234 1

Linear Algebra I
2301234 Linear Algebra I
http://pioneer.netserv.chula.ac.th/myotsana/

yotsanan.m@chula.ac.th
2301234 1 (Linear Algebra I)

5
1

2
2

( 2.3.6)
3

4

-

5

1
( ) (
2301336
2 )
( )

2555
ii
iii
1.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2
37
2.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
2.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
2.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
3
73
3.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
3.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
3.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
4
99
4.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
4.2 - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
4.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
iii
4.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
4.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
5
139
5.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
5.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
5.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
157
158
iv
1.1
R m n
A : {1, 2, . . . , m} {1, 2, . . . , n} R
m n ( m n ) (m n matrix) R A
A = [aij ]mn
a11
a12
...
a21 a22 . . .
=
..
..
.
.
am1 am2 . . .
a1n
a2n
..
.
amn
aij i j A(i, j) i = 1, 2, . . . , m j =
1, 2, . . . , n m n m = n A (square
matrix) n
1n (row vector) m1 (column

vector) m n 0 (zero matrix)
0
(diagonal entry) A = [aij ]mn a11 , a22 , . . .

(main diagonal) A (diagonal matrix)

1
A = [aij ]mn B = [bij ]mn m n c A = B
aij = bij i = 1, 2, . . . , m j = 1, 2, . . . , n A B
A + B := [aij + bij ]mn

c A
cA := [c aij ]mn
B (1)B
1 3
1.1.1 A =
4 0
A B A + (B)
2
1 1 1
B =
5
7 5 2
1 3 2
1 1 1
+
A+B =
4 0 5
7 5 2
1 + 1 3 + (1)
2+1
0 2 3
=
=
4+7
0+5
5 + (2)
11 5 3

2 6 4
2(1) 2(3) 2(2)
1 3 2
=
=
2A = 2
8 0 10
2(4) 2(0) 2(5)
4 0 5
A, B, C 0 m n c d
1. A + B cA m n
6. c(A + B) = cA + cB
2. A + B = B + A
7. (c + d)A = cA + dA
3. (A + B) + C = A + (B + C)
8. (cd)A = c(dA)
4. A + 0 = 0 + A = A
9. 1A = A 0A = 0
5. A + (A) = (A) + A = 0
(linear equation) x1 , x2 , . . . , xn
a1 x1 + a2 x2 + + an xn = b
(constant term) b (coefficient) a1 , a2 , . . . , an

1.1.2
1. 4x1 5x2 + 5 = x3 x2 = 2( 3x1 4) + x3
2. 4x1 x2 = x3 2 x1 =
x2 + 3
1.1
(system of linear equations) (linear system)

x1 , x2 , . . . , xn x1 , x2 , . . . , xn
(solution) c1 , c2 , . . . , cn x1 , x2 , . . . , xn

(solution set)
2 (equivalent)
1.1.3
x1
+ x2
x3
= 1
2x1 + x2 3x3 = 2
x2 5x3 = 6
(1, 1, 1)
x1 , x2 , . . . , xn
a11 x1
a12 x2
+ ...
a1n xn
b1
a21 x1
+
..
.
a22 x2
+ ...
a2n xn
=
..
.
b2
am1 x1 + am2 x2 + . . .
+ amn xn = bm
m 1 ai1 x1 + ai2 x2 + + ain xn = bi i = 1, 2, . . . , m

1.1.4
4x + x = 9 . . . (1)
1
2
()
x1 + x2 = 1 . . . (2)
(2)
x2 = 1 + x1
(1)
4x1 + (1 + x1 ) = 9
x1 = 2 x2 = 1
{(2, 1)}
x
3x2 = 4 . . . (1)
1
()
3x1 + 9x2 = 8 . . . (2)
3 (1)
(2)
8 = 12
3x1 + 9x2 = 12
(1.1.1)
x
+ 2x2 = 3 . . . (1)
1
()
2x1 4x2 = 6 . . . (2)
2 (2)
x1 = 3 2x2
(1)
x1 + 2x2 = 3
2 x2 R
{(x1 , x2 ) : x1 = 3 2x2 x2 R}
{(3 2x2 , x2 ) : x2 R}
1.1.4 3
1.
2.
3.
( ) (consistent linear
system) (inconsistent linear system)
(1.1.1)
a
a12 . . .
11
a21 a22 . . .
A=
..
..
.
.
am1 am2 . . .
a1n
a2n
..
.
amn
(coefficient matrix)
a11
a12
...
a21 a22 . . .
~
[A | b] =
..
..
.
.
am1 am2 . . .
a1n
b1
a2n
..
.
b2
..
.
amn bn
(augmented matrix)
(elementary row operation)
1. [ (interchange)] p q Rpq
2. [ (replacement)] p c q (q 6= p)
p Rp + cRq
3. [ (scaling)] p c 6= 0 cRp
1.1

B (row equivalent) A B
A A A B
A B
1.1.1 2
1.1.5
x1
+ x2
x3
= 1
2x1 + x2 3x3 = 2
x2 5x3 = 6
1 1 1
A=
2 1 3
0 1 5
1 1 1 1
[A | ~b] =
2 1 3 2
0 1 5 6
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
2 1 3 2 0 1 1 0 2R1 + R2

0 1 5 6
0 1 5 6
1 0 2 1
R1 + R2
0 1 1 0
R3 + R2
0 0 6 6
1 0 2 1
R2
0
1
1
0
61 R3
0 0 1 1
1 0 0 1
R1 + 2R3
0 1 0 1 R2 R3
0 0 1 1
[A | ~b]
= 1
x1
x2
x3 = 1
{(1, 1, 1)}
1.1.6
x1
x2
= 0
2x2 + 4x3 = 3
x1 +
4x3 = 1
x2
1 1
[A | ~b] =
0 2
1
1 1
3
0 2 4 3
4 1
0 2 4 1
R3 R1
1 1 0 0
0 2 4 3
0 0 0 4
R3 + R2
4
x1
x2
= 0
2x2 + 4x3 = 3
0
= 4
1.1
1 0 2
4
3 1
B =
1. A =
3 5 1
3 2 0
3A, A + 2B B 2A
3 2 1 1
X 2(A X) = A + 1 X
2. A =
2
0 2 1 0
1.2
3. A =
3
4
X 2A X = 3(A + X)
1
4.
1 5 8 4
1 3 8
0 1 3 0
()
()
0 0 0
0 1 3
1
0 0 1 2
1 4 8 0
1 5 1
h
()
()
0 1 2 0
0 1 h
0 0 4 0
5.
()
x1 + x2 x3 = 0
2x + 3x = 22
1
2
() x1 x2 + x3 = 2
()
x1 x2 = 4
x + x2 + x3 = 6
3x3 = 8
= 5
x1
x1 3x2
()
x2 5x3 = 2 () x1 + x2 + 5x3 = 2
2x1 + 2x2 + 9x3 = 7

x2 + x3 = 0
6. 3
()
()
x1 + 3x2 = 4, x1 + 4x2 = 1 2x1 x2 = 3
x1 + 2x2 = 3, x1 + x2 = 1 x1 x2 = 2
1.2
1.1.5 1.1.6

1. 0 0
2. 0 [ (leading entry)]
3. 0
(echelon form)
4. 0 1 1 (leading 1)
5. 1 0
(reduced echelon
1 0 0
1.2.1 A =
0 1 0
0 0 1
form)
1 1 0 0
1
0 2 4 3
B
=
1
0 0 0 4
1
1.1.5 1.1.6 A
0 1
2
1.2.2
1.
2
0
0 3
1 0 4 3
0
2.
0
0
0
0
0 1 0 1
0
1 2 0
h
i
3. 0 4 0 3 2
0 0 4
0 0 0
1
0 0

0 0 0
0
1.2.3
0 0 0 0

0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0
6= 0
1.2.1

A
A (pivot position) A
(pivot column)
1.2.4
0 3 6 4
9
1 2 1 3
1
A=
2 3 0
3
1
1
4
5 9 7
1.2
A
A
A 0 0
R14 1 1
3 6

1 2 1 3
1 2 1
1

A=
2 3 0
2 3 0
3
1

1
4
5 9 7
0 3 6
9 7
3
3
4
R14
2 3 0
0 2
4
6 6
R2 + R1
0 5 10 15 15 R3 + 2R1
0 3 6
4
9
2 2 3 4
2 0
1 4 5 9 7
0 2 4 6 6
0 0 0 0
R3 5 R2
0
2
R4 + 32 R4
0 0 0 5 0
0 3 4 0 R34
0 0 1 2
A
1 4 5 9 7
0 2 4 6 6
0 0 0 5 0 R34
0 0 0 0
0
A 1, 2 4
2 3
10
1 1
1 4 5 9 7
0 1 2 3 3 1 R
2 2
1 R3
0 0 0 1
0
5
0 0 0 0
0
1 ( 2 4) 0
1 0 3
R1 4R2
0 1 2 3 3
0 0 0
1
0
0 0 0
0
0
R1 3R3
1 0 3 0 5
0 1 2 0 3 R + 3R
3
2
0 0 0 1 0
0 0
1 0 2 2
0 1 1 1
0 0 0 0
2x3 = 2
x1
x2 +
x3
= 1
= 0
x1 x2 x3
x1 = 2 + 2x3
x2 =
1 x3
x1 x2
x3 x1 x2 x3

x1 = 2 + 2x3
x2 = 1 x3
x3
11
1.2
(general solution)
x3

1.2.2 [ (Existence Theorem)]

h
0 0 ...
0 b
b 6= 0

1.
2.
1.2.2
3.
(basic variable)
(free variable)
4. ()
(general solution)

1.2.3 [ (Uniqueness Theorem)]

2
1.

2.
1.2.3 3

1.2.5
12
1.
x1
+ 2x2 + x3 + 3x4 = 12
3x2 + x3 + 2x4 =
2x1 +
x2
+ x3 + 4x4 = 21
1 2 1 3 12

0 3 1 2 7 0

2 1 1 4 21
0
0
0
0 0 0 0 4
12
2 3
R3 2R1
12
R3 + R2
4
2
3 1
2 1 3
3 1 2
0 0 0
1.2.2
2.
x1
2x2 + 2x3
x4
= 3
2x1 4x2 + 2x3 + 2x4 =
2x1 4x2 + 3x3
1 2 2 1 3
2 4 2
2 4 3
2
0
1 2
1 3
8
0 0 2 4 14 R2 2R1
0 0
1 2 7
1
R3 R2
1 2 2 1 3
0
0
2
4
14
0 0
0
0
0
R3 + 21 R2
1.2.2
1 2 0 1 11
0
0
1 2
R1 + R2
7 21 R2
0
13
1.2
x1 2x2
+ 3x4 =
11
x3 2x4 = 7
0
1 3 x1 x3 x2
x4
x1 = 11 + 2x2 3x4
x3 = 7 + 2x4
x2 x4
2 4 2 2
2 4 3 4
3.
4 8 3 2
0 0 1 2
2 4
2 4
2 4 3 4 0 0
1 2

R2 R1
4 8 3 2 0 0 1 2 R3 2R1
0 0 1 2
0 0 1 2
2 4 2 2
0 0 1 2
0 0 0 0 R3 + R2
R4 R2
0 0 0 0
1.2.2
1 2 1 1
0
0
0
1 2
0 0
0 0
1
2 R1
1 2 0
0
0
0
1 2
0 0
0 0
R1 R2
14
x1 2x2
x3 = 2
0
1 3 x1 x3 x2

x1 = 1 + 2x2
x3 = 2
x2
1 3 h

1.2.6 h
2 6 5
1 3
0
h
2h 5
R2 + 2R1
1.2.2
5
2h 5 = 0 h =

2
1.2
1.
(1.1)
1 0 2
()
()
0 1 4
1 0 0 0
0 1 1 0
()
()
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 1
(1.2)
0 3 0
0 1 0
()
1 2 0
0 0 1
0 0 0
0 1 5
1 0 0
1 0 0
0 1 0
() 0 1 3
0 0 1
0 0 0
0 0 0
0 0
0 0
0 1
0
15
1.2
2.
0 1 3
()
()
2
2 2 1
2
0 1 2
()
1
1
2 1 2
1 1 2
1 2 0
3. ( 6= 0)

0
()
()
0
0 0
0 0 0
0 0 0 0
0
1
()
()
0
0 0
0 0 0
4.
()
= 5
x1 3x2
()
6x1 17x2 + 4x3 = 28
x
+ 12x3 = 1
1
x1 + 3x2 + x3 = 2
()
x1 2x2 2x3 = 3
2x1 + x2 x3 = 6
3x1 + 2x2 2x3 = 3
2x
+ 3x2 3x3 = 7
1
()
2x1 + 4x2 + 2x3 = 2
5x
+ 2x2 + 4x3 = 15
1
x1 + 4x2 x3 + x4 = 2
3x + 2x
+ x3 + 2x4 = 5
1
2
()
x1 6x2 + 3x3
= 1
x
+ 14x2 5x3 + 2x4 = 3
1
1 3 4 7
2
()
()
3 9 7 6
6
1 7 0
6
5
3
() 0
() 9
0
1 2 3
1 7 4 2
6
7
1 3 0 1 0 2
0
0 1 0 0 4 1
()
()
0
0 0 0 1
9
4
0 0 0 0
0
0
0
1 1
3 3
4
12
8
4
5
4 0
6
2 5 6
1 6 3
0 5
5. h
16
1 h
()
()
0 h
1
()
()
1
h
6. a
x1
+ x2
x1
x2
x1
()
+ x2
()
2
5
+
+
x3
3x3
(a 10)x3
= a
()
7. 0 , , < 2 (nonlinear system)

2 sin
cos
2 sin
cos
6 sin
3 cos
tan
3 tan
tan
1.3
m m 1 m (Eu-
clidean m-space) Rm 0 (zero

vector) ~0 ~0m
~v1 , ~v2 , . . . , ~vp Rm c1 , c2 , . . . , cp R
~y = c1~v1 + c2~v2 + + cp~vp
(linear combination) ~v1 , ~v2 , . . . , ~vp (weight) c1 , c2 , . . . , cp

1
1
2

~

1.3.1 ~v1 =
1 , ~v2 = 3 b = 7
4
2
1
~
b ~v1 ~v2
x1 x2 x1~v1 + x2~v2 = ~b
x1~v1 + x2~v2 = ~b

1
1
2

x1
1 + x2 3 = 7
2
4
1
17
1.3
2x1 +
x2
x1
+ 3x2 = 7
x1
+ 2x2 = 4
2 1
1 2 4
R13
1 3 7 1 3 7
1 2 4
2 1 1
0
0
0
0
1.2.2
~b ~v1 ~v2
3
R2 R1
3 9
R3 R1
2 4
1 3
0 0
R3 + 3R1
1
~b ~v1 ~v2
1 0
0 1 3
0 0 0

R1 2R2
x1 =
x2 = 3
0
~b = 2~v1 + (3)~v2
x1 , x2 , . . . , xp
x1~v1 + x2~v2 + + xp~vp = ~b
(1.3.1)
~v1 , ~v2 , . . . , ~vp Rm (vector equation)
~v1 ~v2
~vp ~b

1.3.1 b ~v1 , ~v2 , . . . , ~vp
(1.3.1) [ (1.3.2)]
(1.3.2)
18
~v1 , ~v2 , . . . , ~vp Rm ~v1 , ~v2 , . . . , ~vp

Rm ~v1 , ~v2 , . . . , ~vp (subset of Rm spanned by ~v1 , ~v2 , . . . , ~vp )
Span{~v1 , ~v2 , . . . , ~vp }
Span{~v1 , ~v2 , . . . , ~vp } := {c1~v1 + c2~v2 + + cp~vp : c1 , c2 , . . . , cp R}
Span{~0} = {~0} ~0 ~v1 , ~v2 , . . . , ~vp Span{~v1 , ~v2 , . . . , ~vp }
Span{~v1 , ~v2 , . . . , ~vp } = Rm ~v1 , ~v2 , . . . , ~vp (span) Rm
1.3.2
2
2
1. Span 1 = c 1 : c R
3
3
1
2
1
2
2. Span 1 , 3 = c1 1 + c2 3 : c1 , c2 R
2
1
2
1
2 1
1.3.1 7 Span 1 , 3
4
1
2
1 0 0
, 1 , 0 = R3
3. Span
0

1
0
0
1.3.1 Span{~v1 , ~v2 , . . . , ~vp }
1.3.2 ~b Span{~v1 , ~v2 , . . . , ~vp }

(1.3.1) [ (1.3.2)]

2
1

1.3.3 ~v1 =
2 ~v2 = 3
5
3

1

~
b =
1 Span{~v1 , ~v2 }
3
1.3.2
h
~v1 ~v2 ~b
19
1.3
1
1 2
1 2 1
2 3 1 0
1 3

R2 + 2R1
3
5 3
0 11 0
R3 + 3R1
1 2
1
0
1
3
0 0 33
R3 11R2

1.2.2
~b Span{~v1 , ~v2 }

~v 6= ~0 R3
Span{~v } = {c~v : c R}
(line) R3 (direction vector) ~v
x3
x2
x1
2 ~v1 ~v2 R3 2
1. c 6= 0 ~v1 = c~v2 ~v1 ~v2
Span{~v1 , ~v2 } = Span{~v1 } = Span{~v2 }
2. ~v1 6= c~v2 c
Span{~v1 , ~v2 } = {c1~v1 + c2~v2 : c1 , c2 R}
(plane) R3 () ~v1
~v2 (plane spanned by ~v1 and ~v2 ) (normal vector) ~v1 ~v2
( (cross product) ~v1 ~v2 )
20
x3
x3
v2
v1
x2
x2
v2
v1
x1
x1
A m n A
~v1 , ~v2 , . . . , ~vn Rm ~x Rn A ~x

(product of A and x) A~x A
~x
h
A~x = ~v1 ~v2 . . .
x1
i
x2
~vn .
:= x1~v1 + x2~v2 + + xn~vn
..

xn
n n 1
(identity matrix) In In ~x = ~x ~x Rn
1.3.4

3
0
3

1
= 1 1 + 2 2 = 3
1.

1 2
2
1
1
1
1 1

1 1 4
x1
1
1
4

2. x1
2 + x2 1 + x3 1 = 2 1 1 x2
1 0 3
x3
1
0
3
~b Rm
A~x = ~b
(1.3.3)
(matrix equation) A ~x
1.3.1 (1.3.3)
(1.3.1) (1.3.2)
21
1.3
1.3.3 A m n ~b Rm
(1) A~x = ~b
(2) ~b A
(3) [A | ~b]

b1

1.3.5 A =
2 1 6 b = b2
b3
0 2 8
A~x = ~b ~b
b1 , b2 b3
1.3.3 [A | ~b]
b1
1 0 5
2 1 6 b2 0

0 2 8 b3
0
0
0
b1
1 4 2b1 + b2
R2 + 2R1
2 8
b3
0 5
b1
1 4
2b1 + b2
0 0 4b1 2b2 + b3
R3 2R2
1.2.2 4b1 2b2 + b3 = 0

A~x = ~b ~b
4b1 2b2 + b3 = 0
~
~
A b A~x = b
1

~b =
1 (4)(1) 2(1) + 1 = 5 6= 0
1
A A~x = ~b ~b
A m n A Rm ~b
Rm A
h
A = ~v1 ~v2 . . .
~vn
~v1 , ~v2 , . . . , ~vn Rm
A Rm Span{~v1 , ~v2 , . . . , ~vn } = Rm
22
1.3.4 A m n
(1) ~b Rm A~x = ~b
(2) A Rm
(3) A
Rm

3
1

1.3.6 ~v1 =
0 , ~v2 = 3 ~v3 = 2
2
7
1
{~v1 , ~v2 , ~v3 } R3
i
h
A = ~v1 ~v2 ~v3
A=
0
1
3
7
1 1
2
0 3 2
0 6
1
R3 + R1
2
1 1 3
0
3
2
0 0
5
R3 2R2
A
1.3.4 {~v1 , ~v2 , ~v3 } R3
A m n B n p ~b1 , ~b2 , . . . , ~bp

(product) A B AB mp A~b1 , A~b2 , . . . , A~bp
i
h
h
AB = A ~b1 ~b2 . . . ~bp := A~b1 A~b2 . . .
A~bp
23
1.3
2 3
1 0 2
B =

1.3.7 A =
1 1
3 4 1

2
0
1
1 0 2
= A A A
AB = A
1
4
3
3 4 1

2
3
2
3
2
3
= 1 + 3 0 + 4 (2) + 1
1
1
1
1
1
1
11 12 1
=
2 4 3
AB A B i
k AB i A k B
A = [aij ]mn B = [bjk ]np i j AB
(AB)ik = ai1 b1k + ai2 b2k + + ain bnk
1.3.7
2 3
1 0 2
AB =
1 1 3 4 1
2(1) + 3(3)
2(0) + 3(4)
2(2) + 3(1)
=
1(1) + (1)(3) 1(0) + (1)(4) 1(2) + (1)(1)
11 12 1
=
2 4 3
1.3.5 A m n B C

1. A(BC) = (AB)C
2. A(B + C) = AB + AC (B + C)A = BA + CA
3. r(AB) = (rA)B = A(rB) r
4. Im A = A = AIn
A n
Ak = AA
A}
| {z
k
24
1 0
4
B =
1.3.8 A =
2 1
3
1 0 4
AB =
2 1 3
AB 6= BA
1

2

4 1
1
=
5 0
2
4 1
1 0
6 1
BA =
3 2 2 1
7 2
BA AB
= 0 A = 0 B = 0
AB
0 0
0 0
1 0
AB =
B =
A =
0 0
1 0
0 0
A m n n m
A (transpose matrix) A AT
5 2
1 4
B = 1 3
1.3.9 A =
2 3
1 2
1
2
5
1
1
B T =
AT =
4 3
2 3 2
x1

h
x2
Rm ~v T = x1 x2
~v =
.
.
.

xm

~v T
1
T
h
i
~v2
m
T
A = ~v1 ~v2 ~vn ~vi R A =

..
.

~vnT
xm
1.3.6 A B

1. (AT )T = A
3. (rA)T = rAT r
2. (A + B)T = AT + B T
4. (AB)T = B T AT
25
1.3
(reverse order) A1 , A2 , . . . , Ak
A1 A2 Ak
(A1 A2 Ak )T = ATk AT2 AT1
1.3
1. ~v1 , ~v2 ~b ~b Span{~v1 , ~v2 }

1
2
1

~
() ~v1 =
1 , ~v2 = 1 ; b = 1
0
2
4

1
6
3

~
() ~v1 =
4 , ~v2 = 1 ; b = 7
5
5
0

7
2
1

~
() ~v1 = 5 , ~v2 = 2 ; b = 4
3
5
6

5
1
3
() ~v1 = 13 , ~v2 = 2 ; b = 8
3
3
1
2. ~v1 , ~v2 ~b h ~b ~v1 ~v2

1
2
4
3
1
h

~
~
() ~v1 = 4 , ~v2 = 3 ; b = 1
() ~v1 = 1 , ~v2 = 0 ; b = 5
2
7
h
8
2
3
3. A A~x = ~b

b1

~b = b2 b1 , b2 b3

b3
1 0 5
1 4 2
0 3
7
() A =
3
5
2 1 6 () A = 0
() A = 1 2 6
0 2 8
2 8 4
1 2 4
4. R3

0
2
0
1 3 4
2
()
,
()
,
,
()
0
5
0
4
0
3 2
6
1
0
2
0
3
5 1 8
26
5. h ~v3 Span{~v1 , ~v2 }

1
2
5

() ~v1 = 3 , ~v2 = 6 ~v3 = 9
2
4
h

3
1
1

() ~v1 = 5 , ~v2 = 2 ~v3 = h
3
3
3
1
3 2
1
3
0
3
0
1 1 1 1
1
1
6. A =
B =
1
0 4 2 8
2 3
2 8 2
2
0
3 1

() A R4 A~x = ~b
~b R4
() B R4 B~x = ~b
~b R4
7. c 6= 0 Span{~v1 , ~v2 , . . . , ~vp } = Span{c~v1 , c~v2 , . . . , c~vp }
1 2 3
4 1
1 2
C =
,B =
8. A =
1 2 0
0 1
2 1
AB, BA, (AB)T , AT B T , CA C T B
1
1
3
3
9. A =
2
6
A = 0
5
2 1 3
1 1 3
1 0 1
1
10. A = 2 0
1 , B = 1 1 3 C = 1
0 2 5
2 4 0
2
AB AC
0 1 2
X AT A = X
11. A =
4 2 3
2
1
AB =
12. A =
2 5
6
1
9 3
1
4
2
I3
B

2
0

T
T
T
T

13. ~u =
1 ~v = 4 ~u ~v , ~v ~u, ~u~v ~v~u
3
1
14. ~u ~v Rm ~uT ~v = ~v T ~u
27
1.4
1.4
(homogeneous linear system)
A~x = ~0m
A m n ~x Rn ~0m Rm
~0n Rn
(trivial solution)
(nontrivial solution)
A~x = ~0m
h
A ~0m
B ~0m
A
1.4.1 A~x = ~0m
A
1.4.1
x1
3x2 2x3 = 0
x2
x3
= 0
2x1 + 3x2 + 7x3 = 0

A=
0
3 2
1
3
1 3 2

0 1 1

0 3 3
R3 + 2R1
7
1 3 2
0 1 1
0 0
0
R3 + 3R2
28
3
1.4.1
1 0 5
R1 + 3R2
0 1 1
0 0 0
x1
5x3 = 0
x2
x3
= 0
= 0
x1 = 5x3
x2 = x3
x3

x1
5x3
5

~x =
x2 = x3 = x3 1
1
x3
x3

5

~x = t
1 t
1
1.4.2 x1 + 3x2 8x3 = 0
h
i
A = 1 3 8
x1 = 3x2 + 8x3
x2 x3
29
1.4
8
3
3x2 + 8x3
x1

~x = x2 =
x2
= x2 1 + x3 0 x2 , x3
1
x3
0
x3

~x = t1~v1 + + tp~vp
ti i = 1, . . . , p (parametric vector form)
(nonhomogeneous linear system)
1.4.3 A~x = ~b

1
1 3 2

~
A=
1 1
0
b = 2
4
2 3
7
[A | ~b] =
0
3 2 1
1
1 3 2 1
0 1 1 2
0 3 3 6
4
R3 + 2R1
1 3 2 1
0
1
1
2
0 0
0
0
R3 + 3R2
1.2.2
1 0 5 5
R1 + 3R2
0 1 1 2
0 0 0 0
x1
5x3 = 5
x2
x3
= 2
= 0
30
1 2 x1 x2 x3

x1 = 5 + 5x3
x2 = 2 + x3
x3

5
5
5 + 5x3
x1

~x =
x2 = 2 + x3 = 2 + x3 1 x3
1
0
x3
x3
A 1.4.3 1.4.1
1.4.3 ~x = p~ + ~vh ~vh
1.4.1 p~
1.4.3
1.4.2 A~x = ~b p~
(particular solution) A~x = ~b
~x = p~ + ~vh
~vh A~x = ~0
~x R3

x3
x2
3
x1
2
x3
1
2
1
x2
4 5x
1
23
31
1.4
{~v1 , ~v2 , . . . , ~vp } Rm (linearly independent)
x1~v1 +x2~v2 + +xp~vp = ~0m {~v1 , ~v2 , . . . , ~vp }
c1 , c2 , . . . , cp c1~v1 + c2~v2 +
+ cp~vp = ~0m

0
3

1.4.4 ~v1 =
3 , ~v2 = 5 ~v3 = 1
1
2
2
{~v1 , ~v2 , ~v3 } 3
x1~v1 + x2~v2 + x3~v3 = ~03
h
i
A = ~v1 ~v2 ~v3 =
3
1 3
1
0 4
0 4
1
1 3
0 4
0 0
1
R2 3R1
1
R3 + 2R1
0
R3 + R2
3 1.4.1 x1~v1 + x2~v2 +

x3~v3 = ~03 {~v1 , ~v2 , ~v3 } 3
x1
1 0
3
4
1
4
0 1
0 0 0
+
x2 +
3
4 x3
1
4 x3
= 0
= 0
= 0
R1 + 34 R2
1
4 R2
x1 = 43 x3
x2 = 41 x3
x3 = 4 x1 = 3 x2 = 1
3 3~v1 + ~v2 4~v3 = ~0
m n A A
A A~x = ~0
32
1.4.3 A A
1.4.5
A=
2 6 6
3
3 5
1
A=
2 6
3
6
0 6 0 R2 + 2R1
5
0 3
4
R3 3R1
1 0 3
0
6
0
0 0
4
R3 + 21 R2
A
A
1. ~v S S
2. {~v } ~v 6= ~0
3. {~v1 , ~v2 } c ~v1 = c~v2
4. S = {~v1 , ~v2 , . . . , ~vp }
S S
5. S = {~v1 , ~v2 , . . . , ~vp } p Rm p > m S

33
1.4
1.4.6

1
0 1 0
1
0
, 1 , 0 ,
S1 = , , , S2 =
0

2
3
1
1
0
0

6
2
1 3 0

,
,
,
S
=
,
S3 =
1 3 4 3 5 1
1
2
2
3
1
1.4
1.
2x1 5x2
8x3
()
4x1 + 2x2 + 7x3 = 0
2x1 7x2 + x3 = 0
x
2x2 + 6x3 = 0
1
()
5x1 + 3x2 2x3 = 0
2x1 + 2x2 + 4x3
x2 3x3 + x4
()
3x1 + x2 + x3 + 2x4
x
+ 3x 2x 2x
1
x1
()
x1
2x1
=
2x2
9x3
3x2
7x3
4x3
x2
2. A~x = ~0 A
1 3 4 7
1 3 7 1
()
()
()
0 1 2 2
0 1 4 0
0
0 0 1 5
0 0 0 1
0 1 2 5
1 4 2 0 3 5
0 0 1 7
0 1
0 0 1 1
()
()
0 0 0
0 0
0
0 1 0 4
0 0 0
0
0 0
0 0 0
0
3.
x1 + 3x2 + x3 = 0
() 4x1 + 9x2 2x3 = 0
()
3x2 + 6x3 = 0
x1
x1
3x1
3x2
4x2
7x2
0 0
0 1
8
4 0
0
2 1
5x3
9x3
8x3
4.
34
x1 + 3x2 + x3 = 1
x1
()
() 4x1 + 9x2 2x3 = 1
x1
3x1
3x2 + 6x3 = 3
3x2
4x2
7x2
5x3
9x3
8x3
5. a
x1
2x2
x3
x1
3x2
6x3
2x1
3x2
+ ax3

6.
2x1
2x1
2x1
() = 0
() = 1
x2
x2
+ x3
= x2
2x2
+ x3
= x3
= x1
() = 2
7.

2
4
1
3
4
1
0
1
1

() 1 , 0 , 1 () 0 , 1 , 1 () 2 , 8 , 2
1
8
2
4
3
1
1
1
0
8.
0 8 5
1 0 3
0
3 7 4
5 4 6
3
0 1
()
()
()
()
1
3 2
1 3 2
0 1 4
1 5 4
4 3 0
1
9.

3
2
1
1
3
1

5 , 9 , h
, 5 , 5
()
()
1

9
6
3
h
7
4

1 h 1
1 1 2
() 1 , 1 , h
() 3 , 0 , 3
1
1
h
8
h
4
10. S = {~v1 , ~v2 , . . . , ~vp } Rm
c 6= 0 {c~v1 , c~v2 , . . . , c~vp }
0 7
5 1
1 3
35
1.4
1.1
1.3A =
"
06
3
9
15 3
, A+2B =
"
, B2A =
"
#
3
2
"
; 2.
7.5
2.5
2.5
2.5
0
0
0.5
3. 0.75
1
; 4.(), (), (), ();
0.25
0.25
"
#"
#
1 1
1 1 4
5.()
/
/ x1 = 2, x2 = 6,
2
3
22
2
3

1
1
1 0
1
1
1

()
1
2
1
/ 1 1
1 1
/ x1 = 1, x2 = 2, x3 = 3,
1
1
1
1
1
1
6

1 0 3
1 0 3
8

()
5
5
2
/ 0 1
/ x1 = 5, x2 = 3, x3 = 1,
0 1
2 2
9
7
2 2
9

1
3 0 5
1
3 0

()
1
5
1
5 2
/ 1
1
/ x1 = 2, x2 = 1, x3 = 1; 6.(), ()
0
1
1
0
1
1 0
1.2
1.(), (), (), (),
(), ();
"
#
1
1 0 2.5
2.()1,2 /
, ()1,2 /
0
0 1
3
0
0
1
0
0.5
1.5
0
1
, ()1,3 / 0
0
0
0
;
1
3.() , (), () , () ; 4.() (x1 = 1 12x3 , x2 = 2 4x3 , x3

), (), (), () (x1 = 1.6 + 0.6x3 0.6x4 , x2 = 0.1 + 0.4x3 0.1x4 , x3 x4 ), () (x1 =
3 3x2 , x3 = 3 x2 ), (), () (x1 = 5 + 7x2 6x4 , x3 = 3 + 2x4 , x2 x4 ), ()
(x1 =
4
x , x3
3 2
= 0 x2 ), () (x1 = 5 + 3x4 , x2 = 1 + 4x4 , x3 = 4 9x4 x4 ), ();
5.()h 6= 2, () h R, () h R, ()h 6= 0; 6.() a = 3, () a 6= 3, 3, () a = 3;

7. =
, = , = 0
2
1.3
1.(), (), (), (); 2.()h = 17, ()h = 3.5; 3.()4b1 2b2 + b3 = 0, ()2b1 + b3 = 0,
" # " #
17
8
12
; 12. 7 , 8
() ~b, 4.(), (), (); 5.()h = 10, ()h = 8; 6.(), (); 11.
8
6
8
4
5
12 8
14

3 x , x R, ()~
~
1.4 1.()~
x=
x
=
0,
()~
x
=
4 3 3
4x3 , x3 R,
1
1

19
47
1

4
8
1

x=
x= x4 , x4 R, ()~
()~
x = x4 , x4 R; 2.()~
x3 , x3 R,
1
5
0

0
1
1
17
8

0
1

9
1
2
19
0

5
3
0

1
1
0

7
0
0
0
1

0
0
1

x= 0x1 + 1 x4 +
x = x3 + x5 + x6 , x3 , x5 , x6 R, ()~
()~
x = 0x2 + 2 x4 + 1x5 , x2 , x4 , x5 R, () ~

4
0
0
0
0
1
0

0

0
1
0

0
1
0
0

0
1
0
0
0
0
36

0
0

6
0

2
4

0x5 + 0 x7 , x1 , x4 , x5 , x7 R;

0
1

0
0

1
0

4
5

3 x3 , x3 R;
x3 , x3 R, ()~
x
=
3.()~
x=
2

1
1

5
4
2
5

3 x3 + 3 , x3 R;
x3 + 1 , x3 R, ()~
x
=
4.()~
x=
2

0
1
0
1

9
12
21

5.a = 3 / ~
x=
x = ~0, ()~
x=
x=
5x3 , x3 R; 6.()~
2 x3 , x3 R, ()~
0 x3 , x3 R;
1
1
1
7.(), (), (); 8.(), (), (), (); 9.()h 6= 6, ()h R, ()h 6= 4, ()h 6= 1, 2
2.1
A m n T : Rn Rm
T (~x) = A~x
~x Rn (matrix transformation)

1
5
1 7

, ~b = 3 , ~c = 3
2.1.1 A =

1 3, ~u =
2
2
2
3
5

x1
T : R2 R3 T (~x) = A~x ~x = R2
x2

1 7
7
x1 + 7x2
1
x1

x1
= x1 1 + x2 3 = x1 3x2
T =
1 3

x2
x2
3
5
5
3x1 + 5x2
3
() T (~u)
15

1
= 7
T (~u) = T =
1
3(2)

2
7
3(1) + 5(2)
1 + 7(2)
() ~x T (~x) = ~b
37
38
T (~x) = A~x A~x = ~b

[A | ~b]
[A | ~b] =
1

3
x1
= 2
~x =
x2
12
7
5
3
2
1 0
3
0 1 2
2
0 0 0
() ~x ()
~x
() ~c T
~c T ~x R2 T (~x) = ~c
A~x = ~c [A | ~c]
[A | ~c] =
1
3
0
2
0
1 7
4
0
26 1
0
4
0 25
1.2.2 A~x = ~c
~c T
T : Rn Rm (linear transformation)
~u, ~v Rn c
T (~u + ~v ) = T (~u) + T (~v )
T (c~u) = c T (~u)
1. T Rn Rm ~u, ~v
Rn c d
T (c~u + d~v ) = cT (~u) + dT (~v )

2. T : Rn Rm
T (~0n ) = ~0m
T (~v ) = T (~v ) ~v Rn
m n A ~u, ~v Rn c A(~u + ~v ) =
A~u + A~v A(c~u) = c(A~u)
2.1
39
2.1.1
2.1.2
() T (x1 ) = sin x1
sin( 6 ) =
sin( 6 )
6=
1
6
1
2
1
6
sin = 0
sin
x
1
x1
1e
() T =
x1 + 3x2
x2

0
0
1
1
0
= + T =
6
2
1
1
2

1
1
2+e+e
1+e
1+e
1
1
=
+
T + T =
6
4
2
1
1

x1
() T = x21 + x22
x2

0
0
T = 4 2T = 2(1) = 2
2
1
2.1.3 r T : R2 R2
T (~x) = r~x ~x R2
T (contraction) 0 < r < 1 T (dilation)
r > 1 ~x, ~y R2 c R
T (~x + ~y ) = r(~x + ~y ) = r~x + r~y = T (~x) + T (~y )
T (c~x) = r(c~x) = (rc)~x = (cr)~x = c(r~x) = cT (~x)
T
r = 0.5
40
2.1.4 T : R2 R2
T (2~u) T (3~u ~v )

1
T (~u) =
2

2
T (~v ) =
5
T

2
1
T (2~u) = 2T (~u) = 2 =
4
2

1
2
1
T (3~u ~v ) = 3T (~u) T (~v ) = 3 =
2
5
1

1
0

1
0
2.1.5 ~e1 = , ~e2 = , ~y1 = 0 , ~y2 = 1
0
1
2
1
3 T (~
T : R2 R
e1 ) = ~y1 T (~e2 ) = ~y2

x1
3
(image) T
2
x2
41
2.1
T

3
= 3~e1 + 2~e2
2

x
1 = x1~e1 + x2~e2
x2

3
T = T (3~e1 + 2~e2 )
2
= 3T (~e1 ) + 2T (~e2 )
= 3~y1 + 2~y2

3
0
1

= 3
0 + 2 1 = 2
8
1
2
T : R2 R3
x2
1
0
8
6
x2
2
4x
3
2
1
3
2
1
x1
1 x
1

x1
T = T (x1~e1 + x2~e2 )
x2
= x1 T (~e1 ) + x2 T (~e2 )
= x1 ~y1 + x2 ~y2

x1 + x2
0
1
= x1
0 + x2 1 = x2
2x1 + x2
1
2

1 0
x1
x1

T =
0
1
x2
x2
2 1
42
2.1.6 T : R2 R3

4
2

3
4
= 2
= 1 T
T
1
1
1
1

x1
x1
T R2
x2
x2

x1
4
3

x2
1
1
c1 c2

4
x1
3
= c1 + c2
1
x2
1
4 3 x1
1 1 x2
1 0
x1 3x2
0 1 x1 + 4x2

3
4
x
1 = (x1 3x2 ) + (x1 + 4x2 )
1
x2
1

x1
4
3
T = T (x1 3x2 ) + (x1 + 4x2 )
x2
1
1

4
3
= (x1 3x2 )T + (x1 + 4x2 )T
1
1

4
2

= (x1 3x2 )
1 + (x1 + 4x2 ) 2
1
1
2x1 + 10x2
=
3x1 11x2
2x1 + 7x2

2 10
x1
x1

T =
3 11
x2
x2
2
7
43
2.1

T Rn Rm A m n T (~x) = A~x
~x Rn
T : Rn Rm
j = 1, 2, . . . , n ~ej j In
m n A j T (~ej ) j = 1, 2, . . . , n
~x Rn
~x = x1~e1 + x2~e2 + + xn~en
T (~x) = T (x1~e1 + x2~e2 + + xn~en ) = x1 T (~e1 ) + x2 T (~e2 ) + + xn T (~en ) = A~x

2.1.2 T : Rn Rm m n A
j T (~ej ) ~ej j In
j = 1, 2, . . . , n
h
A = T (~e1 ) T (~e2 )
T (~en )
mn
T (~x) = A~x ~x Rn T
A 2.1.2 (standard matrix) T
2.1.7 T (~x) = r~x ~x R2

r
0
T (~e1 ) = r~e1 = T (~e2 ) = r~e2 =

0
r
r 0
T

A =
0 r

x1
(x1 , x2 )
x2
T T (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) T ((x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ))
2.1.8 T : R3 R4 T (x1 , x2 , x3 ) = (x1 + x2 , x2 + 2x3 , 0, x2 ) T
A T
44

x1 + x2
1
1
0

x1
0
1
2

x2 + 2x3

x2 =
T
=
x
+
x
+
x

1
2
3

0
0
0
0

x3
x2
0
1
0
1 1 0
0 1 2 x1

=
x
0 0 0 2
x3
0 1 0
2.1.1
T A =
0
0
T Rn Rm
1 0
1 2
0 0
1 0
1. T (onto) Rm
~b Rm ~x Rn T (~x) = ~b
2. T (one-to-one) T 1-1
~x ~y Rn T (~x) = T (~y ) ~x = ~y
T
2.1.3 T : Rn Rm T
T (~x) = ~0m
A T
1.3.4 1.4.3
T
2.1.4 T : Rn Rm A T
1. T Rm A Rm
A
2. T A
45
2.1
2.1.9
2 1
A=
0 2
2
3 6 3
1-1

1 2 1
2 1

0 4 0
A=
2
0
2

0 0 6
3 6 3
A
2.1.4 T 1-1
2.1.10 2.1.8 1-1
A T
A=
0

1 0
1

1 2 0
0 0
0
1 0
0

1 0
1

0 2 0
0 0
0
1 0
0
1 0
1 0
0 2
0 0
A
2.1.4 T 1-1
2.1.11 T : R3 R5
T : R3 R5 5 3
A 3 A 5 A
2.1.4 () T
T : R3 R5
46
2.1
1. A = 0
3
4
1
7
4
9
5
1

3 b = 1
6
0
~x R4 T : ~x 7 A~x
~b T
2. A =
0
1 2 3
3 0 5
0

1

3

~b =
1

4
~x R4 T : ~x 7 A~x
~b T
3. T (~x) = A~x A ~b ~x
T (~x) = ~b ()
1 2 0
1
1 3 2
6
~
~
() A =
() A =
0 1 3 , b = 2
2 1 6 , b = 12
3 2 8
3
3 5 9
5

1 2 1
1
1 7 5 ~
1
3 4 5 ~ 9
, b = () A =
() A =
,b =
3 5
7
3
3 5 4
6
0
4.

x1
2x1 3x2
x1
() T =
() T = |x1 | + |x2 |
x2
x2 + 4
x2
5. T A T (~x) = A~x
T
() T (x1 , x2 ) = (x1 x2 , x2 , 2x1 + x2 )
() T (x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 ) = (x2 x3 , 0, x1 x2 , x3 x4 )
() T (x1 , x2 , x3 ) = (x1 , x2 + x3 , x1 2x3 )
() T (x1 , x2 , x3 ) = (x1 2x2 + x3 , 5x1 x2 + 3x3 , 4x1 + x2 + 2x3 )
6.
() T : R6 R4
() T : R5 R8
() T : R3 R3
7. T A T
T
2.2
47

1
1
1
0
() T : R2 R2 , T = T =
3
1
1
1

1
1
0
0
0
1

3
3

() T : R R , T
1 = 1 , T 0 = 0 T 1 = 0
0
0
0
1
0
0
2.2
H Rm
1. ~0m H
2. ~u, ~v H ~u + ~v H
3. ~u H c c~u H
(subspace) Rm
2.2.1
1. {~0m } Rm Rm
2. {(x1 , x2 ) R2 : x1 = x2 } R2 ( 2.2.3)
3. {(x1 , x2 ) R2 : x21 = x2 + 3} R2
(0, 0)
4. H = {(x1 , x2 , x3 ) R3 : sin(x1 + x2 + x3 ) = 0} R3
/H
(, 0, ) H 61 (, 0, )
2.2.1 ~v1 , ~v2 , . . . , ~vp Rm H = Span{~v1 , ~v2 , . . . , ~vp }
H Rm Rm ~v1 , ~v2 , . . . , ~vp
(subspace of Rm spanned by ~v1 , ~v2 , . . . , ~vp )
H = Span{~v1 , ~v2 , . . . , ~vp } = {c1~v1 + c2~v2 + + cp~vp : c1 , c2 , . . . , cp R}
~0m = 0~v1 + 0~v2 + + 0~vp ~0m H

~u, ~v H c
~u = a1~v1 + a2~v2 + + ap~vp ~v = b1~v1 + b2~v2 + + bp~vp
48
a1 , a2 , . . . , ap , b1 , b2 , . . . , bp R
~u + ~v = (a1~v1 + a2~v2 + + ap~vp ) + (b1~v1 + b2~v2 + + bp~vp )

= (a1 + b1 )~v1 + (a2 + b2 )~v2 + + (ap + bp )~vp
c~u = c(a1~v1 + a2~v2 + + ap~vp ) = (ca1 )~v1 + (ca2 )~v2 + + (cap )~vp
~u + ~v H c~u H H Rm
i
h
A = ~v1 ~v2 . . . ~vn ~v1 , ~v2 , . . . , ~vn Rm m n
Rm A (column
space) A Col A
Col A = Span{~v1 , ~v2 , . . . , ~vn }
Span{~v1 , ~v2 , . . . , ~vn } = {x1~v1 + x2~v2 + + xn~vn : x1 , x2 , . . . , xn R}
Col A = {A~x : ~x Rn }
1.3.2
b Col A
A ~b
5
3 2

2.2.2 A = 0
1 1 b = 4
2
2 3
7
~b Col A
i
h
A ~b
3 2 5
1
1 3 2
1 3 2 5
4
4
0 1 1
0
2
0 3 3 12
0
1.2.2 ~b Col A
m n A ~x 7 A~x Rn Rm
2.1.2
T
range T = {A~x : ~x Rn } = Col A
A T
49
2.2
2.2.2 T : Rn Rm A T
T A
Rm
m n A A~x = ~0m (null
space) A Nul A
Nul A = {~x Rn : A~x = ~0m }
2.2.3 m n A Rn
A~0n = ~0m ~0n Nul A
~u, ~v Nul A c
A~u = ~0m A~v = ~0m
A(~u + ~v ) = A~u + A~v = ~0m + ~0m = ~0m
A(c~u) = c(A~u) = c~0m = ~0m
~u + ~v Nul A c~u Nul A Nul A Rn
2.2.3
x
x
h
i
h
i
i
h
x
1
1
1
2
= Nul 1 1
= 0
: 1 1
R : x1 = x2 =
H=
x2
x2
x2
H R2
3 2
2.2.4 A =
1 1
0
2.2.2
2 3
7

1.4.1 Nul A = Span

1
1
1
(basis) H Rm B H
H B H Span B = H
2.2.5 j = 1, 2, . . . , m ~ej j
Im 1.3.4 1.4.3 Im Rm
{~e1 , ~e2 , . . . , ~em } Rm (standard basis) Rm
50
3 2
2.2.6 2.2.4 A =
1 1
0
2 3
7

Nul A = Span 1 1
1
1

5
Nul A
B =
1

1
1
Col A
2.2.4 A m n A
Col A
3 2
2.2.7 Col A A =
1 1
0
2 3
7

1 3 2
1 3 2
3 2
0 1 1 0 1 1
0
1
1
0 0
0
0 3 3
2 3
7
3
1
0 , 1 Col A
3
2
H Rm B H C
H |B| = |C| H
(dimension) H dim H Span = {~0m }

dim{~0} = 0
2.2.8 {~e1 , ~e2 , . . . , ~em } Rm

dim Rm = m
51
2.2
A (rank) A rank A
A (nullity) A nullity A
rank A = dim Col A
nullity A = dim Nul A
3 2
2.2.9 A =
1 1
0
2.2.7 rank A = 2
2 3
7
1
2.2.6 nullity A = 1
2.2.10
H = {(x1 + 2x2 , x2 + x3 , x1 + x2 + x3 ) : x1 , x2 , x3 R}
R3 H
x
+
2x
2
H=
x2 + x3 : x1 , x2 , x3 R
x1 + x2 + x3

1
2
0
= x1 0 + x2 1 + x3 1 : x1 , x2 , x3 R
1
1
1

0
2
1
2
0
1
,
= Span
,
= Col A A =
1
1
0 1 1
0
1
1
1 1 1
1
H R3

1 2 0
1 2 0
1 2 0

0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1

0 0 0
0 1 1
1 1 1
1
2
1 2
, 1 H

0

1
1
dim H = 2
52
2.2.11
H = {(x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 ) R4 : x1 + x2 = x3 + x4 x1 + x2 + x3 + x4 = 0}
R4 H
x
1
x
+
x
x
=
0
1
2
3
4
2
4
H= R :
x3
x1 + x2 + x3 + x4 = 0
x4
x
x
1
1
x
0
x
1
1
1
1
2
2
4
= R :
=
x3
0
1 1 1
1
x3

x4
x4
o
n
= ~x R4 : A~x = ~02 = Nul A
1 1 1 1
H R3
A =
1 1 1
1
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
1 1 0 0
1 1 1
1
0 0 2
2
0 0 1 1
x1 + x2 = 0
x3 + x4 = 0
x1 = x2
x3 = x4

0
1
x2
x1

0
1
x x

2 2
~x = =
= x2 + x4
1
0
x3 x4

1
0
x4
x4
A~x = ~02

0
1
1 0

H = Nul A = Span ,
0 1
1
0
53
2.2
1
0
1 0

, H dim H = 2
0 1
0
1
2.2.12
0
1 1 0
A = 2 3 0 1
0 1 0
0
1
0 1
rank A nullity A
1 1 0 3
1 1 0
3
0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0
0
1
1
0
2 3 0 1 0 5 0
0
0
5
5
5
0 1 0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
1
1
0 0
0 0
0 1
0 1
0
1
0 1
3

1, 2

1
1
0
0
1
1
, 3 , 0 Col A

2

0 1 0
0
1
0
rank A = 2
1 1 0
0

0 1 1
0

0 0
0
0
0 1
0 0
0 0
1 0 1
0 1 1
0 0 0
0 0 0 0
54
x1 + 2x4 = 0
x2 x4
= 0
x3 x4
= 0
x1 = 2x4
x2 =
x4
x3 =
x4

2
2x4
x1

1
x x

2 4
~x = =
= x4 A~x = ~05
1
x3 x4

1
x4
x4

H = Nul A = Span
1

Nul A nullity A = 1
m n A rank A A
nullity A A~x = ~0m

A
2.2.5 [ (Rank Theorem)]
A m n
rank A + nullity A = n
2.2.13 A 10 12 nullity A = 7
2.2.5 rank A = 12 7 = 5
2.2
1. R3

0
6
5
1
7
5

() 1 , 3 , 7 () 1 , 0 , 1
2
5
4
2
5
2

1
6
2
4
3
0

()
()
5 , 1
2 , 1 , 2 , 5
3
2
1
1
0
0
55
2.2
2. R4

1
2
4
3
1
1
2
0
3

3 1 5 9
4 1 3 2 8

() , , ,
() , , , ,
2 4 3 6
7 2 1 6 9

4
2
7
12
7
5
6
8
5
3. H R3 H
() H = {(x1 , x2 , x3 ) R3 : x1 + |x2 | = 0}
() H = {(x1 , x2 , x3 ) R3 : x1 2x2 + x3 = 0}
() H = {(x1 , x2 , x3 ) R3 : x21 + x22 + x23 = 1}
() H = {(x1 x3 , x2 , 0) R3 : x1 , x2 , x3 R}
() H = {(x1 , x2 , x3 ) R3 : x21 + x22 + x23 = 0}
() H = {(x1 , x2 , x3 ) R3 : x1 + x2 + x3 = 0 x2 x3 = 0}
4. A rank A nullity A
3
2
1 5
1 1 3
() A =
() A =
2 5 1
9
7 6 2
9 4 1
7
5 4 4
1
2 3
1 2 6 5
4 5 9 2
5 1 0
() A =
() A =
0 1 5 6
6 5 1 12
0
12 7
0 0 0 0
3 4 8 3
2 5 4
1 4 8 3 7
1 4 8 0 5
1 2 7 3
4 0 2 5 0 1
() A =
3 6 9 5 2 0 0 0 1 4
2 2 9 5
5
0 0 0 0 0
1
2
0
2
1 2 0
2
2 5 5
0 1 5 10

() A =
1
0 3 15 18 0 0 0
0 2 10 8 0 0 0
0
5. A 4 6
() Nul A R4
() nullity A 2
() rank A = 3 nullity A = 3
() A 4 Col A = R
() rank A 2
6. T : Rn Rm A T
T 1-1 nullity A = 0
56
2.3
A n C AC = In = CA C
(inverse matrix) A
B A
B = BI = B(AC) = (BA)C = IC = C
A A1
(singular matrix)
(nonsingular matrix)
2 2
a b
2 2 A
2.3.1 A =
c d
A1 =
ad bc 6= 0
d b
1
ad bc c a
a b
ad bc (determinant) A
A =
c d
det A A 2 A
det A 6= 0
2
5

2.3.1 A =
3 7
7 5
7 5
1
A1 =
2(7) 5(3) 3
2
3
2
2
5

2.3.2 A =
3 7
2x1
+ 5x2 = 1
3x1 7x2 =

2
5
x1
x
1
1
= A 1 =
3 7 x2
1
x2
1
57
2.3

x1
1
7 5 1
2
=
= A1 =
x2
1
3
2
1
1
A A~x = ~b
2.3.2 A n ~b Rn
A~x = ~b ~x = A1~b

2.3.3 A B n
1. A1 (A1 )1 = A
2. AT (AT )1 = (A1 )T
3. AB (AB)1 = B 1 A1

(elementary matrix)
0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
a b c
2.3.3 E1 =
0 1 0, E2 = 1 0 0, E3 = 0 1 0 A = d e f
4 0 1
0 0 1
0 0 5
g h i
E1 A, E2 A E3 A
E1 , E2 E3
4a + g 4b + h 4c + i
a b c
E3 A =
d
e
f
5g 5h 5i
E1 A =
d e f
E2 A =
a b
g h
c
,
i
E1 A, E2 A E3 A I3
E1 , E2 E3

58
2.3.4 A m n Im m m E
B Im A
EA = B
1.2.1 m n A
B E1 , E2 , . . . , Ek
Im C = Ek . . . E2 E1
CA = B C
M = [A | Im ] M 0 = [B | C]
3 0 6
C CA
2.3.4 A =
2 1 6
[A | I2 ]
3 0 6 1 0
2
1 6 0 1
1 0 2 31
2 1
0 1
0
31
2
3
1 0 2
10
C CA
13
2
3
0
1
A n ( )
[A | In ] [B | C] CA = B
A
2.3.5 A n A
In A In
1 0 3
2.3.5 A =
0 2 0 ()
2 0 5
59
2.3
[A | I3 ]
1 0 3 1 0 0
1 0

0 2 0 0 1 0 0 1

0 0
2 0 5 0 0 1
1 0
0 1
0 0
A1
5 0 3
=
0 2 0
2 0 1
0 0
1 2 0 1
0 5 0 3
0 0 21 0
1 2 0 1
0
1
2
T : Rn Rn (invertible) A
T T 1 (~x) = A1 ~x ~x Rn
2.3.6 T
1 0 3
A=
0 2 0
2 0 5
2.3.5 A T T 1

x1
x1
5 0 3

1
1
T x2 = 0 2 0 x2
2 0 1 x3
x3

x1

3
x2
R
x3
60
2.3.6 [ (Invertible Matrix Theorem)]

A n
(1) A
(2) A In
(3) A n
(4) A~x = ~0
(5) A
(6) ~x 7 A~x
(7) A~x = ~b ~b Rn
(8) A Rn
(9) ~x 7 A~x
(10) C n CA = In
(11) D n AD = In
(12) AT
(13) A Rn
(14) Col A = Rn
(15) rank A = n
(16) Nul A = {~0n }
(17) nullity A = 0
2.3.7
2 1
A=
1
5
6
5 4 5
2 1
1 2 1
1 2 1
0 3
0 3
A=
1
5
6
5
5
5 4 5
0 6 10
0 0
0
1
A 2
2.3.6 A
61
2.3
2.3.8 h
1 7 h
A=
2
1
1
1 3 2

1 3
2
1 3
2
1 3 2
1 7 h

2 1 1 0 5 3 0 5 3
A=
2
1
1

0 0 h+4
0 10 h 2
1 7 h
1 3 2
2.3.6 A 3
h + 4 6= 0 h 6= 4
2.3
1.
2 2
3 4
2 4
1 2
()
()
()
5 6
0 1
1 3
()
7
2.

8x
x
+ 5x2 = 9
+
2x
=
4
1
1
2
()
()
7x1 5x2 = 11
x1 + 3x2 = 1

3
0
1
1
, ~b1 = , ~b2 = , ~b3 = ~b4 =
2
4
5
3
12
1
1
() A A A~x = ~b1 , A~x = ~b2 , A~x = ~b3 A~x = ~b4
2
3. A =
5
() ()
A ~b1 ~b2 ~b3 ~b4
4.
1 2 5
1 2
()
()
1
0
2
2 5
4 2 5
1 0
1 1
1 0 0 0
1 0
2 1 0 0
()
()
0 1
4 2 1 0
1 1
2 3 1 1
()
3
8
5
7
3
5
1 0
()
1 0
3 2
()
1
0 0 0
2 0 0
2 3 0
2 3 4
62
5. A~x = ~b

2
1 2 0

1
~
A = 0 1 0 b = 1
3
3 1 1
6. A C CA
A
1 1 0 1
() A =
3 2 1 1
1 0 1 3
1 2
() A =
1 3
4 1
3
0 5 5
2 7 9
7. A = 2
5
6

1
3
4
A1
8. A AAT
2.4
A = [aij ]nn n Mij (A) i
j A (determinant) A det A |A|
(recursive definition)
n = 1
A = [a11 ] det A = a11
n > 1
det A =
n
X
(1)1+j a1j det M1j (A)
j=1
a b
2 2 det A = ad bc
A =
c d
1 5
0
2.4.1 A =
0 3 1
2 4 1

1
1
1+3 0 3
1+2 0
1+1 3

det A = 1(1)

+ 0(1)

+ 5(1)

2 4
2 1
4 1
= 1((3)(1) (1)(4)) + 5(1)(0(1) (1)(2)) + 0((0)(4) (3)2)
= (1) + 10 + 0 = 9
63
2.4
A = [aij ]nn n i, j = 1, 2, . . . , n Cij (A) =

(1)i+j det Mij (A) i j A ((i, j)-cofactor of A)
det A =
n
X
a1j C1j (A)
j=1
1 A (cofactor expansion across the first row

of matrix A) A

2.4.1 A
A
det A =
n
X
aij Cij (A)
j=1
i = 1, 2, . . . , n
1 5
8
9
0
0 3 5 7
1
2.4.2 A =
1
5
0
0 0
5
2 4
2
4 1
0 0
0 2 0

1 5
8
0

0 3 5 1

det A = (2)(1)5+4

0 0
1
0

2 4
2 1
3

1 5
0

= (2)(1)1(1)3+3 0 3 1 = 2(9) = 18

2 4 1
2.4.1
0
(triangular matrix) 2.4.1
2.4.2 A det A
A
64

4

0

2.4.3
1

2

0

2 0
0
= (4)(2)(3)(1) = 24
2 3 0

4 2 1
0
a11 a12 a13
3 3 A =
a21 a22 a23 1 2
a31 a32 a33
A 4 5

a21 a22
a21 a23
a22 a23

+ a13
a12
det A = a11

a31 a32
a31 a33
a32 a33
= a11 (a22 a33 a32 a23 ) a12 (a21 a33 a31 a23 ) + a13 (a21 a32 a31 a22 )
= (a11 a22 a33 + a12 a23 a31 + a13 a21 a32 ) (a31 a22 a13 + a32 a23 a11 + a33 a21 a12 )
= ()
() ()
a11
a12
<<a13
<<a11
<<a12
a21
a22
a23
a21
a22
a31
a32
""
""
a33
a31
""
a32

2.4.4 A =
1
3
1
1 2 2

2

det(A I3 ) =
1

1

2

= 1

1

0
1

3 1
0
0 0
2 2

2
1 2

3 1 1

2 2 1
2

0

0

3
2
= [(2 )(3 )(2 ) + 2 + 2] [(3 ) + 2(2 ) + 2(2 )]

= 3 + 72 11 + 5
65
2.4
2.4.3 A
1. det A = det AT
2. C A Rpq (p 6= q)
det C = det A
3. A det A = 0
4. C A Rp + cRq (p 6= q)
det C = det A
5. C A cRp
det C = c det A
2.4.4 A
1. A det A 6= 0
2. det A 6= 0 det A1 =
1
det A

2.4.5 A B
det(AB) = det A det B

2.4.6 A n, k c
det(Ak ) = (det A)k

a b

2.4.5 d e

g h

a
2a 2b 2c

g h i = 2 g

d
d e f
det(cA) = cn det A

c

f = 5

i

a b c
b c

h i = 2(1) d e f = (2)(5) = 10

g h i
e f
66

a
a b c
a b c
b
c

2a + d 2b + e 2c + f = d e f = 3 d e f = 3(5) = 15

3g

3h
3i
3g 3h 3i
g h i
2.4.6 A, B C 3 3 det A = 2, det B = 3 det C = 4
det(2AB T C 1 ) = 23 det A det B T det C 1 = 8 det A det B
1
1
= 8(2)(3) = 12
det C
4
A = [aij ]nn n Cij (A) i j

A [Cij (A)]Tnn (adjoint matrix) A
adj A
1 4 1
2.4.7 A =
3 0 2 adj A
2 1 0
C11
C21
C31

0
1+1
= (1)

1

4
2+1
= (1)

1

4
3+1
= (1)

0

3
2
= 2, C12 = (1)1+2

0
2

1
1
= 1, C22 = (1)2+2

0
2

1
1
= 8, C32 = (1)3+2

2
3

3
0
2
= 3,
= 4, C13 = (1)1+3

0
2 1

1
1 4
= 2, C23 = (1)2+3
= 9,

0
2 1

1 4
1
= 5, C33 = (1)3+3
= 12

2
3 0
2 4
3
2 1
8
adj A =
9
5
1 2
= 4 2
8
5 12
3
9 12
21 0 0
A(adj A) = (adj A)A =

0
21
0
0 0 21
det A = 21
A A
2.4.7 A n
A (adj A) = (adj A)A = (det A) In
67
2.4
det A 6= 0 A
2.4.8 A det A 6= 0
A1 =
1
adj A
det A
1 4 1
2.4.7
2.4.8 A =
3
0
2
2 1 0
det A = 21
A1
2 1
1
4 2
=
21
3
9
2 1
8
adj A =
5
4 2
3
9 12

5
12
A n ~b Rn
A~x = ~b det A 6= 0
2.4.9 [ (Cramers Rule)]
A n det A 6= 0 ~b Rn
A~x = ~b i
xi =
det Ai
det A
Ai A i A ~b
i = 1, 2, . . . , n
2.4.9
x1
x2
+ 2x3 = 2
3x1 2x2 + 4x3 = 5

2x2 5x3 =
1 1 2
A=
3 2 4
0 2 5
~b =
5
2
68
2 1 2
A1 =
5 2 4 ,
2
2 5
1 2 2
A2 =
3 5 4 ,
0 2 5
1 1 2
A3 =
3 2 5
0 2
2
det A = 1, det A1 = 1, det A2 = 1 det A3 = 0

x1 =
det A1
det A2
det A3
= 1, x2 =
= 1 x3 =
=0
det A
det A
det A
~x =
1
0
2.4
1. A = 1
0
2 2
1 3
Cij (A) i, j = 1, 2, 3 det A 1
A
2.

1 1 2

() 3 1 1

2 1 3

1 1 1

0
1
1

()
2
1
1

1
3 1
q+y
3.
b+y

p + x

a + x

a + p

0

2

3

2
b+q

a
b

() a + 1 b + 1

a 1 b 1

5 8
3

0 1 2

()
2 6 3

1 3 0

a
r + z

c + z = 2 p

x
c + r
q
y

3 1 x

4. b 2
6 y = ax + by + cz

5 4 z

c

r

z

c

c + 1

c 1

3

1

1

1
69
2.4

a b c

5. d e f = 4

g h i

a
b
c

() g h i

3d 3e 3f

g
h
i

() 2a
2b
2c

3d a 3e b 3f c

2a + d 2b + e 2c + f

() g
h
i

2a
2b
2c

a
d
g

() 2b
2e
2h

c b f e i h
0 7
5 4
3 8
6 0
6. A =

1 7 5 0
2 0
0 8
7. A, B, C 4 4 det A = 2, det B = 0.5 det C = 1
() det(AT B)
() det(2CB)
() det(B 1 AB)
() det(B 1 AT C)
8. A = 1
1
() det(ABC T )
3 1
2
1
1 3
() det((2A)1 B 1 )
A A1
9.
2x1 x2 + 2x3 = 11
() 3x1 2x2 x3 = 1
x1 + 2x2 x3 = 3
x1 + x2 + x3 + x4 = 0
x + x + x x = 4
1
2
3
4
()
x1 x2 + x3 + x4 = 2
x + x x + x = 4
1
2
3
4
10. A det A = det AT A

11. U n U T U = In det U = 1
a b
1 0
A =
12. I2 =
c d
0 1
det(A + I2 ) = 1 + det A a + d = 0
70

3
7
9

2
3
4

x = x3 , x3 R/;
2.1 1.~
x = x3 + x4 , x3 , x4 R/; 2.~
1
0
1

0
1
0

3
7
1.5
1
2
3

3 + 1x3 , x3 R;
0 + 0.5x3 , x3 R, ()~
2 , ()~
, ()~
x
=
x
=
x
=
3.()~
x=
1

1
0
1
0
1
1
0
0
1
0
1 0
0
1
1
0 1
0
5.()
/1-1/, ()
0
1
/1-1/,
0 1
/1-1/, ()
0
1 0
0
1
1 0 2
2
1
0
0
0
1
#
"
0.5 0.5 0
1 2
1
0.5
0.5
/1-1/, ()A =
()
0.5 0
9
2
0.5
/1-1/
0
/1-1/; 7.()A =
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
, ()
;

2.2
, ()
, ()
1.()

1
2
4
1
2
1
4 1 3
3 1 5
2 1

2.() , , , () , , ; 3.(), ()/Span 1 , 0 ,
1
3
2
4
7
2
6
7
2
5
7

2
1 0
(), ()/Span 0 , 1 , ()/, ()/Span 1 ;
1
0
0

16
1 1
4.()Col A = Span 7 , 6 , Nul A = Span 19 ,
1
5
4

1 1
3 2
2 1

()Col A = Span 9 , 2 , Nul A = Span , ,
1 0
0
1

3
2
5 1 0

()Col A = Span , , , Nul A = {~0},
2 7 11
2
4
5

4 7
5 6
4 5

()Col A = Span 6 , 5 , Nul A = Span , ,

1 0
3
4
0
1
7
2
3
4
1
2.5
0.5
1 2 3

()Col A = Span , , , Nul A = Span 1 , 0 ,
0 4
3 6 5
5
2
1
0

2
2
1
10
2 5 6

()Col A = Span 0 , 3 , 18 , Nul A = Span
;
0 2 8
6
6
3
5.(), (), (), (), ()
"
#
"
1 3 2
1 1
2.3 1.()
, ()
5 1
2 0
1
#
4
2
, ()
"
1 6
2 5
4
3
, ()
"
1 5
5 7
#
5
8
71
2.4
2.()
"
- 14
5
- 35
1
4.()
2
3
58
, ()
"
0
3
2
5
9
8
0
3
()
2 1
1
0
5
0
0
1 5
()
10 5
0
0
10
; 3.A1 =
"
12
40
2
, () 13
5
1
2
16
5
, x~1 =
"
27
11
3
, () 2 3
1
1
, x~2 =
1
0
1
"
37
15
, x~3 =
2
1
, ()
0
0
8
0
1
0
0
0
4
0
1
- 1
2
3
0
0
2
; 6.() 0
; 5.~
x=
, () 2
0
1
3
- 31 13 0
1
10
1
1
0
1
0
0
-4 4

15
10
i
h
5
6
, 2 1 6
/rank A = 3; 7.
6
5
4
4
10
10
7
2.4
16
, x~4 =
"
"
20
0
0.5
0.5
#
26
11
,
0
1
1
1
1.5
/rank A = 2,
0.5
1.(C11 = 8, C12 = 3, C13 = 1, C21 = 0, C22 = 6, C23 = 2, C31 = 8, C32 = 1, C33 = 5); 2.()1,
1
()0, ()2, ()2; 4.b = 7; 5.()12, ()8, ()24, ()8; 6.(det A = 0, A1 ); 7.()1, ()8, ()2, ()4, ()1, () ;
16
7
8
5
8.adj A=
5
3
/det A = 1;
4
1
1
1

1

13/11
1
x=
9.() ~
x=
1/11 , () ~
2

48/11
2
72
3.1
H Rm B = {~v1 , ~v2 , . . . , ~vp } H B
H B ~x H c1 , c2 , . . . , cp
~x = c1~v1 + c2~v2 + + cp~vp

c
1

c2
[~x]B =
..
.

cp
~x B (coordinate vector of ~x relative to B)
c1 , c2 , . . . , cp i ~x B (ith -coordinates of ~x relative to B)
~x, ~y H c
[~x + ~y ]B = [~x]B + [~y ]B
[c~x]B = c[~x]B

5
3
1

3.1.1 ~v1 = , ~v2 = , ~x = B = {~v1 , ~v2 } B
6
4
1

3
1
1
H = Span{~v1 , ~v2 } ~x H ~x
B
73
74
1.3.2 ~x H c1~v1 +
c2~v2 = ~x
~v1 ~v2 ~x
1 2
1 3 5 0 1 1

1 4 6 0 0 0

1 1 3
0 0 0
c1~v1 + c2~v2 = ~x ~x H
1 0
0 1 1
0 0 0
0 0 0
~x = 2~v1 + (1)~v2
[~x]B =
1
c1 =
c2 = 1
B B 0 H
3.1.1 B = {~v1 , ~v2 , . . . , ~vp } B 0 = {w

~ 1, w
~ 2, . . . , w
~ p }
H P p j [~vj ]B0
B 0 j = 1, 2, . . . , p
h
P = [~v1 ]B0
[~v2 ]B0
[~vp ]B0
P 1 j [w
~ j ]B B
j = 1, 2, . . . , p
P 3.1.1 B B 0 (change-
of-coordinates matrix from B to B 0 ) P 1 B 0 B

~x H ~x = c1~v1 + c2~v2 + + cp~vp
[~x]B0 = c1 [~v1 ]B0 + c2 [~v2 ]B0 + + cp [~vp ]B0 = P [~x]B

~x H P = P
BB0
75
3.1
1 1 1
, 1 , 0 R3
3.1.2 B 0 =
1

1
0
0
B = {~e1 , ~e2 , ~e3 } B 0 [~x]B0

1

~x =
2
1
1 1 1
A =
1 1 0
1 0 0
det A = 1 6= 0
A 2.3.6 B 0 R3

1
1
1

~v1 = 1, ~v2 = 1, ~v3 = 0
1
0
0
~e1 , ~e2 , ~e3 ~v1 , ~v2 , ~v3
~e1 = 0 ~v1 + 0 ~v2 + 1 ~v3

~e2 = 0 ~v1 + 1 ~v2 + (1)~v3
~e3 = 1 ~v1 + (1) ~v2 + 0 ~v3
[~e1 ]B0

0
0

=
0 , [~e2 ]B0 = 1
1
1
[~e3 ]B0 =
1
0
0 0
1
B B 0 0P =
0 1 1
B B
1 1 0

1

~x = 1~e1 + 2~e2 ~e3 [~x]B =

2
1

1
1
0 0
1

[~x]B0 = P [~x]B =
0 1 1 2 = 3
1
1
1 1 0
B = {~v1 , ~v2 , . . . , ~vn } Rn C = {w

~ 1, w
~ 2, . . . , w
~ m }
Rm T : Rn Rm m n j
76
[T (~vj )]C C j = 1, 2, . . . , n T
B C (matrix for T relative to the bases B and C) [T ]CB
h
[T ]CB = [T (~v1 )]C [T (~v2 )]C . . .
[T (~vn )]C
~x Rn ~x = c1~v1 + c2~v2 + + cn~vn T (~x) = c1 T (~v1 ) +

c2 T (~v2 ) + + cn T (~vn )
[T (~x)]C = c1 [T (~v1 )]C + c2 [T (~v2 )]C + + cn [T (~vn )]C
[T (~x)]C = [T ]CB [~x]B

~x Rn T : Rn Rn B = C
[T ]CB [T ]B T B (matrix for T relative to the basis

B)
~x

[~x]B
[T ]C
B
// T (~
x)

// [T (~
x)]C = [T ]CB [~x]B
3.1.3 B = {~v1 , ~v2 } R2 C = {w

~ 1, w
~ 2, w
~ 3 }
R3 T : R2 R3
T (~v1 ) = 3w
~1 w
~ 2 + 5w
~3
T (~v2 ) = w
~ 2 4w
~3
T B C

3
0

[T (~v1 )]C =
1 [T (~v2 )]C = 1
5
4
3
0

[T ]CB =
1 1
5 4
3.1.4 B = {~v1 , ~v2 , ~v3 } R3 T : R3 R3
1 1 3
[T ]B =
5
4 1
T (2~v1 + ~v2 ~v3 )
0
0 2
77
3.1
[2~v1 + ~v2 ~v3 ]B =

1
1

[T (2~v1 + ~v2 ~v3 )]B = [T ]B
1 = 4
0
1
1
0
T (2~v1 + ~v2 ~v3 ) = 2~v1 12~v2 + 2~v3

5
1 = 12
2
2 1
B B 0 Rn P B B 0 C
Rm T : Rn Rm ~x Rn [T ]CB
[T ]CB0
[T (~x)]C = [T ]CB [~x]B
[~x]B0 = P [~x]B
[T (~x)]C = [T ]CB0 [~x]B0
[T ]CB [~x]B = [T ]CB0 P [~x]B
[T ]CB = [T ]CB0 P
3.1.2 B B 0 Rn C Rm T :
Rn Rm P B B 0 [T ]CB =
[T ]CB0 P
B Rn C C 0 Rm Q
C C 0 T : Rn Rm ~x Rn
[T ]CB [T ]CB
0
[T (~x)]C = [T ]CB [~x]B
[T (~x)]C 0 = [T ]CB [~x]B

0
[T (~x)]C 0 = Q[T (~x)]C

0
Q[T ]CB [~x]B = [T ]CB [~x]B
[T ]CB = Q1 [T ]CB
78
3.1.3 B Rn C C 0 Rm T :
Rn Rm Q C C 0 [T ]CB =
0
Q1 [T ]CB

3.1.4 B B 0 Rn C C 0 Rm
T : Rn Rm P B B 0 Q
C C 0 [T ]CB = Q1 [T ]CB0 P
0
3.1.5 B B 0 Rn T : Rn Rn
P B B 0 [T ]B = P 1 [T ]B0 P
3.1
1. ~b1 , ~b2 ~x H B = {~b1 , ~b2 } ~x H

~x
B
3
2
1
() ~b1 = , ~b2 = , ~x =
7
7
4

3
3
2
() ~b1 = , ~b2 = , ~x =
5
4
1

3
1
3

~
~
() b1 = 6 , b2 = 0 , ~x = 12
7
1
2

1
3
2

~

() ~b1 =
5 , b2 = 7 , ~x = 0
3
5
1

1 0 1
,
R3
,
2. B 0 =
2
1
1
0
0
3

0

0
B = {~e1 , ~e2 , ~e3 } B [~v ]B0 ~v =

3
3
3. B = {~v1 , ~v2 } C = {w
~ 1, w
~ 2 } R2
~1 w
~ 2 ~v2 = 6w
~1 + w
~2
~v1 = 4w
3
B C [~x]B =
1
[~x]C
79
3.1
4. B = {~v1 , ~v2 , ~v3 } C = {w

~ 1, w
~ 2, w
~ 3 } R2
~v1 = 2w
~1 w
~2 + w
~ 3 , ~v2 = 3w
~2 + w
~3
~v3 = 3w
~ 1 + 2w
~2
C B [w
~ 1 2w
~ 2 + 2w
~ 3 ]B
5. B = {~v1 , ~v2 , ~v3 } R3 C = {w

~ 1, w
~ 2 } R2 T : R3 R2
T (~v1 ) = 2w
~1 w
~ 2 , T (~v2 ) = w
~ 2 4w
~1
T (~v3 ) = w
~2
T B C
6. T : R2 R2
T (x1 , x2 ) = (x1 + 2x2 , 2x1 3x2 )
C
B
T
1
1
2
0
() B = , C = ,
1
0
0
1

1
1
2
0
() B = , C = ,
1
1
3
2
7. B = {~v1 , ~v2 } C = {w
~ 1, w
~ 2 } R2 B C
B

C
2
1
3
7
~2 =
~1 = , w
() ~v1 = , ~v2 = , w
2
5
1
5

1
1
1
1
() ~v1 = , ~v2 = , w
~1 = , w
~2 =
8
5
4
1

6
2
2
6
() ~v1 = , ~v2 = , w
~1 = , w
~2 =
1
0
1
2
8. B = {~v1 , ~v2 , ~v3 } R3 T : R3 R2

T (x1~v1 + x2~v2 + x3~v3 ) = (2x1 4x2 + 5x3 , x2 + 3x3 )
T B {~e1 , ~e2 } R2
9. B = {~v1 , ~v2 , ~v3 } R3 T : R3 R3 [T ]B =
0 3 1
1 1 2 T (~v1 + 2~v2 3~v3 )
1 0 1
10. T : R3 R3
T (x1 , x2 , x3 ) = (2x1 x2 , x1 + x2 + x3 , x2 x3 )

2 1 1
, 0 , 1
T B =
1
[~x]B
1
1
3
[T (~x)]B ~x = (1, 4, 0)
80
11. T : R4 R4
T (x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 ) = (x1 + x3 x4 , 2x1 x3 , x1 + 2x2 + x3 + x4 , x3 x4 )

1 2 1 0
1 1 0 0

T B = , , , [~x]B
1 0 0 0
1
1
2
1
[T (~x)]B ~x = (2, 1, 2, 3)

1 1 3
1

3
3
12. T : R R A = 2 1 1 ~x = 2

1 2 0
2

1 1 1
, 0 , 1 , T
T B1 =
1

0
1
1

1 1 1
, 1 , 2 [T (~x)]B [T (~x)]B
B2 =
2
2
1

2
3
1
B2 B1 T B1 B2
3.2
A n (eigenvalue or characteristic
value) A A~x = ~x
A (eigenvector or characteristic vector corresponding to )
2 1

3.2.1 A =
4 2
() 1
1
() A
2
() A~x = ~x (A I2 )~x = ~0

2 1 1 0 1 1
= 3 6= 0
=
det(A I2 ) =

4 0 2 1 4 1
(A I2 )~x = ~0
1 A
3.2
()
81

1
4
2 1 1
1
= = 4
A =
2
8
4 2 2
2

1
A
2
= 4
A n A~x = ~x
(A In )~x = ~0n 2.3.6 2.4.4
A
(A In )~x = ~0n
(A In )
det(A In ) = 0
det(A In ) = 0 (characteristic equation) A
A det(A In )
n (characteristic polynomial) A
A = Nul (A In ) = {~x Rn : (A In )~x = ~0n }

A A Rn ~0n
A A
(eigenspace of A corresponding to )
A A = {~0n }
3 2

3.2.2 A =
3 8

3
2
= (3 )(8 ) 6 = 2 11 + 18

det(A I2 ) =

3
8
A 2 11 + 18 = 0
2 11 + 18 = ( 2)( 9) A = 2, 9
2.2
82
= 2

1 2
1 2
32
2
=
A 2I2 =
0 0
3 3
3
82
x1 + 2x2 = 0
x
1 = 2x
2

2
2x2
x1
= x2
~x = =
1
x2
x2

2
2
A2 = Nul (A 2I2 ) = Span
1
1
= 4
1
1 3
6 2
39
2
A 4I2 =
3 1
3
89
0 0
x1 = 13
x2
x1 31 x2 =
0
1
1
x2
x1
~x = = 3 = x2 3
x2
x2
1

1
1
A4 = Nul (A 4I2 ) = Span 3 3
1
1
= 4 x1

x1
x1
1
= x1
x2 = 3x1 ~x = =
x2
3x1
3

1
1

3
3
3.2.3
5 6 6
() A =
1
4
2
3 6 4

5 6
6

3
2
det(A I3 ) = 1 4
2 = + 5 8 + 4

3
6 4
A 3 + 52 8 + 4 = 0
3 + 52 8 + 4 = ( 1)( 2)2 A = 1, 2, 2
83
3.2

= 1
4 6 6
5 1 6
6
= 1 3
A I3 =
2
1
4
1
2
3 6 5
3
6 4 1
1 0 1
x1
1
0
1
3
x2 +
0 0 0
x3
= 0
1
3 x3
= 0
x1 = x3 x2 = 31 x3

1
x3
x1

1
1

~x =
x2 = 3 x3 = x3 3
x3
1
x3

1
1
=
Span
A1 = Nul (A I3 ) = Span
1
3

3
= 2
3 6 6
5 2 6
6
A 2I3 =
2
2
= 1 2
1 4 2
3 6 6
3
6 4 2
1 2 2
0
0 0
x1 2x2 2x3 = 0
0 0
0
x1 = 2x
2 + 2x

3
2
2
x1
2x2 + 2x3

= x2 1 + x3 0
~x =
x2

x2 =
1
0
x3
x3

2 2
, 0
1

0
1
2 2
1 , 0

0
1
84
3 1 1
()
2 2 1
2 2 0

3
1
1

3
2
det(A I3 ) = 2
2 1 = + 5 8 + 4

2
2
0
A 3 + 52 8 + 4 = 0
3 + 52 8 + 4 = ( 1)( 2)2 A = 1, 2, 2

= 1
31
1
1
2 1 1
= 2 1 1
A I3 =
2
2
1
1
2
2
01
2 2 1
1 0 21
0 1
0 0
x1 = 21 x3 x2 = 0

1
1
x1
2 x3
2

~x =
x2 = 0 = x3 0
x3
x3
1

1
A1 = Nul (A I3 ) = Span
=
Span
0
0
1
2

x1 12 x3 = 0
x2
= 2
32
1
1
1 1 1
A 2I3 =
2 2 1
2
= 2 0 1
2
2
02
2 2 2
= 0
85
3.2
1 0 12
0 1 2
0 0 0
x1 +
x2
1
2 x3
1
2 x3
= 0
= 0
x1 = 12 x3 x2 = 21 x3

x1
1
12 x3
1
1
~x =
x2 = 2 x3 = x3 2
x3
1
x3

1
1
2
1
1
=
Span

2
1
2

1

A

3.2.1 ~v1 , ~v2 , . . . , ~vr 1 , 2 ,
. . . , r A {~v1 , ~v2 , . . . , ~vr }
A B n A (similar) B
P n B = P 1 AP A B
det A = det B
det(B In ) = det(P 1 AP P 1 In P ) = det(P 1 (A In )P ) = det(A In )
3.2.2 A B n A B
A B
3.2.3
A n A D
P n A = P DP 1
Ak = (P DP 1 )(P DP 1 ) . . . (P DP 1 ) = P Dk P 1
86
d
0 ...
11
0 d22 . . .
D=
..
..
..
.
.
.
0
0 ...
dk
0 ...
11
0 dk22 . . .
Dk =
..
..
..
.
.
.
0
0 ...
dk
0 ...
11
0 dk22 . . .
k
A =P
..
..
..
.
.
.
0
0 ...
0
0
..
.
dnn
0
0
..
.
dknn
0
0
..
.
dknn
1
P
k Ak
A (diagonalizable) A
D
P
3.2.3 [ (Diagonalization Theorem)]
A n P
D A = P DP 1 A
n P n
D A
P
2

3.2.4 A =
4 1
7
P D A = P DP 1 Ak
k

7
2
= (7 )(1 ) + 8 = 2 8 + 15

det(A I2 ) =

4 1
3.2
A 2 8 + 15 = ( 3)( 5) = 0
A = 3, 5

= 3
73
2
4
2
=
A 3I2 =
4 1 3
4 2
1
1 2
x1 + 1 x2 = 0 x1 = 1 x2
2
2
0 0
1
x1
x2
1
~x = = 2 = x2 2
x2
1
x2

1
1
A3 = Nul (A 3I2 ) = Span 2 = Span
2
1

1

2
= 5
75
2
2
2
=
A 5I2 =
4 1 5
4 4
1 1
x1 + x2 = 0 x1 = x2
0 0

x1
x2
1
= x2
~x = =
x2
x2
1

1
1

1
1
3 0
1 1
P =
3.2.3 D =
0 5
2
1
1
1

P 1 =
2 1
A = P DP 1
1
1
1 1 3 0
=
0 5 2 1
2
1
87
88
1 1 3
Ak =
2
1
0
1 1 3k
=
0
2
1
3k + 2 5k
=
2 3k 2 5k
0
1
1

5
2 1
1
1
0
k
2 1
5
3k + 5k
2 3k 5k
3.2.1 3.2.3
3.2.4 A n n A
A
A
3.2.5
1 , 2 , . . . , p
1. k
k k = 1, 2, . . . , p nullity (A k In )
k k = 1, 2, . . . , p
2. A
A n
nullity (A k In ) k k = 1, 2, . . . , p
3. A Bk
k k = 1, 2, . . . , p B = B1 B2 Bp Rn
3.2.5 3.2.3
6 6
() A =
1
4
2
3 6 4
3.2.3 ()
89
3.2
=1
= 2, 2
Span
1
2 2
, 0
Span
1

0
1
3.2.5 A
1 0 0
3 2 2
P = 1 1 0
A = P DP 1 D =
0
2
0
0 0 2
3 0 1
3 1 1
() A =
2
2
1
2 2 0
3.2.3 ()
=1
= 2, 2
Span
0
Span
1

2
3.2.5 A
T : Rn Rn T B
Rn [T ]B
3.2.6 T : Rn Rn A T
T A
P D A = P DP 1 B
P [T ]B = D
90
3.2.6 T : R2 R2
T (x1 , x2 ) = (7x1 + 2x2 , 4x1 + x2 )
(x1 , x2 ) R2 B R2 [T ]B ()

7 2 x1
2
7
7x1 + 2x2
x1

= x1 + x2 =
T =
4 1 x2
1
4
4x1 + x2
x2
T A =
4 1
7
3.2.4
A 3 5
1
1

2
1

1
1
3 0

3.2.6 B = , [T ]B =
2
1
0 5
4 9
T : R2 R2 T (~x) = A~x
3.2.7 A =
4 8
~x R2 B R2 [T ]B ()

4
9
= (4 )(8 ) + 36 = 2 4 + 4
det(A I2 ) =

4
8
A 2 4 + 4 = ( 2)2 = 0
A = 2, 2
= 2

6 9
4+2
9
=
A + 2I2 =
4
8 + 2
4 6
1 23
0 0
x1 23 x2 = 0
91
3.2

3
3
x1
x2
x1 = 23 x2 ~x = = 2 = x2 2
1
x2
x2

3
3
A2 = Nul (A + 2I2 ) = Span 2 = Span
1
2
nullity (A + 2I) = 1 = 2
3.2.5 A
3.2
1.
3 8

() = 2
3 2
7 3

() = 2
3 1
2.
1
3 1

()
4
3 5

()
2 3
1
5
1
6 7
3 7

6 5
3.
A
4 2
10 9
, = 10
, = 4
() A =
() A =
3 9
4 2
1
0
1
4 2 3
, = 2
1 1 3 , = 3
() A =
()
A
=
1
3
0
4 13 1
2 4 9
2 0 0
0
3 0 2 0
0 2 0
1 3 1 0
0
() A =
() A =
, = 3
, = 4
1 1 3 0
0 1 1 0
0 0 3 3
0 0 0 4
4. A
A
1

P

D
A=
P DP
2 2
14
16
2 5
5 4
() A =
() A =
() A =
() A =
2 1
9 10
4 6
1 1
92
2 1 0
2
0 0
2 0 6
() A =
6 1 1 () A = 1 1 2 () A = 0 3 1
0 0 1
1 0 1
0 0 3
2 6 6
2 3 2
0 0 1
() A =
2
0
() A = 1 1
1 1 1 () A = 2 3
3 6 7
6 6 7
2 0 3
3 0 0 0
4 7 0
2
0 3 0 0
0 3 4 6
() A =
() A =
0 0
3 8
0 0 2 0
1 0 0 2
0 0
0
1
3
0 0 0 0
5 1 0 0 0
() A =
8 0 0 0
0 7 2 1 0
4 1 9 2 3
5. A B R2 [T ]B
()
A~x
T : ~x 7
5 4
0 1
() A =
() A =
2 1
3 4
6. A =
0
() A =
1
() A =
1
h = 5
() 1
() 2
7. A B rank A = rank B
8. A A1
9. A 0 A
10. A = [aij ]nn a11 + a22 + + ann (trace)
A tr A
() tr (AB) = tr (BA) A B n
() A B tr A = tr B
a b
A 2 (tr A) + det A
() A =
c d
93
3.3
3.3
x01 = a11 x1 + a12 x2

x02 = a21 x1 + a22 x2
x01 =
(3.3.1)
dx1
dx2
x02 =
dt
dt

a11 a12
x
x01
1 ~x0 = A~x
=
a21 a22
x02
x2
dx
= ax x = Ceat
dt

c
~ C
~ = 1
(3.3.1) ~x = eAt C
c2
M t eM t et
eM t =
X
(M t)k
k=0
k!
X
M k tk
k=0
k!
= I + Mt +
M 2 t2 M 3 t3
+
+
2!
3!
eM t (eM t )0 =
M eM t (3.3.1)
~
~x = eAt C
eAt Ak k A
d1 0
A =
P D =
0 d2
P DP 1
X
X
X
(At)k
(P DP 1 t)k
P (Dt)k P 1
eAt =
=
=
k!
k!
k!
k=0
k=0
k=0
X (d1 t)k
d1 t
k
X
k!
e
0
(Dt) 1
k=0
P 1 = P
P 1
P =P
=P
k
X
d
t
k!
2
(d
t)
2
0 e
k=0
0
k!
k=0
(3.3.1)

x1
ed1 t 0
c
=P
P 1 1
x2
0 ed2 t
c2
94
c1 c2
3.3.1
x01 =
x1
x2
x02 = 2x1 + 4x2

x01
1 1 x1
=

x02
x2
2 4
A

1 1
= (1 )(4 ) + 2 = 2 5 + 6 = ( 2)( 3)
0 =

2
4
A = 2, 3

= 2
1 2 1
1 1
=
A 2I2 =
2
42
2
2
1 1
0 0
x1 + x2 = 0 x1 = x2

x1
x2
1
= x2
~x = =
x2
x2
1

1
1
1
1
= 3
1 3 1
2 1
=
A 3I2 =
2
43
2
1
1 21
0 0
x1 + 21 x2 = 0 x1 = 21 x2
95
3.3

1
x1
1
x2
~x = = 2 = x2 2
1
x2
x2

1
1
A3 = Nul (A 3I2 ) = Span 2 = Span
1
2

1

2
1 1
2 0
P =
3.2.3 D =
1
2
0 3

2t
e
0
c
x
P 1 1
1 = P
0 e3t
c2
x2
c1 c2
C1 C2

x1
1
1
= C1 e2t + C2 e3t
x2
1
2
3.3.1 ~x0 = A~x A n

~vi i , i =
h
i
1, 2, . . . , n P = ~v1 ~v2 . . . ~vn P 1 AP
~x = C1 e1 t~v1 + C2 e2 t~v2 + + Cn en t~vn

C1 , C2 , . . . , Cn
3.3.2
x01 =
x02
5x1
6x2 6x3
= x1 + 4x2 + 2x3
x03 =
x1 (0) = 4, x2 (0) = 2 x3 (0) = 1
3x1
6x2 4x3
96

x01
5 6 6 x1

x0 = 1 4

2
2
x2
x3
3 6 4 x3
3 2 2
1 0 0
3.2.5 D =
0 2 0 P = 1 1 0
3 0 1
0 0 2

x1
3
2
2

x2 = C1 et 1 + C2 e2t 1 + C3 e2t 0

x3
3
0
1
C1 , C2 C3
3.3
1.
x0 =
x0
x1
x2
1
1
()
()
x0 = 4x1 + 4x2
x0
2
2
0
0
x
=
x
1
2
3
x1
1
() x02 =
x2 + 3x3 () x02
0
0
x3
x3 =
3x2 + x3
3x1
+ x2
= 2x1
=
4x1
3x1
2x1
x2
5x2
+
x2
2x3
2.
x1 = x1 3x2 + 2x3
x1 (0) = 3, x2 (0) = 0 x3 (0) = 3
() x02 =
x2
0
x2 2x3
x =
3
0
x1 = x1
()
x02
0
x3
2x2
+ x3 x1 (0) = 2, x2 (0) = 7 x3 (0) = 15

x3
97
3.3
3.1
3.( P
BC
"
"
#
6
4
1
1.()
" #
7
5
, [~
x]C =
"
, ()
"
#
3
"
3
- 11
- 13
11
, ()
" #
2
CB
, ()
); 4.( P
"
"
7
4
5
4
1
4
1
4
1
2
3
8
3
8
1
4
"
; 2.(P =
2
0
9
8
1
8
3
4
#
1
0
1
0

1
, [~v ]B0 = 0 );
1
1
3
1
3
11
BC
"
#
2
"
3
2
3
1 2
, ()
, ()
;
3
4 3
4 9

"
#
17
7
1
7
4

2 4 5
, [~
18 , [T (~
9 ;
; 9.3~v1 3~v2 + 4~v3 ; 10.[T ]B =
8.
x
]
=
x
)]
=
42
17
1
B
B

0 1 3
11
5
2
3
7
5
2
1
5
3
1
7
1
0
9
5
1
x)]B =
x]B = , [T (~
11.[T ]B =
;
, [~
18
2
4 22 14 4
33
8
7
39
24
7
38
2
2 0
4
6
4
73
2
11 13 7 ), (
=
12.([T ]B1 =
4
3
5
P
,
, [T ]B2 = 3
1
1 5
3
B2 B1
0
3
2
2 3
1
5
4
7
-7
6
0.5
1
3

B2
1
16
x]B = 0 , [T (~
x)]B2 =
x)]B1 =
[~
x]B1 =
2
- 3 , [T ]B1 = P [T ]B1 )
1 , [T (~

1 , [~
4
0.5
1
6
5.
; 6.()
, ()
- 17
2
; 7.()
4
3
= P 1 , [w
~ 1 2w
~ 2 + 2w
~ 3 ]B =
- 4 );
3.2
1.(), (); 2.() , ()/ = 2;

2
0
0
(" #)
(" #)
3
2
1

3
1
3
0
0
, ()
, ()
3.()
,
()
,
,
()
,
()
,
;

1
1 0
1 0
0
3
2
0
1
1
" #
" #
"
#
"
#
2
1
2
1
3
0
4.()(2 6 = 0, = 3, ~v1 =
, = 2, ~v2 =
)/P =
/D =
,
1
2
1 2
0 2
" #
4
()(2 4 + 4 = 0, = 2, ~v =
),
3
#
"
#
"
" #
" #
1
5 1
4 0
5
)/P =
/D =
,
, = 8, ~v2 =
()(2 4 32 = 0, = 4, ~v1 =
0
8
2
2
2
2
" #
2
()(2 6 + 9 = 0, = 3, ~v =
),
1
() () P D *

1
1
1

3
2
()( 4 + 4 = 0, = 4, ~v1 = 2 , = 1, ~v2 = 3 , = 1, ~v3 = 1

),
6
0
0

3
0
0

, = 1, ~v2 = 1 , = 1, ~v3 = 1 ),
()(( 2)( 1)( + 1) = 0, = 2, ~v1 =
1

3
0
1

1
0

, = 2, ~v = 0 ),
()(( 2)( 3)2 = 0, = 3, ~v =
1

0
0

1
1
0

, = 1, ~v2 = 0 , ~v3 = 1 ),
()(3 42 + 5 2 = 0, = 2, ~v1 =
1

2
1
0

1
0
1

=
5,
~
v
=
,
=
4,
~
v
=
()(3 122 + 47 60 = 0, = 3, ~v1 =
3
2
2 ),
2
1
0
2
3
98

3
2
2

()(3 + 42 + 5 + 2 = 0, = 1, ~v1 =
1 , ~v2 = 0 , = 2, ~v3 = 1 ),
3
1
0

7
1
11

1
0
5
()(( 4)( 3)2 ( 1) = 0, = 3, ~v = , = 4, ~v = , = 1, ~v = )

0
0
4

0
0
1
,

0
0
0
1

0
0
1
0

()(( 3)2 ( 2)2 = 0, = 3, ~v1 = , ~v2 = , = 2, ~v3 = , ~v4 = ),
1
0
0
0

0
1
0
1

0
0
0

0
0
0

()(( 3)2 ( 1)2 = 0, = 1, ~v1 = 0 , = 3, ~v2 = 0 , = 0, ~v3 = 3 )

6
0
1
;
" # " #
"
1
2
1
5.()B = {
,
}, D =
1
1
0
" # " #
"
1
2
2
()B = {
,
}, D =
1
1
0
6.()h 6= 6, ()h = 6
3.3
()~
y = C1 e(1+
"
#
0
" # " #
"
#
1
1
1 0
, ()B = {
,
}, D =
,
3
1
3
0 3
#
" #
0
1
, () = 2, 2, ~v =
[T ]B ;
5
1
"
1.()~
y = C1 e5t
1
13
1
4
" #
1
+ C2 e0t
"
2)t
,
2 2

2
0
1

+ C2 e2t 1 + C3 et 0 ,
()~
y = C1 e4t
3

3
1
0

0
6
0

+ C2 e4t 2 + C3 e5t 7 ;
()~
y = C1 e2t
0

1
7
1

1
2
5

+ C2 e2t 0 + C3 et 2 , C1 = 1, C2 = 1, C3 = 0),
2.()(~
y = C1 et
0

0
3
2

0
1
0

t
t
()(~
y = C1 e2t
1 + C2 e 0 + C3 e 1 , C1 = 2, C2 = 2, C3 = 5)
0
0
3
2)t
2 +
+ C2 e(1
4.1
~u ~v Rn ~uT ~v (inner product) (dot
product) ~u ~v ~u ~v
h
~u ~v = ~uT ~v = u1 u2 . . .
v
1
i v2
un
.. = u1 v1 + u2 v2 + + un vn R
.

vn
4.1.1 ~u, ~v w
~ Rn c
1. ~u ~0n = 0
2. ~u ~v = ~v ~u
3. (~u + ~v ) w
~ = ~u w
~ + ~v w
~
5. ~u ~u 0 ~u ~u = 0 ~u = ~0
4. (c~u) ~v = c(~u ~v ) = ~u (c~v )
(length) (norm) ~v = (v1 , v2 , . . . , vn ) k~v k

k~v k =
~v ~v = k~v k2
~v ~v = v12 + v22 + + vn2

kc~v k = |c|k~v k c
99
100
~x ~y Rn k~x ~y k (distance) ~x ~y
~v
~v 6= ~0n
~v
k~v k
4.1.1 ~v = (1, 0, 2, 2) R4 ~v
~v
12 + 02 + (2)2 + 22 = 9 = 3

1
1
3

1
0 0
~v =
3 2 2
3
2
2
3

1
1

3
0 0
~v =
3 2 2

2
2
k~v k =
~u ~v Rn (orthogonal or perpendicular) ~u ~v = 0
S = {~u1 , ~u2 , . . . , ~up } Rn (orthogonal set)
S ~ui ~uj = 0 i 6= j i, j {1, 2, . . . , p}

1 0 5
, 1 , 2 R3
4.1.2 S =
2

1
2
1
4.1.2 S = {~u1 , ~u2 , . . . , ~up } Rn

S S H = Span{~u1 , ~u2 , . . . , ~up }
B H Rn (orthogonal basis) B
Rn
4.1.3 S 4.1.2 R3
101
4.1
4.1.3 {~u1 , ~u2 , . . . , ~up } H Rn
~y H
~y ~up
~y ~u1
~y ~u2
~u1 +
~u2 + +
~up
~u1 ~u1
~u2 ~u2
~up ~up
~y ~up
~y ~u1
~y ~u2
=
~u1 +
~u2 + +
~up
2
2
k~u1 k
k~u2 k
k~up k2
~y =
5
0
1
4.1.4 S = ~u1 = 2 , ~u2 = 1 , ~u3 = 2
1
2
1

3
R3 ~y =
1

1
~y =
=
~y ~u1
~y ~u2
~y ~u3
~u1 +
~u2 +
~u3
~u1 ~u1
~u2 ~u2
~u3 ~u3
3(1)+(1)(2)+1(1)
~u1
12 +(2)2 +12
3(0)+(1)1+1(2)
~u2
02 +12 +22
3(5)+(1)(2)+1(1)
~u3
(5)2 +(2)2 +12
= ~u1 + 15 ~u2 25 ~u3

(orthonormal set)
B H Rn (orthonormal basis)
4.1.5 4.1.2
1
0
1 1 1 5
,
,
S =
1
2
2
5
30
1
2
1
R3
4.1.4 m n U
U T U = In
102
4.1.5 U m n
1. kU~xk = k~xk
2. U~x U ~y = ~x ~y
3. U~x U ~y = 0 ~x ~y = 0
U [ ] U
(orthogonal matrix) [ (orthonormal matrix)]

4.1.4 U U U 1 = U T

0
5/ 30
1/ 6
4.1.6 U =
2/ 6 1/ 5 2/ 30
1/ 6 2/ 5 1/ 30
2/ 6 1/ 6
1/ 6
U 1 = U T =
0
1/ 5
2/ 5
5/ 30 2/ 30 1/ 30
4.1

3
1
1. ~u = ~v = ~u ~v , ~v ~u, k~uk, k~v k
2
2
2~u + ~v

6
1

2. ~u =
2 ~x = 0 3 ~u ~u
3
1
~x

5
8
1
2
~
x
=
,
,
3. S =
1
4 0 5
0
4
2
1
() S R3
() S R3
() 4.1.2 ~x S
() U S U 1

5
1
2
3
4. S = 3 , 2 , 1 ~x = 3
1
4
1
0
() S R3
() S R3
() 4.1.2 ~x S
() U S U 1
103
4.2 -
5. ~u ~v Rn
() k~u + ~v k2 + k~u ~v k2 = 2k~uk2 + 2k~v k2
() 4~u ~v = k~u + ~v k2 k~u ~v k2
() ~u ~v k~u + ~v k2 = k~uk2 + k~v k2
6. U det U = 1
4.2 -
~z Rn H Rn ~z (orthogonal)
H ~z H H
(orthogonal complement) H H ( H perp)
H = {~z Rn : ~z ~a = 0 ~a H}
H H = {~0}
4.2.1 H Rn
1. H Rn
2. H = Span{~u1 , ~u2 , . . . , ~up }
~z H ~z ~u1 = ~z ~u2 = = ~z ~up = 0
1. ~0 ~a = 0 ~a H
~0 H
~x, ~y H c ~a H
~x ~a = 0 ~y ~a = 0
(~x + ~y ) ~a = ~x ~a + ~y ~a = 0 (c~x) ~a = c(~x ~a) = c(0) = 0

~x + ~y H c~x H
H Rn
2. ~x H
~z ~u = 0 ~u H
{~u1 , . . . , ~up } H ~z ~u1 = ~z ~u2 = = ~z ~up = 0

~z ~u1 = ~z ~u2 = = ~z ~up = 0 ~u H
H = Span{~u1 , ~u2 , . . . , ~up }
~u = c1 ~u1 + c2 ~u2 + + cp ~up c1 , c2 , . . . , cp R
104
~z ~u = ~z (c1 ~u1 + c2 ~u2 + + cp ~up )

= ~z (c1 ~u1 ) + ~z (c2 ~u2 ) + + ~z (cp ~up )
= c1 (~z ~u1 ) + c2 (~z ~u2 ) + + cp (~z ~up ) = 0
~u H
H = Span{~u1 , ~u2 , . . . , ~up }

H = {~z Rn : ~u1 ~z = ~u2 ~z = = ~up ~z = 0}
= {~z Rn : ~uT1 ~z = ~uT2 ~z = = ~uTp ~z = 0}
i
h
= Nul AT A = ~u1 ~u2 . . . ~up
4.2.1 H = Span
2

x
1
x1
1
=
x1 , x2 , x3 : x2 2 = 0 = x2 : x1 2x2 + x3 = 0
x3
1
x3
2x
x
x
2
3
1
:
x
,
x
R
=
:
x
=
2x
x
=
x2 2 3
2
3
x2 1
x3
x3

2
1
2 1

+ x3 0 : x2 , x3 R = Span 1 , 0
= x2
1

0
1
0
1
2 1

,
1 0
0
1
105
4.2 -
1 0
, 1
4.2.2 H = Span
1

0
1
4.2.1
1 0
= Nul AT A =
1
1
0 1
AT
1
1
0
1
0
1
AT =
0 1 1
0 1 1
x1 x3 = 0
x2 + x3 = 0
x1 =
x3
x2 = x3
1
x1
x3

~x =
x2 = x3 = x3 1 x3 R
1
x3
x3

H = Nul AT
1
x3 R
~u Rn H = Span{~u} ~y Rn
~y H H
~y = y + ~z
y = ~u R ~z~u ~z = ~y y = ~y ~u
~u (~y ~u) ~u = 0
=
~y ~u
~u ~u
y =
~y ~u
~u
~u ~u
106
4.2.2 [ (Orthogonal Decomposition)]

{~u1 , ~u2 , . . . , ~up } Rn
Span{~u1 , ~u2 , . . . , ~up } ~y Rn

y =
~y ~up
~y ~u1
~y ~u2
~u1 +
~u2 + +
~up H
~u1 ~u1
~u2 ~u2
~up ~up
~z = ~y y H
~y = y + ~z
y ~y H (orthogonal projection of ~y onto
H) projH ~y ~z (complement) ~y
H

8
2
1
1

4.2.3 ~u1 =
0, ~u2 = 4 , ~u3 = 1 ~x = 4
3
2
1
1
{~u1 , ~u2 , ~u3 } R3 ~x
~y ~z ~y Span{~u1 , ~u2 } ~z Span{~u3 }
{~u1 , ~u2 , ~u3 } R3 4.1.3

~x =
~x ~u1
~x ~u2
~x ~u3
5
3
~u1 +
~u2 +
~u3 = ~u1 ~u2 + 2~u3
~u1 ~u1
~u2 ~u2
~u3 ~u3
2
2
~x = ~y + ~z ~y = 25 ~u1 23 ~u2 Span{~u1 , ~u2 } ~z = 2~u3 Span{~u3 }
~y = projH ~x H H = Span{~u1 , ~u2 } ~z = ~x ~y Span{~u3 } = H

1
1
2

4.2.4 ~u1 = 2 , ~u2 = 1 ~y = 1

{~u1 , ~u2 }
1
1
3
H = Span{~u1 , ~u2 } ~y H H
107
4.2 -
{~u1 , ~u2 } 4.2.2 ~y = y + ~z

12
~y ~u1
~y ~u2
1
2
y = projH ~y =
~u1 +
~u2 = ~u1 ~u2 =
1

~u1 ~u1
~u2 ~u2
6
3
1
2

5
1
2 2

~z = ~y y =
1 1 = 0
1
5
3
2
2
2
4.2.2
Rn

1
1

4.2.5 H = Span{~x1 , ~x2 } ~x1 =

2 ~x2 = 2
3
0
{~v1 , ~v2 } ~v1 ~v2 = 0 H = Span{~v1 , ~v2 }
~v1 = ~x1 ~v2 ~x2 Span{~x1 }

0
1
5
~x2 ~x1

~x1 =
~v2 = ~x2 x
2 = ~x2
2 5 2 = 0
~x1 ~x1
3
3
0
1
n
o
~
x1
~v2 ~v1 Span{~v1 , ~v2 } = Span ~x1 , ~x2 ~~xx12 ~
x1 , ~x2 } = H
~
x
x1 1 = Span{~

1 0
, 0 H

2

3
0
108

1
0
1

2
1
0

4.2.6 ~x1 = , ~x2 = ~x3 = {~x1 , ~x2 , ~x3 }
1
1
0

0
1
1
H = Span{~x1 , ~x2 , ~x3 } R4

H
1. ~v1 = ~x1 ~v2 ~x2 Span{~x1 }

1
1
0
2

1 3 2 0
~x2 ~x1

~v2 = ~x2 projSpan{x1 } ~x2 = ~x2
~x1 = =
1 6 1 1
~x1 ~x1
2

1
0
1

1

0

~v20 = 2~v2 = ~v2
1

2
4.2.5 ~v20 ~v1 Span{~v1 , ~v20 } = Span{~x1 , ~x2 }

{~v1 , ~v20 } Span{~x1 , ~x2 }
2. ~v3 ~x3 Span{~v1 , ~v20 }

~x3 ~v1
~x3 ~v 0
~v1 + 0 02 ~v20
~v1 ~v1
~v2 ~v2

1
1
1
1

3

0 1 2 3 0 1

= + = 3
0 6 1 6 1 1

3

0
2
1
0
~v3 = ~x3 projSpan{~v1 ,~v20 } ~x3 = ~x3
= 3~v3 = ~v30 ~v1 ~v20

1

0
Span{~v1 , ~v20 , ~v30 } = Span{~x1 , ~x2 , ~x3 }
~v30
109
4.2 -
1
1
1
2 0 1

, , H
1 1 1
0
2
0
1
1
1
0
1
2
1
1 , 1
H
,
6
6
1
1 3
1
0
2
0
{~x1 , ~x2 , . . . , ~xp } H
1. ~v1 = ~x1 ~v2 ~x2 Span{~v1 }
2. ~v3 ~x3 Span{~v1 , ~v2 }

~vi = ~xi Span{~v1 , ~v2 , . . . , ~vi1 }

= ~xi projSpan{~v1 ,~v2 ,...,~vi1 } ~xi

~xi ~v2
~xi ~vi1
= ~xi
~v2 + +
~vi1 i {2, 3, . . . , p}
~v2 ~v2
~vi1 ~vi1
{~v1 , ~v2 , . . . , ~vp } H
H Rn -
(Gram-Schmidt process)
4.2.3 [- (The Gram-Schmidt Process)]
{~x1 , ~x2 , . . . , ~xp } H Rn
~v1 = ~x1
~x2 ~v1
~v1
~v1 ~v1
~x3 ~v1
~x3 ~v2
~v3 = ~x3
~v1
~v2
~v1 ~v1
~v2 ~v2
..
.
~v2 = ~x2
~vp = ~xp
~xp ~v1
~xp ~v2
~xp ~vp1
~v1
~v2
~vp1
~v1 ~v1
~v2 ~v2
~vp1 ~vp1
{~v1 , ~v2 , . . . , ~vp } H
110
4.2.4 B H
H B
4.2.7

0 1 1
, 0 , 1
H = Span
1

2
1
3
0 1 1
, 0 , 1 H

1

2
1
3

1 0 1
0 1 1
A=
1
0 1 1
1 0
0 0 0
2 1
3
0 1
,
2.2.4 H = Col A
1 0
2
1

1
0

~x1 =
1 ~x2 = 0 -
1
2
~v1 = ~x1

1
1
0
2
~x2 ~v1
2
~v2 = ~x2
~v1 =
0 5 1 = 5
~v1 ~v1
1
1
2
5
{~v1 , ~v2 } H ~v20 =

2 ~v2
1

0 5

,

1 2 H
2
1
111
4.2 -
4.2.5 [ QR (QR Factorization)]

A m n A A
A = QR Q m n Q
Col A R nn
4.2.8 QR A =
1
0 1
1 0
1 0
1 1

1
1
1
2
0
1
1
1
1
4.2.6
, 6 , 3
6
1
1
0
2
0
H = Col A A = QR
16
2

6
Q=
1
6
16
0
1
6
2
6
QR A
13
1
3
1
3
0
6
6
R = QT A = 0
3
6
3
16
3
6
1
4.2
1. H

0
1
0 1

() H = Span ,
() H = Span 2
0 2
2
1

10
5
1
3

8
3
0
5
1

2. ~u1 = , ~u2 = , ~u3 = , ~u4 = ~x =
2
1
1
1
4

0
1
4
1
1
{~u1 , ~u2 , ~u3 , ~u4 } R4 ~x
~y ~z ~y Span{~u1 , ~u2 , ~u3 } ~z Span{~u4 }
112

1
2
1
1
4

2
1
1
1
5

3. ~u1 = , ~u2 = , ~u3 = , ~u4 = ~x =
1
1
2
1
3

1
1
1
2
3
{~u1 , ~u2 , ~u3 , ~u4 } R4 ~x
~y ~z ~y Span{~u1 } ~z Span{~u2 , ~u3 , ~u4 }
4. {~u1 , ~u2 } ~y Span{~u1 , ~u2 }

1
1
1
3
1
1

() ~u1 = 1, ~u2 = 1 , ~y = 4
() ~u1 = 1, ~u2 = 1, ~y = 2
0
0
3
2
2
6
5. H ~us ~y
H H

3
4
6

() ~u1 =
4, ~u2 = 3 , ~y = 3
0
0
2

1
5
1

() ~u1 = 3 , ~u2 = 1, ~y = 3
5
4
2

4
1
1
1

3
0
3
1

() ~u1 = , ~u2 = , ~u3 = , ~y =
3
1
1
0

1
1
2
1

1
1
0
3

1
0
1
4

() ~u1 = , ~u2 = , ~u3 = , ~y =
0
1
1
5

1
1
1
6

2/3
2/3
4
h

, ~u1 = 1/3, ~u2 = 2/3 , H = Span{~u1 , ~u2 } U = ~u1
6. ~y =
8

1/3
2/3
1
U T U , U U T , projH ~y (U U T )~y
~u2
7. -
113
4.3

() ~x1 =
1, ~x2 = 1
0
1

() ~x1 =
5, ~x2 = 1
1
2

3
5

1
9

() ~x1 = , ~x2 =
2
9

1
3
8.
() A =
1
1

() ~x1 =
0 , ~x2 = 5
1
6

7
1

7
4

() ~x1 = , ~x2 =
0
0

1
1

1
1

1
1

() ~x1 = , ~x2 =
1
1

1
1

Col A
1 6
6
1 1 1 0
0 1
1 2 6
1 1 1 1
() A =
1 0
() A =
1 4 3
1 0 1 1
0 1
3 8 3
0 1 0 1
9. QR
A

1 2
1
1 1
() A = 0 1
() A = 2
() A =
2 3
1 4
2
1 0 0
1 0 2
() A =
() A =
() A =
1 1 0
0 1 1
1
1 1 1
1 2 0
1
10. H Rn
() H H = {~0}
() (H ) = H
0 1
1 1
0 1
1 1
11. {~u1 , ~u2 , . . . , ~up } H Rn T : Rn H

T (~x) = projH (~x) ~x Rn
12. {~u1 , ~u2 , . . . , ~up } H Rn ~y Rn
() projH ~y = (~y ~u1 )~u1 + (~y ~u2 )~u2 + + (~y ~up )~up
i
h
() U = ~u1 ~u2 . . . ~up projH ~y = (U U T )~y
4.3
H Rn ~y Rn
~y H projH ~y = ~y ~y
/ H k~y projH ~y k
~y H
114
4.3.1 [ (The Best Approximation Theorem)]

H Rn ~y Rn y = projH ~y
H ~y
k~y yk < k~y ~v k
~v H r {
y}
projH ~y ~y H (the best approximation to ~y by elements of H) k~y projH ~y k (distance) ~y
4.3.1 ~y = 2

3

2
2

H = Span{~u1 , ~u2 } ~u1 =
5 ~u2 = 1
1
1
~u1 ~u2 = 0 {~u1 , ~u2 } H
4.3.1

25

~y ~u1
~y ~u2
9
5 + 3 1 = 2
y = projH ~y =
~u1 +
~u2 =
~u1 ~u1
~u2 ~u2
30
6
1
1
1
5
~y H
A~x = ~b ~b Col A 4.3.1

b ~b Col A x

A~x = b Col A ~b
115
4.3
4.3.2 A m n ~b Rm
A~x = b b = projCol A~b x

k~b A
xk k~b A~xk
~x Rn
A~x = b (least-squares solution)
A~x = ~b A

4.3.2 A~x = ~b

1
1 6

2
1 2

A=
~b =
1
1 1

6
1 7

6
1

2
1

A ~u1 = ~u2 =
1
1

7
1

1
6

1 45 2
~b ~u1
~b ~u2
2
8

~
b = proj
~u1 +
~u2 = +
= A
Col A b =
1
~u1 ~u1
~u2 ~u2
4 1 90 1

2
1
7

2
4.3.2 x
= A~x = ~b

1
2
A m n, ~b Rm b = projCol A~b x
A~x = b ~b b = ~b A
x (Col A)
i
h
b A~x A A = ~v1 ~v2 . . . ~vn ~vj Rm
~vj (~b A~x) = 0 j = 1, 2, . . . , n

T
T
~
~
~v
~v (b A
x)
~v (b A
x)
1
1
1
T
T ~

~
~
v
(
b
A
x
)
~
v
~
v
(
b
A
x
)
2
2 ~
2
T ~
= ~0n
A (b A
x) = . (b A
x) =
=
..
..

..
.
.

~vnT
~vnT (~b A
x)
~vn (~b A
x)
116
AT A
x = AT ~b
4.3.3 A~x = ~b
AT A~x = AT ~b
AT A~x = AT ~b (normal equations)
A~x = ~b A~x = ~b
4.3.3 A~x = ~b
1 2
A=
2
3
1 3
~b =
1
2
1 2
6
11
1 2 1
2 3 =
AT A =
11 22
2 3 3
1 3

4
1
2
1
1 =
AT ~b =

11
2 3 3
2
AT A~x = AT ~b

4
6
11 x1
=
x2
11
11 22

x1
3
22 11
4
1
=
x
= =
11 11 6
x2
2
11
4.3.4 A~x = ~b
A=
1
1 0
1 0
0 1
0 1

1

3

~b =
8

2
117
4.3
1
1 1 1 1
AT A =
1
1
0
0
0 0 1 1
1
1 0
4
2
2
1 0

=
2 2 0
0 1
2 0 2
0 1
1 1 1 1
3 14

AT ~b =
=4
1 1 0 0
8

0 0 1 1
10
2
AT A~x = AT ~b

4 2 2
x1
14

2 2 0 x2 = 4

2 0 2
x3
10
1 0 1
5
4 2 2 14

x1 + x3 = 5
2 2 0 4 0 1 1 3

x2 x3 = 3
2 0 2 10
0 0 0
0

1
5
5 x3
x1

x
=
x2 = 3 + x3 = 3 + x3 1 x3 R
1
0
x3
x3
A~x = ~b
x
A
x ~b
~b A
x k~b A
xk (least-
squares error)
4.3.5 4.3.3

3
1
1 2
4
4
3

~b A
= 1 0 = 1

x=

1 2 3
2
1
3
1 3
2
2
k~b A
xk =
11
118
(a1 , b1 ), (a2 , b2 ), . . . , (an , bn )

0 1 y = 0 + 1 x
(least-squares line)
0 1
0 + 1 a1 = b1
0 + 1 a2 = b2
..
.
0 + 1 an = bn
b
1 a1
1
b
1 a2 0
= 2
..
.. ..
.
. . 1
1 an
bn
~ = ~b
A
~ = ~b
A
4.3.6
(0, 1), (1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 2)
119
4.3
A ~b
A=
1

1

1

~b =
2

2
A~ = ~b
1
1
1 1 1 1
T
A A=
0 1 2 3
1
1

4
6
1

=
6
14
2
6
1
1 1 1 1
AT ~b =
=
11
0 1 2 3
2
2
AT A~ = AT ~b

4 6
0 =
11
1
6 14

0
1 14 6 6 0.9
= =
=
20 6 4
1
11
0.4
y = 0 + 1 x = 0.9 + 0.4x
4.3
1. ~y H = Span{~u1 , ~u2 }

3
1
3

1
1
1

() ~u1 = , ~u2 = , ~y =
1
1
5

1
1
1

3
4
1

1
1
2

() ~u1 = , ~u2 = , ~y =
1
0
1

13
3
2
120
3
3

H = Span 5 , 2
2. ~y =
9

5
1
1
3. A~x = ~b A

1 5
4
1
3
2

~
~
() A =
() A =
3 1 b = 2
2 0 b = 1
2 4
3
3 1
4

1 1 0
2
4 0
1
9

1 0 1
5
1 5 1
0

() A =
~b = () A =
~b =
0 1 1
6
6 1
0
0

1 1 1
6
1 1 5
0
4. A~x = ~b

2 1
5
() A =
b
=
2 0
8
2 3
1
() A =
1
1
0
1
1
() A =
2
0
1
() A =
0
1

1
1
~b =
1
0

2
1
5.

~
1
b = 1
1
1 0
1 0
1 0
0 1
0 1
0 1
5

7

2

3
~b =

6

5

4
()
(1, 0), (2, 1), (4, 2), (5, 3)
()
(3, 8), (1, 5), (1, 3), (3, 0)
()
(1, 1), (2, 4), (3, 6), (4, 9)
()
(0, 0), (1, 1), (2, 3), (3, 8)
4.4
A (symmetric matrix) AT = A
0 1
2
1 3
1 3 1
4.4.1 ()
3 2
2 1 2
3 1 0
2 1
1 1 2
()
1 2
0 2 2
2 3
3
4.4.2 A =
3 1 0
3 0 1
121
4.4
A
det(A I3 ) = ( + 1)( + 4)(5 ) = 0
A = 1, 4, 5

= 1
A + I3 =
3
3
A + I3

3 3
1 0 0

x1
= 0
0 1 1
0 0

x2 + x3 = 0
0 0
0 0 0
x1 = 0
2 = x
3
x
0
0
x1

= x3 = x3 1
~x =
x
2

1
x3
x3

0

A1 = Nul (A + I3 ) = Span
1

1
= 4
A + 4I3 = 3
3
0
1

A + 4I3

3 3
1 0 1

x1 + x3 = 0
3 0
0 1 1
x2 x3 = 0
0 3
0 0 0
x1 = x3 x2 = x
3
x1
x3
1

~x = x2 = x3 = x3 1
x3
x3
1

A4 = Nul (A + 4I3 ) = Span 1
= 5 A 5I3

1 0 2
3 3
3

x1 2x3 = 0

A 5I3 =
3 6 0 0 1 1
x2 x3 = 0
0 0 0
3
0 6
x1 = 2x
3
3
x2 = x
2
2x3
x1

~x =
x2 = x3 = x3 1
1
x3
x3
122
2

A5 = Nul (A + 5I3 ) = Span
1

2
1

3.2.5 A
1 0 0
0 1 2
A = P DP 1 D =
0 4 0 P = 1 1 1
0
0 5
1
1 1
4.4.2 P

4.4.1 A
A (orthogonally diagonalizable)
P ( P P 1 = P T ) D
A = P DP 1 = P DP T
2 3
3
4.4.3 A =
3 1 0
3 0 1
4.4.2

0
1/ 3 2/ 6
P =
1/ 2 1/ 3 1/ 6
1/ 2
1/ 3 1/ 6
P 1 = P T
A
1 0 0
A = P
0 4 0 P
0
0 5
A P
D A = P DP 1 = P DP T
AT = (P DP T )T = (P T )T DT P T = P DP T = A
A
4.4.2 A A
A
123
4.4
A
A A
-
P A = P DP T D
A P
7
16 8

4.4.4 A =
16
7
8
8
8
5
(27 )( + 9)2 = 0
A = 27, 9, 9

= 27 A 27I3

20 16 8
1 0 2

A 27I3 =
8
0 1 2
16 20
0 0 0
8
8
32
x1 = 2x
3
3 x2 = 2x
2
2x3
x1

~x =
x2 = 2x3 = x3 2
1
x3
x3

A27 = Nul (A + 27I3 ) = Span

2

1

2
= 9 A + 9I3
16 8
1 1 21
0 0
A + 9I3 =
16
16
8
0
8
8
4
0 0
0
16
x1 x2 21 x3 = 0 x1 = x2 + 21 x3

1
x2 + 21 x3
1
x1
2

~x =
x2 = x2 = x2 1 + x3 0
0
x3
1
x3
x1 + 2x3 = 0
x2 2x3 = 0
124
2
1 1

, 0 = Span 1 , 0
A9 = Nul (A + 9I3 ) = Span
1

0
0
2
1
1
1
~x1 = 1 , ~x2 = 0
0
2
- A9

1
1
1
1 2
~x2 ~x1
1
~x1 =
~v1 = ~x1 ~v2 = ~x2
0 2 1 = 2
~x1 ~x1
0
2
2

1
~v20 =
1
~v2
4

1
1
2 18
1 1
,
A9
18
4
18
A
A = P DP T
2
1
1
27 0
0
3
2
18
2
P =
1
1

D =
0
9
0
3
2
18
1
4
0
0 9
0
3
18
A (spectrum) A
A
4.4.3 [ (The Spectral Theorem for Symmetric Matrices)]
A
() A
()
()
() A
A n n A
P A = P DP T P
~u1 , ~u2 , . . . , ~un 1 , 2 , . . . , n ()
125
4.4
D A = P DP 1 = P DP T
h
A = P DP T = ~u1 ~u2
h
= 1 ~u1 2 ~u2 . . .
0 ...
1
i
0 2 . . .
. . . ~un
.. . .
..
.
.
.
0 0 ...

~uT
1
i
~uT2
n ~un
..
.

~uTn

~uT
1

0 ~uT2

.. ..
. .

~uTn
n
0
A = 1 ~u1 ~uT1 + 2 ~u2 ~uT2 + + n ~un ~uTn

(spectral decomposition) A
n n 1 ( Col (~ui ~uTi ) =
Span{~ui } i = 1, 2, . . . , n)
4.4.5 A

7 2
2/ 5 1/ 5
2/ 5 1/ 5 8 0
=
A=

1/ 5 2/ 5
2 4
0 3 1/ 5 2/ 5

1/ 5 h
2/ 5 h
i
i
A = 8 2/ 5 1/ 5 + 3 1/ 5 2/ 5
1/ 5
2/ 5
1/5 2/5
4/5 2/5
+ 3
= 8
2/5 4/5
2/5 1/5
4.4
1.

8 2
1 2
() A =
() A =
2 5
2 1
9
12
3
1.5
() A =
() A =
12 16
1.5
7
126
() A =
4
() A = 0
36
2 0
0 1
() A =
0 0
0 1
2
0
36
() A =
1
1
() A = 1
0
0 23
0 0
0 1
; = 0, 2
2 0
0 1
1 1
2 1
1
0 1
() A = 1 2 1
1 0
1 1 2
2 1 1
1 0
1 0
() A = 1 2 1
1 1 2
0 0
2 0 1 0
0 2 0 1
() A =
; = 1, 3
1 0 2 0
0 1 0 2
2. A 1. ()()

3 1 1
1
3. A = 1 3 1 ~v = 1
1 1 3
0
5 A ( det(A 5I) = 0) ~v
A A
4. A =
4
2
1
2
4 2

5
2 , ~v1 = 2 ~v2 = 1
0
1
2
2
~v1 ~v2 A A
a b
b 6= 0 A
5. A =
b a
6. A AAT AT A
7. A A1
8. A n n (A~x) ~y = ~x (A~y ) ~x, ~y Rn
4.5

x1
4.5.1 ~x =
x2
2 0
() A =
0 3
~xT A~x A

i 2 0
h
x
1 = 2x21 3x22
~xT A~x = x1 x2
0 3 x2
127
4.5
3 2
() A =
2 1

i 3 2 x1
h
= 3x21 4x1 x2 + x22
~xT A~x = x1 x2
x2
2 1
A Q : Rn R
Q(~x) = ~xT A~x = ~x (A~x) = (A~x) ~x
~x Rn (quadratic form) A
Q (matrix of the quadratic form Q)
Q Q(~0) = 0
4.5.2 Q(~x) = 3x21 5x22 + x23 2x1 x2 + x2 x3 ~x R3
Q Q
a d e
Q(~x) = ~xT A~x

A =
d
b
f
e f c
h
x1 x2

a d e
x1
i

x3
d b f x2 = Q(~x)
e f c
x3
ax21 + bx22 + cx23 + 2dx1 x2 + 2ex1 x3 + 2f x2 x3 = 3x21 5x22 + x23 2x1 x2 + x2 x3

a = 3, b = 5, c = 1, d = 1, e = 0 f =
3 1 0
1

A =
1 5 2
1
1
0
2
1
2
128
R2

i a c x1
h
= ax21 + bx22 + 2cx1 x2
Q(~x) = x1 x2
c b
x2
R3
h
Q(~x) = x1 x2

a d e
x1
i

x3
d b f x2
e f c
x3
= ax21 + bx22 + cx23 + 2dx1 x2 + 2ex1 x3 + 2f x2 x3

cxi xj i 6= j Q (cross-product term)
~x Rn
~x = P ~y
~y = P 1 ~x
P ~y Rn (change of
variables)
A A
P D P T AP = D ~xT A~x
~x P ~x = P ~y
~xT A~x = (P ~y )T A(P ~y ) = ~y T (P T AP )~y = ~y T D~y
~y
4.5.1 [ (The Principal Axis Theorem)]
A ~x = P ~y ~xT A~x
~y T D~y
4.5.3 Q(x1 , x2 ) = 3x21 + 6x22 4x1 x2
~x = P ~y Q 3x21 +
6x22 4x1 x2 = 14
A =
2 6
3
A A

3 2
= 2 9 + 14 = ( 2)( 7) = 0

det(A I2 ) =

2 6
129
4.5
= 2, 7

= 2 A 2I2

1 2
1 2
x1 2x2 = 0
A 2I2 =
2 4
0 0

x1
2x2
2
= x2
x1 = 2x2 ~x = =
x2
x2
1

2
2
Nul (A 2I2 ) = Span
1
1
= 7 A 7I2

1
4 2
1 2
x1 + 1 x2 = 0
A 7I2 =
2
0 0
2 1

1
x1
x1
= x1
x2 = 2x1 ~x = =
x2
2x1
2

1
1
Nul (A 7I2 ) = Span
2
2
A 4.4.3 A
A = P DP T

2
2 0
5
P =
D=
1
0 7
5
~x = P ~y
1
5
2
Q(x1 , x2 ) = ~xT A~x = (P ~y )T A(P ~y ) = ~y T (P T AP )~y = ~y T D~y

3x21 + 6x22 4x1 x2 = 14
2y12 + 7y22 = 14
y1 y2
130
4.5.4 ~x = P ~y
x21 + 4x22 + 4x1 x2 + 4 5x1 + 3 5x2 = 0

Q(x1 , x2 ) = x21 + 4x22 + 4x1 x2 A =
1 2
A A
2 4
A
= 0, 5

1
2
= 2 5 = ( 5) = 0

det(A I2 ) =

2
4

= 0 A 0I2

1 2
1 2
x1 + 2x2 = 0
A 0I2 =
0 0
2 4

x1
2x2
2
= x2
x1 = 2x2 ~x = =
x2
x2
1

2
2
Nul (A 0I2 ) = Span
1
1
= 5 A 5I2
1
1 2
4 2
x1 1 x2 = 0
A 5I2 =
2
2 1
0 0

x1
x1
1
= x1
x2 = 2x1 ~x = =
x2
2x1
2

1
1
Nul (A 5I2 ) = Span
2
2
A = P DP T
25
0 0
P =
D=
1
0 5
5
~x = P ~y
1
5
2
5
131
4.5
1 2
i
~x + 4 5 3 5 ~x
x21 + 4x22 + 4x1 x2 +4 5x1 + 3 5x2 = ~xT
2 4
1
2
h
i
0 0
5
5 ~
~y + 4 5 3 5
= ~y T
y
1
2
0 5
5
5

= 5y22 5y1 + 10y2
5y22 5y1 + 10y2 = 0 y1 y2
4.5.5 ~x = P ~y
2x21 + 2x22 + 2x23 + 2x1 x2 + 2x1 x3 2x2 x3 + 24x1 + 12x2 + 12x3 12 = 0
Q(x1 , x2 , x3 ) = 2x21 + 2x22 + 2x23 + 2x1 x2 + 2x1 x3 2x2 x3
2 1
1
A =
1 2 1 A
1 1 2
A A

2
1
1

3
2
det(A I3 ) = 1
2 1 = (2 ) 3(2 ) 2 = ( 3) = 0

1
1 2
= 0, 3

= 0 A 0I3
2 1
1
1 0 1
x1 = x3

A 0I3 =
1 2 1 0 1 1
x2 = x3
1 1 2
0 0 0
132

x1
x3
1

~x = x2 = x3 = x3 1
x3
1
x3

Nul (A 0I2 ) = Span 1
= 3 A 3I3

1 1 1
1 1
1
0 0
A 3I3 =
0
1
1
1
0 0
0
1 1 1
x1 = x2 + x3
x1
x2 + x3
1
1

~x =
x2 = x2 = x2 1 + x3 0
x3
x3
1
0

1 1
, 0
Nul (A 3I2 ) = Span
1

1
0
1
1
~x1 = 1 , ~x2 = 0
1
0
- Nul (A 3I2 )
~v1 = ~x1

1
1
1
1 2
1
~v2 = ~x2 x
2 =
0 2 1 = 2
1
0
1
1 1
, 1 Nul (A 3I2 )

1

0
2
A = P DP T
0 0 0
3
D=
0 3 0 P =
3
1
0 0 3
3
~x = P ~y
1
2
1
2
1
6
16
2
6
~v20 =
1
2
133
4.5
2x21 + 2x22 + 2x23 + 2x1 x2 + 2x1 x3 2x2 x3 + 24x1 + 12x2 + 12x3 12
2 1
1
h
i
h i
~
x
+
~
x
= ~xT
24 12 12
12
1 2 1
1 1 2
1
1
0 0 0
2
6
h i
h
i 3
~y + 24 12 12
1
1
1 ~
y
= ~y T
12
0
3
0
2
6
3
1
2
0 0 3
0
3
6
36
36
= 3y22 + 3y32 + y2 + y3 12
2
6
y22 + y32 + 6 2y2 + 2 6y3 4 = 0

Q
() (positive definite) [ (positive semidefinite)] Q(~x) > 0

~x 6= ~0 [Q(~x) 0 ~x]
() (negative definite) [ (negative semidefinite)] Q(~x) < 0

~x 6= ~0 [Q(~x) 0 ~x]
() (indefinite) Q(~x)

4.5.2 A
~xT A~x
() A
() A
() A
4.5.6 Q
() Q(x1 , x2 ) = 3x21 + 6x22 4x1 x2
() Q(x1 , x2 , x3 ) = x21 + 3x22 + x23 + 2x1 x2 + 6x1 x3 + 2x2 x3
3 2
() Q A =
2 3
4.5.3 A = 2, 7 > 0
1 1 3
() Q A =
1 3 1
3 1 1
134
A

1
1
3

det(A I3 ) = 1
3
1 = ( + 2)( 2)( 5) = 0

3
1
1
A = 2, 2, 5
4.5
1. ~xT A~x
A
4 3 0
5 0.5
()
()
3 2 1
0.5 1
0 1 1
2. Q Q
() Q(x1 , x2 ) = 5x21 2x22 + 4x1 x2
() Q(x1 , x2 ) = 9x21 + 3x22 8x1 x2
() Q(x1 , x2 , x3 ) =
x21
() Q(x1 , x2 , x3 ) =
9x21
x22
7x22
x23
() Q(x1 , x2 ) = 3x21 + 3x22 4x1 x2

() Q(x1 , x2 ) = x1 x2
2x2 x3
+ 11x23 8x1 x2 + 8x1 x3
3. Q 2.
~x = P ~y Q
4. Q(x1 , x2 ) = 3x21 + 3x22 + 2x1 x2 ~x = P ~y Q
3x21 + 3x22 + 2x1 x2 = 1
5. k
() Q(x1 , x2 ) = x21 + kx22 4x1 x2
() Q(x1 , x2 , x3 ) = 5x21 + 2x22 + kx23 + 4x1 x2 2x1 x3 2x2 x3

() Q(x1 , x2 , x3 ) = 3x21 + x22 + 2x23 + 2x1 x3 + 2kx2 x3
6. 4.4 1. ()() ~x = P ~y
()()
() 8x21 + 5x22 4x1 x2 + 2 5x1 + 4 5x2 + 4 = 0
() x21 + x22 4x1 x2 + 2 2x1 + 6 2x2 10 = 0
() 9x21 + 16x22 24x1 x2 + 25x1 + 50x2 12 = 0
() 3x21 + 7x22 3x1 x2 + 2 10x1 + 2 = 0

() 2x21 2x22 2x23 + 8x1 x2 8x1 x3 72 = 0
() 2x1 x2 + 2x1 x3 + 2x2 x3 = 16
135
4.5
4.1 1.(~
u ~v = ~v ~
u = 1, k~
uk = 5, k~v k = 13)/
" #
" #
1
1
2~
u + ~v =
/ 1
;
37
6
6
18
7
6 u~
xk = 33;
2. 3 ~
u
7 /k~
79
2
1
8
3.~
x=
2
~
u
3 1
+~
u2 +
1
~
u /U
3 3
21
4
21
1
21
4.~
x = 43 ~
u1 13 ~
u2 + 31 ~
u3 /U =
105
1
/U
= UT ;
0
5
105
2
4
5
105
3
2
1
3
18
18
3

1 /U 1 = U T
23
18
18
1
4
0
3
18
5
2
0
2 1
2 3

4.2 1.()H = Span 1 , 0 , ()H = Span , ;
0
1 0
0
1

2
2
10
0

4 1
2 6

7
y+~
z ; 4.()~
y = 23 ~
y+~
z ; 3.~
x= + =~
2.~
x= + =~
u1 52 ~
u2 , ()~
y = 14
~
u1 15
~
u ;
6 2
2 5
4 2

1
2
2
2

34
26

2
5
15
15
4
5
0
6
58
2
13
2

z = 2 , ()
z = 0 , ()
y = 15 /~
y=
z = ;
z = 15 , ()
y = /~
5.()
y=

1 /~

3 /~
2
2
13
3
5
5
4
1
2
0
28
13
0
6
15
15
2
2
8
"
#
2
9
9

9
1 0
T )~
2
5
4 / proj ~
4 ;
y
=
(U
U
y
=
6.U T U =
/U U T =
H
9
9
9
0 1
4
5
2
5
9
9
9

5
1
1 1
3 1
4 1
2 6
7.() 1 , 1 , () 0 , 5 , () 5 , 3 , () , ,
0 0
0
1
1
2
3
3
1
1

1
1
4
3
1 1
1 6

, 1 / 1 , 2 ,
() , , () , ; 8.()
1

1
1
1 1
2 3
1
0
3
1
0
1

1
3
6
6
1 1 3
1 2 6

() , , / , , ,
1 1 1
1 4 3
3
1
1
3
3
8

2
1
1
0
1
1
1 1 1
1 1 1

() , , / , , ;
1 0 1
1 0 1
0
3
1
0
1
1
1
1
"
"
"
#
#
#
3
2
5
2 5
5
5
2 3 2
1
1
9.()Q = 5
/R =
,
/R
=
0
, ()Q =
3
2 5
5
0
5
0
3
1
1
()Q =
1
32
3
2
3
8
234
11 /R
234
7
234
"
3
0
1
3
26
3
, ()Q =
13
3
1
2
6
1
6
1
0
/R
=
1
2
1
0
0
3
2
,
6
1
136
2
()Q =
0
()Q =
2
1
21
2
1
2
1
2
1
3
1
3
0
1
0
1
4.3
3.()~
x=
4.()~
x=
~=
5.()
2
6
2
0
/R
=
6
0
1
6
1
2
0
1
/R
=
2
0
1
2
0
0
21
2
3
1
,
3
4
1

2
1
~
u + 23 ~
u2 , ()~
y = 3~
u1 + ~
u2 ; 2. 2 10;
2 1

2
1
" #
" #
2
8
3
3
7 , ()~
14 , ()~
0 ;
x
=
x = 7 , ()~
x=

3
1
1
7
5
5
1
3
3

8
" #
" #
1
5
7

4
1
13 , ()~
1 + x3 1 ;
, ()~
x=
, ()~
x=
x
=

7

3
1
1
1
0
7
"
#
"
#
"
#
"
#
3
0.6
4
~=
~ = 2 , ()
~ = 0.9
, ()
, ()
13
0.7
1.3
2.6
5
1.()~
y=
4.4
1.() = 4, 9/
31
() = 6, 2, 6/
3
() =
3
1
13
2, 1, 1/
3
1
() = 3, 50, 25/
1
0
5
2
,
6
1
6
0
6
,
1
2
6
1
1
2
6
3
4
5
5
2
1
0
4
5
5 ,
() = 1, 3/
() = 3, 3, 0/
0
, () = 0, 0, 2/
3
5
6
2
6
1
6
2
1
0
0
2
1
0
1
2
1 ,
2 ,
3
1
() = 0, 25/
"
4
5
3
5
53
4
5
, () =
5 15
, /
2 2
3
10
1
10
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
0
2
1
1
1
1
3
2
6
0

0
0
1
2
2
2
,
()
,
()
() = 0, 3, 3/
3
2
6
1
0
0
0
1
0
2
1
2
0
1
1
3
6
0
0 1
0
2
2
2
"
"
#
#
1
1
2
1
1
2
1
4
0
1
0
5
5 , () 2
2
2 ,
5
2
2.() 5
2
1
1
1
1
0 9 2
0
3 1
5
5
5
2 2
2 2
5
#"
#"
#
"
# 3
"
4
5
3
3
4
3
1
1
0
0
0
5
5
5 , () 10
10 2
10 ;
10
() 5
3
4
4
15
1
3
3
0 25 53
0
1
5
5
5
2
10
10
10
10
1
1
3
1
1
5
0
0
3
2
6
2
18
2
1
1
1
3.P =
/D =
/D =
1
1
3
0 2 0 ; 4.P = 3
2
6
2
18
4
1
1
2
0 0 2
0
0
3
3
6
18
ab
0
1
10
2 ;
0
1
0
2
0
; 5.P =
1
2
1
1
2 /
1
2
10 ,
3
10
137
4.5
4.5 1.()5x21 x22 + x1 x2 , ()4x21 + 2x22 + x23 + 6x1 x2 + 2x2 x3 ;
#
"
#
"
#
"
#
"
9
1
0
0
1
5
2
3
2
9
4
0
2 , ()
, () 4
2.()
, ()
, ()
, ()
0
1
1
1
0
2
2
2
3
4
3
2
4
0 1
1
2
5 / y 2 6y 2 ,
3.() = 1, 6/P = 5
1
2
1
0
;
11
2 /y 2 + 5y 2 ,
1
2
1
2
1
2
5
5 /11y 2 + y 2 ,
1
2
2
1
5
5
1
1
2 / 1 y2 1 y2 ,
2
2 1
2 2
1
1
2
2
() = 1, 5/P =
() = 11, 1/P =
() =
1
, 12 /P
2
() = 0, 1, 2/P =
2
() = 3, 9, 15/P =
4. = 2, 4/P =
2
1
2
1
2
32
2
3
1
3
2 /2y 2
1
1
0
0
1
3
23
23
2
1
/y2 + 2y32 ,
2
1
2
32
1 /3y 2
1
3
32
+ 4y22 = 1,
5.()k > 4,()k > 2,()k2 1;
()

6.
()
+ 9y22 + 15y32 ;
138
()
&
+
0
*
!"#$%#$!"' ()*+(,*-(,*+(+*-(+*)0/.+
()
5.1
Q, R
C +
F
(+1) ( (closure) ) x + y F x, y F
(+2) ( (associativity) ) (x + y) + z = x + (y + z) x, y, z F
(+3) ( ) 0 F x + 0 = x = 0 + x x F 0
(identity) F
(+4) ( (commutativity) ) x + y = y + x x, y F
(+5) () x F u F x + u = 0 = u + x u
(inverse) x x
(1) () x y F x, y F
(2) () (x y) z = x (y z) x, y, z F
(3) () 1 F x 1 = x = 1 x x F 1
F
139
140
(4) () x y = y x x, y F
(5) () x 6= 0 F v F x v = 1 = v x v
x x1
(+) ( distributive) (x + y) z = (x z) + (y z) z (x + y) = (z x) + (z y)
x, y, z F
F +
(field) Q, R C
5.1.1 p Fp = {0, 1, . . . , p 1}
a b Fp
a + b = a + b p
a b = ab p
(Fp , +, )
(F, +, ) F (scalar) V
V (vector)
(scalar multiplication) V c F ~v V c ~v V
(V, , ) (vector space) F
1. V (+1) (+5) ( F
V + )
2. (c1 + c2 ) ~v = (c1 ~v ) (c2 ~v ) c1 , c2 F ~v V

3. (c1 c2 ) ~v = c1 (c2 ~v ) c1 , c2 F ~v V
4. c (~v1 ~v2 ) = (c ~v1 ) (c ~v2 ) c F ~v1 , ~v2 V
5. 1 ~v = ~v ~v V
V ~0V (zero vector)
5.1.1 (V, , ) F , ~v V c
F
() 0 ~v = ~0V
() (1) ~v = ~v
() c ~0V = ~0V
F V V +
c ~v c~v
141
5.1
1.1 R
F R F m n
F m n Mm,n (F ) Mn (F ) = Mn,n (F )
n F m 1
F m 1
2 R F
5.1.2 [ F ]
1. m n Mm,n (F )
F Mn (F ) F m F
2. F N F
F N = {(an ) : an F n}
F (an ) (bn ) F N c F
(an ) + (bn ) := (an + bn )
c (an ) := (can )
F N F (sequence space)
3. S F S S
F
F S = {f | f : S F }
F f g F S c F
(f + g)(x) = f (x) + g(x)
(c f )(x) = cf (x)
x S
F S F (function space)
4. n Fn [x] (polynomial) (degree)
n F (indeterminate) x
Fn [x] = {a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + + an xn : ai F i {0, 1, 2, . . . , n}}
F p(x) = a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + +
an xn q(x) = b0 + b1 x + b2 x2 + + bn xn Fn [x] c F
p(x) + q(x) = (a0 + b0 ) + (a1 + b1 )x + (a2 + b2 )x2 + + (an + bn )xn
c(p(x)) = (ca0 ) + (ca1 )x + (ca2 )x2 + + (can )xn
142
Fn [x] F Fn1 [x] Fn [x]

n
5. F [x] F x
F [x] = {a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + + an xn : n 0
ai F i {0, 1, 2, . . . , n}}
F [x] =
Fn [x] F Fn [x] F [x]
n0
F (polynomial space) F
5.1.2 V1 , V2 , . . . , Vn F
F V = V1 V2 Vn (~v1 , ~v2 , . . . , ~vn ), (w
~ 1, w
~ 2, . . . , w
~ n ) V
c F
(~v1 , ~v2 , . . . , ~vn ) + (w

~ 1, w
~ 2, . . . , w
~ n ) = (~v1 + w
~ 1 , ~v2 + w
~ 2 , . . . , ~vn + w
~ n)
c(~v1 , ~v2 , . . . , ~vn ) = (c~v1 , c~v2 , . . . , c~vn )
V F V (direct product) V1 , V2 , . . . , Vn
5.1.3 V = R2 V
V
() (x1 , x2 ) + (y1 , y2 ) = (x1 + y1 , x2 y2 ) c(x1 , x2 ) = (cx1 , x2 )
(x1 , x2 ), (y1 , y2 ) V c R
() (x1 , x2 ) + (y1 , y2 ) = (x1 + y1 , x2 + y2 ) c(x1 , x2 ) = (cx2 , cx1 )
(x1 , x2 ), (y1 , y2 ) V c R
5.1.1 V = R2 V
(x1 , x2 ) + (y1 , y2 ) = (x1 + y1 , x2 + y2 )
x2
c(x1 , x2 ) = (cx1 , ) c 6= 0 0(x1 , x2 ) = (0, 0)
c
(x1 , x2 ), (y1 , y2 ) V c R V R
V F W V W
(subspace) V W F
V
143
5.1
5.1.3 V F W V
W V ~0V W ~v1 + c~v2 W ~v1 , ~v2 W c F
5.1.4
1. V F {~0V } V
V (trivial subspace)
2. n Fn [x] F [x]
3. F V = {(x1 , x2 ) : x1 = x2 } V F 2
4. ` (R) = {(an ) RN : (an ) } ` RN
5. C 0 (, ) = {f RR : f (, )}
C 0 (, ) RR
6. W = {f : R R | f 00 = f } W RR
7. W1 = {p(x) F [x] : p(1) = 0} W2 = {p(x) F [x] : p(0) = 1}
W1 F [x] W2 F [x]
5.1.2
a
1. W1 =
c
b
d
M2 (R) : a + b = c + d
a b
M2 (R) : ad bc = 0
W2 =
c d
W1 W2 M2 (R)
2. W = {A Mn (F ) : A } W Mn (F )
3. W1 = {p(x) R[x] : x + 2 p(x) }
W2 = {p(x) R[x] : p(x) = 0 }
W1 W2 R[x]
4. C 1 (, ) (, )
C 1 (, ) C 0 (, )
)
(
X
N
an = 0 S RN
5. S = (an ) R :
n=1
V F ~v1 , ~v2 , . . . , ~vp V c1 , c2 , . . . , cp

F
~y = c1~v1 + c2~v2 + + cp~vp
(linear combination) ~v1 , ~v2 , . . . , ~vp (weight) c1 , c2 , . . . , cp
144
S V
S V S (subset of V spanned by S) Span S
Span S := {c1~v1 + c2~v2 + + cp~vp V : c1 , c2 , . . . , cp F, ~v1 , ~v2 , . . . , ~vp S}
Span = {~0}
~0 Span S, S Span S Span{~0} = {~0}
5.1.4 S V F Span S
V V S (subspace of V spanned by S)
Span S = V S (span) V S Span S = V
V (finite dimensional)
5.1.5
W = Span{x3 2x2 5x 3, 3x3 5x2 4x 9}
R[x]
() 2x3 2x2 + 12x 6
() 3x3 2x2 + 7x + 8
5.1.6
2
2
() Span{x
2, 2x2 + 5x
+ 4} = R2 [x]
+ 3x
3,x
4x
1 1
1 1
0 1
1 0
,
,
,
= M2 (R)
() Span
1 0
0 1
1 1
1 1
5.1.3
1. W = Span{1 + x, 2 + x2 } R2 [x]
1 1 x + x2 W
2. Span{1 x, 1 + x, x2 } = R2 [x]
S V (linearly independent)
~v1 , ~v2 , . . . , ~vp S c1 , c2 , . . . , cp F
c1~v1 + c2~v2 + + cp~vp = ~0V
c1 = c2 = = cp = 0 S V (linearly dependent)
~v1 , ~v2 , . . . , ~vp S c1 , c2 , . . . , cp F

c1~v1 + c2~v2 + + cp~vp = ~0V
5.1.7
() {x2 + 3x 2, 2x2 + 5x 3, x2 4x + 4} R2 [x]
5.1
145
() {ex , sin x} RR
R
()
{1,sin2 x,
2x}R
cos
1 1
1 0
0 1
1 1
M2 (R)
,
,
,
()
1 0
1 1
1 1
0 1
5.1.4
1. V F ~v , w
~ V
{~v , w}
~ {~v w,
~ ~v + w}
~
2. a, b R {eax , ebx } a 6= b
3. F S = {(a, b), (c, d)} F 2
S ad bc 6= 0
(basis) W V F B W
W B W Span B = W
5.1.5 W V F B = {~v1 , . . . , ~vm }

B 0 = {w
~ 1, . . . , w
~ n } W m = n
5.1.5 W
V F W
(dimension) W dim W
5.1.8
1. i = 1, 2, . . . , m n = 1, 2, . . . , n Eij m n
i j 1 0
B = {Eij : i = 1, 2, . . . , m j = 1, 2, . . . , n} Mm,n (F )
(standard basis) Mm,n (F ) dim Mm,n (F ) = mn
n = 1 ~ei = Ei1 i = 1, 2, . . . , m {~e1 , ~e2 , . . . , ~em }

F m
2. {1, x, x2 , . . . , xn } Fn [x] (standard basis)

Fn [x] dim Fn [x] = n + 1
3. {1, x, x2 , . . . , xn , . . . } F [x] (standard ba-
sis) F [x] F [x]
1 1
1 1
0 1
1 0
,
,
,
M2 (R)
4.
1 0
0 1
1 1
1 1
5. C = {a + bi : a, b R} C R
{1, i}
146
a+b b
: a, b, c R M2 (R)
5.1.9 W =
a 2c 0
W
5.1.5
1. {2, 1 + x, x3 , x4 + x2 + 2, 3x4 + x} R4 [x]
2.
M2 (R)
1 0
0 1
0 1
1 0
,
,
,
()
0 1
0 1
1 0
1 0

1 0
1 1
1 0
0 1
,
,
,
()
0 1
0 0
1 0
1 0
A B V F
A + B = {~a + ~b : ~a A ~b B}
5.1.6 W1 W2 V F W1 +
W2 W1 W2 V W1 W2 V V
5.1.10
W1 = {(x1 x2 , x1 , x2 ) : x1 , x2 R} W2 = {(x1 , x2 , x3 ) R3 : x2 = x3 }
R3
W1 + W2 W1 W2
5.1.6
a b
M2 (R) : a b = c d
W1 =
c d
ab b+c
M2 (R) : a, b, c R
W2 =
a
bc
() W1 W2 M2 (R)
() W1 W2
() W1 + W2 W1 W2
5.2
V W F T : V W (linear
transformation) ~u, ~v V c F
T (~u + ~v ) = T (~u) + T (~v )
T (c~u) = c T (~u)
147
5.2
1. T V W ~u, ~v V
c, d F T (c~u + d~v ) = cT (~u) + dT (~v )

2. T : V W
T (~0V ) = ~0W T (~v ) = T (~v ) ~v V

5.2.1
1. T : F n F n1
T (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) = (x2 , x3 , . . . , xn )
T
2. n T : Fn1 [x] F n
T (a0 + a1 x + + an1 xn1 ) = (a0 , a1 , . . . , an1 )
ai F T
3. T : F [x] F T (p(x)) = p(1) p(x) F [x]
T
4. T : Mm,n (F ) Mn,m (F ) T (A) = AT m n A

T
5. T : ` (R) R T ((an )) = lim an

T
6. C 1 (, ) (, ) D :
C 1 (, ) RR D(f ) = f 0 f C 1 (, )
D
7. T : M2 (R) R T (A) = det A 2 2 A

T
8. T : Rn R T (~x) = k~xk ~x Rn
T
5.2.1
1. M2 (R) R

a b
= a + c 2d
() T
c d
a b
= a2 + b2
() T
c d
148
2. F2 [x]
() T (a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 ) = a0 + a1 (x + 1) + a2 (x + 1)2
() T (a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 ) = (a0 + 1) + (a1 + 1)x + (a2 + 1)x2
3. C 0 (, )
() T (f (x)) = 1 + f (x)
() T (f (x)) = f (f (x))
() T (f (x)) = f (x 1)
4. A = [aij ]nn F a11 + a22 + + ann
(trace) A tr A T : Mn (F ) F
T (A) = tr A
5. {~u1 , ~u2 , . . . , ~up } H Rn T : Rn H

T (~x) = projH (~x) ~x Rn
5.2.1 V W F B = {~v1 , ~v2 , . . . , ~vn }

V t B W T : V W
T (~vi ) = t(~vi ) i = 1, 2, . . . , n
T V W T
V
5.2.2 T
1. T : R3 R4 [x] T (1, 0, 0) = 1 + x, T (1, 1, 1) = 2 + x3
T (0, 1, 0) = x4 + 3x + 1
2. T : C R3 [x] T (2) = 4x3 T (1 + i) = 1 + x

3. T : R2 [x] C T (1) = 2i, T (1 + x) = 1 + i T (1 x2 ) = 2 i
5.2.3 T : R2 [x] R[x] T (x + 1) = x, T (x 1) = 1
T (x2 ) = x2 T (2 + 3x x2 )
5.2.2
1. T
() T : C R2 [x] T (1 i) = 2x2 T (1 + i) = 1 + x
() T : R2 [x] R2 T (1) = (2, 1), T (1 x) = (0, 1) T (x + x2 ) = (1, 0)

2. T : R1 [x] R3 T (2 x) = (1, 1, 1)
T (1 + x) = (0, 1, 0)
T (1 + 2x)
3. {~v , w}
~ R2 T : R2 R2 T (~v + w)
~ = ~v T (2~v w)
~ = 2~v
T (~v ) T (w)
~
149
5.2
5.2.2 V W F L(V, W )
V W
L(V, W ) = {T | T : V W }
F S T L(V, W )
c F
(S + T )(~v ) = S(~v ) + T (~v )
(c S)(~v ) = cS(~v )
~v V
L(V, W ) F (linear space)

V F
V F (linear functional) F
F L(V, F ) V F
(dual space) V V
V W F T V W
(kernel) T ker T
{ker T = ~v V : T (~v ) = ~0W }
5.2.3 V W F T V
W ker T V
T V W
(range) T
range T = {w
~ W : ~v V T (~v ) = w}
~ = {T (~v ) W : ~v V }
T (onto) W range T = W T
(one-to-one) T 1-1 ~x ~y V
T (~x) = T (~y ) ~x = ~y V W F T
V W
5.2.4 V W F T V
W
() range T W
() T ker T = {~0V }
150
V W F T V W
T (nullity) T nullity T
T (rank) T rank T
5.2.5 V W F W T
V W
T rank T = dim W
5.2.4 5.2.1
5.2.5 T : R2 [x] R3
T (a + bx + cx2 ) = (a + b, b + c, 0)
T T
nullity T rank T
5.2.3 T
1. T : R2 [x] C T (a + bx + cx2 ) = (a + b) + (a + c)i
2. T : R3 R3 [x] T (a, b, c) = ax3 + (b c)
3. T : C R4 T (a + bi) = (a, b, a + b, a b)
() T
() T T
nullity T rank T
() T
V W F V (isomorphic to) W
T : V W V
=W
5.2.4 T
() T : R2 C T (x, y) =
x
iy
a b
= (a + c) + (b + d)x + cx2 + dx3
() T : M2 (R) R3 [x] T
c d
5.2.6 V W F T : V W
{~v1 , ~v2 , . . . , ~vn } V

{T (~v1 ), T (~v2 ), . . . , T (~vn )} W V
= W dim V = dim W
151
5.2
5.2.7 W1 W2 V F W1 W2 =
{~0} T : (W1 W2 ) (W1 + W2 )
T (~x, ~y ) = ~x + ~y
~x W1 ~y W2
W1 W2 = {~0} (W1 + W2 )
=
(W1 W2 ) W1 + W2 (direct sum) W1 W2
W1 W2
5.2.6 H Rn 4.2.2 ()
Rn = H + H H H = {~0} Rn = H H H Rn
5.2.7 R V = {(x1 , x2 ) : x1 = x2 } V
R2 6= R2 = V V
5.2.5
a 0
M2 (R) : a, b R
W2 =
W1 =
b
0 b
a
M2 (R) : a, b R
W1 W2 M2 (R) W1 W2 = M2 (R)
5.2.8 V F B = {~v1 , . . . , ~vn }

V i = 1, . . . , n fi : V F
1, j = i
fi (~vj ) =
0, j 6= i
j = 1, . . . , n
() {f1 , . . . , fn } V (dual basis)
() T : V V T (~vi ) = fi i = 1, 2, . . . , n
T V
=V
V F B = {~b1 , ~b2 , . . . , ~bn } V
B V B ~x V c1 , c2 , . . . , cn
F ~x = c1~b1 + c2~b2 + + cn~bn

c
1

c2
n
[~x]B =
.. F
.

cn
152
~x B (coordinate vector of ~x relative to B) c1 , c2 , . . . , cn

i ~x B (ith -coordinates of ~x relative to B)
5.2.8 B = {2 x, 1 x, x2 } R2 [x]
3x2 + 2x 5 B
5.2.6 B = {(1, 1, 0, 0), (1, 0, 1, 0), (1, 1, 1, 0), (0, 0, 0, 2i)} C4
(2, 16, 3, i) B
V W F B = {~v1 , ~v2 , . . . , ~vn } V
C = {w
~ 1, w
~ 2, . . . , w
~ m } W T : V W
m n j [T (~vj )]C C
j = 1, 2, . . . , n T B C (matrix for T relative to the bases

B and C) [T ]CB
h
[T ]CB = [T (~v1 )]C [T (~v2 )]C . . .
[T (~vn )]C
~x V ~x = c1~v1 + c2~v2 + + cn~vn T (~x) = c1 T (~v1 ) +

c2 T (~v2 ) + + cn T (~vn ) [T (~x)]C = c1 [T (~v1 )]C + c2 [T (~v2 )]C + + cn [T (~vn )]C
[T (~x)]C = [T ]CB [~x]B
~x V T : V V B = C [T ]CB
[T ]B T B (matrix for T relative to the basis B)
5.2.9 V W F , B
V C W |B| = n |C| = m : L(V, W ) Mm,n (F )
: T 7 [T ]CB
T L(V, W )
L(V, W )
= Mm,n (F ) V
W F m n
5.2.10 V F n
V
= F n
5.2.10 F
F
153
5.3
5.2.11 V W F , B
V , C W T : V W T
[T ]CB
5.2.9 T : C R2 [x]
T (a + bi) = a + (a b)x + bx2
a, b R
B = {1, i} C C = {1, x, x2 } R2 [x]

T [T ]CB
5.2.10 T : R2 [x] R2 [x]

T (p(x)) = p(x + 1)
p(x) R2 [x]
B = {1, x, x2 } B 0 = {2, 1 + x, 2x2 } R2 [x]

T [T ]B , [T ]B0 [T ]B
B
5.2.7
1. T : R2 C T (x1 , x2 ) = x2 x1 i (x1 , x2 ) R2
B = {(1, 0), (0, 1)} R2 C = {1, i} C
[T ]CB
2. T : R1 [x] R3 [x] T (p(x)) = x2 p(x) p(x) R1 [x], B = {1 + x, x}

R1 [x] C = {1 + x, x, x2 1, x3 } R3 [x]
[T ]CB
3. B = {sin t, cos t} B 0 = {sin t + cos t, sin t cos t} H = Span B = Span B 0

C 1 (, ) D : H H D(f ) = f 0 f H
[D]B , [D]B0
0
[D]B
B
5.3
F = R C V F
V (inner product space) h, i V V
F (inner product) V
1. h~u, ~ui 0 ~u V h~u, ~ui = 0 ~u = ~0

2. h~u + ~v , wi
~ = h~u, wi
~ + h~v , wi
~ ~u, ~v , w
~ V
3. hc~v , wi
~ = ch~v , wi
~ ~v , w
~ V c F
4. h~v , wi
~ = hw,
~ ~v i ~v , w
~ V
(conjugate) a + bi = a bi
154
5.3.1 []
1. V = F n ~u = (u1 , u2 , . . . , un ) ~v = (v1 , v2 , . . . , vn ) F n
h~u, ~v i =
Pn
i=1 ui vi
F n
(standard inner product) F n
2. V = Rn a1 , a2 , . . . , an ~u = (u1 , u2 , . . . , un )
~v = (v1 , v2 , . . . , vn ) Rn
Pn
h~u, ~v i =
i=1 ai ui vi
h, i Rn
3. V = C 0 [a, b] [a, b]
RR f g C 0 [a, b]
hf, gi =
Rb
a
f (x)g(x) dx
h, i C 0 [a, b]
5.3.2 R3
() h(x1 , x2 , x3 ), (y1 , y2 , y3 )i = x1 y1 x2 y2 + 2x3 y3
() h(x1 , x2 , x3 ), (y1 , y2 , y3 )i = x1 y1 x1 y3 x3 y1 + x2 y2 + 2x3 y3

5.3.1
hp(x), q(x)i = p(1)q(1)
p(x), q(x) R[x] R[x]
5.3.1 V F ~u, ~v , w
~ V
c F
h~u, ~v + wi
~ = h~u, ~v i + h~u, wi
~
h~v , cwi
~ = ch~v , wi
~
V F (length) (norm)
~v k~v k
k~v k =
p
h~v , ~v i
1 (unit vector)
155
5.3
5.3.3 ~x = (2, 1 + i, i) ~y = (2 i, 1, 1 + 2i)
h~x, ~y i, k~xk, k~y k k~x ~y k
5.3.2 f (x) = sin x g(x) = cos x C 0 [0, ]

hf, gi, kf k, kgk (f + g)
5.3.2 V F ~u ~v V
c F
1. k~uk 0 k~uk = 0 ~u = ~0
2. kc~uk = |c|k~uk
3. |h~u, ~v i| k~ukk~v k - (Cauchy-Schwarz inequality)
4. k~u + ~v k k~uk + k~v k (triangle inequality)

V F
~u ~v h~u, ~v i = 0 S =
{~u1 , ~u2 , . . . , ~up } Rn (orthogonal set) S
h~ui , ~uj i = 0 i 6= j i, j {1, 2, . . . , p}

(orthonormal set)
5.3.3 V F S V
S S
4.2
5.3.4 [- (The Gram-Schmidt Process)] V

F S = {~x1 , ~x2 , . . . , ~xp } V
~v1 = ~x1
~vk = ~xk
k1
X
h~xk , ~vi i
i=1
h~vi , ~vi i
~vi
k = 2, . . . , p S 0 = {~v1 , ~v2 , . . . , ~vp }
Span S = Span S 0
5.3.5 V F
V
156
5.3.4 R3
h~u, ~v i = u1 v1 + 2u2 v2 + 3u3 v3
~u = (u1 , u2 , u3 ) ~v = (v1 , v2 , v3 ) R3 -
H = Span{(1, 1, 1), (1, 1, 0)}
5.3.5 W = Span{1 x, 1 + x, x} C 0 [0, 1]
- W
5.3.1
5.3.3
h~u, ~v i = u1 v1 2u1 v2 2u2 v1 + 5u2 v2 + u2 v3 + u3 v2 + 4u3 v3
~u = (u1 , u2 , u3 ) ~v = (v1 , v2 , v3 ) R3 R3 R3
5.3.4
hf, gi =
sin xf (x)g(x) dx
f, g C 0 [0, ] C 0 [0, ] -
W = Span{sin x, 1, cos 3x}
1. Howard Anton, Elementary Linear Algebra, 8th ed, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New Jersey,
2000.
2. Stephen H. Friedberg, Arnold J. Insel, Lawrence E. Spence, Linear Algebra, 2nd edn, Prentice
Hall, New York, 1992.
3. David C. Lay, Linear Algebra and its Applications, 3rd edn, Addison Wesley Longman, 2006.
4. Gilbert Strang, Linear Algebra and its Applications, 4th edn, Brooks Cole, 2006.
157
-, 109, 155
, 49, 145
, 63
, 49, 145
, 106
, 100
, 4
, 101
, 114
, 4
, 62
, 16, 143
2 2, 56
, 4
1 , 7
, 39
, 39
, 128
, 4
, 38, 146
, 59
, 37
, 125
, 85
, 99, 154
, 149
, 63
, 117
, 80
, 11
, 11
, 100
, 8
, 44, 149
, , 133
, 153
, 142
, 141
, 16
, 47, 142
, 143
, 47, 144
, 3
, 81
, 100, 155
, 141
, 101, 155
, 49
158
159
, 48
, 1
, 149
, 120
, 140
, 24
, 89
, 4
, 86
, 63
, 122
, 76, 152
, 3
, 115
, 27
, 11
, 30
, 29
, 27
A ~x, 20
, 2
, 22
, 142
, 153
, 99
, 2
, 18
, 2
, 128
, 102
, 102
, 56
, 20
, 4
, 56
, 50, 145
, 1
, 144
, 133
, 92
, 19
, 3
, 4
, 27
, 4
, 100
, 81
, 114
, 140
, 7
, 1
, 74
, 127
, 1
, 1
, 127
, 8
, 149
, 51, 150
, , 133
, 56
, 140
, 66
, 73, 152
, 43
, 80
, 57
, 16, 140
160
, 154
, 1
, 1
, 51, 150
, 140
, 118
, 1
, 18
, 124
, 3
, 5
, 150
, 116
, 81
, 2
, 20
, 17
, 1
, 7
, 2
, 106
, 103
, 44, 149
, 31
, 21
, 8
, 155
-, 155
, 31, 144

234 1

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

234 1

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Linear Algebra I

2301234 Linear Algebra I

2301234 1 (Linear Algebra I)

1n (row vector) m1 (column

(diagonal entry) A = [aij ]mn a11 , a22 , . . .

A = [aij ]mn B = [bij ]mn m n c A = B

A + B := [aij + bij ]mn

(constant term) b (coefficient) a1 , a2 , . . . , an

1. 4x1 5x2 + 5 = x3 x2 = 2( 3x1 4) + x3

(system of linear equations) (linear system)

m 1 ai1 x1 + ai2 x2 + + ain xn = bi i = 1, 2, . . . , m

2x1 + 2x2 + 9x3 = 7

x1 + 3x2 = 4, x1 + 4x2 = 1 2x1 x2 = 3

1.2.3 [ (Uniqueness Theorem)]

2x1 4x2 + 2x3 + 2x4 =

2x1 4x2 + 3x3

6x1 17x2 + 4x3 = 28

3x1 + 2x2 2x3 = 3

2x1 + 4x2 + 2x3 = 2

7. 0 , , < 2 (nonlinear system)

clidean m-space) Rm 0 (zero

(linear combination) ~v1 , ~v2 , . . . , ~vp (weight) c1 , c2 , . . . , cp

~v1 , ~v2 , . . . , ~vp Rm (vector equation)

~v1 , ~v2 , . . . , ~vp Rm ~v1 , ~v2 , . . . , ~vp

1.3.1 Span{~v1 , ~v2 , . . . , ~vp }

1.3.2 ~b Span{~v1 , ~v2 , . . . , ~vp }

~v1 , ~v2 , . . . , ~vn Rm ~x Rn A ~x

1.2.2 4b1 2b2 + b3 = 0

~v1 , ~v2 , . . . , ~vn Rm

A Rm Span{~v1 , ~v2 , . . . , ~vn } = Rm

{~v1 , ~v2 , ~v3 } R3

A m n B n p ~b1 , ~b2 , . . . , ~bp

A = ~v1 ~v2 ~vn ~vi R A =

2. ~v1 , ~v2 ~b h ~b ~v1 ~v2

5. h ~v3 Span{~v1 , ~v2 }

() ~v1 = 3 , ~v2 = 6 ~v3 = 9

() ~v1 = 5 , ~v2 = 2 ~v3 = h

7. c 6= 0 Span{~v1 , ~v2 , . . . , ~vp } = Span{c~v1 , c~v2 , . . . , c~vp }

2x1 + 3x2 + 7x3 = 0

1.4.2 x1 + 3x2 8x3 = 0

{~v1 , ~v2 , . . . , ~vp } Rm (linearly independent)

x1~v1 +x2~v2 + +xp~vp = ~0m {~v1 , ~v2 , . . . , ~vp }

{~v1 , ~v2 , ~v3 } 3

x1~v1 + x2~v2 + x3~v3 = ~03

3 1.4.1 x1~v1 + x2~v2 +

3 3~v1 + ~v2 4~v3 = ~0

5. S = {~v1 , ~v2 , . . . , ~vp } p Rm p > m S

4x1 + 2x2 + 7x3 = 0

2x1 + 2x2 + 4x3

10. S = {~v1 , ~v2 , . . . , ~vp } Rm

c 6= 0 {c~v1 , c~v2 , . . . , c~vp }

1.(), (), (), (),

3.() , (), () , () ; 4.() (x1 = 1 12x3 , x2 = 2 4x3 , x3

= 0 x2 ), () (x1 = 5 + 3x4 , x2 = 1 + 4x4 , x3 = 4 9x4 x4 ), ();

5.()h 6= 2, () h R, () h R, ()h 6= 0; 6.() a = 3, () a 6= 3, 3, () a = 3;

T (~x) = A~x A~x = ~b

T (~u + ~v ) = T (~u) + T (~v )

T (c~u + d~v ) = cT (~u) + dT (~v )

A~u + A~v A(c~u) = c(A~u)

2.1.5 ~e1 = , ~e2 = , ~y1 = 0 , ~y2 = 1

~x = x1~e1 + x2~e2 + + xn~en

T (~x) = T (x1~e1 + x2~e2 + + xn~en ) = x1 T (~e1 ) + x2 T (~e2 ) + + xn T (~en ) = A~x

2.1.7 T (~x) = r~x ~x R2