoos ol GoJ Narasimha (tho lion-lacoJ
incarnation ol GoJ), tho sign ol vhoso graco consistoJ in Jrops ol
llooJ soon Juring Jroams. Pamanujan statoJ that altor sooing such
Jrops, scrolls containing tho most complicatoJ mathomatics usoJ to
unlolJ loloro him anJ that altor vaking, ho coulJ sot Jovn on
papor only a lraction ol vhat vas shovn to him.` (Panganathan
196, 88)
Pamanujan haJ a truly vonJorlul gilt lor manipulating lormulao ol
all kinJs. lor oxamplo, lrom tho lact that,
12
2
13
2
14
2
15
2
. . .
2
6
ho JoJucoJ that,
12
2
13
2
15
2
1
2
18
2
111
2
112
2
. . .
2
20
vhoro tho Jonominators aro tho intogors vith an numlor ol
primo Jivisors. Similarly,
12
2
13
2
15
2
1
2
111
2
113
2
11
2
. . . 92
2
vhoro tho Jonominators aro tho intogors containing an numlor
ol -- primo Jivisors. (Pamanujan 1913)
- -
Ono ol Pamanujan`s longost anJ lost papors vas on highly composito
numlors, vhich ho JolinoJ as a numlor vhoso numlor ol Jivisors ox-
cooJs that ol all its proJocossors.` Ho provoJ that il 2
. . .
2
lotvoon anJ .
So, lor oxamplo, tho avorago numlor ol primo lactors is livo rounJ
alout 10
0
, anJ moro procisoly, alout 60 ol tho intogors rounJ
alout 10
0
havo lotvoon throo anJ sovon primo lactors. Similar
rosults can lo provoJ lor othor lunctions, such as Eulor`s () or
totiont lunction.
Throo physicists at Boston Univorsity, PraJoop Kumar, Plamon
lvanov, anJ Eugono Stanloy, havo loon stuJying hoartloat rhythms.
Nov thoy loliovo thoy may havo lounJ a curious kinJ ol orJor in tho
soguonco ol primo numlors. Thoy stuJioJ tho soconJ Jilloroncos in
tho soguonco ol primos:
2 3 5 11 13 1 19 23 29 31
1st Jills. 1 2 2 4 2 4 2 4 6 2
2nJ Jills. 1 0 2 2 2 2 2 2 4 4
ll tho primos roally jump arounJ ranJomly, thon thoso soconJ Jillor-
oncos shoulJ jump ranJomly also, lut Kumar anJ his colloaguos
concluJoJ that thoy Jon`t. Positivo valuos aro usually lollovoJ ly
(corrosponJing) nogativo valuos, lor oxamplo, tho lirst 2, 2 Jillor-
oncos. Thoy lounJ an oscillation ol porioJ 3.
Thoy also JociJoJ that soconJ Jilloroncos that aro multiplos ol 6
aro loss lroguont than othor Jilloroncos. This lits provious statistical
analysos that lounJ oscillations vith porioJ 6 in tho Jistancos
lotvoon consocutivo primos. (Kumar, lvanov, anJ Stanloy 2003)
Patrick Billingsloy has oxplainoJ hov vo can also think ol a singlo
composito numlor as gonorating a ranJom valk. \ou tako tho
1
-- - {
primos, 2, 3, 5, . . . anJ movo up ono stop il tho primo is a lactor ol
tho numlor anJ Jovn ono stop il it is not. Tho rosult is rathor liko
ropoatoJ coin-tossing or Brovnian motion-anJ ly aJjusting tho
sizo ol tho stops takon can lo maJo moro so. lt is thon possillo to
JoJuco thooroms alout primo numlors lrom voll-knovn rosults in
prolalility thoory. (Billingsloy 193)
Tho rociprocal ol tho Ricmann zcta function,
1
(- ), can lo vritton as
this sorios,
1 (-) 1 12
-
13
-
04
-
15
-
16
-
1
-
08
-
09
-
110
-
. . .
Tho numorators aro tho valuos ol tho Volius lunction, k(), vhich is
zoro il is squarcfrcc, 1 il it has an ovon numlor ol primo lac-
tors, anJ 1 il it has an oJJ numlor ol primo lactors.
Von Stornach in 1896 roalizoJ that tho valuos ol tho Volius lunc-
tion,
1, 1, 1, 0, 1, 1, 1, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 1, 1, 1, 0, 1, 0, 1 . . .
coulJ lo thought ol as a ranJom valk in vhich a Jrunk oithor stanJs
vhoro ho is (0), or staggors lorvarJ ono stop (1), or stumllos lack
{ -- -
ErJos, vho vas sponJing tho yoar at tho lnstituto ol AJvancoJ
StuJy, vas in tho auJionco lut ho hall-JozoJ through most ol my
locturo, tho suljoct mattor vas too lar romovoJ lrom his intorosts.
TovarJ tho onJ l JoscriloJ lriolly my Jillicultios vith tho numlor ol
primo Jivisors. At tho montion ol numlor thoory ErJos porkoJ up
anJ askoJ mo to oxplain onco again vhat tho Jilliculty vas. Within
tho noxt lov minutos, ovon loloro tho locturo vas ovor, ho intor-
ruptoJ to announco that ho haJ tho solution!
Tho roaJor, l hopo, vill lorgivo my lack ol moJosty il l say that it
is a loautilul thoorom. lt markoJ tho ontry ol tho normal lav, hith-
orto tho proporty ol gamllors, statisticians anJ --, into
numlor thoory anJ . . . it gavo lirth to a nov lranch ol this anciont
Jisciplino.` (Kac 198, 90-91)
ono stop (1). So ho listoJ tho lirst 150,000 valuos ol k() anJ cal-
culatoJ that tho prolalility that it vas non-zoro vas, apparontly,
6
2
, or roughly 0.608 vith 1 anJ 1 appoaring as valuos moro or
loss ogually olton.
Tho Ricmann hypothcsis is nov oguivalont to saying (roughly anJ
cruJoly!) that our ranJom valkor Joos not staggor too lar lrom tho
origin. (Vaughan, Chanco Novs 11.02)
-
A small community ol mathomaticians is JovotoJ to linJing largor,
highor, liggor primo numlor rocorJs. What`s tho point? Woll, com-
potition is ono ansvor, compotition that is lun, that tosts ovon moJ-
orn povorlul computors to thoir limits, anJ that has ovon locomo a
sociallo activity vith tho arrival ol uistributcu computing in vhich
tho participants in projocts such as GIVPS, thc Grcat Intcrnct
Vcrscnnc Primc Scarch, vork in toams.
linJing tho largost primos also JoponJs not only on moro povor-
lul harJvaro lut on moro anJ moro olliciont algorithms that aro
loautilul in thomsolvos: vhat coulJ lo moro astonishing than prov-
ing loyonJ Joult that a numlor so largo that it coulJ not lo vritton
out ly hanJ in loss than millions ol yoars is in lact primo?
- -
Tho largost knovn primo vas lounJ ly GlVPS momlor Josh linJloy,
vho usoJ a 2.4 GHz Pontium 4 WinJovs XP PC running lor lour-
toon Jays to linally provo tho numlor primo, on Vay 15, 2004. lt is
2
24036583
1 anJ has ,235,33 Jocimal Jigits, noarly a million moro
than tho provious rocorJ. GlVPS projoct loaJors nov soo tho lirst
ton-million-Jigit primo vithin roach, lor vhich tho Flcctronic Iron-
ticr Iounuation is olloring a $100,000 avarJ.
Tho tvo provious rocorJs voro:
- Vichaol Schalor, a chomical onginooring stuJont at Vichigan
Stato Univorsity, anJ GlVPS: 2
20996011
1 (6,320,430 Jigits),
Novomlor 1, 2003.
- Vichaol Camoron, 2
1346691
1 (4,053,946 Jigits), Novomlor 14,
2001.
- {
Tho non-Vorsonno primo rocorJ is ly Jollroy \oung: 3 2
303093
1
(91,241 Jigits), lounJ in 1998.
Tho rocorJ lor a primo that is not ol a spocial anJ oasily tostoJ
lorm is 10
9999
33603 (10,000 Jigits), lounJ using ECPP on August
19, 2003, ly Jons lranko, Thorston Kloinjung, anJ Tolias Wirth vith
a JistrilutoJ vorsion ol thoir ovn ECPP program (vvv.ollipsa.
notprimorocorJ).
Chris CalJvoll spoculatos, lasoJ on tho Jatos ol provious rocorJ-
lroaking primos, that a 10,000,000-Jigit primo vill lo lounJ ly 2005,
a 100,000,000-Jigit primo ly 2015, anJ a 1,000,000,000-Jigit primo ly
oarly 2025. (CalJvoll, -)
- aliguot soguoncos, arithmotic progrossions, ol primos,
Brior numlors, Cullon primos, Cunningham chains, lactorial primos,
lormat`s Iast Thoorom, GlVPS, -tuplos conjocturo, primo, Vorsonno
numlors, porloct, multiply, primorial, ropunits, primo, Sophio Gor-
main primos, tvin primos, unitary Jivisors, WooJall primos
-
Tho ropunits, in laso 10, aro tho numlors vhoso Jigits aro all 1s,
such as P
5
11111. Sinco P
5
999999 (10
5
1)9, tho primality ol
P
1.
A ropunit P
10
8
10
9
10
10
10
Calculato tho alsoluto Jilloroncos:
1
5
1
10
1
10,
1
4
2
10
1
20 . . .
4
5
9
10
1
10 anJ 1
10
10 0.
Nov aJJ up thoso alsoluto Jilloroncos anJ call tho sum . Thon
tho Piomann hypothosis is oguivalont to tho statomont that
(12 )
tonJs to zoro as tonJs to inlinity vhatovor tho valuo ol . (EJvarJs
194, 264)
-- -
- --
Iot
1
1
2
1
3
1
4 . . .
1
. Thon tho Piomann hypothosis is
oguivalont to tho claim that
()
()
log() lor all 1, vhich in turn is
oguivalont to tho claim that:
() log log lor all 5041
(Iagarias 2002)
- -
Tho Piomann hypothosis can also lo oxprossoJ in torms ol tho
sguarolroo numlors. Call a numlor il it is tho proJuct ol an ovon
numlor ol Jistinct primos, anJ il it is tho proJuct ol an oJJ
numlor.
Ol tho sguarolroo numlors up to 30, thoro aro oight roJ numlors,
1, 6, 10, 14, 15, 21, 22, anJ 26, anJ olovon lluo numlors. Tho Pio-
mann hypothosis says, vory roughly, that tho numlors ol lluo anJ
{ --
roJ sguarolroo numlors aro alout tho samo. Voro procisoly, tho Pio-
mann hypothosis is oguivalont to this thoorom:
Chooso a valuo ol 0, vhich can lo as small as you liko. Thon thoro is a
numlor such that lor all , tho numlor ol lluo numlors lrom 1 to
inclusivo Joos not Jillor lrom tho numlor ol roJ numlors in tho samo
rango ly moro than
12
. (Tho smallor tho valuo ol , tho largor vill lo.)
(Will 198)
Donjoy pointoJ out that il a sguarolroo numlor can lo rogarJoJ as
loing ogually likoly to lo lluo or roJ, so that choosing` its color is
liko llipping a coin anJ gotting hoaJs or tails, thon accorJing to stan-
JarJ statistical thoory, il you toss tho coin` timos thon tho Jillor-
onco lotvoon tho numlor ol hoaJs anJ tails as tonJs to inlinity
vill grov loss rapiJly than
12
, vith prolalility 1. (EJvarJs 194,
268)
Unlortunatoly, this is only a hcuristic argumont: vo coulJ turn it
arounJ anJ say that-okay!-it lollovs that il tho Piomann hypotho-
sis is truo, thon vhothor a sguarolroo numlor is lluo or roJ is inJooJ
liko llipping a coin! Novortholoss, sinco tho lattor sooms intuitivoly
likoly, vo can say that our intuitivo that tho Piomann hypoth-
osis is corroct is strongthonoJ. Vathomatics is ly no moans only
alout !
-
ln 189 lranz Vortons (1840-192) conjocturoJ that lor ovory 1,
tho Jilloronco lotvoon tho numlor ol roJ anJ lluo numlors (in tho
samo sotup) in tho rango 1 to novor oxcooJs .
ln othor vorJs, ho supposoJ that vo coulJ tako 0 anJ 1.
This is a much strongor conjocturo that vas provoJ lalso ly OJlyzko
anJ to Piolo in 1985.
-- --
Nicolas provoJ a thoorom in 1983 alout tho valuos ol () ly lirst
assuming that tho Piomann hypothosis is truo, anJ thon assuming
that it is lalso-so vhatovor tho linal conclusion, his rosult vill lo
sounJ!
Although thoro is much that mathomaticians Jon`t knov alout tho
zoros ol tho zota lunction, thoy Jo knov onough to calculato tho sum
ol all thoir rociprocals, vhich is,
1
2 1 log 2
1
2log( )
-- {
0.023095089 . . . , a lormula that lrings togothor , , anJ (in olloct)
, tho laso ol natural logarithms. (linch 2003, 42)
JistrilutoJ computing, sguarolroo numlors
-
A Piosol numlor (namoJ altor tho Jiscovoror ol tho 18th Vcrscnnc
primc) is an intogor such that 2
()
1 (moJ )
vhoro () is Fulcr`s toticnt function, vhich in this caso, locauso
anJ aro Jistinct primos, oguals ( 1)( 1). Having choson anJ
, vo noxt calculato, using stanJarJ tochniguos, tvo intogors, anJ
, such that 1 () anJ
1 (moJ ())
Tho mossago vo vish to sonJ is thon onciphoroJ as a numlor, ,
vhich must lo loss than : in practico, tho asymmotric PSA systom is
vory slov at oncrypting long mossagos, so thoy aro oncryptoJ ly a
stanJarJ symmotric mothoJ anJ only tho symmotric koy is oncryptoJ
ly using tho PSA algorithm. Tho mossago sont is nov,
(moJ ),
using tho numlor that is maJo pullic. Tho numlors anJ aro tho
Tho rocoivor, vho has tho privato valuo , Jociphors it ly calculat-
ing (
(moJ ), sinco
givon only tho valuos ol anJ . This is knovn as tho PSA prollom.
Although no ono has ovor provoJ it, it is viJoly loliovoJ to lo oguiv-
alont to tho lactoring prollom. ll tho cryptanalyst can lactor , tho
ciphor can lo crackoJ, othorviso not, anJ this cannot currontly lo
Jono in polynomial timo.
K-
Tho PSA systom rocoivoJ a lurst ol pullicity in 19 vhon tho
authors pullishoJ a pullic koy mossago anJ olloroJ a moJost $100
rovarJ (plus vast kuJos) lor any crypto-nut vho coulJ crack it anJ
Vartin GarJnor aJvortisoJ tho ollor in his Vath-
omatical Gamos` column (GarJnor 19) unJor tho provocativo titlo,
A Nov KinJ ol Ciphor That WoulJ Tako Villions ol \oars to Broak.`
lt JiJn`t, ol courso, lut tho 129-Jigit numlor knovn as PSA-129, vith
tho pullic oncryption koy 900, vas not solvoJ until April 26, 1994,
ly a toam loJ ly Arjon Ionstra, vho usoJ tho lntornot, 1,600 assortoJ
computors, anJ a novol lactorization algorithm calloJ tho guaJratic
{
siovo, lor oight months. Tho mossago roaJ, Tho magic vorJs aro
sguoamish ossilrago.`
PSA-129 114,381,625,5,888,86,669,235,9,96,146,612,010,218,
296,21,242,362,562,561,842,935,06,935,245,33,89,830,
59,123,563,958,05,058,989,05,14,599,290,026,89,543,
541
ll you lancy trying your hanJ at giant lactorizations, tho PSA Ialora-
torios (at vvv.rsasocurity.com) sponsor tho PSA lactoring Chal-
longo to oncourago rosoarch into largo-numlor lactorization anJ
computational numlor thoory.`
Eight challongo numlors aro postoJ on tho lntornot. Each numlor
is a scmiprimc, as usoJ in PSA oncryption.
Thoro aro prizos lor succosslul lactorization, lrom $10,000 lor tho
smallost 56-lit numlor to $200,000 lor 2048 lits. (ll you think you
can moot tho challongo, you can sulmit your lactorization to PSA
Ialoratorios onlino lor conlirmation.)
Thoso aro tho lirst tvo anJ tho last ol tho curront oight challongos.
Tho numlors aro JosignatoJ PSA-XXXX,` vhoro XXXX is tho num-
lor`s longth, in lits. Tho lirst has alroaJy loon lactoroJ:
challongo prizo status Jato solvor
PSA-56 $10K lactoroJ 1232003 J. lranko ot al.
PSA-640 $20K opon
. . .
PSA-2048 $200K opon
PSA-640, vith 193 Jocimal Jigits, is:
31041824049004321350500358885693003346022842
2545201619488232064405180815045563468296123286
824391622838033415410310850191954852900332
48228352542386454014691366024652346609
Tho prizos olloroJ may sounJ liko a small lortuno, lut tho vork
involvoJ is immonso: thoso aro PSA Ialoratorios` ovn ostimatos ol
tho rosourcos roguiroJ to lactor numlors ol various sizos
(in tho soconJ column, machinos` moans tho numlor ol 500
VHz Pontiums, or similar):
{
numlor longth (lits) machinos momory
430 1 trivial
60 215,000 4 Gl
1020 342,000,000 10 Gl
1620 1.6 I 10
15
120 Tl
(PSA Ialoratorios Bullotin =13)
Thoso Jata moan that a 512-lit koy vith 155 Jocimal Jigits (vhich is
still usoJ commorcially) can lo lactoroJ in a lov hours. NooJloss to
say, improvomonts in lactoring algorithms or in machino harJvaro
coulJ possilly lring largor koys vithin loasillo roach, such as tho lat-
ost Amorican plans lor a suporlast computor porlorming 250 trillion
calculations por soconJ.
PSA Ialoratorios also pullishos a Socrot-Koy Challongo aimoJ at
tho U.S. govornmont`s Jata oncryption stanJarJ (DES), vhich usos
only 56-lit koys. Tho iJoa is to uso lruto lorco to chock all possillo
koys, lrom tho simplost challongo, a 40-lit koy, to tho harJost, ol 128
lits.
ln January 1999, DistrilutoJ.not von an PSA Ials contost to
crack a mossago coJoJ using tho DES. Thoy took just tvonty-lour
hours using tho lroo timo ol 100,000 computors vorlJviJo, vhich
tostoJ ovor 250 lillion koys ovory soconJ. (PSA Ialoratorios, vvv.
rsasocurity.com)
-
Hank Aaron hit his 15th Vajor Ioaguo homo run on April 8, 194,
loating tho rocorJ ol 14 holJ ly Balo Puth. Carl Pomoranco, invon-
tor ol tho guaJratic siovo lactorization mothoJ, anJ tvo colloaguos
noticoJ that tho pair 14 anJ 15 havo somo curious anJ intorosting
proportios.
Tho numlor 14 2 I 3 I I 1, anJ 15 5 I 11 I 13, so 14 I
15 2 I 3 I 5 I I 11 I 13 I 1, tho proJuct ol tho lirst sovon
primos, or primorial.
Thoy thon JiscovoroJ on a computor that only primorials 1, 2, 3, 5,
anJ can lo roprosontoJ as tho proJuct ol consocutivo numlors, up
to primorial 3049.
{ -
Thoy also noticoJ that (14) 128 12
3
, vhilo tho ratio
(14) (14) 128192 9, a porloct sguaro.
Wo vill aJJ thoso aJJitional proportios:
- 2 3 1 5 11 13 29, anJ this is tho only vay to
split tho lirst sovon primos into tvo sots ol ogual total.
- ( (15) (480) 128, vhich is Joullo ( (14) (192)
64.
(Nolson, Ponnoy, anJ Pomoranco 194)
K-
H. l. Schork conjocturoJ on tho lasis ol ompirical oviJonco that tho
th primo, il is ovon, can lo roprosontoJ ly tho aJJition anJ sul-
traction ol all tho smallor primos, oach takon onco. lor oxamplo, 13
is tho 6th primo, anJ
13 1 2 3 5 11
Similarly, tho th primo, vhon is oJJ, can lo roprosontoJ unJor
tho samo conJitions, oxcopt that tho immoJiatoly smallor primo is
JoulloJ:
1 1 2 3 5 11 2 13
Tho conjocturo vas provoJ in 196 ly J. I. Brovn.
Chris Nash has provoJ that ovory intogor (groator than 1) is an
algolraic sum ol all tho primos loss than , or all tho primos loss than
oxcopt lor tho last. (Nash 2000)
Both Brovn anJ Nash usoJ Bcrtranu`s postulatc.
--
A somiprimo (or -) or 2-almost-primc has just tvo primo
lactors. Tho soguonco starts, 4, 6, 9, 10, 14, 15, 21, 22, 25 26 33 34 35
38 39 46 49 51 55, . . . (Sloano A001358)
- Thoro aro 299 somiprimos loss than 1000.
- All somiprimos aro ucficicnt, oxcopt lor 6, vhich is pcrfcct.
-- {
Noto that all tho somiprimos lrom 9 to 39 lorm pairs or triplots ol con-
socutivo somiprimos. Tho noxt such pairs aro 5-58, 85-86-8, 93-94-
95, 118-119, 122-123, 133-134, 141-142-143, 145-146.
ll tho primo lactors aro roguiroJ to lo Jistinct, thon tho lirst consoc-
utivo pair is 14 anJ 15, tho lirst consocutivo pair vith throo Jistinct
primo lactors oach is 230 2 5 23 anJ 231 3 11.
lour consocutivo somiprimos cannot oxist, locauso ono ol thom
voulJ lo Jivisillo ly 4 anJ havo at loast throo lactors.
J. P. Chon provoJ that ovory ovon numlor is tho Jilloronco lotvoon
a primo anJ a somiprimo.
- -
Soxy primos aro such that anJ 6 aro loth primo. (Soxy` comos
lrom tho Iatin lor six,` vhich as all schoolloys knov, is -) Tho soxy
pairs unJor 200 aro: 5-11, 11-1, 13-19, 1-23, 23-29, 31-3, 3-43, 4-
53, 53-59, 61-6, 6-3, 3-9, 83-89, 9-103, 103-109, 10-113, 131-13,
151-15, 15-163, 16-13, 13-19, anJ 191-19. (Sloano A023201)
Thoro aro ton ol tho lorm 6 1 anJ tvolvo ol tho lorm 6 1.
Tho soguonco ol soxy triplots starts: -13-19, 1-23-29, 31-3-43, 4-
53-59, . . . (Sloano A046118)
Tho soxy guaJruplots aro: (5-11-1-23), 11-1-23-29, 41-4-53-59, 61-
6-3-9, . . . (Sloano A02321) Tho lirst guaJruplot is in paronthosos
locauso it is tho only ono that Joos not start vith a unit Jigit 1.
Tho soxy guintuplot, 5-11-1-23-29, is uniguo sinco ono ol tho num-
lors must lo Jivisillo ly 5. Thoro is, ironically, no soxy soxtuplot.
tvin primos, cousin primos
K-
Tho gap lotvoon succosivo primos
anJ
1
is takon to lo
1
10
, vhoro
, anJ so on.
Thoro aro lorty-six 10-smooth numlors loss than 100, 140 loss than
1000, 332 loss than 10,000, anJ 58 loss than 100,000.
Carl Pomoranco usoJ smooth numlors to provo that thoro aro an inli-
nito numlor ol -, anJ thoy aro also usoJ in pri-
mality tosting anJ lactorization algorithms that olton JoponJ on
linJing smooth numlors vithin a givon rango.
|Pamanujan`sl highly composito numlors
-
Sophio Gormain (16-1831) vas ono ol tho vory oarliost lomalo
mathomaticians. Sho oJucatoJ horsoll at homo in tho lilrary ol hor
lathor, vho locamo a Jiroctor ol tho Bank ol lranco, anJ as a
thirtoon-yoar-olJ sho roaJ ol tho Joath ol ArchimoJos, killoJ ly a
Poman solJior as ho oxaminoJ a liguro tracoJ in tho sanJ, anJ
JociJoJ to locomo a mathomatician. At tho ago ol oightoon, sho
oltainoJ tho notos lor Iagrango`s locturos on analysis, posoJ as a stu-
Jont using tho namo Io Blanc, anJ sont a papor to Iagrango.
Extromoly improssoJ, ho JociJoJ to moot tho young author, anJ so
JiscovoroJ that ho` vas a voman. Thoy corrosponJoJ, anJ ho
incluJoJ somo ol hor rosults in his -, giving hor
croJit in a lootnoto.
A littlo lator, sho also vroto to Gauss unJor tho samo psouJonym,
having stuJioJ his --- , anJ ho vas also
astonishoJ vhon ho JiscovoroJ tho sox ol his corrosponJont,
romarking that Sophio Gormain provoJ to tho vorlJ that ovon a
voman can accomplish somothing in tho most rigorous anJ alstract
ol scioncos.`
Hor groatost achiovomont Juring hor lilotimo vas to vin tho prizo ol
- {
croation ol ChlaJni liguros (soon vhon sanJ is scattoroJ on a vilrat-
ing plato), lut sho is lost romomloroJ toJay lor tho Sophio Gor-
main primos. Thoso aro tho oJJ primos lor vhich 2 1 is primo,
too. Sho provoJ in 1823 il is a Sophio Gormain primo, thon thoro
aro no intogors, , , anJ , nono zoro, anJ not multiplos ol , such
that
1 anJ 4
31
496 is tho lirst countoroxamplo, 31 is primo lut JiviJos 49.
Evory ovon is triangular.
Pascal`s trianglo
aro,
2, 8, 35, 205, 1224, 8169, 58980, 440312, 3424506, 241269,
22436048, . . . (Sloano A00508)
Tho tvin primos conjocturo is that thoro is an inlinity ol thom. HarJy
anJ IittlovooJ vont lurthor anJ conjocturoJ that tho numlor ol
tvin primos loss than is approximatoly 2(log )
2
, vhoro
0.6601618158 . . . is tho -
ProviJoJ is groator than a cortain intogor, (vhich can in thoory
lo calculatoJ) thon
2()
vhoro
2
() is tho numlor ol pairs ol tvin primos loss than . (Brun
1920) lt vas Brun vho provoJ that tho sum ol tho rociprocals ol tho
tvin primos convorgos.
Jing-Pun Chon provoJ in 1966 that thoro is an inlinity ol primos
such that 2 is oithor primo or tho proJuct ol tvo primos. ll is
primo anJ 2 is oithor a primo or a -, thon tho numlor
ol such pairs loss than is at loast 1.05 I 2(log )
2
vhoro is tho
samo as loloro.
Tho curront rocorJ tvin primos aro 33218925 2
169690
1, vith
51,090 Jigits. (Papp, Jolling, Woltman, anJ Gallot 2002) This is voll
ahoaJ ol tho procoJing lour rocorJs:
tvin primos no. ol Jigits
60194061 2
114689
1 34,533
16519933 2
10520
1 32,36
318032361 2
10001
1 32,220
18031855 2
98305
1 29,603
(CalJvoll, -)
--
- Tho pair 659-661 is tho start ol a rocorJ-lroaking gap lotvoon
tvin primos: tho noxt pair is 809-811.
- All primos oxcopt 2 anJ 3 aro ol lorm 6 1, so all tvin
100
(log )
2
{ -
primos apart lrom 3-5 aro ol tho lorm 6 1 also. Noto that
120 6 20 is tho smallost intogor such that noithor 6 1 nor
6 1 is primo.
- Tho pair 60
2
30 30 1 is a tvin pair lor 1 to 13.
(Blanchotto: CalJvoll, -)
- Among primos ol tho lorm
4
1 thoro aro a surprising num-
lor ol tvins` lor vhich
4
1 anJ ( 2)
4
1 aro loth primo.
- This is tho soguonco ol lor vhich
4
1 is primo: tho tvins
aro in lolJ:
1, 16, 20, 24, 34, 4, 106, 118,
132, 154, 160, 164, 14, 180, 194, 198, . . . (Ial 196)
- Thomas P. Nicoly has calculatoJ (2004) that tho numlor ol
pairs ol tvin primos loss than 5 10
15
is 5,35,85,26,068.
(Nicoly 2004a)
- Nicoly has also calculatoJ tho numlor ol primo guaJruplots ol
tho lorm , 2, 6, anJ 8 to tho samo limit: it is
13,25,98,64. (Nicoly 2004l)
- Tho smallost triplot is 5-, 11-13, 1-19.
- Carlos Pivora has also lounJ thoso throo oxamplos ol triplos:
421-4219, 4229-4231, 4241-4243 vith common Jilloronco 12,
tho throo pairs starting 208931-208933 vith common Jillor-
onco 30, anJ tho throo pairs starting 2638206-26382069
vith common Jilloronco 30. Phil CarmoJy (2001) lounJ tho
triplot starting 123915461-123915463, also vith com-
mon Jilloronco 30. (Pivora, Puzzlo 122) J. K. AnJorson has
lounJ thoso tvo guaJratics such that () 1 is a pair ol tvin
primos lor 0 to 15:
() 4515
2
625 603900
() 12483
2
18245 834960
(Pivora, Prollom 44)
- {
--
HoaJlino Novs at mathvorlJ.vollram.comnovs has just
roportoJ ( July 9, 2004) that P. l. Aronstorl may lo closo to sottling
tho tvin primos conjocturo. A holo has loon lounJ in his prool`
(romomlor AnJrov Wilos anJ tho gap in his prool ol K- -
. . .) lut mathomaticians aro hopolul that it can lo lilloJ.
Brun`s constant, HarJy-IittlovooJ conjocturos, Vortons con-
stant
-
Stanislav Ulam (1909-1984) JiscovoroJ, or invontoJ, his spiral in
1963, vhilo sitting through a loring talk. His JooJlo lookoJ liko this:
{ -
Ho noticoJ at onco that tho primos soomoJ to sottlo onto cortain
Jiagonal linos, anJ roalizoJ that this vas locauso sguaros lying on
straight linos havo Jilloroncos that aro incroasing linoarly-so thoy
roprosont guaJratics. Honco, lt is a proporty ol tho visual lrain
vhich allovs ono to Jiscovor such linos at onco anJ also notico
many othor poculiaritios ol Jistrilution ol points in tvo Jimonsions,`
as Ulam anJ his covorkors romarkoJ in a 1964 papor pullishoJ in
tho (Stoin, Ulam, anJ Wolls 1964)
ln this liguro tho main Jiagonal is tho lunction
2
1. Tho noxt
liguro starts vith 41 anJ tho valuos ol K- lormula
appoar along tho markoJ Jiagonal.
Tho Joopor prollom is vhy somo guaJratic oxprossions proJuco
such a high proportion ol primos. Among tho valuos ol Eulor`s primo
guaJratic
2
41, ol tho lirst 2,398 numlors gonoratoJ ly tho lor-
mula, oxactly hall aro primos. Chocking all such numlors loss than
10,000,000, Ulam anJ his covorkors lounJ tho proportion ol primos
to lo 0.45.
lor tho guaJratic 4
2
10 184, tho proportion ol primos is
0.466, lor 4
2
4 59, it is 0.43. Othor guaJratics go to tho othor
oxtromo: only 5 ol tho proJucts ol tho lormula 2
2
4 11 aro
primo.
Eulor`s guaJratic, anJ tho roloronco in tho Somo Primo Wol
Sitos` soction ol tho lilliography to Dario Alporn`s Ulam spiral
applot
--
ll - anJ il - anJ havo no common lactor, thon - anJ aro uni-
tary Jivisors ol . By convontion, 1 anJ aro incluJoJ. So tho uni-
tary Jivisors ol 24 3 2
3
aro 1, 3, 8, anJ 24 only.
All tho Jivisors ol a numlor aro unitary, il anJ only il it is a primo
or tho proJuct ol Jistinct primos.
Eulor`s gonoralization ol lormat`s Iittlo Thoorom says that il ,
thon
( )
1 (moJ ). lt is also truo that il is a unitary Jivisor ol
, thon thoro is a numlor, , groator than 1, such that
(moJ
). lor oxamplo, 8 is a unitary Jivisor ol 24, although 8 anJ 24 aro
not coprimo, anJ 8
3
8 (moJ 24).
-- {
ll is tho sum ol all ol its unitary Jivisors it is unitary porloct. Uni-
tary porlocts aro naturally raror than orJinary porloct numlors. Tho
lirst livo aro: 6, 60, 90, 8360 2
6
3 5 13 anJ
2
18
3 5
4
11 13 19 3 9 109 15 313
aliguot soguoncos (sociallo chains), amicallo numlors
{ --
N M
ly Jack Bronnon
On 11 July 2001, tho longost knovn torminating unitary aliguot
soguonco vas computoJ to its tormination.
A unitary aliguot soguonco is constructoJ similarly to a stanJarJ`
aliguot soguonco, oxcopt that instoaJ ol aJJing Jivisors, ono aJJs up
unitary Jivisors. A unitary Jivisor D ol a numlor N satislios tvo
roguiromonts: D JiviJos ovonly into N, anJ D anJ N havo no com-
mon Jivisor othor than 1.
lt is conjocturoJ that all unitary aliguot soguoncos ovontually oithor
ontor a closoJ cyclo, or torminato ly roaching tho numlor 1. Cor-
tainly no countoroxamplo is knovn, anJ tho author has nov vorilioJ
tho conjocturo lor all starting numlors up to 400000000.
This nov vorlJ rocorJ` unitary aliguot soguonco logins vith tho
numlor 151244562, anJ torminatos 1665 stops lator ly roaching tho
numlor 1.
Tho largost momlor ol tho soguonco occurs at stop 4641, anJ is a
90-Jigit numlor: . . .
C90 2 3 3 3 3 503 968221399 P6
P6 125213544616359339118240880243681221282688
662016610951451950063883
ln all, thoro voro 40488 Jistinct primo lactors nooJoJ to comploto
this soguonco, anJ thus 40488 numlors voro provon primo. . . .
Tho computation ol tho soguonco occurroJ ovor a porioJ ol alout
29 vooks, using ono 450 VHz Pontium-ll on a lull-timo lasis, anJ
throo othor similar machinos on a part-timo lasis. . . .
( Jack Bronnon, vvv.lronnon.notprimos)
-
An untouchallo numlor is any numlor that cannot lo tho sum ol
aliguot parts (propor --) ol . ln othor vorJs, it is novor a valuo
ol () . Tho soguonco starts, 2, 5, 52, 88, 96, 120, 124, 146, 162,
18, . . . (Sloano A005114)
Tho only knovn oJJ untouchallo is 5, anJ it is conjocturoJ to lo
uniguo.
Tho numlors ol untouchallos loss than 10
lor 1, 2, 3, 4 . . . start,
2, 5, 89, 1212, . . . (Sloano A0598)
-
A numlor is voirJ il it is lut not -. Tho small-
ost voirJ numlor is 0, locauso its lactors sum to 4:
1 2 5 10 14 35 4
lut no sulsot ol thoso lactors sums to 0.
Thoro is an inlinito numlor ol voirJ numlors, incluJing tvonty-lour
unJor 10
6
. Tho soguonco starts,
0, 836, 4030, 5830, 192, 912, 922, 10430, 1050,
1092, 10990, 11410, 11690, . . . (Sloano A00603)
-
Thoso aro namoJ altor Arthur Josoph Alvin Wiolorich (1884-1954),
vho in 1909 pullishoJ a surprising critorion lor tho - - ol
K- - : il thoro oxist intogors , , such that
2
2
1
1. Such primos aro calloJ Wiolorich primos. (K-
says that il is primo, thon it JiviJos 2
1
1.)
- {
Tho only knovn Wiolorich primos aro 1093, JiscovoroJ ly W. Voiss-
nor in 1913, anJ 3511, JiscovoroJ ly N. G. W. H. Boogor in 1922.
(Sloano A001220)
PicharJ Vclntosh complotoJ a Wiolorich primo soarch, on Varch 9,
2004, up to 1.25 10
15
, vithout linJing any nov primos.
Tho tvo knovn Wiolorich primos loaJ to thoso curious Jigit pattorns
in linary: 1092
2
10001000100, 3510
2
110110110110.
ln 1910, Virimanoll aJJoJ that il tho lirst caso ol lormat`s Iast Tho-
orom is lalso lor oxponont , thon 3
1
1 is Jivisillo ly
2
.
Tho implios that thoro oxists an inlinity ol Wiolorich
primos. Tho numlor loss than is at loast log lor somo constant
. Hovovor, Silvorman also provoJ, in 1988, that il tho alc conjoc-
turo is truo, thon lor any groator than 1 thoro is an inlinity ol primos
, lor vhich
2
1
1.
Tho tvo valuos ol lotvoon 3 anJ 2
32
lor vhich
2
3
1
1 aro 11
anJ 1006003.
Curiously, vhon 99, thoro aro livo small valuos ol lor vhich
2
1
1: 5, , 13, 19, anJ 83. (Vontgomory 1993)
lt has loon conjocturoJ that tho prolalility that a primo is a
Wiolorich primo is 1. lt has also loon conjocturoJ that -
- vith primo oxpononts aro -. This is maJo highly
prolallo ly tho thoorom that il
2
2
25. (Kollor anJ Pichstoin 2004)
-K-
John Wilson (141-193) is only romomloroJ lor Wilson`s thoorom,
vhich statos that il is primo, thon ( 1)! 1 is Jivisillo ly , as
illustratoJ ly tho lirst lov primos:
{ -K-
2 3 5 11
( 1)! 1 2 3 25 21 3,628,801 ( 11 329,891)
lronically, Wilson vas not only not tho lirst to Jiscovor this thoo-
rom-it appoars in Ioilniz`s papors-lut ho JiJn`t provo it. Iagrango
JiJ that in 13, anJ also shovoJ tho convorso, that il tho oguation
is truo, thon is primo.
Wilson`s thoorom can lo oxprossoJ in Jilloront lorms. lor oxamplo:
( 2)! 1 0 (moJ )
2( 3)! 1 0 (moJ )
6( 4)! 1 0 (moJ )
anJ in gonoral: ( 1)!( )! (1)
0 (moJ )
lt lollovs lrom Wilson`s thoorom that il is an oJJ primo, thon
1
2
3
2
5
2
. . . ( 2)
2
(1)
( 1)2
(moJ )
anJ 2
2
4
2
6
2
. . . ( 1)
2
(1)
( 1)2
(moJ )
Wilson`s thoorom is a vory inolliciont vay ol proving that a num-
lor is primo: tho largost ovor provoJ ly its uso is prolally
1099511628401. (Pupinski: CalJvoll, -)
-
Wilson`s thoorom implios that anJ 2 aro a pair ol tvin primos
il anJ only il,
4(( 1)! 1) 0 moJ ( 2)
lor oxamplo, il 5, 4(( 1)! 1) 105 3 5 .
- -
A Wilson primo is a primo numlor such that ( 1)! 1 (moJ
2
).
Tho only knovn Wilson primos aro 5, 13, anJ 563, lounJ ly GolJ-
lorg in 1953, using an oarly oloctronic computor. Thoro aro no oth-
ors loss than 500,000,000.
By a - argumont, tho 4th Wilson primo might lo oxpoctoJ
rounJ alout 5 10
23
.
lt has loon conjocturoJ that tho prolalility that a primo is a Wil-
son primo is 1.
-K- {
-K- - -
Josoph Wolstonholmo (1829-1891) vas prolossor ol mathomatics at
tho Poyal lnJian Enginooring Collogo. Ho vas a lrionJ ol Ioslio
Stophon, vhoso Jaughtor, Virginia Wooll, vas a young girl vhon
Wolstonholmo sharoJ thoir lamily holiJays. Sho lator incorporatoJ
Wolstonholmo into ono ol hor most lamous looks, -,
as tho moJol lor Vr. Augustus Carmichaol.
ln 1862 Wolstonholmo provoJ that il is a primo, not 2 or 3, thon tho
numorator ol tho harmonic numlor,
1 12 13 . . . 1( 1)
is Jivisillo ly
2
. Tho numorators ol thoso sums aro calloJ tho Wol-
stonholmo numlors, anJ thoir soguonco starts,
1, 3, 11, 25, 13, 49, 363, 61, 129, 381, 8311, 86021, 1145993,
11133, 11955, 2436559, 42142223, . . . (Sloano A001008)
Similarly, tho numorator ol
1 12
2
13
2
. . . 1( 1)
2
is Jivisillo ly il anJ only il is primo. (Alkan 1994) Tho soguonco
ol thoso numorators starts,
1, 5, 49, 205, 5269, 5369, 266681, 1049, 98141, 1968329,
23943889, . . . (Sloano A00406)
Tho numorator ol 1 12
3
13
3
. . . 1( 1)
3
is Jivisillo ly
2
il anJ only il is primo anJ 5, anJ tho numorator ol 1
12
4
13
4
. . . 1( 1)
4
is Jivisillo ly il anJ only il is primo
anJ .
Charlos Ballago haJ noticoJ in 1819 that
1 (moJ
2
)
ln 1862, Wolstonholmo provoJ that
1 (moJ
3
)
2 1
1
2 1
1
{ -K- - -
lor oxamplo, lor :
13 12 11 10 9 8 6 5 4 3 2 1 116 5
3
1
Tho Wolstonholmo convorso-that il satislios tho congruonco thon
it is primo-has not loon provoJ, lut it is knovn to lo truo lor ovon
anJ vhon is a povor ol 3. (V. T. K. Wolor, vvv.mat.unl.lr)
ll tho samo congruonco is satislioJ (moJ
4
), thon is a Wolston-
holmo primo, lut to Jato only tvo aro knovn: 16843 anJ 212469.
(Sloano A088164) Thoro aro no othor Wolstonholmo primos loss than
6 4 10
8
.
- - -
Using Hisanori Vishima`s WorlJ lntogor lactorization Contor sito,
vhich is JoscriloJ in tho Somo Primo Wol Sitos` soction ol tho lil-
liography, vo linJ listoJ tho lolloving lactors ol tho Wolstonholmo
numlors that aro tho numorators ol tho sums 1 12
2
13
2
. . .
1( 1)
2
. Only thoso linos aro printoJ lor vhich oithor 1 is a
primo 2 1 is a primo, anJ in ovory caso or 2 1, or loth,
JiviJo tho numorator:
numorator
2 5
3
2
4 5 41
5 11 49
6 13 59
8 1 6339
9 19 514639
10 11 18939
11 23 43 242101
12 13 18500393
14 29 41 19029
15 31 3 9 1844659
16 1 619 8206663
18 19 3 8821 3851224
20 41 42195062598601
21 3 43 2621 8486899
22 23 295831 52030193
23 4 12 31411862913089
-K- - - {
26 53 0853 10635 8408339
28 29 41 462558551282481
29 59 6823 88932 2441122499011
30 31 61 463 621059 159352062213
31 43 205883 94993203164836381561
33 6 639 281550 4335581 539136331
35 1 13441 3532568548095886123
36 3 41 3 82163 300262389963246
39 9 10 821 26813093 240624262981001
40 41 34033 1260236851 2630288294624803
41 83 1413 6611909133130699230213331
42 43 3049 949 894400806243011161194199
44 89 13 5023 86696191 3831256052985081
46 4 1123 22152121 34121893 515918821496231
48 9 3389 63906681 64028661493 33811868955843
50 101 269 1451 658393 12026996395859283405512
-
Tho WooJall numlors, namoJ altor H. J. WooJall, vho pullishoJ an
account ol thom in 191 vritton vith , aro ol tho lorm,
2
,
thon tho
{
-
- P
--
Thoso oxplanations aro in aJJition to thoso maJo at tho onJ ol tho
introJuction. Vany torms aro oxplainoJ simply ly going to thoir
ontry, lor oxamplo, , -, or
--. Othors vill lo lounJ ly going to tho inJox, vhoro tho pago
numlor ol an ontry that oxplains tho torm is in A lov, such as
tho lirst throo oxamplos ol notation in this glossary, aro oxplainoJ in
tho toxt, lut it vill not lo olvious vhoro.