ahr CU cr Ll BY W. A. VER WIEBE Professor of Petroleum Geology at the University of Wichita Wichita, Kansas 1953Copyright 1951 W. A. Ver Wiehe Lieprntsl in O88 EDWARDS BROTHERS, ING. 953CONTENTS Chapter I, SEEPAGES POINT THE WAY page 1 Introduction, Italy, Middle East, Baku, China, Burma, Trinidad, Venezuela, United States, West Virginia, Ohio, Mid-Continent, Texas, Rocky Mountain area, California, Mexico. Chapter Il. THE OIL ROCKS page 10 Sandstones, Consolidation, Cement, Graywacke, Arkose, Texture of clastic rocks, Shape & frosting, Pack- ing, Porosity, Beach deposits, Off shore bars, Dune sands, Permeability, Pennsylvania, Northeast Texas, Shape of sand bodies, Woodbine sand, Saint Peter sandstone, Sands of Pennsylvanian age, Sand wedges, Limestones, Composition, Impurities, Origin, Coral reefs, Biostromes, Inorganic limestones, Origin of dolomite, Oolitic limestone, Textures of dolomites, Fossils, Calcareous textures, Porosity, Vugs, Crevices, Permeability, Famous limestone fields, Shales, Origin, Composition, Compaction, Varieties, Porosity, Oil {in shales, Unusual oil reservoirs, Oil in metamorphic rocks, Oil in igneous rocks. Chapter I, TIME AND PLACE OF ROCK FORMATION page 33 Agents, Ice, Wind, Volcanoes, Sedimentary environments, Ocean water, Relict seas, Evaporites, Clastic deposits, Marine gradation, Deltas, Ancient oceans, Columnar section, Cambrian period, Appalachian geo- syncline, Sediments on foreland, Mountain building, Appalachian Mountains, Permian period, Triassic seas, Jurassic seas, Oil in Jurassic rocks, Cretaceous seas, Building of the Rockies, Tertiary rocks, Typical Tertiary basin, Great Plains, California, Pleistocene disturbances, Gulf Coast Tertiary, Salt domes. Chapter IV, THAT MAGIC WORD STRUCTURE page 59 Causes of rock disturbance, Arches, Anticlines, Finding anticlines, Contour maps, Contour patterns, Struc~ ture maps, Examples of anticlines, Oi in synclines, Monoclines, Domes, Noses, Flexure, Faults, Examples, ‘Thrust faults, Examples, Pseudo-anticlines, Unconformities, Disconformities, Where common, Angular unconformity, Examples, Bald-headed structures, Regional unconformities, Examples, Central Kansas, West Texas, ‘Montana, Tectonic elements, Surface and subsurface structure, Examples, Reason for variations, Chapter V. HOW OIL IS FORMED page 81 Composition of oll, Composition of plants, Plankton, Bacteria, Regeneration cycle, Bacterial activity, Most favorable conditions for oil, Delta environment, Ancient deltas, In the mid-Continent, Abundance of or- ganic matter, Significance of cycles, Deltas in Oklahoma, Cretaceous deltas, Tertiary deltas, The Missis~ sippi delta, Texas Gulf Coast rocks, Deltas in California, Ventura basin, Deltas in other continents, Baku, Mud volcanoes, Typical oil field, Burma, Faults and mud volcanoes, Origin of oil, Transformation of sapro- pel, Radioactivity, Catalysts, Roumanian oils, Summary.iv HOW OWL 18 FOUND Chapter VI. HOW FAR DOES OIL TRAVEL? page 108 Evidence of migration, Oil wells, Marsh gas, Fundamental data, Rock particles, Pore spaces, Surface tension, Capillarity, Adsorption, Oil-soaked mud, Specific gravity, Rock pressure, Compaction, Artesian water, Cambrian aquifers, Woodbine sand, Connate water, In cores, Implications, Function of gas, Theo- ries of migration, Hydraulic theory, Replacement theory, Gravitational-hydraulie theory, Reservoir en- gineering, East Texas pool, Migration in young strata, California examples, Cretaceous examples, Migration in calcareous rocks, Reef ‘oil, Examples. Chapter VII. WHERE DOES OIL ACCUMULATE? page 128 Fissure theory, Anticlinal theory, Cradle of oll industry, Venango sands, Western states, Mid-Continent area, Glenn pool, Burbank pool, Cushing pool, Oklahoma City pool, Wyoming, Montana, ‘Colorado, New Mexico, California, Southern Oklahoma, Fault traps, Examples, Faults on salt domes, German salt domes, Russian salt domes, Oil in reefs, Leduc, Other Canadian fields, Scurry County, Oi with unconformities, California examples, Oklahoma examples, Texas, Michigan, Venezuela, Oil with topography, Lima-Indiana district, Central Kansas, Oll traps in general, Structural control, Stratigraphic control, Nature of oil trap, Classification of traps, Simple and multiple traps, Non-structural pools, Examples. Chapter VII. METHODS USED IN OIL FINDING page 203 Rotary drilling, Cable tool drilling, Driller’s log, Drilling time logs, Well cuttings, Sample logs, Deter- mination of structure, Electric logs, Resistivity, Multiple curves, The Self potential curve, Correlation, Disadvantages, Microlog, Radioactivity logs, Gamma rays, Neutron curve, Significance of patterns, Geo- Physical prospecting, Torsion balance, Discoveries, Refraction shooting, Discoveries, Reflection method, Discoveries, Gravity meters, Anomalies, Discoveries, Magnetic methods, Airborne magnetometers, In- terpretation, Geochemistry, Soil analysis, Applications, Electrical prospecting, Galvanical method, Elec- tromagnetic’ methods, Divining rod, Vital statistics, Per acre production, Production data, Number of wells drilled, Deepest wells, Largest wells, Natural gas, Gas pools, Helium,Chapter 1 SEEPAGES POINT THE WAY ‘The written history of oll finding goes back to biblical times. Many places were known to the an~ clents were oll flows out of tiny crevices in the soil. In some cases these oil springs continue to yield the Iiguid petroleum for long periods of time. More ‘often, the lighter portion of the petroleum evaporates leaving behind quantities of tarry residue, In some of the oil springs gas issues with the liquid, There are also many places known where only gas issues from the ground. Near Agrigentum in northern Italy oil from seepages was used in lamps before the birth of Christ. ‘The small ofl springs are scattered over a large area between the cities of Bologna and Genoa. In carliest times the oil was merely skimmed off the surface of the water which collected in the local depressions. Later shallow wells were dug by hand to make a more convenient storage place for the precious material. As early as 1640 (we are told) some of these wells were as much as 60 feet deep. In the year 1802 petroleum from wells dug near the Taro River at Amiano was used in lighting the elties of Parma and Genoa. Gas seeps were less common, nevertheless, the early historians describe the burning fountains of Velleia in considerable detail. ‘Much more spectacular and probably much older are the numerous seepages of oil and ema- nations of gas along the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers of Mesopotamia and Persia. They were described {in the writings of Herodotus (about 450 B.C.) and by many writers subsequently. Hundreds of oil and gas emudations were known on both sides of the river from Turkey to the Persian Gulf a distance of over 500 miles. Herodotus tells how the pitch from the oll seeps. ‘was collected and brought to Babylon to serve as cement in the walls of the elty. Plutarch in his “Life of Alexander” deseribes the burning gas seeps near Kirkuk (100 miles north of Baghdad) as well as the “lake of pitch” nearby. Apparently the gas seeps of Kirkuk burned throughout thousands of years. ‘They were the eternal fires to which Shadrach, Me- shach and Abed-nego were consigned by Nebuchad~ nezzar. Located in a shallow depression about 100 feet in diameter, the flames of burning gas are dimly visible as streaks of orange-colored light during the ay time. However, at night they make a bright blue flame which illuminates the depression. At the pres- cent time the area in which these gas seeps are located is the site of one of the largest oll pools in the world Other famous oil fields in the Middle East such a8 Qaiyarah (north of Kirkuk), Naft Khaneh & Naft-i-Shah (on the border between Iraq and Iran), Masjid-I-Sulaiman (150 miles southeast in Iran) all | have active seepages of ofl and of gas to indicate their presence. The very large Haft Kel oil field has only gas seeps to mark its location. At Naft Safid (meaning white oll springs) considerable amounts of light ofl were recovered throughout the years. This oil is believed to be 2 condensation of rising gas. In the mountainous areas nearer the Zagros ‘Mountains which border the ofl field belt on the north- east, there are some very interesting occurrences of hard, brittle, glossy vein fillings of petroleum residues. They resemble the ozokerite of Galicia and the albertite of New Brunswick. It is entirely probable that these hard vein {illings in the rocks represent the last portions of former large accumulations of petroleum which have escaped. ‘Another interesting phenomenon which appar~ cently has some connection with escaping gases from oll fields is the so-called gach-i-turush (sour gyp- sum), Tests have been made of this gypseous earth and they show considerable free sulphuric acid. The presumption is that this material represents the sur- face deposit made by gases which have passed through gypsum layers and have dissolved some of the cal- celum sulphate. In the southern part of the United States similar materials have been found and are there called “sour dirt”. BAKU. Another area where the manifestations } of oll and gas were known and described as far back fas written records can take us is the region on the Caspian Sea near the town of Baku. The Caucasus Mountains which traverse the land area between the | Black Sea and the Caspian dip low at both ends (see fig. 1). Near Baku at the eastern end they dip down {into the water and for that reason have permitted the contorted rock strata to preserve their precious load of petroleum products. In the dim past wor- shippers from far off India came to build temples over the gas seepages. The burning flames were regarded as “sacred fires” and were attended by Indian priests as late as 1880, They are referred to in many writings as “everlasting fires” and are reputed to have drawn fire worshippers from distant lands. This part of Eurasia belonged to the Persians until 1806, at which time it was annexed by Russia. During the time of Persian domination the numerous oil seepages in the vicinity of Baku were exploited | on a rather ambitious scale, Farther east at the extremity of the Apsheron } Peninsula the oil springs exude a fluid type of naptha, fand this was the chief source of the pitch which was | carried away by the Persians in their boats. It wasa HOW OM 1S FOUND pian LCAN associated with gas seeps is the building of sm:SEEPAGES POINT THE WAY Caucasian Mining Department at Tiflis listed no less ‘an 68 in the 100 miles of foot-hill country). CHINA. It is not surprising to find that the ancient civilizations of China should have come to utilise the ol from seepages as an illuminant. No less than 37 well authenticated seeps were described in detail by Fuller & Clapp’ from the Shensi basin | located in northeastern China (south of Mongolia tnd east of Tibet and Sinkiang). The seepages are mentioned in the “‘Chronicle of the Great Ming Dy- nasty"” where it 1s reported that the oil from them was used for fuel and also for medicinal purposes. BURMA. The Irrawaddy River flows from orth to south'in the western half of Burma. Along its course there are numerous gas seepages and ‘lso some oll seepages. They were described in 1724 by Boerhave and in 1797 by Captain Cox. By that time the natives had dug wells near Yenangyoung (hich means earth oil creek in Burmese) and were skimming off the oll from the mixture of water and petroleum which collected continuously. There were over 520 wells most of which were lined with timbers. ‘The city of Yenangyoung lies about $00 miles north of the mouth of the river. In the immediate vicinity there are numerous mud springs and also some mud volcanoes. Among the latter some are still active Fig. 2. Map of Burma and parts of adjacent India, to show the location of the oil felds. 1, Digboi, 6. Cheuk 2. Badarpur 7. Yenangyoung 3. Indaw 8. Minbu 4. Yenangyat 9. Yenanma 5. Lanywa 0. Padaukpin TALA.P.G. vol. X, ps 1104, 1926 3 land periodically toss out mud to the height of the tree tops. When drilling for ofl was begun in 1887 it was found that the mud fills fault zones and other crevices for some distance down, , In fact the mud | seems to seal off various portions of the oll field | now located there. ‘The oil field covered only 1000 acres before the Second World War. Yet this small area has produced over 100 million barrels of oll. Since the war extensions to the south and also to the east have greatly enlarged the field. Other fields which were found above or near seepages are the Yanangyat, Minbu, Yenanma, Padaukpin and Lanywa. TRINIDAD. ' The island of Trinidad which lies off the northeast coast of South America is the site of numerous surface manifestations of petroleum. Outstanding among them is the famous Pitch Lake which is reported to have been discovered by none other than Columbus on his third expedition in 1497. At present this lake of asphalt covers 114 acres and hhas a considerable depth; though this has never been definitely ascertained. | Mining operations over a period of many years have lowered the asphalt some 416 feet and apparently it is no longer being replen- ished. Formerly, also it had an outlet to the sea to the Gulf of Paria and no doubt much tar was lost in that way. The first drilling near this lake took place in 1914 and the Brighton pool was discovered. A few other asphalt deposits are known on the island. ‘The oll seeps are numerous in the southern part, ‘where also quite a few mud volcanoes exist. Inter esting are the veins of pitch there called ‘“manjak”’. ‘They are thick enough to be mined north of San Fer~ nando Hill and here about 1500 tons have been ex- tracted during the last few years. Two other occur- ences of manjak veins are known. The oil fields ‘which have been discovered near these surface phe- nomena have produced an average of 22 million bar- els annually during the last few years. EASTERN VENEZUELA. The oil seeps and related phenomena of Eastern Venezuela appear to bbe a natural continuation of those on Trinidad. Near Guanoco (southeastern Sucre) in northeastern Vene- zuela is the largest pitch lake in the world. It is, called the Bermudez lake and covers approximately 1100 acres, The average depth is six fect. By ‘contrast with the Pitch Lake in Trinidad this deposit is constantly being replenished by fresh oil from below. Other similar asphalt deposits are known fat Guanoco between Rio San Juan and the Gulf of Parla, at Pedernales on the north end of the Orinoco delta and a few other points. In the Pedernales area the oll oozes out of vertical beds of Miocene sandstones. Farther west in Venezuela but still in the eastern portion of that country there are quite a few oil seeps, gas seeps and ‘mud voleanoes. ‘On the shores of Lake Maracaibo in western | Venezuela there are many oi! manifestations. One | of the most remarkable is located on the site of4 HOW OML 15 the present Mene Grande oil field, Here the oil cozing out of the ground has built up cones of asphalt numbering several hundred. The highest ones are 8 feet high and 50 feet in diameter. Some of the cones flow by .ieads like water geysers. The first bore hole near these cones was drilled in 1914 finding rich oil sands at depth. Since that date no less than 323 million barrels of oil have been produced in the Mene Grande pool. Other oil seeps along the shores of the lake eventually allowed the discovery | ‘of many individual pools which are now merged into the so-called Bolivar Coastal fields. UNITED STATES. Oil seepages in the United States have been found at widely separated places. ‘The most famous of the oll seepages are those along Oi Creek in western Pennsylvania. ‘This creck flows south from Titusville to Oil City where it empties into the Allegheny River. Apparently the first white ‘man to report the exact location of these seeps was Peter Kalm who returned to his native land about “Wee Giddens EARLY DAYS OF OIL. Map of eastern Venezuela and Trinidad, to show location of seepage: Princeton Pre: FOUND 1750 and reported on them. The word petroleum appears on an English map dated 1755 approximately opposite the present site of Oil City.” From the early writers we gather that the native Indian tribes used the oil as a medicine. When the French in- vaded the northwestern part of Pennsylvania, they were impressed by the healing properties of this, medicine and proceeded to dig pits which were tim- ered off so that the oil could accumulate, Near one of the timbered pits which had fallen into disuse, Colonel Drake drilled the first well in 1859. Much has been written about the first well and a great deal of dramatic glamor attaches to it. Despite the fact that this was not the first well to find oll in the United States, the Drake well nevertheless deserves credit as an epoch-making discovery. For At took a large amount of courage and very consider- able sums of money to drill this well into rock at fa time when the conditions of oil occurrence were practically a mystery. and oll Kelas. 1942, page 1.SEEPAGES POINT THE WAY = a = 6 a 5 0 a x & x, x} (Gan CRISTOBAL o6 HOW OIL Is FOUND SALT AND OIL. The value of salt for human and animal use brought about the use of drilling tools as early as 1808. In that year the Rufiner Brothers drilled dowm into solid rock in their search for salt near the Great Buffalo Lick (on the Kanawha River near Charleston, West Virginia), Eight years later other salt drillers succeeded in penetrating rock to a depth of 475 feet along the Duck Creek in south= eastern Ohio. Four years later, in 1818, 2 well drilled for salt in Wayne county of south central Kentucky found so much oil that it had to be aban- doned (Beatty well). Even more astounding was the famous American Well which was drilled on Little Rennox Creek, near Burkesville, Kentucky. This, bore hole was also a failure inasmuch as oil flowed from it by heads at intervals of 5 minutes for a period of about 4 weeks. ‘The oil contaminated the water of the Cumberland River for a distance of nearly 100 miles. Mathews reports that this well continued to yield small amounts of oil until 1860. WEST VIRGINIA. The earliest record of Amer {can salt springs dates from 1753 when Mrs. Ingles escaped from the Indians who had taken her westward along the Kanawha River. She reported that the Indians stopped to collect salt which they secured from “licks”. The land later came into the posses- sion of Joseph Ruffner who exploited the salt springs by sinking hollow gum trees into the quicksand along ‘the river. When General Washington came west to select the lands which a grateful country had voted hnim as a bomus for military services, he picked out a site near the salt licks where there was a burning spring. The earlier settlers had found a hole in the ground filled with water through which there was a constant bubbling of gas. Tt got the name of “‘oarning spring” when someone lighted it and the gas began to burn, Thus the Kanawha valley became the seat of the salt industry. Many wells were drilled in search ff better supplies and some of them penetrated the rock layers. In this manner some oil was found and also considerable gas. The oil was allowed to rrun down the rivers, but the gas was saved and piped Map of eastern Ohio showing oil fields and also the Voleano anticline. Fig. 6 Map showing the oil and gas fields of the Appalachian ofl province.SEEPAGES POINT THE WAY 7 {nto the furnaces of the salt factories and into boilers that drove steam engines. (About 1828 steam engines ccame into general use for drilling as well as puraping). In the northwestern corner of West Virginia other burning springs had been discovered (Wirt & Ritchie Counties). Much later it was found by geol- ogists that this part of the state has the highest | anticline in the region, the Volcano anticline. On the anticline there were other indications of min- eral wealth concealed at depth. For instance a certain Mr. Graham found some hard black shiny material which resembled coal. It seemed to fill fissures to a considerable depth. This is now mown to be a form of inspissated petroleum which forms in crevices when oil rises and loses its volatile constituents. The material was named after Mr. Graham and the name grahamite is now in common use. As early as 1826 Dr. Hildreth, the soil expert mentioned the occurrence of small seepages of oil on this anticline. A modern map of the oil fields of West Virginia will show that this part of the state lies in the heart of the Appalachian oil province. (See Fig. 6.) ‘OHIO, INDIANA & ILLINOIS. Farther west oll and gas seepages were known to early settlers. A seepage of natural gas had been found on Blanchard’s Fork in Hancock County of northwestern Ohio; and, as early as 1636 gas had been encountered in drilling water wells in that vicinity. One of the enterprising citizens of Findlay had an idea that he could use this gas in his home. He placed a sugar kettle over the gas escaping from his water well, piped it through a crude wooden pipe into his fireplace where it burned through the barrel of an old gun. In southwestern Indiana early settlers had noted seeps of oll and also gas in Crawford County, near Otter Fork. In Binois no known seeps are on record. However, gas vas found in drilling for water as early as 1053 in Champaign and in Clark Counties. MID-CONTINENT. Tho many oll and gas felds Which now dot the mid-Continent area of the United States were all found by first drilling near seepages. For instance in Kansas such oll exidations haa been noted on the Wea River in Miami County in the north- eastern part of the state. Farther south and in prac= tically every county along the eastern border of the state there are tar sands which indicate that ofl had leaked out of the Pennsylvanian sands for centuries, In Oklahoma seepages of oll were known to the Indians. Near one of them the first well was drilled in 1689 on Spencer Creek, near Chelsea, {n Nowata County. Another ofl seepage on Sand Creek close to the present site of Bartlesville, was the Incentive for drilling the first big well in the state in 1897. Ih southern Oklahoma grahamite veins and oil-saturated sandstones crop out in various counties, especially in the southeastern corner of the state? The grahamite was mined in Pushmataha County from ‘1891 to about 1915, It has also been mined at Daisy in Atoka County and at Page in LeFlore County. The width of the Yewonsrone Marionas Pane grahamite veins is commonly 5 feet, but some have a width as great as 50 feet. The veins are usually parallel to the bedding planes in the Stanley formation of Missis- sippian age according to Honess* He also reports that the ofl-saturated sandstones are particularly abundant near Redden in the valley of McGee Creek, Shallow wells drilled hhere found fluid ofl at a depth ‘of 600 feet showing that the tarry material at the outcrop resulted from the loss of more volatile portions. ‘TEXAS. The first wells in the state of Texas were drilled near seepages in Naca~ doches County on Oil Spring branch of Visitador Bayou. Elsewhere in the state natural seepages are very scarce. Fig. 7 Bee USGS, Bull. No. 380, p. 386-397, 1909 ‘Dkla. Geol. Survey Bull. 40 R, 1927. Map of Wyoming showing the location of oil fields. ‘The oil industry really began when ofl was found by accident in the drilling of a deep watera HOW OIL 1S FOUND well near Corsicana in 1890, In the southern part of the state a few gas seepages were known before drilling began. However, there the ofl industry got | its start after Captain Lucas drilled the first gusher at Spindletop in 1901. Drilling was based on the presence of a hill indicating the existence of a salt | mass below, | ROCKY MOUNTAIN AREA. In the oil-producing states of the Rocky Mountain area oil seepages | ‘were known to early explorers at many scattered points. In Wyoming Captain Bonneville saw see- ages of oil along the Popo Agie River in western Fremont County as early as 1833, The Mormons passing through the same state in 1847 noted oil exudations near Hillard in the southwestern part ‘of Wyoming. On the flanks of the Black Hills in the northeastern part of Wyoming, oil seeps were known to the Indians RELIEF MAP OF CALIFORNIA -N.F. DRAKE. AREAS UNDERLAIN BY SHOWING BOUNDARIES OF PRODUCING AREAS AND. EOCENE SEDIMENTS F. A, MENKEN 1940 PRODUCTIVE TERRITORY Fig. 8. Relief map of California showing the boundaries of the producing areas. (From A.A.P.G. Bull. vol. 24, #12)SEEPAGES POINT THE WAY 9 ‘The first ofl wells in the Rocky Mountain area were drilled in central Colorado near Canyon City where an Army officer had reported small seepages on the bank of Oil Creek, some nine miles northwest of Canyon City. Mr. Cassidy, a resi- dent of Denver, who had read the officer's report was impressed by the significance of oil seeps and drilled his first well during 1862. He found off at the shallow depth of 70 feet. The oil sold for two dollars a gallon in Denver. CALIFORNIA. In the state of California we find the most extensive evidences of oil. They occur as tarry residues in the southern part of the state and as more fluid oil seepages in the northern part of the state, The Indians secured asphaltic material from soft viscuous oll springs near the present site of Santa Barbara. Other tribes used the tar pits which are located now within the city Limits of Los Angeles. The most extensive streams of flowing asphalt are found in southern Ventura County. One of these may be seen today on the side of Sulphur mountain ~ a stream of tar one quarter of a mile long - . In Humboldt County 20 miles north of San Francisco, more fluid oil seeps were known and it is there that the first test holes were drilled in 1865. The wells were drilled by the Scott interests who had made a fortune on the Storey farm in western Pennsylvania. MEXICO. The numerous oll seepages of California are exceeded by those of eastern Mexico. In that part of the world literally thousands of oil ‘springs have been found, The oil producing rock is a limestone of Cretaceous age. After it was filled with oil some igneous rock came up through it in the form of dikes and circular plugs. The oll in the limestone was allowed to seep up along the side walls of these intrusive igneous rock masses. For that reason, the seepages are located directly above the rich oll deposits and could be found easily. Fig. 9. Map showing the ofl pools of the Golden Lane of Mexico,Chaptes ‘THE OIL ‘The rocks found in association with ofl are ‘the common varieties such as sandstone, shale and limestone. ‘These are used so extensively in con- nection with construction operations that they are known to all. Of the three mentioned, we shall find ‘that sandstone plays the most important role. It serves as the most efficient storehouse or reservoir for oil and gas. Next in importance is limestone; and shale brings up the rear as a poor third. SANDSTONE, Sandstone is a rock which is composed of sand grains that have been welded into a compact indurated form. When the sands grains accumulate on the sea shore or in shallow water away from the beach, they may have travelled far from their original home. Almost every sand grain is composed of quartz which has its primeval place of origin in granite. Indeed, granite is the ultimate source of most broken pieces of rock (clastic particles) which eventually become sedi- mentary rocks. ‘The old foundation stone of the earth is very largely made of granite and when it is exposed to the ravages of the weather it decays to form quartz and feldspar. The quartz is almost indestructible by chemical means. Therefore, it persists for ages even though it may be carried by Streams to far places. During its journey it is, abraded and the larger pieces become smaller, but otherwise it is little affected by such treatment. ‘The waters of the streams may round off the edges and eliminate the corners of the pieces which origi nated in the granite mass. Where the stream en- ters the ocean, the grains are carried along shore 2 ROCKS by currents, or washed up on the shore by waves. Thus after long periods of time the quartz grains become more or less isolated from the other ma- terials, the streams carried; and accumulate to form Dlankets of sand. Eventually, this blanket (layer oF stratum) is covered by other materials such as mid or Time and then ensues the change from the unconsolidated condition to the consolidated form. ‘CONSOLIDATION. Sand grains are compressed and wedged together to form sandstones. The ac~ ‘ual binding material may be of various kinds. It may be mud or clay either in colloidal form or in clastic particles. This foreign ‘material may partly or completely fill the pores which existed between the grains. After burial, the water [which is every- ‘where present at shallow depth in the earth} per- colates through the sand. This water carries in solution such chemicals as silica, caleium carbon- ate and iron compounds. Under proper conditions these salts are precipitated between the grains of sand as a cement. Again the pores may be only partly filed, or they may be completely filled. ‘The siliea filling or cement occurs in two forms. Rither it is deposited as a crystalline substance (in which ‘the molecules are arranged in a definite pattern) or it is deposited as an amorphous, jelly-like mass. ‘When either of these processes occurs the sand- stone becomes very hard and is usually referred to as a quartzite LIME CEMENT. The second most common ‘cement in sandstones is calcium carbonate (Ca Co,). It is extremely common in solution in stream waters ‘Sondst. 8 Siltst, Limest @ Chak Dolomite Gypsum 6 Gronite Aohydrite Sait Fig. 10, Drawing to show the symbols for various ki 10 Metamorphic Rocks Giher igneous Rocks commonly used in textbooks of geology nds of rocks.‘THE OIL ROCKS (urd water) and also exists in ocean water. When ‘andstones are produced by this type of cement they ure referred to as calcareous sandstones. Such rocks are not nearly as hard as quartzites and | furthermore, on account of their solubility in rain | water may decay rather rapidly. OTHER BINDERS. Sandstones which consist almost 100% of quartz grains and are either TABLE 1. GRAIN SIZE IN MILLIMETERS NAME OF SEDIMENT uu TEXTURE. By texture we mean the size, shape and arrangement of the small particles in a rock. Among these the grain size has the most Significant application. Therefore, many geologists have atterapted to set up a table of grain sizes for sedimentary rocks, The most useful one is based fon the number 2 and uses the multiples as well as the roots of the number 2, It is shown in table L SEDIMENTARY ROCKS ACCORDING TO GRAIN SIZE NAME OF ROCK 64 mm to 4 mm Gravel (cobble) Conglomerate 4mm to 2 mm Gravel (pebble) Conglomerate 2 mm to 1/2 mm Coarse sand Sandstone 1/2 mm to 1/4 mm Medium sand Sandstone 1/4 mm to 1/16 mm Fine sand Sandstone 1/16 mm to 1/256 mm sut Siltstone Below 1/256 mm Mud or clay Clay or shale uncemented or else cemented with silica are frequently called “(pure sandstones”. When the percentage of binding materials becomes larger than 20% the sand~ lone acquires a new name according to the im- purities present. A considerable amount of mud or clay between the grains produces a clayey or amgil~ Iaceous sandstone. A small amount of red or brown ‘fon oxide between the grains produces a ferruginous nandstone. Occasionally a soft pea-green mineral, salled glauconite, is present in relative abundance ‘and then the sandstone is called glauconitic sand- stone. Another very common impurity in sandstones is mica. This mineral, also came from granites, possibly at some distant point in the mountains. ‘The white mica is very resistant to chemical decay and also to physical abrasion. Therefore, it is found more often than the black variety (biotite). When tither of these is present in quantity, the sandstone fs called a micaceous sandstone. A very tough, re- sistant, black mineral which sometimes occurs in sandstones is tourmaline. Other relatively common Impurities in sandy rocks are pyrite and phosphate nodules. GRAYWACKE & ARKOSE. In some reports oon oil fields the names graywacke and arkose are used for special types of rock. By some authorities they are regarded as kinds of sandstone. The graywacke might be called a dirty sandstone be- cause it contains much dark material such as slate, chlorite, ete. ‘There is a tendency at the present time to give this rock equal rank with the sand~ stones and set up a special clan for it. ‘The other rock, arkose, is much better known and simpler in composition. It contains considerable amounts of the mineral feldspar, This mineral is the second most common mineral in nature, probably because it oceurs in granite. It will be noted from the table that sandstones cover a rather wide range of sizes from 2 milli- meters down to one sixteenth of a millimeter. Under the microscope it 1s easily possible to distinguish coarse, medium and fine grained sands and sand- stones; and indeed, this may be extremely important in connection with oil occurrence as we shall see later, Both porosity and permeability are closely nked with grain sizes. The silt particles are very ting, yet they may be seen under a fairly strong magnification as separate and discrete particles. ‘The clay particles are so small that they never appear as single units. Therefore, the study of clays is extremely difficult and complicated. SHAPE & FROSTING. The individual grains of sand under binocular microscope look like small pieces of glass, They may be perfectly angular with all edges and corners preserved as in fig. 11. Again they may be quite rounded, by which we mean not so much the shape as the fact that all edges and corners have been removed by abrasion. Con- Stant bumping together as the grain are trans- parted in a stream, may serve to round off the ODN) (OD (OS Fig. 11. Three drawings to show (A) rounded praing (B) sub-rounded and sub-angular grains, and (C) angular grainsHOW OIL Is FOUND Peseeage Peaeeaae dodada iveeun taalal:‘THE OIL ROCKS 13 enins, ‘The same result may also be produced by the pounding aetion of the waves of the sea shore. kven more effective is the wind, Because of the ureater tenuity of the air, the grains are bumped Together more often and more violently than they would be in water. Consequently, geologists often hnuspect that well rounded grains like those in fig. 11 uve been produced by wind action (possibly in a desert environment). To be sure, they may now ve found among marine sediments or as part of an ‘ocean-laid sand body, but this does not preclude the probability that the grains were fashioned by wind action before being dumped into the sea. Continual abrasion either by water or by wind can produce a ‘“‘mat’” surface on the grain of ‘wand, ‘Then it will look like a piece of frosted glass Instead of transparent glass. It acquires an opaque wurface. This property often characterises certain oll-bearing sands like those of the St. Peter for- ‘mation of Ordovician age. Pieces of quartz which fare dislodged by violent impact may leave tiny “eonehoidal”” scars on this rough surface. ‘Then the grains are spoken of as “pitted”. ‘The shape of the individual grains may be ‘oval, pear-shaped, oblong, or marble-shaped. ‘There fore, when they are measured by passing them through a seive, the true size may be subject to fa certain amount of error. It is common practise to sift sands (and sandstones after treatment) in selves of definite mesh diameter in order to deter~ mine the amounts of various sizes present. The quantity which falls on each successive sieve is, weighed and recorded percentagewise. After the complete sample has been weighed it is plotted on a chart similar to fig. 12 as a histogram. The primary importance of such a histogram is to se- eure some information on the degree of sorting present. A well sorted sand will have different porosity possibilities than a poorly sorted sand. PACKING. ‘The manner in which the grains are arranged with reference to each other is also part of the texture. Theoretically, the grains may ‘be arranged in rows lke fig. 13. It will be imme- lately apparent that the spaces between the grains (interstices) vary accordingly. In the early investi~ gations on porosity mathematical calculations were ‘made as to the maximum pore space possible with each kind of packing. Now, after having studied ‘many oil-producing sands, and finding that the open spaces are largely occupied by clay particles or cement, or possibly by projecting points of new crystals, it has become obvious that the early cal~ culations have only academic value. POROSITY. Nevertheless, it is extremely 13, Six different arrangements for packing spheres. (Graton k Fraser in Jour. of Geology)rT HOW OIL 18 FOUND Fig. important to determine, if possible the present porosity of any given oil sand, By porosity we mean the total cubic volume of voids between the grains. We must also distinguish between effective porosity and isolated porosity. The former implies interrelated pores and ‘the latter implies the opposite. In sandstones, this distinction is not as critical as in limestones. ‘Actual determinations on many sands have now been made so that we are fairly well informed on the porosity of representative types. In recent years it has become fairly common to secure cores of a producing sand either from an actual producing well or froma dry hole nearby, These cores are weighed in water and in air after being thoroughly dried. ‘The ratio between the two weights gives a pretty accurate indication of the porosity of the sand. From such measurements it has been found that the porosity is highest when the grains are all nearly the same size. Also it has been found that TABLE Il, ACTUAL MEASURED POROSITY IN U, 8. FIELDS COMMON FREQUENT STATE OR DISTRICT LIMITS. AVERAGE Arkansas 5 to 35% 18% California oil fields 14 to 95% 20% California gas fields 28% Louisiana north 5 to 30% 11% Louisiana south 10% to 35% 25% Mississippi 5% to 31% 25% New York 1% to 16% 13% Oklahoma Bartlesville 12 to 16%, 14% ‘Texas south 25 to 32% 28% ‘Texas north 15 to 30% 2m Texas northeast M1 to 27% 11% Texas salt dome 20 to 38%, 25% 14. Drawing to show how the waves coming in and the undertow going out produce the littoral current. Note also location of beach and neal shore sand. the sands in older rocks have, in general, a smaller porosity than the sands in younger rocks. Theo- retically, of course, a porosity of zero is possible, bat in oil fields, It has been found that production does not occur when the porosity {alls below 5% for thereabouts. A very common average for all {elds is approximately 17% The actual measured porosities in various parts of the United States is given in table Tl. REASONS FOR HIGH POROSITY. It appears from the table that porosity in most oil-producing sandstones is relatively high. Considering what has been said about clay particles and cement clogging the openings between grains this may seem some- ‘what contradictory. Therefore we must look into the origin of sand bodies especially those which eventually become a reservoir for oil accumulations. Some sand bodies are laid down as a thin sheet next to the shore line of an ocean, in very shallow water. In this environment waves bring in turbulent water at the top, and the undertow takes out the water much more slowly near the bottom. The movement of the undertow is spasmodic since each oncoming wave tends to retard it momentarily. Hence the waves bring in the sand grains and drop Fig. 15. position of an off-shore baz, Block drawing to show the formation and (After A.K. Lobeck)THE OIL, ROCKS 18 Figs 16. them near the shore line, but the undertow, being | weaker can carry away only the smallest particles. ‘There is thus created a winnowing effect by means of which the clay and tiny silt particles are culled ‘out from among the sand grains and carried farther | cut to deeper water. BEACH DEPOSITS. Undoubtedly some oi! sands were formerly beach ridges and associated deposits. ‘The beach ridge is a very slight elevated ‘ridge Just beyond the reach of the waves on the shore. 1 consists of sand grains tossed up by waves at limes of storms and during high tide, The strength of the wave tends to sort the grains so that they will have a rather uniform size, Furthermore the wind which is constantly blowing against the deposits, tends to sift out the small particles of clay and silt. ‘These are lifted into the alr and taken inland where they are redeposited. OFF-SHORE BARS. A very interesting sand vody found in many parts of the world as an oil- bearing sand is the ridge formed at some distance from the shore and under water. It is built chiefly by wave action at a point where the height of the wave is retarded by friction with the bottom of the water. Sand grains which may have been carried some distance by currents flowing parallel to the shore line (littoral currents) provided the material which the waves churn up, A ridge may be built which eventually reaches the top of the water level ‘and may even be built above the water level. ‘The best modern examples of such off-shore bars are those along the Atlantic coast of the United States. (Soe fig. 16). They vary from a narrow strip of sand to 2 wide belt of sandy land, six to 10 miles across. Most of them show by their structure that they were built in stages because they have beach ridges and intervening hollows, to indicate successive ‘additions on the sea-ward side. The tides produce i lets or breaks in the continuity of the bars. Behind the bars are lagoons of very shallow water. ‘They fill up rapidly with fine sediment and with marsh-loving plants. In them plant matter accumulates to become sapropel which later is converted into oil. Off-shore bars along the Atlantic Coast. (N.W. Bass in Kans, St, Geol. Surv, Bull. 23) ANCIENT OFF-SHORE BARS. In ancient seas such as covered North America many times in the past, off-shore bars were formed at many places. Such were found by drilling for oil ineastern Kansas, especially in Greenwood and in Butler Counties. (Fig. 17). Tt will be noted that the strings of oll of [ete focmae Wem 4 - lew ~ t a o Let | ge 7 A Pr] endecelcn 4 =p “ l Fig. 17. Map of Greenwood County (and adjacent areas) in eastern Kansas, to show shape and distribution of buried off-shore bars. (Bast in Kans, Geol. Surv. Bull, 23)16 pools are long and narrow. Furthermore, they occur in two sets of strings which have a V shaped arrangement to mimic an ancient reentrant in the Pennsylvanian seas. Because of the shape of the long strings of oil pools, the producing sands are referred to as “shoestring sands” Enough drilling has been done to indicate that the shoestring sands of eastern Kansas have 2 nearly flat base, but a somewhat convex top surface, They produce oil where the sand body has a thickness of from $0 to 100 feet. The individual pools have a Tength of from two to six miles and make a “trend’” which is 25 to 45 miles long. The average width is about ore mile. In fig. 18 five typical cross~ Fig. 18. string sand bodies in Greenwood County. in Kans. Geol. Surv. Bull, 23) Five typical cross-sections of the shoe~ (Bees sections are shown based upon wells drilled in the ‘Thrall, Pankhouser and the DeMalorie-Souder pools. Bass has traced the Bartlesville shoestring sands southward into Oklahoma and believes that the fa~ mous Burbank pool ean be explained in part by off= shore bars. This pool is five miles wide and 12 miles long. ‘The rich accumulations of oil in the pool are localized in trends which are quite narrow and which are nearly parallel to each other. ‘The greater thickness of the sand in these trends and the shape of the sand bodies suggest that they are multiple bars formed in a manner similar to those on Cape Cod in Massachusetts. ‘The fig. 19 is introduced here to acquaint the reader with a stratigraphic section or a pictorial representation of a sequence of rocks. A picture of this kind is also called a columnar section. Similar ones will be used in succeeding portions of this book. The names of rock ages such as Permian and Pennsylvanian will be explained in Chap- ter IL (Gee especially table IV on page 40). DUNE SANDS. It would seem that the sands laid down in dune form by the wind would make {deal storage for oll and gas accumulations. How- ever, extremely few of the world’s oll pools are associated with material laid down on land (conti- ental). Nevertheless, we have evidence that some fof the dunes of the past were buried under ocean waters at some later date and cemented into hard sandstone bodies. This appears to be true of some of the Jurassic sandstones in the Rocky Mountain HOW OIL IS FOUND EXPLANATION fa. emis Fig. 19, Columnar section of the rocks in Green- “wood County Kansas, showing stratigraphic porition of the shoestring sands. (Bass in Kans. Geol. Surv. Bull, 23) states. (Nugget and Sundance sands). Since the wind has a tendency to winow the small particles oat of the larger-sized-sand grains very effectively, Such sands have a very well sorted texture. The ‘wind does a better job of sorting than does water. PERMEABILITY. Even though a given rock mass may have good porosity, this does not neces- sarily make an oll field possible. We also need connecting passageways between the pores in the rock, The property of permitting fluids to migrate freely through the maze of pore spaces ina sand- stone is called permeability. At first thought it ‘would seem that the permeability is a direct function of the porosity, however, examination of many cores hhas proved that such 1s’ not the case. To be sure, good porosity favors good permeability but other factors enter into the problem to make it compli- cated, Again it must be remembered that the porosity‘THE OIL ROCKS varies greatly ina given sand body. It varies verti~ lly almost inch by inch and horizontally foot by foot. Streaks of coarse gravel are often found in sand bodies. Similarly we should expect thin layers sind zones of clayey material and silt to be present at various places in a sand body. Hence the permeability varies enormously from point to point in a given sand body. Ik varies vy fractions of an inch in a vertical direction, as has abundantly been proved by careful measurements 4n the fields of western Pennsylvania, DARCIES. The permeability is measured a¢ cording to a formula first propounded by H.P. barey in 1856." His formula has been critically examined by Muskat, reviewed by Hubbert and very thoroughly explained by Carman’. The formula as sow used may be stated as follows: A material huus: the permeability of one darcy when one atmos~ phere pressure differential, across one centimeter lwngth, causes a viscous flow of one cubic centi- meter per second of a fluid of one centipoise vis~ casity through a eross section of one square centi- meter. Tnasmuch as it has been found somewhat im- practical to measure the flow of fluids in whole tWurcies, the tendency is now to measure them in thousandths of a unit. The figures generally given for permeability are therefore in millidarcies. For determining the permeability of a given producing sandstone It is necessary to secure a core from a rby dry hole, This is then placed in a permea- meter and tested by forcing fluids through it under 1 set of controlled conditions. A manometer to measure the pressure drop as the fluid is forced through the core as well as a flow meter to meas- lure the rate of flow of fluid through the core are attached to the permeameter? ‘The greatest number of measurements for per- meability have been made in western Pennsylvania where repressuring of sands is now common prac- tice. The fig. No, 20 will show a typical sandstone with appended variations in porosity and also per- meability. I will be noted that the permeability varies from zero to perhaps several thousand milli- areies from layer to layer. We must get used to thinking of a sand body as a complex of a large number of small independent reservoirs of differing permeability, In other words it is definitely mis- lwading to mention the permeability of a sandstone which is $0 feet thick. For throughout this 30 feet, the permeability may vary enormously. Neverthe- less, a figure for the average may be safely used is a guide to the productivity of the field in which the sand produces oil. This has been done for the Famous East Texas field in northeastern Texas where the permeabilities range in general from 1500 to ‘Lee Fontaines publiques de 1a Ville de Dijon. Fluid flow through granular beda. Tran ‘see Rus ‘Struct. Typ. Amer. Oil Fields pp. 622 , 1941. 1" sce SQN HN, BS Sa tie 5 5 } 3 i b J _ z Fig. 20. Analysis of the Second Sand in the Foster-Oil City pool of western Pennsylvania. (Sherrill, Dickey and Matteson in Strat. Type Oil Fields, p. 524) 4000 millidarcies. This field has been exhaustively described by Minor & Hanna’ who report an average thickness for the producing sand of 30 feet. One core of excellent recovery showed five separate sands which each varied from 6 inches to 10 feet. ‘All were separated from each other by impervious shale beds or by volcanic ash beds. Curiously enough, these shale and ash beds show porosities as high as 18% but no saturation whatsoever. The average porosities of all the sands in the core showed as approximately 25% and the average per- meability was 1500 millidarcies. There seems to ‘be good intercommunication of all porous zones in the field. This is amply proved by the very high initial production of the early wells and also by the rapid adjustment to bottom hole pressure at all stages of oil withdrawal in the field, This field has pro duced over 2 1/2 billion barrels of oil to date. Thus it ranks ahead of every other pool in the world. ‘Another place where permeability studies have bbeen carried out rather extensively, is in the Haw- kins pool of the same part of Texas. The Lewisville sand (part of the Woodbine sand) there consists of only 30% sand, the rest being shale, clay and Victor Dalmont, Paris. Amer. Inst. Chem. Engrs. vol. 15, pp- 150 to 166, 1937. Il = Dickey in APPLIED SEDIMENTATION pages 588 & 589, 1950.18 HOW OIL 15 FOUND Fig. 21. Fourteen logs made from core records in the Fast Texas pool. (Minor te Hanna ‘tn Strat. Type Oil Fields, p. 622) volcanic ash. Lenses of gravel are present at various levels and in various horizontal positions. The sands alone have an average porosity of 24% and an average permeability of 450 millidarcies. The Dexter portion of the Woodbine sand is 350 feet thick and consists of about 70% sand. Most of the sands have rather wide horizontal extent. They have an average porosity of 27% and an average permeability of 4000 millidarcies. The maximum observed permeability in this sand was 21,000 milli- darcies which is one of the highest figures so far reported in the literature. Evidently the Dexter sands are clean and relatively free from impurities. SHAPE OF SAND BODIES. The shape of a sand body often determines the size of an oil field, One of the most fundamental facts uncovered by drilling in the United States is that sand bodies are Likely to be of relatively small extent, They cover tens of acres only. When examined in vertical Sequence it is found that the sand bodies are mu- merous one above the other and are interbedded with impervious shales. The shape of these sand units is that of a double lens. In other words they are thick in the middle being convex upward and also convex downward, ‘Thus the thickness is greatest in the middle and rapidly becomes less toward the edges. This situation has been found to obtain in | | | most parts of the Appalachian region (New York, Pennsylvania, West Virginia, Kentucky, & Ohio). It is also true in many parts of south Texas and along the Gulf Coast in other states. ‘The best illustration of lensing sands was published by W.C. Weeks and C.W. Alexander in their report on the Schuler field in southern Arkansas, This is reproduced in fig. 22. ‘The many sand lenses shown are part of the so-called Morgan zone ‘which is approximately 500 feet thick. The absence of fossils and the presence of red colors, suggest that these sands were laid down’ in shallow water and are probably non-marine. The illustration at- tempts to show the relative porosity and also the permeability. The sandstones average 16 per cent in porosity, but run as high as 26 per cent. The permeabilities average between 500 and 1000. milli- darcies with values up to 4500 millidarcies. Be- ‘tween the sandstone bodies lie shales and siltstones. ‘The legend in the lower left side of the drawing indicates porosities, permeabilities and the scale. Perhaps the most amazing example of sand lens complexity has been found in the famous Yenangyoung, field in Burma where the wells are extremely mu- merous and close together. Yet no sand can be correlated between two adjacent wells. In Penn- sylvania a certain amount of correlation between‘THE OL ROCKS Je Morgan zone of the Sehuler Field of Arkansas. P.G, Bull. Vol. 26 49, p. 1484)0 HOW OIL 1S FOUND ‘wells is possible over an area of several townships and in some cases over an area of nearly a county. BLANKET SANDS. In strong contrast to these conditions are some examples of sandstones which terally cover thousands of square miles of terri- tory. One famous example is the Dakota sandstone ‘which may be found on the surface or underground from Alberta southward to New Mexico and from Utah on the west to Kansas on the east. Evidently ‘this sandstone is not a single body of sand, but an interlocking group of lenses at nearly the same stratigraphic level. The sand grains were laid down partly on land, partly in brackish water and partly in marine water. Oceanic waters gradually crept northward from Texas through the Great Plains and up to Canada, Hence it is logical to assume that the sand called by this name is not everywhere of the same age. Nevertheless, for convenience it is considered as a mappable unit. In many places it ‘can be subdivided into three divisions, with a coarse cconglomeratic phase at the base, a shaly unit in the aE a middle and a variable sandstone at the top. This sandstone has been found to contain oil or gas in Colorado, Wyoming, Utah, New Mexico and Montana, and Nebraska. Parenthetically, in many parts of the Great Plains it contains artesian water. 'WOODBINE SAND. The famous Woodbine sand ‘of upper Cretaceous age is often considered a correl- ative of the Dakota sandstone. It is found espectal- ly in northeastern Texas and down through east central Texas. A number of prolific pools derive their ofl from this series of sandstone lenses. Closely related to the Woodbine in age is the Tuscaloosa sandstone of Louisiana, Mississippi and Alabama. This also is a series of closely spaced sand lenses at approximately the same stratigraphic level. OLDER BLANKET SANDS. In Oklahoma and Kansas the sands at the level of the Bartlesville sandstone are often in the form of blankets with Mimited horizontal extent, Such is the case at Burbank and Glenn and in general throughout eastern Oklahoma. In Kansas the blanket nature of the sand Fig. 23, ‘of the Dakota sandstone. Cross-section of the San Juan Basin of New Mexico to show the position and extent (New Mex. Sehool Mines Bull. 9) Fig. 24, Cross-section from the Cushing field to the Oklahoma City field, to show the sandstone layers in the Simpson (St. Peter) zone. (Welrich in A.A.P.G, Bull, vol. 14)‘THE OIL ROCKS a ts algo apparent even though no large pools have teen found in tt under such conitions, There ofl fecumlations seem to have favored the local ridges hich were olfvshore bars in the Bartlesville sea, sh, PETER. A very famous series of blanket sands was formed daring Ordovician ime over much Of the eentral part of the United States irom Wise tonsin dowa to Mexico and from central Colorado castward into Kentucky. ‘These sands are uovally Telerred tothe Se. Peter formation, Bt locally they fave other names auch as simpson, etc. In Ota hom ‘where they are particularly prolif, the sands sometimes oceur in three afferent layers and are Separated by shale zones. PENNSYLVANIAN SANDS IN THE ROCKY MOUNTAIN STATES. Inthe ‘Tocky Mountain states certain sands in the Pennoyiventan sequence have proved to be important oll reservoirs. This is true specially of the Tensigep sandstone of Wyoming fnd the Weber sandsfone of Colorado, ‘The Tensleep sandtoae is quite thick and extremely variable from place to place. it shows great variations in grain Size, in porosity and in permeability. There Is Some evidence to suggest that M was ald down as 2 desert deposit before it was reworked Sato 4 marine Sandstone, "The Weber sandstone ts probably of the Same age as the Tensieep, but fossil evidence is necessary meagre, Sandstones rarely contain fos sile and the age must be deduced by foseis fund In layers above or below. "The Weber. sandstone produces sn the large Rangely poo! of northwestern Colorado, ‘There lt nasa ¥en Small porosity prob ably due tothe growth of small erystals in the pores between the grting. ‘The permeshlity ts extremely Small ranging from one to 10 millidarcies. Yet this pool is currently producing If million barrels @ Year from about 500 wells SAND WEDGES. Considering that sands are often laid down on shelving shore-ines, we should txpect to find some rather large and extensive sand- Sones wedges, However, it must be remembered that shorestine conditions are variable from place to place. One disturbing element 1p found at the mouths of entering streams where all Kinds of ma- terial is swept into an ocean, Another element which Iniences the situation is the fact tat sand is not tveaywhere abundantly supplied by the shore cure Tents which flow paralel to tie shore line. Never- theless, driling hs uncovered some good examples of sandstone Wedges, One of them is the famous Chinton ‘wedge in eentral Ohio, Tt produces. ae from Cleveland southward through all counties fo. the Kentucky border. Eastward it tas been found in deep welis as far as the border of the sate THICKNESS, "Whereas the ticknoss of sand- stone reservoirs in the eastern part of the United Slates is in general rather, moterate, or on the order of tens of fect, there are some areas where the opposite is truer The utstanding example of til fields with abnormally large sand thicknesses ts to be found in southern Callforoar In the Los Fig. 25. Map of eastern Ohio to show the gas pools in the Clinton sand, ‘The sand is thin at the west and becomes thicker toward the east, (Map by Lockett) Angeles Basin there are 10 pools strung along the ‘coast (see map fig. 26) each of which has thousands of feet of sandstones. To be sure the sands are not entirely pure; thin (or sometimes thick) bodies of shale or clay are interbedded with them. Perhaps the thickest body of sand lenses in the world is found in the famous Ventura pool. Here only three shale zones have been found so far between the depth of 11600 feet where oil saturation begins and the greatest depth so far drilled (in excess of 18,000 feet). In the Gulf coast of Texas the Frio zone of ‘sandstones is also very thick. Tt contains thin part- ings of argillaceous material, but the percentage of sand is very large in zones that measure hundreds of feet each, The whole zone has a maximum thick- ness of 3000 fect and averages 1200 feet over large areas. The Miocene sands in southern Louisiana are similarly thick. Perhaps it should be pointed22 HOW OIL 18 FOUND BEE palsacora # 4 wal a o 7 3 7 eB 3a eee Anogre J § he aN EP He Los ANGELES }— Pomenalo /8| TE eczwaco rie 2a wor gente MES cae LE amehit. co, four 8 | ie Pe cae “ey cheese HEE 2B A fier Ger” eel ne seeinee 7 [Horrors 8S ssmons Broan Oat § ones eee oheuen | ee ‘cures me, ) \ [y” Anabel 0 2 num >| SS ie i = ‘San Pedro: ey Ee Huntington | Newport Beach Fig. 26. Map showing the location of the oll peols in the Los Angeles basin. cut that these thick bodies of sands are all rather young geologically (eee page 176). LMESTONES. A pure limestone consists of calcium carbonate one hundred per cent... While Sich a rock is theoretically possible, it rarely is found in nature. A composite analysis of nearly 500 limestones was made by Stokes and he found eel these is 40 per cent art the corresponding percent= age of carbon dioxide Is 36 per cent. A relatively Dire limestone contains about 85 per cent of caletum Gxide and 43 per cent of carbon dioxide, The aver age limestone’ in Stokes analysis contains nearly 5% | of magnesium carbonate. "When this, compound n= creases the limestone takes on the charactoristies ofa magnesian limestone. When it reaches the theoretical percentage of 45.7% thea the rock 1s | (Drawn by Harold Hoots) called a dolomite. In nature there are all tran- sitions between a nearly pure limestone and a nearly pure dolomite, Since a chemical analysis is time ‘consuming, the geologist distinguishes between these two types of related rocks by their action in dilute hydrochloric acid, When a small particle of lime- stone is dropped into a dish containing cold dilute acid it effervesces freely and with great speed. Magnesian mestone effervesces more deliberately and dolomite effervesces rather slowly. Careful watching of the small particles will show that the Limestone particles rush around in the acid and seek the edges of the dish. The dolomite on the other hand shows a very characteristic reaction. First it decrepitates into tiny units, each of which is nearly the same size, Secondly each of these tiny units effervesces slowly until completely dissolved.‘THE OIL ROCKS THE VENTURA AVENUE FIELD ‘terme ppc Fig. 27. Cross-section of the Ventura Avenue field, to show the great thickness of the oil Producing sands, (Hoots & Herold in A.A.P.G. GEOL. OF NAT. GAS page 165) ‘This distinction is very significant as it bears di- rectly upon the problem of the origin of the dolomite. It is very useful in the microscopic study of well cuttings from oil wells. MINERAL COMPOSITION. As might be con- Jectured, the minerals in a limestone are calcite and rarely aragonite (which has the same composi- tion.) Tt appears from experiments that aragonite is often formed in sea water, but that it rather commonly changes over to the more stable calcite, ‘The mineral dolomite has the composition of cal- cium and magnesium carbonate Ca Mg (CO,), ‘and the rock has the same theoretical composition. Both minerals occur in nature with impurities such as iron. Thus the iron carbonate called siderite 2 is very often present in calcite crystals producing a variety called ankerite. In some sediments such as the Tertiary of the north Louisiana oil fields, ankerite is quite abundant. The mineral composition as well as the chemical composition both have a very critical bearing on the porosity and perme- ability of calcareous rocks. IMPURITIES IN CALCAREOUS ROCKS. Very often the impurities in limestones have a very sig- | nificant role in oil occurrence and therefore should be given sympathetic consideration. The most com- ‘mon impurity in limestones is chert. ‘This sub- stance is a very common form of silica or quartz. It is not crystalline like quartz and looks entirely different. Usually it has a dull luster, but this, property varies considerably. In fact it may be ‘waxy, greasy, or even glassy. One outstanding prop- erty is the extreme hardness which is greater than glass. However, even this may vary, as chert is susceptible to alteration and then becomes tripoli, avery friable, dull white and generally porous va- riety. Perhaps the best guide to the identification of chert in well cuttings 1s the conchoidal fracture ‘which it displays prominently. “All colors of chert are known, but white is most common, Some chert fs speckled with fossil fragments or other tiny im- purities. HOW CHERT OCCURS, In a quarry wall of Limestone it will be observed that the chert occurs in small lumps arranged along the bedding planes. ‘These lumps may be round oF somewhat flattened by pressure and suggest that the silica may have been deposited at the same time as the enclosing rock. Occasionally the chert occurs in definite layers between the beds of limestone and rarely the chert makes very thick masses of rock by it= self. In examining the well cuttings of an oll well the examiner will find that the chert 1s broken away from the enclosing limestone by the action of the drilling tools and thus occurs as separate rock fragments. It has also been found in various parts of the country that the percentage and physical properties of the chert are fully as valuable in determining the relative age of a given stratum as fossils might be. This fas been abundantly demon- strated in Missouri and Kansas and has been at- ‘tempted in Oklahoma and Texas in rocks of Ordo- vieian age. OTHER IMPURITIES. There are many other impurities in calcareous rocks, One of the most common is the green mineral glauconite which occurs either in soft lumps or as the Tiling of small pores in the rock. Somewhat rarer is the mineral pyrite. ‘This mineral indeed may occur in any kind of sedi- ‘mentary rock and ordinarily has no particular sig- nificance or value, Since limestone has an affinity for phosphatic material, it is not uncommon to find local masses of calcium phosphate. Other minerals ‘which appear infrequently are anhydrite, gypsum, barite and sphalerite. Some dolomites which aré quite evidently formed in an evaporating basin are4 kely to have small anhydrite crystals imbedded. Both dolomites and limestone frequently show scat- tered round sand grains imbedded, They are called “sand-studded”” rocks. ‘ORIGIN OF LIMESTONES. Inasmuch as lime- stones are nearly pure chemical deposits, it need not be mentioned that they are formed in quiet waters (generally marine) far away from land. This Is indicated by the general absence of such sub- stances as clay or silt which clearly are land-derived materials, By drawing on the Imagination we can visualise oceanic waters far from land as being in- habited by organisms such as sponges, sea lilies, corals, among animals and algae among plants. The sea surface Is teeming with microscopic larvae of these organic beings and all that is needed for them to grow and prosper is a shallow platform where temperature conditions are favorable. Hence the interior of continents far away from the mountains of the coastal regions were (during past ages) the most favorable environments for such sea life. Cor- als of today live in water which generally Is no Fig. 28, Drawings to show the appearance of sea lies. (evinoid and biastotd). HOW OIL 1S FOUND | deeper than 100 fathoms and has a temperature of | more than 05 degrees F. At least they thrive best | under such conditions, CORAL REEFS, It will be advantageous to bogin with coral reets (sometimes known as bicherms) since these are well known to the layman and also seem to be the starting point for many kinds of Timestones, Imagine a rexsonably shallow portion af the ocean bottom far enough away from land to be relatively free from mud and silt. Here corals can grow freely and a5 is well known may take on an infinite variety of shapes and sizes, They will i \ | | Fig. 29. Drawings of FUSULINA, one of the | numerous foraminiters. (a) transverse cross | ™icetion and (b) the whole fossil. Very | much enlarged. | naturally grow in the direction of least resistance, | which ordinarily 1s upward. However, because of } currents, or reaching the top of the water, they | may grow sidewise. Living with the corals are | numerous plants of the algae family. In addition | there win! also be friends such as crinoids (sea | ities) Yoraminifera, and possibly molluscs. The | intertwined assemblage of life forms grows up tom gether even though some feed on the others. The framework of skeletons of the variows types of ani- mals and plants remains behind after the soft parts have been destroyed by scavengers or by solution, Fig. 30. Cross-sections of several typical reef mounds. adjacent to reef core and also thin-bedded limestones at a distance from the core. Note steeply dipping zones of detritus Nate alse compaction of overlying beds.HOW OIL 18 FOUND Fy ‘This framework makes the core of a so-called coral reef with fringing deposits on sides and between It will immediately be apparent that the rigid skeletons of corals and other forms of life can be partly destroyed by waves and that the fragments can be transported by currents and by gravity just ‘as sand grains can be transported along shores. Hence we should expect a peripheral zone of coarse detritus around the core of a reef. This detrital material will consist of broken crinoid plates and pleces of coral colonies, The coarse materials will arrange themselves in rather steep beds on the slopes of the core. The finer powder ground up by the waves will be carried some distance away from the core and will accumulate in nearly flat beds between the cores. If the reef exists for a long time like the Great Barrier reef off the eastern coast of Australia, the amount of calcareous mud may be very large and distributed over a wide area. The Great Barrier reef is 1200 miles long land at its outermost point lies 90 miles away from the present coast of the mainland. There is little doubt now that much limestone formed in past ages originated in some such manner. BIOSTROMES. There is also considerable evidence to indicate that some limestones were de- rived from organic fragments which grew in a nearly horizontal plane to form biostromes. ‘These have ‘occasionally been preserved intact, but more often have been broken to bits and scattered by waves and currents. INORGANIC LIMESTONE, While it now seems probable that most limestones formed in the past are due to the fragmentation of organic skeletons, there is indubitable evidence that some limestone originated in other ways, Certainly under favorable ‘conditions of sea water evaporation carbon dioxide ts lost and then the calcium bicarbonate in sea water comes out of solution and is precipitated on the sea floor. It must be remembered here that limestone is not in solution as a simple carbonate but rather as the bicarbonate. (Ca H,(CO,),. It will be apparent that when some of the carbonate 1s lost to the air that the normal carbonate forms and since this is much less soluble than the bicar- bbonate, it will be precipitated. At present it is a moot question just how much limestone was formed in this manner. Some varieties of limestone like chalk may have formed in very special situations. ‘The chalk which 1s so common in young sediments is believed by many to have resulted from the ac- cumulations of enormous quantities of microscopic sea-dwelling organisms like foraminifera. One is struck by the fact that limestone is relatively rare 1n young sediments, but that chalk is correspondingly abundant. Could it be that chalk is the immature form of limestone? Some of these fundamental questions still await an answer. IMPURE LIMESTONES. Many limestones were formed in environments where impurities were washed in at the time of formation. When a considerable amount of mud is present with the calcium carbon- ate the rock is called an argillaccous limestone. When considerable amounts of colloidal silica are = co ‘a Fig. 31. Columnar section of rocks in Rice County, Kansas, to show position of the Herington at the top of the Chase group in the Permian system, Note overlying ‘anhydrite and galt.26 HOW OIL 18 FOUND present in the rock the limestone 1s called a si- Ticeous limestone. A rock in whieh ehert is abundant is called a cherty limestone. ORIGIN OF DOLOMITE. Evidence has been accumulating for years that dolomite is not an origi- nal rock like Limestone, Rather it was formed from limestone elther while this was stil ia a soft con~ dition on the sea floor, of Tater after it had been hardened. Most authorities believe that the trans formation occurred very shortly after the limestone was laid down. One of the most striking arguments In favor of this assumption is the texture of dolo- mite. Almost invariably it has rather coarsely crystalline texture, Furthermore, the texture 1s likely to be equigranular. Both of these features suggest a secondary oFigin. ‘These remarks apply especially to the dolomites of the early Paleozoic era, In-some places, as for instance in north~ eastern Kansas, dolomites of Ordovician age can be traced by means of well cuttings into imestones of the same age, Silurian rocks and also Devonian rocks (see table on page 40) can also be similarly traced {rom one place to another and found to grade from Mmestone into dolomite at the same level. EVAPORITE DOLOMITE. Nevertheless it is also tive that some dolomites have been found which are clearly original. ‘The most common of these are some which have been formed in a saline sea that was evaporating. An example is the Hering- ton dolomite of Kansas which lies just below a thick series of antydrites and salt, There is litle ques~ tion that the anhydrite and salt were formed in a drying up arm of the sea, Furthermore, the Hering ton dolomite contains small imbedded erystals of anhydrite. In West Texas where dolomites are particularly ¢hick and abundant, many have had this node of origin, OOLITIC LIMESTONE. One of the most fasei- nating types of limestone and also one of the most Yaluable for the storage of oll and gas, is the type known as oolitie limestone. ‘This form of rock is characterized by the presence of small balls of calcium carbonate ina matrix of calcite, The balls Aare commonly a fraction of a millimeter vp to about 2 millimeters in diameter, ‘They often have the same color as the matrix, but more often differ Slightly, so that they can be seen with a binocular microscope. Concentrie rings of material suggest that they were built up around a nucleus by thin accretions trom time to time, No geologist has yet thought of a convincing explanation for the for~ ‘mation of such balls of limestone. Examples of oolitie Iimestone which contain large amounts of oll are the Sle. Genevieve formation of Illinois, the Lansing limestone of Kansas and the Smackover limestone of southern Arkansas. In the case of the Lansing limestone of Kansas, many of the small balls of calchim carbonate have been dissolved out of the rock and the oil 1s stored largely in the holes left therein. The name for this peculiar condition {is “oocastic””. Apparently this is a case of selective solution producing a rock full of small round holes. Jn Mlinols the oolites are commonly preserved and the oil is stored between them. Fig. 32, banded nature of oolites from polished ‘eroas-seetion of Limestone. Drawing to show the shape and TEXTURE. The description of oolitic lime- stone leads naturally to the other types of texture found in limestones. In general the size, shape, and arrangement of the individual particles in a Limestone depends upon the perfection of crystalli- zation which the rock has experienced. Finely ground up rock powder such as is often found at some distance from coral reefs, changes by com- paction into a lithographic limestone. Tn such a Tock the individual particles are about as. small as clay particles and therefore impossible of differ- entiation, Some geologists prefer to call such a texture cryptocrystalline or microcrystalline. (The word crypto means hidden and the word micro ‘means small), Lithographic Imestones are found rather abundantly in all parts of the world and are particularly numerous In the Paleozoic systems. (See page 40.) When the crystalline units are rather small and show up as pin points under a binocular microscope, the rock is said to have a finely exystalline texture, A medium crystalline texture shows up under magnification by means of numerous cleavage faces which are all about the size of a pin head. Occasionally the size of the cleavage faces is large and then the rock is said to have a coarsely crystalline texture. One should also expect to find a mixed crystalline texture. ‘This means that large cleavage faces appear among many smaller ones or in a dense matrix. Such a texture more often than not is due to fragments of fossils (like crinoid fragments). Dolomites are apt to have a crystalline texture and lithographic types are extremely rare. TheTHE OIL wsture may be fine medium, or coarse. In any vow it will be found that the ize of the individual ‘units iS approximately equal within a given layer. ich rocks are spoken of a equigranular or (when rmstll) mierorhombohedral. When the edges and corners project from the rock mass under a bin- vrular microscope the texture is often referred to vs granular, or sugary. FOSSILS. The presence of fossils may be lled either a textural characteristic or a struc ‘until one. The line between texture and structure ‘difficult to draw. Usually structure refers to larger features such as cross-bedding layering ‘ratification, ripple marks, etc. Any actual re~ sins of animals or plants, or the impression of such organisms is a fosal ¥ Drawing to show appearance of such structural features as eross-bedding, mud cracks and ripple marks. [After A.K. Lobeck) Fossils are quite common in limestones either us whole shells or as fragments of such shells. Under the microscope small pieces of crinoid stems sve very common, as are also portions of bryozoans, 1nd perhaps foraminifera, Fragments of brachlo- mods occur in certain layers rather abundantly and ‘ontracods can be found by careful searching. Clam hhells and snail shells are rare because the original ROCKS 1 material was probably aragonite and this is rather ‘susceptible to solution. The holes where such fos- sils used to be constitutes a fossil nevertheless, and they are called “molds”, Fig. 44. Drawings of (a) Brachiopod and (b) Pelecypod. POROSITY. Holes in limestones or in dolo~ mites are either original or induced by later changes. Ina coral reef there are many open spaces left between the skeletal parts of the various organisms Which inhabited the reef. ‘This is an example of original or primary porosity. Another example is the porosity in oolitic limestone where pore spaces were left between the little oolites. On the other hand, when the oolites are dissolved out and only the empty spaces remain, then the porosity must bbe considered secondary. In many detrital lime- stones where fragments are cemented together by Fig. 35, Block diagram of limestone to show the various kinds of solution holes produced by water action.28 calcitic matrix material, one of these is likely to be more soluble than the other. Hence, after so- lution some holes appear. Solution is especially ‘effective after the rock has been lifted up into the atmosphere and made part of the land, Rain water and percolating ground water have a tendency to dissolve the limestone. The air contains much carbon dioxide, This unites with the water to form carbonic acid, which in turn is capable of taking Into solution the calcium carbonate according to the following equation. HO plus.CO, plus Ca CO, equals Ca H, (CO,),. UNDERGROUND CAVERNS. The reader is doubtless familiar with underground caves and cav- exns. They illustrate the solvent action of circu- lating ground waters on a mammoth seale. A visit to the Carlsbad Caverns in southeastern New Mexico will furnish enduring proof of the power of such waters, There great tunnel-like passageways have been carved out of Permian limestones which can be followed for miles. Some of the larger ‘rooms”” in these passageways are truly immense. ‘The so- called Queen’s room is 350 feet high, 625 feet wide ‘and 4000 feet long. The distance visitors travel in the passageways Is about 7 miles and this repre- sents only a small portion of the tunnels which are present in the 900 foot thick mass of limestones. | | | HOW OIL 1S FOUND Other well-known caverns are Mammoth Cave in Kentucky and the Luray Caverns of Virginia. One can readily imagine that much oil could be stored Jn such underground holes. 'VUGS. Investigations carried out in various parts of the world where limestone produces oll, Suggest that the holes which contain the oil are usually much smaller. They vary from the size of a pin point to the size of a large melon. The shape varies infinitely and is generally very ir- regular. The name commonly applied to such holes in calearcous rocks 1s ‘vag’ CREVICES. In many parts of the world oil occurs in long narrow cracks or crevices. These may be due to joints in the rock or to faults where ‘the rocks have’ slipped past each other. A perfect example of such crevice accumulation may be found fm the off fields of northern Mexico (Panuco ete.) See fig. 7. Te will be noted that the oil wells. are arranged in long narzow rows. Another place where crevices play a major role in ofl storage is in Persia, There the Asmari limestone has a porosity from zero to 15% and a permeability rarely exceeding 1/2 md. Yet the productivity of this limestone is very great and only a few wells are necessary to drain many square miles. British geologists have therefore, concluded that the ofl is mostly stored in small and intricately interlocking Fig. 36, Drawing of Mammoth Cave in Kentucky, to show the various levels of underground passageways. (After A. K. Lobeck)‘THE OTL ROCKS 29 ny ew san LEGEND 7+ on seerace CONTOURS ON ToP| ee S3 ¢ SA S 4 A Fig. 37. narrow lines, OTHER TYPES, round caverns, and crevices, there are’ several unique types of porosity present in calcareous rocks. ‘One of these is the porosity associated with oolites. Another is the porosity due to the disappearance of the oolites leaving and oocastic rock as the reservoir. In addition there is aiso evidence of inter-granular porosity especially in dolomites limestones. The ‘small units of dolomite which probably are individual crystals, do not always make a compact rock mass. ‘Small openings are left between the crystals during Besides the vugs, under- | | | Map of the oil fields of Northern Mexico. Note that the ofl wells are arranged along (Alter Matz) growth, Such tiny openings grade by imperceptible stages into vugs. A further special type is known ‘as pin-point porosity because minute calcite cry- stals are dissolved out of a matrix of less soluble Limestone. PERMEABILITY. The permeability in calear- cous rocks ranges from very small values close to zero to truly astronomical figures in caverns. Furthermore, the values which can be determined from cores show such large and erratic variations, that their determination is of questionable importance.30 FAMOUS LIMESTONE FIELDS. In the United States the most prolific limestone (or dolomite) fields are located in western Texas and adjacent parts of New Mexico. The oil fields of western Kansas derive most of their ofl from the upper 50 feet of the Arbuckle dolomite. The Golden Lane pools of southern Mexico secure their oil from ‘eavernous Cretaceous limestones. The fields in the Middle East such as Kirkuk and Haft Kel pro- duce from limestone. SHALES, A compilation made by the author of all oil and gas fields found in the United States up-to-date reveals that the total number is approxi- mately 6620. Somewhat over 69 per cent of these produce entirely (or chiefly) from sand or sandstone reservoir. The pools in which calcareous rocks ssuch as limestone, dolomite or chalk, are the con- taining rocks comprise nearly 29 per cent of the total, Thus it follows that only about 2 per cent or less of all pools derive their oil (or gas) from other kinds of material. Among the other kinds shale stands in first place. ORIGIN. Shale is the partly indurated equiva~ lent of clay and of mud. In fact it may be stated that mud, clay, shale and slate form a continuous series, ‘The origin of mud goes back to the parent rocks of all sedimentary rock and that 1s igneous rock. Granite is the most common igneous rock. ‘The average igneous rock contains 59 per cent of feldspar. Hence most clays are derived from feld- Spars. In igneous rocks there are also dark min- erals such as hornblende and pyroxene and their relatives. All these are subject to chemical decay resulting in the formation of minute fragments too small to be seen even with a high-powered micro- scope. PHYSICAL CHARACTERS. Clays and shales have very important physical characteristics which need analysis when the problem of oil or gas stor= age is involved, First and foremost is the size of the particle which (from deductions) has been esti~ mated to be less than 0.002 mm or 1/256 mm. Secondly, the particles adhere to each other so that only clusters can be observed. The colors are Infinite, common ones being grey, red, green, black, brown, yellow, white and purple. These colors reflect the impurities in the clays or shales. Clays are commonly lumpy in appearance while shales are likely to be fissile. Both are softer than a fingernail and can easily be ground up with a pair of tweezers. When ground up by cable tools, shale fragments have a tendency to appear as flat pieces with rounded edges in distinction to lime- stone fragments which appear as blocky or re tangular pieces. MINERAL COMPOSITION, Inasmuch as clays and shales are derived from igneous rock minerals they are elther extremely small fragments of such minerals or more commonly the chemical decom- position products of such minerals. Since the par- cles are too small to see, the mineral composition HOW OIL 15 FOUND must be deduced from the chemical analysis. This suggests that such minerals as Kaolin, chlorite and other flaky minerals make up the bulk of pure clays and shales. Inasmuch as these rocks are almost never pure, many other minerals must be expected. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. Many chemical analyses of clays and shales have been made and no two are exactly alike. In general alumina, and silica predominate. These two are derived primarily from feldspar and similar minerals. In addition, there is usually some calolum, magnesium, ferrous iron, and potassium present. The average shale shows 60 per cent silica, 18 per cent alumina, 3 per cent potassa, 2 per cent magnesia, 1 1/2 per cent lime and nearly 7 per cent iron. No doubt many of these are present in colloidal condition. COMPACTION. Mud is very loosely aggre- gated and porous. It may have 50% porosity. Under slight pressure it changes to clay which is more compact and has only 21% porosity. Still greater pressure induced by an over-burden of other rocks changes the clay to shale in which the porosity is reduced to 19% Shales can be greatly compacted by thick over burdens as proved by Athy. Under exceptional conditions of great pressure (and heat) the shales are still further compressed to form slates, It might be mentioned in passing that when the driller enters the word slate in his log he means hard shale and not slate. True slates are never found in of! regions. VARIETIES. On account of the variable com- position of shales there are many adjectives which rust be used to classify them. Some shales effer- vesce in cold acid and these are the caleareous shales. Some are characterised by dark to black colors and these are the bituminous or carbonaceous shales. Bituminous shales contain material from ‘which oil can be distilled, while carbonaceous shales contain fragmental organie materials in an extremely fine condition. Ferruginous shales are those which contain considerable iron, Ferric iron is indicated by a red color. Ferrous iron does not produce a color, so that gray shales and blue shales are proba- bly well provided with this kind of iron. ‘The hy- droxides of iron produce shades of yellow and brown, ‘White clay, though rare, probably owes its color to the absence of any traces of either iron or of or- ganic materials, An excess of silica in the shale produces a siliceous shale which Is very tough and compact. The green color of some shales is proba- bly due to finely divided chlorite or glauconite. FISSILITY. One of the outstanding properties ‘of shale is its ability to split into thin sheets with flat faces. This property is called fissility and is, due to the arrangement of the constituent flaky grains in the rock, Under pressure, the grains arrange themselves at right angles to the direction of greatest pressure. This orientation produces very thin laminae of rock, so that when the rock is split open it parts along even planes.‘THE OIL ROCKS POROSITY. The porosity has already been nitioned but needs to be emphasized on account ‘nf the fact that shales so often form a cap rock fr oll accumulations. Even though clay may have 1» porosity of 27% and shale a porosity of 19% this fdoos not mean that fluids can travel through it. ‘The openings are so tiny (sub-capillary) that ad- hes holds the fluids in a vice-like grip. This ns that the permeability of shales is nil for All practical purposes. Nevertheless, there is some evidence that water can pass through a shale. The ‘west proof of this is the hydrostatic pressure found in deep holes. Tt is also conceivable that some is: passes through shales. In general, however, and particularly oil find their passage ob 3 structed and this is the secret of oil traps in so ‘many instances. OIL IN SHALES. In afew oil pools of the world, oil is obtained from shale reservoirs. One of the out= standing examples 1s the Florence pool in central Colorado. Others are the Tow Creek pool and Rangely. in the same state. In fact there are five pools in Colo- rrado which derive some of their oil or gas from crev- ices in shales. In the Santa Maria district of California ‘the shales are very silicoous and no doubt have many fissures. Hence about § pools in this district derive their oil from fractured shales. One of these, Orcutt, has produced over 100 million barrels of ofl. UNUSUAL OIL RESERVOIRS. Oil is willing to be trapped in any kind of an opening. ‘Therefore, Tertiary and Cretaceous Pont ConceeTion Miocene Cretaceous Pliocene Quaternary i desses Fig. 38. Map of the olf pools in the Senta Maria distriet of California. (Oil pools shown in solid black)2 HOW OIL Is FOUND almost any kind of rock, sedimentary, igneous or metamorphic may be a reservoir rock. In the Panhandle of Texas there are thick accumulations of granitic detritus on the flank of an old buried mountain range. ‘This material has been called granite wash by the early investigators. It produces ‘considerable amounts of oil and also gas. In Kansas ‘the Mississippian limestone is very cherty. Where exposed to the weather this limestone has been decalcified, This is to say the soluble limestone has been carried away in solution by water and the insoluble chert has remained behind, In some pools of central Kansas such accumulations of mat~ ted chert, anywhere from 10 to 100 feet thick, have proved admirable reservoirs for the storage of un- derground oll. The Welch and the Bornholdt pools "e good examples, In Kansas also some oil is produced from granite. This rock is very old and furthermore resulted from the cooling of molten rock material. Hence no geologist would expect granite to con tain oll, Evidently in Russell County where some wells produce from granite, it is full of fissures which are adjacent to an oll-containing source rock. Even more remarkable 1s the occurrence of ol in serpentine, which is a green basaltic igneous rock. Tock produces oll in 8 pools in south-central ‘Texas such as Thrall, Lytton Springs, and Hilbig. OIL IN METAMORPHIC ROCKS, In a few instances ofl has been found in commercial quan- tities in metamorphosed rocks. The Orth pool in Rice County of Kansas produces from quartzite erevices. This quartzite is of pre-Cambrian age. Th pools of the Los Angeles district In California some oil is produced from schist. One of these is, the Playa del Rey pool. Another is the Wilmington pool. The Edison pool in the San Joaquin Valley also produces from schist. Fig. 39. Cross-section through the Bornholdt field. (After Clark, Arnett & Royds in Struct. ‘Typ. Amer. Oil Fields vol. I, page 243)Chapter 11 TIME & PLACE OF ROCK FORMATION Since oll is found in sedimentary rocks, it becomes necessary to consider the places where uch rocks accumulate and under what conditions they are laid down. We shall also find that the yeological history of the time of formation is very fusetnating. AGENTS. The various agencies which move rock particles and deposit them are water, ice, xravity and the wind. The first of these is by far the most important.” River water carries gravel, sand, silt and mud from the mountains at the head to the ocean at its mouth. While the material is in process of being moved, it comes to rest many umes in flood plains, in alluvial fans and in lakes. Eventually the material reaches the sea to form clther a delta or to be transported further by waves and currents, Lake waters accumulate sediments which have pecial chiracteristies. The quiet waters of a lake favor the accumulation of muds and organic mate~ rial, Of course, large lakes resemble oceans in thelr tendency to have extensive beach deposits. "The waters of swamps are also peculiar, inasmuch as they favor the accumulation of organic material derived from reeds and mosses and other water- loving plants. Some mud and silt may be expected to collect with the organic materials. All these continental water deposits are greatly over-shadowed by the deposits made in ocean basins. ICE DEPOSITS. The great glaciers of the mst such as the one whlch covered North America Fig. 40. Map of North America showing the ‘area covered by Pleistocene ice sheets 33 recently, carry boulders, sand silt, and mud. These are carried indiscriminately and deposited when the ice melts. Therefore, ice deposits are likely to be guite heterogeneous. “The great Pleistocene glacier of North America covered nearly all of Canada and much of the United States down to the present Ohio and Missouri Rivers. ‘The ofl flelds of Michigan underlie thick de- posits made by this glacier. In some counties the glacial material is over 1000 feet thick. In Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois, the glacial “drift” is much thinner, but nevertheless, must be penetrated before the drill can enter the oll-bearing rocks below. Fig. 41. Drawing to illustrate the different types of ““dziit"" left by an lee sheet, auch as ground ‘moraine, terminal moraine, outwash and esker. WIND. In regions of deficient rainfall, the wind becomes an important agent of sediment ac~ cumulation. The surface of the earth is exposed to erosion and dry. Therefore, the wind is able to pick up sand grains and silt particles as well as ust ‘These materials are carefully sorted by the wind and deposited in places where the power of the wind (to transport them) is lessened. Charac- teristic deposits are the dunes made largely of sand and the widespread loess deposits made of dust. ‘The states which border the Mississippi River on the west have a more or less continuous cover sheot of loess. Dunes are common in deserts. VOLCANIC DUST, The wind also carries dust blown out of voleanoes to distant places. When Krakatoa erupted in 1883 it provided enough dust to cover a million square kilometers with a thick sheet and to rise high enough into the air so that some dust was carried around the world. Other ‘dust eruptions in many places and at different times in the Earth’s history tave provided thin sheets of volcanic ash between other kinds of rock. Such34 have been found in the oil fields of Wyoming, of western Kansas and in the oll pools of eastern ‘Texas. Under pressure volcanic ash 1s changed to fa sticky clay which has the peculiar property of swelling in water. In geological reports it is often called bentonite. ENVIRONMENTS. The places where sediments fare deposited and where they accumulate in consid- erable thickness are called environments. Nevada at present is characterised by high mountains and deep valleys. The high mountains have been wear- ing down for ages and have furnished boulders, sand, silt and clay. These are washed down into the valleys by streams to form alluvial fans of enor- ‘mous size. The rivers are choked with flood-plain and terrace material of similar nature. In fact the valleys have been filled up in some cases to a depth of thousands of feet with such materials. Small temporary lakes form here and there dur- ing periods of rainfall. These collect the typical sediments due to evaporation and also the fine muds So characteristic of lakes everywhere. ‘During the last 60 million years Wyoming and parts of Utah, western Colorado and southern Mon- tana have been the site of similar accumulations of intermontane detritus. Therefore, the oil fields of those states are covered with rocks which have orig- {nated in a semi-arid, mountain and valley environ- ment, ‘Their aggregate thickness is measured in thousands of feet. ‘OTHER ENVIRONMENTS. It would be possible HISTORICAL GEOLOGY to describe other environments such as the humid low-topography environment; the desert environment; fand the swamp environment. However, these do not ‘constitute an important element in the regions where fil and gas have been found. The possible exception 1s the swamp environment. If this is made to in- clude @ related environment characterised by deltas then it becomes more interesting. For the oil fields of Pennsylvania are largely covered by rocks which ‘were laid down in a mixed delta_and swamp environ~ ment. They are characterised by rapid alternations of sandstones, shales and coals all of which have accumulated under a somewhat peculiar set of con- ditions, ‘The Pennsylvanian coal swamps are further described on page 86. ‘MARINE ENVIRONMENT. The sediments which fare laid down on continents by rivers, by the wind land by glaciers are grouped together under the heading of continental or terrestrial deposits. Here also are included the deposits of fresh water lakes of saline lakes and of fresh water swamps. How- fever, it should be emphasized that all these are quantitatively very subordinate to the sediments Which accumulate in ocean waters. We shall find later that nearly all oll and gas fields are associ- fated with sedimentary rocks laid down in marine water. Therefore, it will be interesting to examine the conditions which surround and produce marine sediments. NATURE OF OCEAN WATER. The waters of the ocean differ from terrestrial waters in some Mouarains IT Fig: Sl. Drawing showing two Cambrian trilo- ‘biles and one brachiopod. s) Olenellus: ») Paradoxides; c) Kutorgina. (After Walcott) Fig. 52. Map to show distribution of tnnd and ‘sea water in North America during Cambrian time. The white areas were occupied by 41 high temperature. Among them granite is conspic~ ‘uous. They may be seen at the surface over most of eastern Canada, Interwoven with them are the metamorphic rocks which are partly older and partly younger than the igneous rocks. Some of these were undoubtedly sedimentary rocks before they were metamorphosed (changed by heat and pressure). In a few places some of the pre-Cambrian Focks have not been greatly altered in this manner. Such places are the Uinta Mountains of Utah and portions of western Montana and eastern Idaho. CAMBRIAN PERIOD. It will be noted that the Paleozoic era which succeeded the pre-Cambrian, has the Cambrian period at the base. This is the oldest set of rocks in which there are numerous fossils by means of which their age can be deter- mined. Fortunately for us the fossils in any given stratum or layer are different than those in a lower or higher layer. The fossils which identify the Cambrian rocks are the trilobites a drawing of which is shown in fig. 51. The trilobites were not only very numerous in Cambrian time, but they also seem to have had 2 world wide distribution ‘Therefore, it is possible to correlate (match up) rocks from one continent to another. To be sure other invertebrate animals like brachiopods and corals were living during Cambrian time, but their value for identification is less positive. To many it may seom remarkable that nearly all plyla of the invertebrates have been found in rocks of this age. CAMBRIAN SEAS. The Cambrian rocks in the United States are perhaps better known than similar rocks in other continents. Therefore, we shall ex- amine them in detail. An examination of the map fig. 52 will reveal the startling fact that rocks of Cambrian age cover almost three fourths of the present area of the United States. ‘The sea in which they were laid down probably came in from the Atlantic, the Pacific and the Arctic about the same time, The ocean waters rose gradually as the sedi- ment from previous times was dumped into the basins. The encroachment of sea water thus was, a very gradual process. During early Cambrian time only the long narrow troughs which have been named the Appalachian geosyncline and the Cordil- eran geosyncline were occupied. Later on the sea ‘Wailer encroached on the central portions of the United States, In upper Cambrian time the ocean ‘waters stretched from Mexico to Canada and from the Atlantic to the Pacific. APPALACHIAN GEOSYNCLINE. One of the most remarkable phenomena of the past history of the Earth is the Appalachian geosyncline. The rec~ ford shows that this portion of the United States extending from Labrador to Alabama and from the Blue Ridge (and Great Smokies) westward to central Ohio was the site of a gradually sinking depression. Tt began sinking in early Cambrian time and did not stop until near the close of the Paleozoic era. ‘The northern end from New York to Labrador has been2 HOW OIL Is FOUND ine ere Fig. 53. Map of the United States to show the present distribution and thickness ‘of Cambrian rocks. ‘A. EARLY PALEOZOIC SEDIMENTATION Fig. 54, Two drawings to show the nature of Paleozoic sedimentation in the Appalachian geosyncline. The numbers on the right in the land mass suggest uplift and erosion of successive sections of rock.HISTORICAL GEOLOGY obscured by later earth movements so that our knowledge of this part is very obscure. However, from New York south to Alabama, the record can be read very easily. Apparently, there was a very high land mass along the eastern side of the sinking trough. Geologists have named it Appalachia. This land furnished gravel, sand, and mud to its streams which dumped their load into the depression. The gravel accumulated near the source at the east, the sand was carried out a short distance and the mud accumulated at points toward the western side, During the long thme involved in Paleozoic history the land of Appalachia was repeatedly worn down almost to its stumps. Each time it was rejuvenated and lifted to great height. With each uplift came a great quantity of coarse material which made a new layer of conglomerate possible, As the land wore down the conglomerate was covered by sand and still later by mud. Thus in any one given locality we get ‘a sequence of conglomerate at the base with a sand- ‘stone zone next above and a shale zone above that. With certain modifications this sequence is repeated. CHANGES IN THICKNESS. Since all the sedi- iments came from streams in the east, the sediments are very thick there and become progressively thin- ner toward the west. ‘The map fig. 53 shows that the Cambrian strata are 20,000 feet thick in eastern ‘Temnessee and well over 10,000 feet thick in adjacent states. The thicknessdecreases rapidly to 3600 feet in western Tennessee. Farther north (in Pennsyl~ vania) the Cambrian is nearly 10,000 feet thick, but decreases to approximately 1000 in the western part ff the same state. It is apparent that the Appalachian geosyncline subsided very rapidly during the Cam- brian period. Similar maps prepared for the other periods of the Paleozoic era show the same tendency of the sediments to become thinner toward the west. ‘The fig. 54 illustrates this phenomenon very well. OIL IN CAMBRIAN ROCKS. Very little oil has been found to date in rocks of Cambrian age ‘and this mostly in the central part of the United States (Kansas, Oklahoma, & Texas). This part of the continent is often spoken of as the FORELAND area because it was far removed from the mountains of that time. SEDIMENTATION ON THE FORELAND. Con- @itions of sedimentation on the foreland area all during Paleozoic time was quite different from that In the geosyncline. Since the continent did not sink very much the thickness of the materials for each period is relatively small. Furthermore, it was far away from the source of clastic fragments and therefore sandstones and shales are rare, The predominant type of rock is calcareous. ‘The upper Cambrian and Ordovician rocks are mostly dolo- mites. There are numerous gaps in the record indicating that the sea withdrew periodically. Stlu~ rian and Devonian rocks are also dolomites and limestones which reveal disconformities (breaks in sedimentation). The Mississippian rocks are pre- dominantly limestones, The Pennsylvanian rocks 43 | |§ 2] scunure FREE | LD Sass ee {5 Fig. 55, Generalized columnar section for the central part of the United States to show the Cambrian and Ordovician Inid down on the FORELAND. (Geol. Survey of Kansas) record changes in sedimentary conditions. Evidently during this period new mountains were being built within the continent and the newly rising land areas contributed much elastic material to the seas over the former foreland areas. Later on we shall see that this situation has had an important bearing on the distribution of oll and gas fields in the mid~ Continent.“ MOUNTAIN BUILDING. During the Paleozoic ‘era there was spasmodic uplift in the land mass of Appalachia as attested by the recurring sequences of coarse clasties. (See fig. 54) No doubt lofty ‘mountains came into existence a number of times. ‘Toward the close of the period and especially during the Pennsylvanian perlod parts of the American con- tinent were lifted up in narrow belts to form moun- tainous tracts, ‘The best evidence for this is found {in southern Oklahoma where the Ouachitas, Arbuckles and other similar small mountain regions came into being. ‘The Arbuckles show by their structure that there’ were two periods of intense deformation of the rocks during the Pennsylvanian period, one in the early part of the period and the other just after the middle part of the period. EVIDENCE. The evidence for mountain build- ing is found in angular unconformities such as the fone shown in fig. 102. It will be noted that the lower rocks are tilted and that the upper rocks: ‘were laid down horizontally on the eroded edges of the lower strata. Inasmuch as the two sets of strata make an angle with each other the uncon- formity is called an angular one. ‘MID-CONTINENT SEDIMENTATION. There is much reason to believe that the mountains were built very rapidly, the land rising speedily to great heights above the sea, While the broken portions of the earth's crust were being elevated, erosion ‘went on producing much gravel and sand for the streams to carry into adjacent parts of the sea. ‘A study of the rocks in southern Oklahoma reveals the presence of thick layers of conglomerate and many layers of sandstone. Farther north, in cen- tral Oklahoma and on into Kansas the Pennsylvanian system shows much shale which is the mud derived from the rising mountains. North central Texas shows the same types of sediment. Not all the clastic material came from the small mountain tracts that arose in the foreland area. No doubt much of it came from the rejuvenated land mass of Lianoria (See fig. 180) which also experienced ‘mountain building spasms at approximately the same time in Barth history. FORMATION OF THE APPALACHIAN MOUN- TAINS. The ridges in western Pennsylvania and Alege Front HOW OIL IS FOUND farther south in West Virginia, Kentucky, Tennessee and Alabama are the stumps of mountains formed toward the close of the Paleozoic era. Unfortu- nately, the evidence for the exact time of mountain building has been largely obscured by erosion in those states. Therefore, some geologists believe that the Appalachian Mountains came into being during or after the Permian period. They rose © APPALACHIAN REVOLUTION Fig. 56. Three cross-sections to show the evo- lution of the Appalachian Mountains. In C the rocks were bent and broken. In D they were ‘eroded down to a peneplain. In E renewed uplift has allowed streams to carve out ridges from the folded sandstones. quickly, and were eroded almost as fast as the folds came up. By the end of the Mesozoic era the mountains had been eroded down to a nearly flat, featureless plain. Then came renewed uplift whieh lifted the whole eastern seaboard of the United States about 2000 feet, New stream erosion cut channels and produced the long narrow ridges of sandstone which are today called the Appalachian Mountains. In fig. 57 an attempt is made to show the arrangement of the Paleozoic strata as they appear today. It is impossible to show all the wrinkles in | the Appalachians in a diagram which is only 8 inches long. Therefore, the steep folds in the Appalachian Fig. 57, Ideslized diagram to show the present attitude of strata from the “Atlantic Ocean to western Ohio.HISTORICAL GEOLOGY 48 AT KER Fig. 58. Map of the eastern part of the United States to show the configuration of the Innd. (Prepared by A. K. Lodeck)46 HOW OIL IS FOUND Fig. 59. Map of the world to show t wn of land and water in Permian time. 14 cross-section from the Guadelupe Mts. to the ‘Note the great thickness of the Permian and the 1d Arch in north-central Texas. 1e of the Castile evaporites.HISTORICAL GEOLOGY a FOLDED APPALACHIANS are generalized. A trav ler who joumeys from Harrisburg in southeastern Pennsylvania would see the strongly (See 87a fig.) folded rocks as far west as Altoona. ‘There he would note a sudden difference. Westward from ‘Altoona the rocks are folded into very gentle arches and downwarps. The general nature of the topog~ raphy from Altoona westward into eastern Ohio might be called mountainous by the layman because of the deep stream valleys and the high ridges be~ tween the streams. ‘This region 1s called the Alle- gheny Plateau region by geologists. ‘The contrast {s very well brought out in fig. 58 where the folded ‘Appalachians appear to oceupy a depression be~ tween the Blue Ridge mountains on the east and the apparent cliff at the eastern edge of the pla~ teaus. On this map the city of Harrisburg is in- dicated with an Hand the elty of Altoona with an ‘A. Note that the folded Appalachians are wider between these two cities than they are to the south. On this map the stumps of the folded rocks are Indicated as long narrow ridges extending down {nto Alabama. ‘The high mountainous area in the Carolinas is the Great Smoky region. It forms 2 natural continuation of the Blue Ridge. Both may be considered remnants of the former land mass of Appalachia, END OF THE PALEOZOIC. Thus the end of the era is marked by vast revolutionary move- ments in the Earth’s crust, For the Appalachian Mountains and those of southern Oklahoma were rot the only mountains built at the time. Similar ranges were created in Burope and other continents. Such remarlable changes in the configuration of the surface of the Earth allow us to delimit eras from each other, Periods, on the other hand are usually marked off from each other by the invasion of sea water onto the continent and its retreat at the end at a period (using the word in a technical sense). Jn general we expect the middle of a given period, ike the Silurian for instance, to show the greatest amount of water on the continent, This is not always the case, The Cambrian is a prominent exception. During that period the seas reached their greatest extent during the last third of the period (upper Cambrian). Furthermore, the retreat fof the ocean water was not very complete at the | fend of the Cambrian and in many parts of the United States we find clear evidence of continuous sedimen- tation into Ordovician time. ‘The breaks between periods became more marked after the end of the Ordovician period. PERMIAN PERIOD. The last period in the Paleozoic era is the Permian period. It shows many unique features which set if off from the preceeding ones. In many ways it is a transitio ary time in the history of the Earth. For one thing the climate changed radically so that the rocks show evidence of widespread aridity. This is proved not only by the red color of the rocks, but also by the numerous intercalations of salt beds and anhy- rite beds in many parts of the country. They are prominent in Kansas, Oklahoma and western Texas. In the last named state evaporite rocks are thov- sands of feet thick. (See fig. 60) RESTRICTION OF THE SEAS, Another prom- nent feature of Permian time is the definite re- strictions of the ocean water on the North American continent as shown in fig. 61. With the building of ‘mountain ranges on the edges of the continent, the oceans were forced to withdraw to the low interior of the country where they slowly turned into evap- rating lakes. Nevertheless, the waters remained there long enough to allow many hundreds of feet of red silstones, greenish shales and some red sandstones to accumulate. The ocean waters with- drew toward the south as is indicated by the greater thicknesses in Texas and also by the presense of thick bodies of ealeareous rocks there. THE MESOZOIC ERA. The early rocks of the Mesozoic era resemble those of the Permian very. closely. In fact, it has been very difficult for geologists to draw the line between them in the Unites States. This is partly due to the scarcity of fossils. The environment of drying-up lakes of vast extent is not a favorable habitat for living creatures. Hence fossils are extremely uncommon in Permian rocks and the early Triassic rocks. ‘TRIASSIC SEAS. The ocean waters of Triassic time entered the United States from the Pacific side. In Nevada and western Utah good sequences fof marine rocks have been found containing typical fossils comparable to those found elsewhere in the world. The seas did not penetrate into eastern ‘Wyoming, Colorado, New Mexico or western Texas. In those states Triassic rocks are all continental or terrestrial. ‘There are present great thick- nesses of desert deposits in the form of red silt- stones and varicolored clays. Only the presence of very thin tongues of marine rocks enables the geologist to date these rocks as Triassic. The eastern half of the United States was land during the whole Triassic period with the exception of very narrow troughs along the Atlantic seaboard (Newark series). JURASSIC SEAS. The ocean water was able to invade the North American continent more ex- tensively during Jurassic time. This time the in- vasion was from the north, from the Arctic Ocean across western Canada. Considerable parts of Mon- tana, Wyoming, Colorado and eastern Utah were covered by shallow seas in which thin limestones and shales were laid down. The fossils which iden- tify these rocks are the ancestors of the chambered nautilus. (See fig. 62) This sea was hemmed in by a large land mass which stood where the states of Nevada and Idaho now Hie. On the Pacific side of the land mass there appears to have been an- other inland sea which allowed great thicknesses of rock to be laid down in parts of California and western Nevada as well as western Oregon and ‘Washington,HISTORICAL GEOLOGY JURASSIC DESERTS. In parts of NewMexico, Arizona southwestern Colorado and southeastern Utah there were great deserts during Jurassic time. ‘The sand dunes which were formed there were later cemented into hard sandstone layers which now constitute some of the magnificent scenery of the southwest. Their sand dune origin is indicated by cross-bedding and by the roundness of the sand grains. The general absence of fossils also helps to corroborate the assumption. The best place to ‘see these sandstones is in the Zion National Park. OIL IN JURASSIC ROCKS. ‘The desert sand- stones have been traced from New Mexico across Fig. 62. Drawing of a Cepha- opod, typical Fosail of the Mesozoic era. When the ‘outer shell is removed the complicated suture Iines become visible. western Colorado into Wyoming where they are thinner and possibly represent in part water laid ‘material, At any rate considerable oil has been found in them (Nugget & Sundance sands) in parts of Wyoming and northwestern Colorado. CRETACEOUS SEAS. During the Cretaceous period came the last widespread invasion of ocean ‘waters. ‘The Arctic ocean came down from the north across Alberta into Montana and eventually spread across Wyoming, Colorado, New Mexico and then connected with the Atlantic Ocean across Mex- ico. This interior sea was separated from a sim- lar sea which came in from the Pacific and spread across California, Oregon and Washington, by a high land mass. (See fig. 64) The land mass was rising and furnished a prodigious amount of coarse sediment. This accumulated in a sinking depres- sion called the Cretaceous geosyncline. Apparently, this geosyncline sank rapidly, for at some places, CRETACEOUS! ‘WORLD. 49 ike south-central Wyoming, no less than 17,000 feet of clastic sediments accumulated. Here again we also note that the coarse material was laid down near the source and that the finer material was carried farther east. The fig. 65 shows many tongues of sandstone which form a nearly contin- ‘uous sequence in the far west, but merge into shales toward the east, In fact it will be noted that there fare some thin layers of chalk in Kansas and Ne~ braska, where the seas were clear enough to col- ect Ly sediment. (Ft, Hays chalk and Greenhorn limestone) THE ATLANTIC & GULF COAST. On the map fig. 64 it will be noted that the Atlantic Ocean spilled over considerable portions of the coastal area from New Jersey south to Florida and then westward into Texas. This part of the submerged continent received sediments with a small thick~ ness at the north and a far greater thickness at the south. A thickness of 3000 feet in southern Alabama and in southern Texas implies that the land was sinking about as fast as sediments were laid down. KIND OF ROCK. The materials which make up the Cretaceous along the Gulf Coast are mostly clastic. Shales predominate. but as usual sand~ stones are nearly everywhere present at the base. ‘There are some interesting layers of chalk inter- bedded with the clastic rocks. Considerable oil is, stored in Cretaceous rocks in Mississippi, northern Louisiana and eastern Texas. Where these rocks Ue within drilling depth, they have been pretty well exploited. But to the south, where they lie at depths of more than 15,000 feet possible oil deposits have not yet been disturbed. CLOSE OF THE CRETACEOUS. The end of the Cretaceous period is marked by revolutionary ‘events. Apparently, the Earth had reached another fone of its periodic convulsion spells. Certain por- tions were wrinkled on a gigantic scale forming long zores of mountains, Because of the fact that this time of convulsion produced the Rocky Moun tains of western United States, it is often referred to as the Rocky Mountain revolution. Perhaps, it Fig. 63 ‘water in Cretaceous time. Map of the world to show the distribution of land and ‘The land areas are stippled.50 HOW OIL 15 FOUND ERETACEOUS SYSTEM |. Map of the United States to show the present distribution of Cretaceous rocks.HISTORICAL GEOLOGY rote Section 6-6" Fig. 65. Cross-section from west to east to show the change in thickness of Mesozoic rocks. (After Bartram) ‘would be well to point out that mountains are built in spasms and that the growth is interrupted, ex- tending over a long time range. In thé case of the Rocky Mountains, we have proof that the mountain ‘building forces began to distort the strata long be- fore the end of the Cretaceous period, Certainly ‘the land mass which lay west of the Cretaceous geosyncline was affected spasmodically from the very beginning of the Cretaceous. Otherwise it ‘would be difficult to account for the truly enormous quantities of sand gravel and mud which were shed by them. Thus we can visualize a tall range of mountains extending through extreme western Mon~ tana and eastern Idaho down into western Utah which continued to be the supply source for sediments during all of Cretaceous time. These mountains were reduced to mere stumps by the end of Cre~ taceous tim ‘THE ROCKIES. The true Rocky Mountains of today occupy a site which lies well within the geo- syneline of the Cretaceous time. They stretch from Canada through western Montana into Wyoming down trough central Colorado into New Mexico. These particular mountain ranges began to form after the ‘middle of the period and were well in evidence at the time of the close. In fact, they were so far advanced that they literally drove the ocean waters off the continent by displacing them. CONTINUED GROWTH. ‘The rocks of the next cera called the Cenozoic testify to the fact that the Rocky Mountain units kept on growing spasmodically for millions of years after the close of the Creta~ ‘ceous period. Such units as the Bighorn Range, in north central Wyoming; and the Wind River range, in the western part of the same state, are surrounded by debris from the rising land, ‘In fact all the Rocky Mountain states as well as the Great Plains aL Fig. 66. Six drawings to show the building of the Colorado Rockies. Note the successive sheets of detritus on the eastern side which Constitute the TERTIARY rocks. ‘which He to their east, are covered with the detritus that was carried by raging rivers from the slowly rising mountain units. ‘CENOZOIC ROCKS. This material is collec- tively called the Tertiary system and constitutes the early deposition record of the Cenozoic era. It will be noted from table IV that the Tertiary system has been subdivided into Paleocene, Eocene, Oligocene, Miocene and Pliocene. The origin of these names is interesting. A French geologist studied the molluses which he found in the centralHOW OIL IS FOUND Fig, 68. Map of the mountains and basins in Wyoming and adjacent states, (After Fenneman)83 HISTORICAL GEOLOGY sraang TaNOBSTHE 9 OF FUTPIE OID oy OO PEE ETI WOKE ew PUP “HIN HOH Bra OH seorse fo wyseq ULouste aus Jo pre Wom uy Yo BUTEA Apex woss UONDeS-s502 “69 “Ps54 part of his country, They occur in layers which presently are arranged like a set of saucers, one fon top of the other and each a little smaller’ than the one beneath. By careful procedures, he was able to prove that the oldest layers contain only a few of the motluses which live in modern seas. He took the Greek word for dawn and attached it to the Greek word for recest to make the word Bocene. Higher up in the sequence he found that certain layers contain less than half of the modern species of molluscs and therefore selected the mio which means less than to make the word Miocene. Still higher he found that the strata contained more ‘than half of the modern species and so selected the Greck word Plio to make the name Pliocene. The other names Oligocene and Paleocene were added at later dates by other geologists. (Oligo means few and paleo means ancient) ‘TERTIARY ROCKS, In the United States Ter- tlary rocks are found in large areas throughout the western states. In a general way they may be thought of as filling the basins between the moun- tains, Such famillar names as the Powder River basin and the Bighorn Basin in Wyoming will sug- gest the type of filling. The Bighorn Basin lies in the northwestern part of Wyoming and seems to ‘contain more than 10,000 feet of Tertiary sediments im its deepest part. When examined closely this sediment proves to be mostly consolidated mud with many colors among which red is prominent. ‘The typical TYPICAL TERTIARY BASIN. HOW OIL 1S FOUND basin which contains Tertiary sediments would have coarse material such as fanglomerates around the periphery and mostly clays in the main part of the basin. Imagine streams descending from rather ‘high mountains surrounding the basin. These carry gravel sand, silt, and mud particles. As they de- ‘Sscend to the flat part of the basin they deposit their load as dry-land-deltas or pledmont-slope deposits. The gravels and sands are dropped rather close to the mountains in steeply inclined layers, ‘The silts and muds are carried outward and into the basin by sluggish streams. Furthermore the streams are subject to floods and dry periods. ‘Therefore, they move the material often and a little at a time. Eventually it becomes pretty well spread out over the basin. As the basin rises there are times when lakes exist near the center. ‘These sort out the silt and mud so that they are pretty well stratified. A vertical bore hole in a basin near the center would probably reveal mostly clays and silts in very thin layers (annual layers?). A deep bore hole near the edges of the basin would reveal a much greater variety. There we would expect to find alternations of sandy layers with silty ones and possibly an occasional tongue of gravel. The fig. 69 shows two basins which have been filled in this manner. GREAT PLAINS. The mountain ranges of Colorado and southeastern Wyoming shed some of their detritus eastward into the states of Nebraska and Kansas. Hence there is a veneer of Tertiary Fig. 70. Geologic map of the United States, Quaternary rocks. ‘The stippled pattern shows the Tertiary anu Horizontal lines - Mesozoic; Diagonal lines - Paleozic. (A. K. Lobeck)HISTORICAL GEOLOGY 55 Fig. 71. Generalized set of drawings to show the geological history of Califo! fand parts of adjacent Nevada ‘material present in these states which needs to be | clays with many intercalations of sands and gravels penetrated before the older rocks are reached by | laid down in rivers which shifted their channel the drill, Near the mountains this material is | frequently. The Great Plains extend north into the very coarse and consists of conglomerates, arkoses | Dakotas and southward into Oklahoma, Texas and fand similar rocks, but farther east it consists of | eastern New Mexico. Consequently, a map of the56 United States showing the distribution of rocks by ages with colors, will show Tertiary rocks present halfway to the Mississippi River. ‘They form a wedge which is thick at the west and gradually gets thinner toward the east. All subdivisions from Eocene to Pliocene are represented. TERTIARY OF CALIFORNIA. In California practically all the oll presently exploited comes from Tertiary rocks. It was laid down in long narrow troughs bounded by breaks (faults) in the Earth’s crust. Each block collected a slightly dif- ferent assortment of sediments, This is due to the fact that the individual blocks moved independ- ently of each other. While some were moving down to receive more sediment, others remained stationary and did not receive sediment. Further- more, the crust was subject to constant disturbances ranging from minute to gigantic proportions. This resulted in the bending and breaking of recently accumulated strata. The final result has been a very confusing set of conditions. Toward the latter part of the Tertiary period the great San Joaquin valley became the site of more nearly uniform sedimentation somewhat resembling the basins in ‘Wyoming. KIND OF ROCK. ‘The kind of rock found in the Tertiary of California is varied, although near- ly 100 per cent consists of clastic materials. Lay- of sandstone are very abundant, but they vary ‘At Ventura they measure | | HOW OIL Is FOUND Fig. 72, Three dingrams to show the predominant fault structure of California. (After Bruce Clark) Pues Foceme Puocene- BEENE OLtsoceNE EOCENE coneraceous sunassic GENERALIZED CROSS SECTION Twrovan EASTERN LOUISIANA Fig. 73. Generalized cross-section through eastern Louisiana from north to south. (Ben Carsey in A.A.P.G. Bull. vol. 34, Mareh 1950)RISTORICAL GEOLOGY MNALL AOL ELE, o) ALLELE LD GSGLEOLL. z ‘SECTION ALONG LINE A-B ees Fig. 74. Geologic map of the Black Hil The underground attitude of the st: \é some of the surrounding territory. (After N. H. Darton) shown in the cross-section along the line A nearly 10,000 feet in thickness. In some of the oil fields of the Los Angeles basin they measure thousands of feet with but few thin shale breaks. ‘These sandstone layers are extremely lenticular sine they form parts of lens shaped masses. grade horizontally into thick shale bodies. In some localities the shales are made up the comminuted fragments of countless diatoms. (See fig. 120) When ‘examined under a very high power of a microscope the diatoms resemble tiny capsules, something like 8158 HOW OIL, IS FOUND two interlocking saucers. They are the envelopes which sheltered one-celied plants. Years ago, it ‘was commonly held that these tiny plants were the original source of the oil found in California. To- day this opinion has been rather generally dis- carded as unlikely. ‘MOUNTAIN BUILDING IN CALIFORNIA. The revolutions which began during late Cretaceous time in the Rocky Mountain area and continued until well into the Tertiary, are also manifest in Cali- fornia, However, there the convulsions continued much longer. According to Reed? who has described the rocks of California at length, the deformative movements reached a climax during the Miocene ‘epoch, ‘There were strong mountain building move- ments between lower and middle Miocene deposi- tion, ‘These disturbances were profound, widespread ‘and complex. At the end of the Miocene they were repeated ona less spectacular scale. Many areas ‘which had been lifted up remained above the level ‘of deposition so that Pliocene rocks do not have the same distribution as those of earlier epochs. PLEISTOCENE DISTURBANCE. That these disturbances did not end with the Tertiary is proved by the finding of a most interesting angular uncon- formity along the seaward margin of the Los Angeles basin. It occurs between the Lower San Pedro beds of middle Pleistocene age and the Upper San Pedro beds which are of upper Pleistocene age. Indeed, the fact that earthquakes are still occur- | ring with regularity proves that movements are still going on even at present. TERTIARY OF THE GULF COAST. Another place where most oil so far found has been derived from Tertiary rocks is the Gulf Coast region in- volving ‘Texas, Louisiana and Mississippi. ‘The rocks of this region were partly described on page 21, ‘They are almost all clastic in origin, Sand- Stones alternate with shales and clays. Again it must be emphasized that the sandstones are lenses ‘and do not have great horizontal extent. The rocks fare partly marine and interfinger in a most con- fusing manner with non-marine sediments. The outstanding impression one gets from a close study fof the sedimentary sequence is that delta deposits ‘make up the great bulk of the material. The thick- FEU AAPG, vol. 20, p. 1582 tf,, 1936 ness is slight in the north, but rapidly increases toward the south until drilling depths of over 15,000 feet have failed to penetrate the Miocene rocks. Eventually, the greatest thicknesses will be found along the axis of the Mississipp! delta. SALT DOMES. One of the most fascinating phenomena connected with the finding of ofl, is the presence of tall pencils of salt in the Tertiary Strata, ‘They evidently came up from great depths ‘and literally punched their way upward through the Sediments. The fig. 73 shows that they probably ‘were derived from the layers of salt in the Eagle Mills formation. GEOLOGIC MAPS. In the study of ofl depos- its, the use of geologic maps becomes all impor- tant. Among such maps there are many kinds. The most common type is the areal map which shows the age of the rock in a given area, Fig. 74 is a very good example of such a It shows the central core of the Black Hills composed of pre-Cambrian rocks. Rocks of many later ages are present on the flanks of the Black Hills and on the lower lands away from the Hills. DISTRIBUTION PATTERN. It will also be noted that the pattern of distribution tells something about the geological history of such a region. Evi- dently, the pre-Cambrian rocks were present as the foundation stone on which all younger rocks were laid down, The first deposit was a sandstone called the Deadwood and of Cambrian age. Sub- sequently, rocks of Ordovician, Mississippian and Pennsylvanian age were laid down without any dis- turbance, It will be noted that no Silurian or De~ vonian rocks were accumulated here. The region therefore, must have been up above ocean waters during those two periods. Of course, there is also the possibility that rocks of those ages were d posited and then eroded away completely before Mississippian seas invaded the region. The early Mesozoic is represented by Triassic and Jurassic sediments. The Dakota at the base of the thick Cretaceous system is separately shown, on account of its great economic importance. In late Creta~ ceous time or early in the Tertiary, the Black Hills were lifted up producing the arching of the strata so well shown in the cross-section,Chapter 1V THAT MAGIC WORD STRUCTURE ‘The first well in the famous Cushing field of ‘Oklahoma was drilled by C. B. Shaffer on the Wheeler farm. It was drilled purely at random, but later drilling proved that an anticline is present in this, part of the state. In fact it is one of the large antlelines on which ofl and gas have been found. ‘The discovery that the rocks are arched in the shape of an upfold in the Earth’s crust created quite a sensation. Therefore, the word anticline took on a sort of magic meaning. Oil operators began to look around for men with geological training who could find other anticlines or at least to find favorable “structure”. By the word structure the geologist means any large seale arrangement of the rocks. Normally the sedimentary rocks are laid down in horizontal beds. ‘This is quite natural when one considers the origin of sedimentary rocks. They are all composed of tiny particles which were transported.as sediments in water, wind or in ice, ‘The particles carried by Fig. 76. Drawing of an anticline. ‘water tend to fall from suspension and arrange them- selves in neat layers at the bottom of the basin of deposition. Only rarely do they accumulate on a slope. ‘CAUSES OF ROCK DISTURBANCE. After rocks. have accumulated they may continue to lie ina per- fectly horizontal position for many millions of years. However, it is readily understandable that some dis- turbanees are likely in such a long period of tim ‘Tho tides are constantly tugging at the Earth's crust. ‘They succeed in raising the level of the ocean a perceptible amount. They also affect the hard crust of the Earth daily. The cumulative affect of this daily rising and sinking has never been evaluated. EARTH SHRINKING. The Earth was probably much hotter at one time than it is now. A gradual loss of heat is likely to result in a shrinkage of the ‘central portion which is still very hot. The outer cold crust, perhaps 20 miles thick must adjust itself to this interior loss of space and therefore has a tend- ency to wrinkle and break. ‘The wrinkles become the anticlines and the synclines, the upwarps and the downwarps of the sedimentary rocks. In the Appalachian Mountain region such anticlines can be studied conveniently. They form long narrow trends sometimes 50 miles long similar to the fig. 77. ‘After the arching has taken place erosion cuts down the elevated rock masses to a nearby flat surface. ‘No doubt uparching and erosion go on simultaneously. HIGH ARCHES AND LOW ARCHES. The heights of anticlines may be very great as in the Appala- cchian Mountains or relatively low as in many parts fof the continental interior. Where mountains have Fig. 71, Crous-section of Tussey Mountain anticline showing surface arrangement of strata and underground appearance. (A. K. Lobeck) 50Cy been bullt inthe past one should expect rather high anticlines. In the western mountain regions such a those of Wyoming, anticlines are quite high and often show a difference of thousands of feet. Ex- amples are the Bighora Range in north-central Wyoming, and the Black Hills in western South Dakota. ‘These are truly giants. Smaller and lower anticlines are found between them, Examples are the Salt Creck anticline east of the Bighorn Moun- tains and the Elk Basin anticline west of them, (see page 8) SUBDUED ANTICLINES. In the great mid- continent oil region of Kansas, Oklahoma and Texas, there are many anticlines which are comparatively low and subdued. Examples are the Cushing anti- cline in northeastern Oklahoma, the Garber anti- line farther west, the Fairport anticline in west~ central Kansas and the El Dorado anticline in eastern Kansas. Hundreds of other oil-bearing anticlines are now known. PARTS OF THE ANTICLINE, Inasmuch as anticlines are so important in connection with the Storage of oll, it will be desirable to examine its parts, s0 that we can describe them in detail. ‘The {wo sides ofthe anticline are called the limbs. "They incline away from the axis and this inclination is | called the dip. The axis rarely remains horizontal | like the peaked roof of a house. Usually it falls to | a lower level and eventually disappears in horizontal strata, This inclination ‘of the axis of a fold is called the pitch or plunge, Normally, an anticline Should have a pitch in both directions. | Fig. 78, anticlines and synclines as well as some of the terms used with reference to them. (After Bailey Willis) Two drawings to show the neture of ERODED ANTICLINES. Fig. 77 is a drawing of an eroded anticline in which the layers of sand- stone “crop out” on the surface of the Earth. A HOW OIL 18 FOUND trained geologist can follow such outcrops of sand~ stone and determine the dip at each point where sufficient rock erops out at the surface. Perhaps the best place in the world to see many such eroded anticlines is in Wyoming, because there surface veg ttation is sparse and the rocks can be readily seen and followed. In case the rock exposure is incom- plete, the geologist relies on the strike of the stratum. ‘This word comes {rom the fact that the layer strikes the surface in a certain compass direction. It would bbe inaccurate to measure the direction of surface outerop, because of surface irregularities. There- fore, the geologist selects an imaginary horizontal plane and measures the intersection of the top or bottom of the layer with this imaginary plane. DIP AND STRIKE. The terms dip and strike therefore, have great significance in geological ex- ploration for oll. Before an oil field is found or before the first location is made it becomes neces- sary to make a very precise dip and strike map provided, of course, that the surface rocks permit this. Pleld measurements prove that the strike is always at right angles to the dip so that one or the other is sufficient at a given place. The dip is the Inclination of the top surface of a layer of rock as ‘compared to an imaginary horizontal plane. Strike fon the other hand is the compass direction which the same top (or bottom) surface makes as it inter- sects the same imaginary plane. FINDING ANTICLINES. After the Cushing field was found geologists remembered having seen many anticlines in Wyoming and parts of adjacent states. Therefore, during 1919 most of these were carefully mapped and some of them were tested for oil. Much of the mapping was done with a Brunton ‘compass or some other type of compass by walking along the outcropping layers of rock. The sand- stones were found better than the shales, because they are thinner and usually somewhat more re- sistant to erosion. Fig. 79. Drawing to illustrate meaning of DIP and STRIKE.STRUCTURE a ‘The search for oil in Kansas and Oklahoma demanded a somewhat more refined technique. ‘There the layers of rock are not so conspicuous. Further= more, the subdued nature of the anticlines made them more elusive. Geologists therefore, used sur- veying instruments in their work. One engineering firm invented a simple alidade and plane table outiit, which proved very effective for those states. By 1915 oil companies had roving bands of geologists searching eastern Kansas and central Oklahoma. During the next 10 years these geologists discovered ‘and mapped every anticline which could be detected bby surface outcrops. They used layers of limestone rather than sandstone for several reasons. First of all, the layers of limestone are likely to have the same thickness for many miles. Secondly, they lie at relatively fixed distances above or be- low other limestones in the sequence. It often be~ came necessary to use two or more limestones in mapping a ‘'structure”” and therefore, it was es~ sential to know the interval between them. (This interval 1s generally composed of shale which makes poor outcrops). In Oklahoma, the geologists found that the limestones so useful in Kansas are gradu~ ally replaced by shales toward the south and even- tually by sandstones. For that reason, they had to rely more often on sandstones. Inasmuch as sand~ stones are notoriously lenticular, the mapping proved to be less reliable. CENTRAL KANSAS, In central Kansas the rocks at the surface are mostly shales or other types of rock which are not adapted to surface mapping. Someone thought of drilling shallow bore holes down to one of the limestones and using the data derived from these holes. The attitude of the critical limestone was plotted on maps and con~ tours were drawn to show lines of equal elevation. ‘This technique called ‘core drilling” is still in CONTOUR MAPS, For many years the United States Topographic Survey has been making maps to show the surface of the Earth, the hills and valleys. ‘The surveyor who does the field work determines as many points as necessary to serve as “control” and then he draws in the lines of ‘equal elevation by inspection and observation. Lines ‘which connect all points of equal elevation are called contour lines, A sample is shown in fig. 80. On each map the vertical distance between contour lines is stated and this 1s called the contour interval. CONTOUR INTERVALS, The vertical distance between contour lines varies considerably on the ‘many maps which have now been published by the United States Survey. In hilly land the interval is larger than on flat land, In mountainous country the interval may be as lange as 200 feet. By con~ trast, the common interval on relatively flat land is 10 feet or 20 feet CONTOUR PATTERNS. It will be noted by Inspecting contour maps that hills are represented by nearly circular contour lines which become smaller / < conrour Fig. 80, Typical contour map and details of its construction. (Alter A. K. Lobeck from Geomorphology. Published with permission ‘of John Wiley & Sons.) toward the center. River valleys show up char- acteristically by contour lines which make a V~ ‘shape pointing upstream. Gentle slopes are marked by contour lines spread apart and steep slopes are ‘marked by contour lines close together. In a clit there may be a piling up of contour lines. A special symbol is used to denote a depression in the land. ‘There the contour lines are also likely to be nearly cireular, To prevent these from being mistaken for hills, the inner lines are provided with short “hachure lines’ (see fig. 800) STRUCTURE CONTOURS. The lines drawn to show structure are exactly like those for relief (or topography). Each line represents the present clevation above sea level of a given reference zone. ‘This may be the top of a limestone or the base of a Himestone or it may be drawn on any other con- venient level which originally was a horizontal plane (or nearly so). Some contour maps show the atti~ tude of the sedimentary rocks in a given area as they appear on the surface. These are called sur- face structure maps, Others may show the attitude of a given layer as it was found by core drilling under ground, Still others show the attitude of a rather deep layer which was found by drilling deep test holes. Maps of this type are called sub-surface maps. IMPORTANCE OF SEA LEVEL. In order to have good reference plane for contour maps it is common practise to use the elevation above or below the sea, In surface mapping, it is possible to secure from the Goverament precise elevations at stated points called bench marks. Very often railroadsa HOW OIL IS FOUND Fig, 80a, Map showing points at whieh ‘levation was determined, have determined the elevation of places along their tracks and these can be used as starting points. Of course, for small areas any arbitrary number can be used as a starting elevation, just as long fas this number is used as a reference number for all other points on the same map. For sub-surface maps it is almost universally necessary to use the plane of sea level. When a well is drilled to 3000 feet to reach a certain sandstone top then the depth of the hole at this point is subtracted from the elevation at the top of the hole. Supposing the top of the sandstone to lie at 3000 feet and the elevation to be 2000 feet, then 2000 subtracted from 3000 would mean that the Sandstone top lies at a depth Fig. 80b. Map with contour lines drawn through the elevation points shown on fig. 80a of minus 1000 feet. Therefore, 1 happens that sub- Surface maps usually have minis numbers. Care Should be exercised in reading Buch & map az the Mills {or igh places will have mumbers opposite to those sopiying to numbers above gea level. A contour ‘mam Tred inus 1400 and surrounded by others. which Take paraile clrles to minus 1470 will indicate that f'dome or anticline is present. (ave fig. 61) MINDS OF ANTICLINES. The Kinds of anti- clines are unlimited, Every one will have a eon four map different from every other one, Never~ thoteger they may grouped info convenient classes. Many aillelines are symmetrical, This means that the aips_on beth limbs Wanks) are nearly equal. Most antlelines are unsymmetrical ‘whieh means a 6) | ‘Section Boe Fig. 81. Contour map of a symmetrical anticline with cross-section of same. Section A Fig. 82, Contour map of ep unsymmetrical ‘anticline with cross-section of same.STRUCTURE that the dips on the flank are not equal. The dip fon the one flank may be steep (say on the order of "10 degrees) while the dip on the opposite flank may bbe gentle, (say on the order of 18 degrees). All sorts of variations from these numbers may be envisioned. Another method of stating the dip on the flanks is in feet per mile. Take a ruler and measure the horizontal distance from the lowest closing contour to the highest (or the axis) and then subtract the lowest contour number from the highest. ‘This will give the mimber of feet drop in ‘that unit distance. In this connection it is handy to remember that one degree is approximately equal to 90 feet per mile. In actual practise, it will be found that the dip on the flank of an anticline varies across the slope, but an average can be determined. EXAMPLES. The examples of anticlines which contain oil are numbered by the thousands. They are found at their best in Wyoming. In California the — Drawing of a synctine. Los Angeles basin has 83 oil fields which have pro- duced over 3 billion barrels of oll. Every one of these with the possible exception of Whittier is an anticline. Turning to foreign fields, we find that the fields of the Middle East, which promise to eclipse anything found elsewhere, are all on anticlines. ANTICLINAL THEORY. With this evidence at hand the reader may wonder why the oil man waited from 1859 to 1912 to search for anticlines. ‘Then when we are told that T. Sterry Hunt con- nected anticlines with oll occurence as early as 1861 and 1. C. White went to great lengths to ex- plain the relation between anticlines and oil occur- Fence in 1885, our wonder increases. Actually, of course, a few geologists were searching for anti- lines long before 1912, SYNCLINES. ‘The opposite of an anticline is the syncline. I is the term used for a down warping in the rocks of the Earth's erust (see fig, 64). Inasmuch as ofl and gas tend to travel up dip through the minute pores in the rocks, synclines are likely to be barren. ‘The same terms for parts of a syn~ cline are used as for anticlines. Thus we have pitehing synelines, shallow synelines, broad syn- lines, large and small synclines. A map of any region is likely to show both types of warping ad- Jacent to each other. OI. IN SYNCLINES. Occasionally, oll has been found in synclines. In such cases it is cus~ tomary to look into the porosities and permeabilities of the rocks which carry the fluids, Then it is found that the synclinal structure is merely inci- dental and that the oil was trapped by reservoir characteristics and not by the structure, Examples Fig. 84. Drawing of one of the synclines in the Appalachian Mountain sandstone layers produce the RIDGES which meke the mountains. Note how the resistant (A.K. Lobeck)4 HOW OIL 18 FOUND 1 2 3 2 t ' 2 3 2it b, + be 4 35 35° 20° 50° MAP MAP 1 2 3 2 1 I 2 3 2/i STRUCTURE SECTION STRUCTURE SECTION Fig. 85. Two drawings to show how three layers of rock on the surface (with No. 3 as the youngest) indicate ‘a cyneline. Dip and strike are indicated by an arrow and a bar. The degree of dip is also indicated. are known from the states of Pennsylvania, West Virginia and Kentucky to mention only a few. ‘MONOCLINES. The strata which were laid down in a horizontal position have often been tilted ‘and now show a dip only in one direction. By some geologists this attitude is called a homocline, but by most geologists it is called a monocline. When the reader begins to examine the literature, he will {ind that the word monoeline is rather loosely used. Most often it refers to a rather large area like Kansas where the prevailing dip is toward the west. (Prairie Plains Monocline). ‘The fact that the dip is often interrupted, does not alter the fact that the main structure is the monocline. This empha- sises the fact that monoclines can be very large ‘and that they also can be quite small. Within the area of one pool, we may have a monoclinal structure. (see fig. 86) HOMOCLINE MONOGLINE Fig, 86. Drawings to illustrate difference between & HOMOCLINE and a MONOCLINE. OIL IN MONOCLINES. Much oil has been trapped on monoclines. Examples may be found in the San Joaquin Valley of California especially along the extreme western side and on the whole eastern side, In the Rocky Mountain states the oil on the eastern side of the Powder River Basin is almost entirely related to monoclines. Here again, it will ‘be found that subsidiary conditions within the res- ervoir rock are the controlling elements in the ac- cumulation of the oil. The oil naturally migrates up-dip, When the sand becomes too thin or when it changes to shale or silt, migration is retarded ‘and the ofl becomes trapped. In California some pools are due to the fact that the oll leaked out at the outerop and formed an asphalt seal there pre- venting further escape of fluids. A large gas field which Hes on a monocline is the Clinton pool of central Ohio. Another gas field which is monoclinal 4s the Hugoton field of southwestern Kansas. DOMES, In rare cases the contour lines on fa structure are nearly circular, with the highest elevation in the center. Such a structure is spoken fof as a dome. In general, it might be wise to re- strict the name dome to special type of anticline in which the dips are nearly equal on all sides. ‘The best examples of domes are to be found in southern Louisiana and eastern Texas along the Gulf Coast, There salt has come up trom great depth, pushing up some of the overlying strata into the form of a dome, (sce fig. 87). Elsewhere true domes are rare, The salt domes have produced a prodigious amount of oil. They have also been found in other parts of the world, notably in north- ern Germany and in the Isthmus district of Mexico. NOSE. When contour maps of structure are ‘examined it will be found that the contours make all sorts of patterns. Names have not been invented for all of them. One looks like a nose and for that reason is called by that name. Fig. 88 shows fa typical example. ‘Take a piece of paper and bend it to imitate an arch. Now tilt the paper away from you. If the paper be regarded as a layer of rock then you will have a replica of a structural nose.STRUCTURE eaeene ‘Section AA Fig. 87. Contour map of a DOME with ‘cross-section of same. IMPORTANCE OF NOSES. The importance of this simple structure becomes apparent when the history of many pools is studied. For it has been found that many a nose on the surface rocks is the reflection of a dome or an anticline at depth. ‘A good many of the pools in Osage County of Okla- homa fall into this category as indeed do many others ineastern Oklahoma. There are also mi~ ‘merous examples in north-central Texas. In other Fig. 88. Contour map of a NOSE on a ‘monocline, with cross-section. 65 Fig. 89. Contour map of the BEND ARCH in northern Texas. (Kendrick & Russell in GEOL. OF NAT. GAS Page 632). words, in a region where the rocks are tilted at a low angle of less than one degree, almost any strik- {ing bend in the strata must be regarded as significant. ‘The opposite of a nose isa ravine, but this term is not used very extensively by geologists, probably be- cause it is rarely associated with oil occurrence. SIZE OF NOSES. Most noses are small meas~ uring at most a few miles along the axis. When a nose has larger dimensions some other name is used like arch or flexure, In north-central Texas there is aiarge arch which extends from the central Texas, mineral region (Llano-burnet uplift) northward to- ward the Oklahoma border. This large structural feature was early named the BEND ARCH because it originated in the Big Bend of the Colorado River. i was first found on this arch in 1917, but the ‘excitement which followed has seldom been equalled in oil history. Because of the needs for the war which was just starting, drilling went on with fever- ish speed. Therefore ihe shape of the underground structure soon became apparent when the logs of many wells were compared. A map of this arch shown in fig. 89 reveals the fact that it is not a simple structure, but rather a broad northward pitching nose with many smaller noses and domes Imposed on its trend FLEXURE. The shape and origin of the Bend | arch were studied during 1930 to 35 when thousandsHOW OIL IS FOUND Fig. 90. Cross-section of the Bend Arch showing the nature of the flexure below the strawn series of rocks. fof wells had been drilled on it and also on the flanks. When it was found that this particular structure has had an interesting history which sug- | gests that the name flemre might better be applied to it. The strata on the Bend arch were laid down in the waters of a geosyncline which had its deep- est area of subsidence on the eastern flank. AS + Sequence of arawings to illustrate the formation of a FLEXURE like the Bend Arch, (Leversen in A.A.P.G. Bull. vol. 11,47). (After B.C. Moore) in most geosynelines, the thickness of the strata increases from west to east. ‘This implies that the rocks which were laid down on the site of the axis were subsiding slowly, while their counter- parts were subsiding much more rapidly toward the east, This situation produces a monocline. After middle Pennsylvanian time (Strawn) a series of other Pennsylvanian rocks and most of the Permian rocks: were laid down in essential parallelism. Then the ‘whole complex of strata was tilted in the opposite direction, ‘Thus the arching of the pre-Strawn beds was produced by two tiltings. In order to distin guish such a structure from an ordinary arch, one Geologist has suggested the name flexure. A sim- Har flexure exists in east central Oklahoma and there are others in various parts of the states. (eee fig. 90) FAULTS, When the rocks of the Earth’s crust are subjected to pressure either from the side tangential) or from below, they are just as likely to break as to bend, Such breaks are called faults. Ordinarily we do not know which side of a broken sequence went up or down, However, after the break we note that one side is relatively higher ‘than the other. The side which is higher is called | the upthrow side and thé other is called the down~ throw side. An inspection of figs. 92 will reveal = NORMAL FAULT REVERSE FAULT Fig. 92. Drawings of faultsSTRUCTURE that in the one called a normal fault, the two bro- ken ends of the layer of limestone appear to have been separated by PULLING APART. It looks as it the break may be due to tension. The other drawing labelled reverse fault shows the two bro- kken ends of the limestone in an overlapping posi- tion, It looks as if the break may have been due to compression. ‘TERMS USED WITH FAULTS. The vertical distance measured between the top of the broken limestone is called the throw of the fault and the horizontal distance between the broken ends is called the heave of the fault. In descriptions of oil fields ‘where faults are present, the word displacement is used more often than either of the other two terms. It refers to the total amount of difference between the broken ends of the Iimestone when measured along the plane of the fault. OIL FIELDS EXAMPLES. Some of the most interesting oil fields in the world seem to be asso- ciated with faults. ‘The best example is the Mexia pool in northeastern Texas. The map fig. 93 shows the location of this pool along a line which is la- belled the Mexia fault zone, The Mexia pool was found in 1912 when gas produetion was found in the Nacatoch sand of Cretaceous age. The first oil production was found in 1920 in a lower sand called | ‘the Woodbine sand (also of Cretaceous age). A daily peak of production was reached in Feb. 1922 when no less than 116,000 barrels was produced. During that year (1922) the pool produced nearly 34 mil- ion barrels. ‘The total production to date is in ‘excess of 100 million barrels. Subsequently, a large number of other fault pools were found all [x oecanoua Fig. 93. Map of northeastern Texas to show location of the MEXIA fault zone. Fig. 94. Generalized drawing to chow the nature ‘of the fault in the Mexia pool. (Lake). the way from northeastern Texas to the central part of the state. FAULTS AND ANTICLINES. Faults are very commonly associated with anticlines. In fact if we knew more about each anticline, we would probably find that very few are without faults of some size or description, ‘The many anticlines In Wyoming fare well supplied with faults both large and small, ‘The famous Elk Basin anticline in the Bighorn basin in the northwestern part of the state has a closure (relief within the contours which completely sur- round the structure) of about 4000 feet on the sur- face rocks. Many faults are present which trend nearly west to east across the fold. The vertical displacement varies {rom a few feet to as much as, 700 feet at the surface. Curiously enough these faults seem to die out and are not present at the level of the main producing sandstone (Tensleep). The Fig. 94a. Contour map showing two faults. cross-section below shows the underground ‘appearance along the line indicated by ong dash and dot pattern:68 HOW OIL 18 FOUND ‘The Garland anticline shown in fig. 95 has about 2000 feet of closure. Many transverse faults are present which affect the strata to a depth exceeding 2000 feet. There is much evidence that both oil and gas have used the fault zones for migration. FAULTS AND DOMES. In recent years the salt domes which produce so much oil along the coast of Texas and in Louisiana have been inten- sively studied by means of electric logs. In this manner it has been found that many of them have faults above the salt in the overlying strata. The salt domes of northern Germany are very greatly dissected by faults. ‘ust how much influence these faults have exerted in oll migration and trapping is not presently known, THRUST FAULTS. Where compression has been severe the rocks of the Earth's crust are pushed in a nearly horizontal manner to produce low angle reverse faults. Because of their pecu- Harities, they have received the designation of thrust faults. ‘The best known fault of this kind is the fone which bounds the eastern side of Glacier National Park. There rocks as old as pre-Cambrian have ‘been pushed up and over rocks as young as Creta~ ceous. The distance of horizontal displacement is believed to be 15 miles, Fig. 96. Drawings to show genetic relation between unsymmetrical rticline overturned anticline snd thrust fault,STRUCTURE overthrust feult OIL ASSOCIATED WITH THRUST FAULTS. In the Turner Valley oil field of western Canada a large amount of oil has been found in association with thrust faults. The fig. 98 shows the general structure beneath the surface involving the lime- stone in which the oil occurs. In the Persian oll fields the most interesting relationship has been found, The fig. 99 shows that the upper beds have literally slid over the un- derlying anticlinal fold. This peculiar relationship ‘of a monocline perched above an anticline is ex- plained by the nature of the rocks lying just above Fig: 98. Cross-section of the north end of the ‘Turner Valley oil pool. Note the complicated overthrust fault slivers present in the Kme- stone. (Prepared by W. B. Gallup) (C. H. Clapp in Mont, Bureau of Mines) the Asmari limestone. They consist largely of salt which as is well known has a tendency to flow under pressure. When the anticline was produced by pressure from the east, the salt layers acted like a lubrication zone to allow the overburden to Break along a thrust fault zone and glide several miles westward. Note how the salt-bearing rocks are jumbled and piled up on the western flank of the buried anticline. PSEUDO-ANTICLINES. Before leaving the ‘subject-of structure, it might be well to point out ‘that many maps show an anticlinal arrangement of strata which is misleading. This statement applies particularly to sandstones reservoirs. In many oil pools the drill penetrates only deep enough to find the oil present beneath the surface. ‘The sandstone which carries the oil has an arched upper surface ‘and the contour map shows this surface by means of contour lines. If the wells were drilled deeper it would become apparent that the arching of the sandstone is not a structural feature, but Tather a feature proving the lens shape of the sandstone. Very commonly sand is laid down like a double saucer, Tt has a natural curvature at the base and it also has a curvature at the top. It is thickest in the middle and pinches out in all directions to a feather edge. When careful comparisons are made with other layers both higher and lower it is, found that the lens does not mimic these other layers. In some areas which produce oil such as north-central Texas, the strata may actually show fa synclinal structure above such a sandstone body. UNCONFORMITIES. The deposition of sedi- ment is frequently interrupted for one reason or another. ‘The most common reason is the change fm the level of the sea, The land may rise and the sediments thus may come within range of agents Fig. 99. Cross-section of one of the oi! pools in the southern part of Ira7” HOW OIL 18 FOUND A Fig. 100, Sequence of drawings to show the development of a DISCONFORMITY. operating in air such as wind and streams. Or the ocean level may sink to produce the same re- ssult, During the many malllion years of past history both have occurred many times. If, as has been calculated, the streams of the United States anmu- ally carry into the ocean a load of $13 million tons of rock fragments, it stands to reason that some water is being displaced. The level of the oceans must rise asa consequence, Such a situation would explain how ocean water can reach the middle of ‘the continent. However, the depth of the water will probably not be great. Therefore sediments laid down will in time equal the depth of the water and practically coincide with sea level. _ Deposition will then cease until there is a new change in sea level. DISCONFORMITIES. An interruption of sedi~ mentation like that described above is likely to produce 2 disconformity. fan unconformity which 1s characterized by having Doth sets of strata conformable (parallel). The fig. 100 will illustrate how a disconformity is produced. In A the lower set of strata is laid down in sea water. In B the complete set of strata is lifted up out of the water so that the upper layers are ex- posed to erosion, Streams carve out channels and produce an uneven surface as shown in C. Later the level of the sea rises to equal or exceed the top erosion surface. Then a new set of strata will be laid down on the wavy surface of erosion. EVIDENCE OF DISCONFORMITY. The evi dences of disconformity are sometimes very ob- secure. The wavy line made by erosion will ordinarily bbe so inconspicuous as to escape notice ina quarry face or in the walls of a modern stream channel, where the geologist makes his studies. To be sure, ‘the sudden change from limestone to conglomerate would arouse the suspicions of the geologist. How- ever, disconformities are not always limited to such’ situations, They may occur between shale and sandstone, or between any two kinds of rock, for even between two layers of the same kind of rock. In doubtful cases, the geologist must rely on fossil evidence. Fortunately, fossils are different in successive ages of rock. ‘The trained geologist might find Silurian fossils in the lower set of strata and Mississippian fossils in the upper set. This would indicate that Devonian rocks are missing. This name is used for | ‘The fossil expert will call this an hiatus (gap in the record). More commonly only @ portion of a system like the Devonian will be missing. ‘The lower set of strata may contain fossils typical of ‘the lower Devonian system while the second or higher set of strata may contain fossils character- istic of upper Devonian time. ‘The variations of this pattern are innumerable. WHERE DISCONFORMITIES ARE COMMON. ‘The large central portion of the United States in- volving states like Mlinois, Missouri, Kansas, Ne- braska, etc., was relatively stable during all of Paleozoic time, By contrast the areas involved in the Appalachian geosyncline and the Rocky Moun- tain geosynclines were quite unstable. The stable central platform therefore was flooded periodically by rising ocean waters and became dry land in Fig. 101. Columner section in eastern Kansas showing prominent disconformities. One be- ‘tween Arbuckle and Simpson. Another ‘between Miss, Lime and Cherokee.STRUCTURE 102. Fig. Fig. 103. Cross-section east to west across the Cushing anticline of Oklahoma. (Weirich in Struc. Type Amer. Oil Fields, page 405) unconformity below the Pennsylvanian rocks. between, when these waters receded. It is therefore common to find disconformities in the oil fields of Kansas, northern Oklahoma and over much of Texas especially in rocks of Paleozoic age. CONSPICUOUS DISCONFORMITIES. The suc- cession of strata laid down in the mid-Continent region is remarkably similar from west Texas through north-central Texas into central Oklahoma and then northward into Kansas and Nebraska. The many thousands of wells drilled in those states in~ dicate that upper Cambrian rocks are likely to be sandstones at the base and rather thick dolomites above. In Texas the dolomites are called Ellen- burger, while farther north the name Arbuckle is, applied to them. There is no conspicuous break between Cambrian and Ordovician sedimentation. Therefore, the lower Ordovician also consists of dolomites. However, at the top of the dolomite sequence there is a conspicuous disconformity al- most everywhere. ‘The next younger sediments are generally called the Simpson formation and they are characterized by much sandstone. After Simpson time there are many small breaks in the record. ‘The succeeding layers of calcareous rocks and clas~ tics are uniformly thin, but cover wide areas. The next conspicuous disconformity has been noted at the base of the Mississippian. ‘The Mississippian system is commonly ushered in with a thin layer ff black shale called the Chattanooga. This shale rests on various ages of rock in different parts of the mid-Continent region. At the top of the Mis- sissippian is another extremely conspicuous dis- conformity. ‘This is so prominent that it is often called a regional angular unconformity. a Sequence of drawings to show the development of an angular unconformity. = — Note the angular ANGULAR UNCONFORMITY. The drawings in fig. 102 picture the development of another type of unconformity. In A there is the usual sequence of strata in a slowly subsiding sea, conglomerate, sandstone, shale and limestone. In B this set of strata 1s bent into a broad anticline and also lifted above sea level at the same time. The highest layers now come within range of erosion agents. ‘Therefore an irregular surface produced by ero~ sion is shown in C. The limestone is worn away ‘completely in the center of the picture but preserved fon the flanks of the anticline. Ina broader anti- cline there would be less erosion and in a more ‘acute anticline there would be much deeper erosion. Now suppose that the sea level rises so that the erosion surface is completely covered by sea water. ‘Then a new set of strata would be laid down on the eroded stumps of the rocks in the anticline. Under normal conditions the lowest layer would be fa gravel bed and the next one a layer of sand, However, any kind of sediment might conceivably be laid down directly above the erosion surface. EXAMPLES. Examples of narrow eroded anti ‘lines (and synclines) are common in southern Okla~ homa just west of the west end of the Arbuckle ‘mountains. Many of the ofl pools like the Robberson, Sholom Alechem and others in that trend show an angular unconformity between the Ordovician rocks and the Pennsylvanian rocks. Another good example is the Cushing anticline in northern Oklahoma re- ferred to on page 141, There the old rocks under the unconformity are Ordovician in age and directly underlie strata of Pennsylvanian age. ‘The inter~ vening rocks of Silurian and Devonian age are2 £1 Dorado peo! Sf eif aand HOW OTL IS FOUND g Blankenship, cil eand Bayer oi! wand” Stokes oi sand” ‘od zane EEE: sities Tove Fig, 104, Cros entirely missing. However, thin wedges of the Mis- sissipplan rocks are present on the flanks of the anticline. Apparently, this structure was produced after Mississippian sedimentation was completed. ‘Then the rocks were bent into an anticline and erosion cut away all rocks of Mississippian age as well as those of upper Ordovician age on the crest of the anticline, When the Pennsylvanian seas came ‘on once more, horizontal layers of early Pennsyl- vanian rocks were laid down on the eroded edges of the older strata to produce an angular uncon- formity. ‘The largest oil pool so far found in Kansas is the El Dorado pool in Butler County. It has produced nearly 200 million barrels of oil. This anticline is very similar to the Cushing anticline. A cross-section of it is shown in fig. 104, There ‘also bending of the old rocks took place after the Mississippian strata had been laid down. On the crest of the fold erosion cut down to the lower Ordovician Arbuckle dolomite while on the flanks the younger strata are preserved. In this partic- ular instance renewed folding took place after the uppermost layers of Permian age had been deposited. ‘Thus it was possible to find this structure by map- ping the surface rocks. The same, of course is true on the Cushing anticline. The important dif- ference is that the El Dorado anticline was mapped in advance of drilling while the Cushing oil pool was found before mapping had been done. BALD HEADED STRUCTURES. The name bald-headed structure has come into use in recent years for a buried anticline in which the crest has ‘been eroded more deeply than the flanks. Many are now known in the mid-Continent region, The Valley Center pool in Sedgwick County, Kansas is an example. in Oklahoma prominent examples are jction of the El Dorado oil pool in Kansas. ‘below the Pennsylvanian stra Pennaylvarlan rocks citer Note the angular unconformity (Kans. Geol. Survey) the Garber pool of Garfield County, the Tonkawa poo! of Kay County and the Oklahoma City pool in the center of the state. In southern Oklahoma the Healdton and the Hewitt pools are examples REGIONAL ANGULAR UNCONFORMITIES. Many broad arches are known in the central stable area of the United States which have angular un- conformities of a regional character. This means ‘hat in any given well or pool the unconformity ap- pears as a disconformity but that within the area of & whole state the unconformity takes on the ature of an angular unconformity. Perhaps the best example of this is to be found in Winois be- ‘ween the beds of Mississippian age and the beds of Pennsylvanian age. ‘The fig. 105 shows that in the deepest part of the Hlinois basin the uppermost layers of the Mississippian are preserved (Kinkaid). Farther west these beds, and several others lower down, disappear by pinching out. Farther cast where the rocks have been pushed up strongly in the La Salle anticline the upper beds are’ also missing. CENTRAL KANSAS UPLIFT. One of the most interesting examples of regional angular unconform- ities has been proved by the drilling of many wells in western Kansas. The map fig. 106 reveals an area where Mississippian rocks are entirely ab- sent due to erosion. In the area of Norton to Barton Counties the Peansylvanian rocks lie di- rectly on older rocks such as Ordovician, Cambrian and pre-Cambrian, The isopach lines (lines of equal thickness) on the map show that the Missis~ Sippian strata gradually become thicker toward the southwest. This thickening is due to the bevelling by erosion of a complete sequence originally laid down in this part of the county. Only the old Mississippian strata are present in Stafford andSTRUCTURE ow the angular unconformity ois Geol. Survey) ‘between the Pennaylvanian and the underlying strata Fig. 105, Cross-section west to east across the state of“ =TSN eet X =e = Fig. 108, Map of western Kansas showing by ‘means of “isopach"” lines the thickness of the Micsiesippian strata. Contour interval is 100 feet. Pratt Counties. Farther west the successive higher strata appear in order. In the southwestern part, of the state all sets of layers up to the Chester series are present. CENTRAL PLATFORM OF WEST TEXAS. One of the great reserve areas for oil in the United States lies in west Texs and adjacent parts of New Mexico. Most of the pools found up to date le on a buried mountain area which is called the Central Basin Platform, This buried feature was | evidently produced during the early part of Penn- sylvanian time because some portions of the ear- Hest Pennsylvanian rocks are preserved in small maclines (see fig. 107). ‘The angular unconformity which shows in the cross-section is regional in nature because the platform is many miles wide and extends from the Yates pool at the southeast to the Monument pool at the northwest. Locally, however, in certain pools the angular unconformity is very clearly discern- ible. Apparently, there are true mountain peaks left on the surface of erosion because wells close together sometimes find the Ordovician dolomite at greatly discordant depths (of several hundred feet.) | KEVIN - SUNBURST. In northern Montana ofl has been found at the level of a regional angular unconformity. The large Kevin - Sunburst area contains important oil accumulations in the top of the Mississippian limestone directly underneath Ju- | rassic rocks. Here the gap in the record involves, Pennsylvanian, Permian and Triassic rocks. This same regional unconformity ean be traced into Al- berta, where presently many new oil fields are HOW OIL I8 FOUND being discovered. In going north through Alberta deep wells find the Mississippian gradually pinching fout and in the northern half of the province, the Devonian comes in under the Cretaceous rocks. IMPLICATIONS. ‘The important implications to be drawn from the sketchy account of regional unconformities in preceding pages, is that the early part of the Pennsylvanian was atime of great crus- tal unrest. We have already seen that in southern Oklahoma’ the Arbuckles and the buried Wichita Mountains were built during early Pennsylvanian time. When enough evidence comes to hand it will probably also be found that the Appalachians were built at the same time. The evidence irom west Texas is convincing that buried mountains were made there in early Pennsylvanian time. In Dlinots and in west-central Kansas broad warps were pro- duced at about the same time. The long La Salle anticline is a rather narrow feature showing up prominently in the Mississippian and older rocks, ‘while the Ilinols basin to the west of it is a rather broad depressed tectonic element. The central Kansas Uplift can be traced by means of well logs through western Nebraska. In Michigan drilling hhas proved the existence of a deep nearly circular ‘basin which involves the whole southern Peninsula fof that state. This probably also dates from the same time in Earth history although the evidence is not conclusive. In Montana there were broad ‘upwarps like the Kevin-Sunburst arch and its con- ‘tinuation into Alberta, TECTONIC ELEMENTS. Thus it appears that many of our well known large structural features now associated with ol fields came into being dur- ing the last stages of the Paleozole era. Whether they all originated at exactly the same time is the subject of much argument in current literature, ‘The best proof of the exact timing of the disturb- ances is to be found in the rocks of the Arbuckle Mountains. There we find two prominent orogenic (mountain building) unconformities. One of these can bbe dated as between earliest Pennsylvanian time and early Pennsylvanian time. The second can be dated as between middle and late Pennsylvanian time. Else- where, the same times are indicated either directly or indirectly. The reason uncertainty exists lies in the fact that rocks of critical ages are missing in most other places, This is partly true in Kansas and notably true in the Appalachian region. In Montana, the gap is so great that all we can say is ‘that the’ disturbance was post-early Mississippian and pre-Jurassic. (The reader will note that geolo- ists like to use post for after and pre for before). TECTONIC MAP, The reader will do well to get acquainted with the tectonic map published by ‘the American Association of Petroleum Geologists. It shows all the presently known tectonic elements (or large structural features) in addition to some of the Small structures, One which has had im- portant influence on the location of oll fields is the Appalachian geosyncline (not to be confused with6 HOW OIL 1S FOUND Fig. 108, Map of the world showing mountains bullt during Pennsylvanian time. Fig, 109, Cross-section from the St. Francis Mountains in Missouri eastward to the Cincinnati Arch in Ohio. Fig. 110, Cross-section from central Wisconsin to Ontario across the Michigan basin.STRUCTURE n Fig. 111, Structure map of the GENESEO pool ‘based on a shallow Permian marker bed. (After Stuart Clark, Arnett & Royds in AA.P.G. Struct. Typ. Amer. Oil Fields vel. Ill, P. 236) Dan a3 (| i Ki L a | Fig. 112. structure map on the top of the Arbuckle dolomite in the GENESEO pool. (After Stuart Clark, Arnett i Royds in A.A.P.G. Struct. Typ. Amer. Ol Fields, vol. 1) a Sa) Fig. 113. Surface structure contour map of the Stroud pool. (Okla. Geol. Surv. Bull. 40 V¥) the depression by the same name which existed during Paleozoic time). At present the deepest part of this tectonic element lies in southwest- ern Pennsylvania and adjacent parts of West Vir- | ginia, when measured on Carboniferous rocks but farther east when measured on the older rocks. (see Lafferty in Bull vol. I Appal. Geol. Soc. 1949 page 209). ‘The shallower structure is sometimes called the Pittsburgh-Huntington syneline while the other one lies just east of the Chestnut Ridge anti- cline. CINCINNATI ARCH. A famous one is the Cineinnati Arch which trends through the eity of Cincinnati and then pitches northward toward Ontario (west end of Lake Erie). The Mlinois Basin has already been mentioned. It lies in a larger basin ‘often called the eastern Interior basin taking in parts of Indiana and northwestern Kentucky. This asin and the Michigan basin are no doubt corre- lative with the Cincinnati arch or perhaps they might be called counterparts. POSITIVE & NEGATIVE. The reader who hhas the inclination to do some additional searching 1m the literature will come across the terms posi- tive and negative in connection with tectonic ele- ments. These words have some value in that they Indicate the relative movements of structural fea~ tures. By positive land mass or positive tectonic ‘element, the geologist means one which has a tend~ ency to rise whenever movement takes place. A prominent example would be the land mass of Ap- palachia, This mass apparently rose repeatedly all during Paleozoic time. It rose spasmodically and probably by unequal amounts. ‘The Cincinnati Arch also seems to be a portion of the continent Which rose repeatedly. Probably the same is true of the Central Kansas Uplift and other tectonic ele~ ments mentioned on previous pages. ‘A negative clement is one which has a tend- eney to subside through a given period of time.8 HOW OIL IS FOUND ‘The geosynclines of the past are striking examples. Lange basins like the Michigan basin, the eastern Interior basin, and the Anadarko basin in western Oklahoma, are probably also examples. These, however, are not such clear cut examples as geo- synclines. Some geologists argue that the natural tendeney for portions of the crust is to sink on account of the gradual shrinkage of the interior. If that assumption is correct then the so-called positive elements are merely innocent bystanders land do not actually move. They remain relatively higher because other areas adjacent to them have sunk. Fig. 114, Subsurface structure contour map fof the Stroud pool on the producing zone, the Wilcox sand. (Okla. Geol. Surv. Bull, 40 VV) ‘The other group of tectonic geologists believe that positive elements are produced either by com- pression from the side or by up-thrust from below. ‘They would be inclined to view the negative ele- ‘ments as the innocent bystanders. SURFACE & SUBSURFACE STRUCTURE. Be- fore leaving the important matter of oil field struc~ ture, a few words must be said regarding the re- lation between the structure of the strata on the surface and their relation to the structure as re- vealed in strata beneath the surface, The unin- formed reader might make the natural assumption that the arching of strata observed on or near the surface faithfully mimics the structure of deeper layers. For one reason or another this is almost never true. Geologists have found out from drilling records in many pools, that the subsurface struc- ture is likely to be accentuated with depth. In other words, modest dips on the surface are re- placed by steeper dips below. ‘The discovery of this fundamental principal, nevertheless, had a profound effect upon the intel~ ligent search for oll pools during the decade be- tween 1910 and 1925, Several phrases were in- vented to describe this phenomenon. The most used phrase was ‘thinning of the section”. In many oil pools it was found that a certain group of beds were thin on the axis of the structure, but became thicker on the flanks and away from the structure, As a result the custom of preparing 1s0- pach maps (showing by lines the thickness of a given ‘unit of rocks) became very popular. Many new pools were found by the careful use of such maps. EXAMPLES. In the literature there are now quite a number of interesting examples of the vari- ation of structure between the surface beds and strata at some depth below the surface. One of the most interesting is that of the prolifie Geneseo pool described on page 122, ‘The fig. 111 anows the structure based upon core drilling to a very shallow Permian limestone marker bed. With a contour interval of 10 feet the map shows a rela- tively smooth antielinal arching with a relief of about 30 feet. ‘The map shown in fig. 112 reveals the structure at the level of the oll in the Ordovician dolomite some 3000 feet lower. It shows that the relief is 150 feet as compared to 20 feet near the surface, Fig. 115. Contour map of the Tonkawa pool on. a shallow zone (Hoover sand) by means of 10 foot contour Lines. (Glenn Clark in Okla. Geol. Surv. Bull. 40 H)STRUCTURE STROUD POOL. ‘The Stroud pool 1s located in Lincoln County, Oklahoma. The map fig. 113, shows the surface structure with an interval of 10 fect. Note that the discovery well was drilled one half mile west of the closed contour in section 7. Note also that the closure amounts to only 10 feet at the surface and that the west dip on the surface is 40 feet into the southeast quarter of section 2. @ Now compare the subsurface map and note that the closure is at least 80 feet in the same distance. ‘The stratigraphic section printed at the right of the subsurface map shows the producing sand at the base of the column, TONKAWA POOL. The Tonkawa pool is lo~ cated in Kay County, Oklahoma. ‘The map fig. 115 shows the structure by means of 10 foot contours. R1iw i i x ESOS t vrnay [one | wwe UO me [orm |p 2a \\\ ig lea N omar mente cme | \ ane Ujpeme amr |N wie usr [oem Pomonge“] cam | wma ee ee ee ee 2 ; ’ 116, Contour map of the Tonkawa pool on a contour lines. (After Glenn Clark deep level (Viola Kmestone) by means of 10 foot im Okla. Geol. Surv, Bull. 40 #)HOW OIL 18 FOUND Fig. 117. Cross-section along the line C - C across the Tonkawa pool, to show fault in the older strat. (After Glens Clark in Okie. Geol. Surv Fig. 118, Surface and also subsurface contour map of the Petrolia fleld. The broken lines show the surlace structure by means of 20 foot contour Lines: the solid lines show the subsurface structure on the “Big Ges"” horizon by ‘means of 100 foot contour lines. (Ken- rick k McLaughlin in A.A.P.G. Struct, ‘Typ. Amer. Oil Fields vol. Il) ‘Bull. 40H) Note that the closure amounts to about 100 feet and that the anticline is slightly unsymmetrical. | Now compare the contour map based on the lime- | stone below the angular unconformity. It shows a closure of over 350 feet. Note that there is also some closure indicated on the downthrown side of the fault, the northeastern side. The cross-section shown in fig. 117 is very helpful in elucidating the meaning of the structure maps. PETROLIA FIELD. The Petrolia field is one of the oldest and most historic in Texas. ‘The map fig. 118 shows both the surface and the subsurface structure by means of two sets of lines. Note that the surface closure is 80 feet, but that the subsurface closure is 200 feet. REASONS FOR VARIATION. The reasons for this difference in contour maps drawn on different levels is four fold. In one case the presence of an unconformity explains the difference. In other cases the divergence of strata produces this result. In the third case the continued growth of the anti- cline will produce a shortening or thinning of the section. In the fourth case the thinning is due to the fact that the strata immediately overlying the hard resistant core of the anticline are subject to less compaction than the strata which are deposited fon the flanks oF away from the flanks.Chapter V HOW 1S OIL, FORMED? One of the most famous oil geologists once said “If we could definitely determine the precise origin of oil, we could search more intelligently for new fields”. He had in mind the kind of enviro- ‘ment in which the mother substance of petroleum 1s formed. Knowing this environment would undoubtedly lead us to fresh conquests. Serious attempts to solve the problem were made both by chemists and by geologists almost as, ‘soon as the importance of ofl in the economy of the ‘world was apparent. Berthelot in France, in 1866, and Mendeteff in Russia, in 1877, thought that some chemical reactions between carbon dioxide and alka~ ine metals, or iron earbides might be involved. As early as 1859 Newberry, the state geologist of Ohio mentioned plants as a probable source of oll. This dea appealed to many chemists and was elaborately tested in the laboratory by Engler and Hofer in Germany in 1909, Their experiments led them to believe that the fatty substances in plants were the primary source of the ofl, The same idea was more fully elaborated by Brooks in 1936, Berl in 1938 proved that he could make oll from any kind of cel lulose material by ordinary laboratory methods. ‘An epoch-making study was finished in 1932 by Trask when he published the results of his work fon source sediments. In 1939 ZoBell added very important additional facts when he published an article on the activity of bacteria in sediments. COMPOSITION OF OIL. Before we try to evaluate the merits of these varlous ideas and in- vestigations we must become familiar with the chemical composition of petroleum. In crude oil several hundred different hydrocarbons have been found; and in the distillation products made in re- fineries, there are thousands. A hydrocarbon is ‘2 compound made up of carbon and hydrogen. ‘The simplest ones are methane CH., ethane C,H, pro- pane C.ll,, and butane C,H». These are all gases and usually are found in oil in the dissolved con- dition, They belong to the paraffin series of hydro- carbons of which at least 29 have been isolated. Another series is the olefine or ethylene series in which the fundamental compound has the formula Cs An important series is the naphthene series in which the basie formula is C:Hy. A fourth one, not so important, is the aromatic group. On the basis of the principal constituents oils are some- times classified as naphthenic or paraffinic, how- ever, most crude oils are mixtures. Ordinary crude oil contains from 10 to 14% hydrogen, the remainder being carbon. ‘The most common im- purity is sulphur. a COMPOSITION OF PLANTS. The extremely numerous members of the plant family also have certain chemical characteristics in common, Among them the carbohydrates stand out, The two names hydrocarbons and carbohydrates are confusingly simi lar, For the beginner the distinction can be re- meémbered by noting that the hydrocarbons are com- posed of hydrogen and carbon. In the other name the ending hydrates means water (Greek hydro meaning water). ‘They are composed of enough oxygen and hydrogen to supply every atom of carbon with one molecule of water (H,0). Sugar and starch are familiar examples of carbohydrates. A very large group is called the cellulose group of which cotton is an example. Vegetables and wood are rich in cellulose. (C,Hy0,) SIMILARITIES, ‘The similarities between the crude oils and the cellulose compounds are very striking, Furthermore, it is possible in a modern refinery to treat a pure carbohydrate with a re- ducing agent and make it yield a hydrocarbon. How- ever, plants are rarely pure. In addition to cel- lulose there are such substances as proteins (carbon, oxygen, hydrogen and nitrogen) waxes, resins, Ugnin and fats. Nearly all are characterised by the presence of nitrogen which, as we shall see, is extremely significant. Another very important and famillar attribute of plants is the chlorophyl which gives them their green color. A German chemist guided by this fact made some investiga- tions on many different natural crudes in 1995 and found that some of them contain the break-down products of chlorophyl, the porphyrins. Incidentally he also found the break-down products of hemoglobin which gives the red color to blood in animals. Tt will be helpful to recall this detail later on. TTRASK’S WORK. Most of the information we have on the organic content of marine sediments ‘we owe to Trask who spent 10 years on the study of such material, He and his friends collected over a thousand samples of sediments, both modern and ancient from every part of the globe and every kkind of environment. The organic matter in these samples was carefully measured so that we now have a fairly complete inventory as a foundation for speculation. He found that the average amount of organic material which is supplied to the sea by streams annually is approximately 1000 grams per square meter. Some is carried into the sea as minutely macerated material in suspension. Some is carried in solution and the rest is carried in colloidal form. Unfortunately, by far the greater portion is lost for one reason or another, so thatry only 2 per cent is actually deposited with the sedi- ments. PLANKTON. Before proceeding let us con- sider the life of the ocean as a possible additional source material. On or near the surface there are many minute forms of life, both plant and animal, which float about until death. All these are col” lectively referred to as plankton. ‘That portion Which consists of plants (phytoplankton) lives very close to the surface inasmuch as it needs sunlight for its existence. The diatoms and the dinofla- gellates make up by far the bulk of the phyto- plankton. Allen reports that he found densities of 220,000 diatoms per liter of water in the open North Pacific. Coastal waters appear to be 50 times as densely populated as the open sea waters. A very interesting fact that has been observed is, that diatoms store up oll in their tiny shells partly to help them keep afloat and partly to serve as a food reserve. ‘The dinoflaggelates differ from the diatoms which float about aimlessly. The dinoflagellates: are provided with minute, whip-like flagella which allow them to move about feebly. When carbon dioxide and water are present the plants manufacture carbon compound according to the following empirical formula: 6 CO, plus 6 H.O equals C.HuO, plus 6 0s. The pigments {in the plants intercept the radiant energy of the HOW OIL 15 FOUND sun to produce this reaction. It should be noted that a by-product of this plant activity is the pro- duction of free oxygen, ANIMALS OF THE SEA. The animal population ‘of the sea is generally subdivided into the benthos (animals living on the sea floor), the nekton (swim= ‘ming forms) and the zooplankton (the floating forms). Since the floating forms are most closely associated with the phytoplankton, we shall consider them first. Among them the protozoa (one celled forms) stand out. “They are the foraminifera and radiolarians ‘which are used so abundantly by geologists for cor- relation purposes. In addition there are copepods, ostracods, jelly fishes, worms, and some small molluscs. We should not overlook the presence of the eggs and the larvae of the benthonic and nek- tonic animals. Johnson in 1937 found by means of a special net towed in the Bering Sea that the den- sity of this temporary plankton amounts to no less ‘than 50,000 larvae per cubic meter of water. While most of the planktonic organisms are microscopic in size there are some interesting ex- ceptions. For instance the jelly fishes sometimes attain a size exceeding one meter and have tentacles 25 meters long. BACTERIA. Living with the plankton and co- operating with it are very small organisms known as bacteria, They are unicellular as a general rule, but some are known which consist of chains Fig. 120. Diatoms from the North Atlantic deep sea cores. (U.5.G.5., Prof. Paper 196) Greatly magnifies.ORIGIN or groups of cells. None possess chlorophyl and thus differ notably from plants. Their cells do rot contain cellulose, They have some attributes of animals. Therefore, many scientists regard them as in an intermediate position between plants and animals. ‘Their small size is remarkable. They are known to be as small as 0.0005 mm, in siz Some of them use free oxygen while others do not need any oxygen in order to live. Most of them are capable of living in either environment. Those which need alr or oxygen are called aerobic. The ‘opposite type is called anaerobic. The chief function of bacteria is to change the organic matter back to its original inorganic character. decompose nitrogenous products into forms which are readily asimmilable by plants. They also break down phosphorous and sulphur compounds. CYCLE OF REGENERATION. Putting together all the information about plankton and bacterial activity we come to a very interesting discovery. ‘The phytoplankton manufactures organic materials ‘out of carbon dioxide and sun light and water, The zooplankton and larvae devour the phytoplankton and ‘thus build up more complex organic units. The larvae grow to large size and change into free swimming forms or sessile benthonic forms. ‘They ‘take up a new habitat where they furnish food for the largest oceanic animals. ‘Many of the organisms composing the zooplank- ton eat more than they need and therefore some of the plant matter passes through them undigested, ‘This falls to the bottom of the sea and becomes available for other animals or for bacteria. Also it must be noted that all phytoplankton is not con- sumed by the animals and therefore, a considera- ble proportion falls to the bottom unchanged except by solution on the way down. This also becomes available to bottom-living organisms. Part of the or- ganic matter is converted by bacteria to inorganic material on the way down, and much is so converted after it reaches the bottom. ‘Therefore, very little if any organic matter is left after the cycle has been completed, We may safely conclude, there- fore, that pelagic (ocean) sediments do not contain any appreciable amount of organic matter for con- version to petroleum. ADDITIONAL DATA. Some additional data were accumulated by Trask. He found that the average chemical composition of the plankton is 45 per cent carbon, 45 per cent oxygen, 7 per cent hydrogen and 3 per cent nitrogen. When he ex- amined the organic material in the marine sedi- ments he found that the percentages had changed as follows: carbon 56%; oxygen 30%; hydrogen 8% and nitrogen 6%. Trask also found that the ‘oceanic sediments (otf-shore sediments) contain be~ tween 0.3% to 1 1/2% organic matter. This is in strong contrast to near-shore sediment which ‘Bull, A.A.P.G. vol. 31, page 180, Jan, 1947. AWorld Oil, June 1980, page 128 to 138, Subordinately they | 83 contains up to 8% organic matter. NEAR-SHORE SEDIMENTS. The sediments lad down relatively near shore were found by Trask to contain an average of 2 1/2 per cent of organic material, ‘This suggests that the survival in such sediments is favored for some reason or other. Furthermore the finer sediments such as silt and ‘mud conlain more than the coarser sediments. This {is quite readily understandable when it is remem ered that sands are well sorted by waves, currents and tides. Sorting tends to eliminate the light frag rents; and organie fragments are light. They would tend to associate with muds more readily then with any other textural material. BACTERIAL ACTIVITY. Mud is the natural habitat of bacteria. They are small and light and cannot stand strong currents or other rapid move- ment of the water. Furthermore, bacteria are the most natural agents of organic destruction. Ac- cording to ZoBell who has been investigating bae- terial activity in sediments ever since 1934, the umber of bacteria present in muds is truly great. Jn Southern California he estimated that the off- shore wet mud contains more than 2 million bac- teria per gram of wet mud, ‘They naturally favor the top-most few inches, but have been found as deep as samples have been secured’ ‘The composition of organic matter when it reaches the md is quite varied and probably con- tains carbohydrates, proteins, fats, waxes, resin, cellulose, and lignin. ‘Thus while ‘the percentage of carbon and hydrogen is high, there is also much nitrogen, sulphur and phosphorus present. Bacteria attack the proteins vigorously and in so doing Iib- erate ammonia, hydrogen sulphide, and carbon di- oxide. ‘Thas while we see the loss of some desirable elements, such as carbon and hydrogen, we also fee the almost complete elimination of ‘nitrogen. ‘The total quantity of organic matter is reduced in the process, but the critical items such as carbon ‘and hydrogen become relatively more abundant than efore. With the elimination of the phosphorus and most of the sulphur, the organic matter takes on more nearly the composition we find in typical crude ‘ils, ‘The name sapropel can conveniently be used for mud in which organle matter has been s0 re organized that it closely approximates the com- position of crude oll. In his most recent contribution to the subject, ‘ZoBell summarizes the importance of bacteria! He mentions that methane is formed during the anaerobic fermentation of organic matter under environmental conditions resembling those in which petroleum occurs. Most interesting is the fact that in the laboratory bacteria do produce liguid and solid hy- drocarbons which resemble those found in crude oll, (See Fig. 121). ‘The best yields to date have been from fatiy acids and have been on the order4 HOW OIL 18 FOUND g @ A) Fig. 121. Diagrammatic representation of the principal ways in which bacteria release oil. 1) Micro-droplets of oil are liberated and comlesce; 2) Liberation of oil from particle 3) Gases in micro-trap expel oil; 4) Micro= Wm of oll ona solid surface ts digplaced by bacteria. (After ZoBell) of from 1/100 th. to 1/20 th. per cent of the car- bon appearing as liguid or solid hydrocarbons. Tt hhas also been established that bacteria can pro- ‘duce phenol and para-cresol by decomposition of proteins. ‘These two compounds are found rather commonly in crude oll. By creating low redox ential bacteria favor the formation as well as ‘Be preservation of petroleum hydrocarbons While recognising the great value of bacteria in the process of crude oil formation, Dr. ZoBell does not rule out other mechanisms such as contact catalysts, pressure and base exchange. MOST FAVORABLE CONDITIONS FOR OIL. 1 appears from the above considerations that the most favorable environment for oil formation is, first of all, a place where fine muds are accumu~ lating. Secondly there must be a relatively large contribution of organic matter into the area of mud accumulation. The few analyses which have been made on modern streams suggest that tropical streams bting in much more organic matter than those of temperate regions. Therefore, the climates of the past must be given careful consideration in this connection. Thirdly, it seems probable that the rate of accumulation of both mud and organie matter has something to do with the final result, On this point information is lacking. Fourthly, places where oxygen is present in small amount or totally absent favor the retention of the critical items. The affinity of carbon for oxygen is well known, DELTA ENVIRONMENT, The delta environ~ ment most nearly fits the conditions postulated. Here we have a very rapid accumulation of fine sediment with mud predominating. Also we can expect to have much organic material supplied by the streams which are building the delta. water is brackish and temporarily saline (oceante salinity). Small lagoons and shallow basins are constantly being formed, and, as quickly obliterated. ‘These small collecting grounds are probably the most important single item in the story. In them organic matter is very abundant. Only mud is, likely to lodge there and bacteria thrive there. ‘Oxygen is limited in amount in such places. The fine-textured materials are soon covered by other types such as silt or possibly fine sand. Even- tually there will be innumerable small lenticular pockets of sapropel in the average delta because it is sinking as it grows and the water bodies a5~ sociated with it are constantly changing their position. ANCIENT DELTAS. A critical examination of the oil fields of the world will reveal that most of them are associated with delta conditions. The large Devonian deltas of New York and Pennsylvania are well known. The thickness of these deltas in the eastern part of those states is nearly 10,000 feet. (See Fig. 123). They form a gigantic wedge thinning toward the west into western Pennsylvanian where most of the oil has been found. In the eastern part of the deltas much of the material is red in color suggesting the sub-aerial accumulation of the sands and muds, Farther west blue, gray and green colors predominate indicating deposition in marine ‘waters or at least brackish waters. Many interea~ lations of marine layers (with marine fossils to prove it) suggest that there is an intertonguing of two kinds of sediment. ‘TYPES OF DELTA STRUCTURE Fig. 122. Types of delta structure. (L.W. Storm in A.A.P.G. Bull. vol. 29, p. 1310, 1945)86 HOW OIL IS FOUND Fig. 124, Devonian landscape showing 1) Proto~ lepidodendron; 2) Hornea: 3) Rhynia; 4) Eosper- matopteris; 5) Archeopteris; 6) Cyclostigma. (after Seward) marine limestones indicate the presence of the sea, There is clear evidence of many changes in sea level. The conditions suggest low-lying land alter~ nately covered by shallow sea water, but mostly above the level of such water. Many streams with constantly changing courses wander in and out be- tween shallow lagoons and swamps. ABUNDANCE OF ORGANIC MATTER. The Pennsylvanian period was a time when plants were extremely abundant. This is suggested by the many coal beds in Pennsylvanian rocks all over the world. ‘Truc, the type of vegetation was quite different from that of today. Instead of deciduous trees and flowering plants there were ferns, scouring rushes (Bquisetum) tnd scale trees such as Sigilaria and Lepidodendron. (Gee Fig. 128). FLUCTUATIONS OF SEA LEVEL. During Pennsylvanian time there is abundant evidence af the repeated fluctuations of the level of the sea. Infact the fluctuations are so numerous that cycles of sediments have been worked out with great pre- cision. Fifteen such cycles are shown in Fig. 125. It will be noted that each cycle begins at the base with a sandstone. This sandstone lies above a Aisconformity and was evidently laid down ina river bed environment. It shows eross-bedding, occasional mud cracks, poor sorting and rapid lateral variation a fo ni au Fig. 125. Cycles in the Pennsylvanian of Illinois. (Wanless in Ills, Geol. Surv. Bull. 60) PENNSYLVANIAN DELTAS. The deltas of Pennsylvanian time are very numerous. In the Appalachian states we find them in Pennsylvania, in West Virginia and especially farther south in Alabama, In southwestern Indiana and in Mlinois ‘Pennsylvanian sediments were laid down in a swampy environment. Numerous coal beds indicate fresh- water swamps, while on the other hand very thin Fig. 126. Pennsylvanian landseape. 1) Lepido- dendvon; 2) Sigillaria; 3) Tree Fern; 4) Cordaites; 5) Calamites (Lesquereux and White) in texture. The fossils are plant impressions of the time (See Fig. 126.) ‘The vast alluvial plains of the time which existed in Diinois, Indiana, Missouri, Kansas, Okla- homa, and Texas probably resembled the vast alluvial plain of the Ob River in northern Siberia, which has an areal extent of well over one half million square miles. On such a plain the riversORIGIN 81 laid down sands in valleys as proved by the observed thickness of the sandstones at the base of the cycles in Mlinois, They are commonly 5 to 10 feet thick and rarely reach a maximum of 100 feet in the deepest part of the channel. ‘The beds overlying the basal sandstone are arranged in a very definite sequence. Directly above the sandstone is a shale which is sandy, poorly bedded, and non-marine. It is overlain by a peculiar limestone which is nodular and impure, suggesting that it was laid down in fresh water. ‘The clay and coal which follow wore also laid down in relatively fresh waters. They are succeeded above by a very black shale which represents the first deposit in a transgressing sea. The very fine Taminations suggest that it was deposited in very qulet water. Tt contains abundant organic matter in a very macerated condition. This is the likely source rock from which oll later migrated to near- by porous reservoirs. In the typical cycle is it overlain by sandy layers and calcareous shales. The limestones which appear at the top of the sequence have the character of marine sedi- ments. They rarely contain shell fragments, but evidence of algal deposition is abundant. Most of them are dense and very pure as if they were chem ical deposits. ‘They represent a very brief incursion of shallow marine waters, since they are succeeded above by silty shales (and sandy shales), which have ‘the characteristics of brackish water deposition. ‘Almost always they are barren of fossils, both plant and animal. Nevertheless, at some localities a rather plentiful supply of fossils has been reported, especially in the lower portion of the shale. SIGNIFICANCE OF CYCLES. The very inter- ‘esting discovery that the sediments in the central part of the United States during Pennsylvanian time are arranged ina cyclical pattern has great signifi- cance in connection with the formation of oil. Evi- dently, there is a phase within the cycle which is most favorable for the original accumulation of oll- soaked muds. The depth of the water, the supply of organic matter, the salinity of the water, all had to be properly balanced to allow the organic mat- ter to be preserved. In the cycle there is a phase favorable to the formation of coal, which also re- sults from the accumulation of organic matter in ‘a nearly pure condition. ‘Thus the two types of mineral fuels are here generated in very close proximity to each other. IMPERFECT CYCLES. The studies of Wanless and of Weller have shown that the eyelte deposition of sediments was rarely perfect or complete. The fig. 125 shows that almost each cycle has one or more typical members missing. Under such circumstances it was possible for the mud in which the oil was ‘generated to be placed close to a sandy layer, which later became the reservoir for the storage of the cerude oil. ‘The ideal situation would be one in which the sandstone and coastal swamp deposits would be placed in juxtaposition as shown in the fig. 127. MID-CONTINENT. In the states of Kansas, Ok- Jahoma and north Texas we find that similar conditions ‘existed during Pennsylvanian time. The thick parts of the deltaic wedges lie in southern Oklahoma and in north eastern Texas. (See fig. 129). Toward the north into eastern Oklahoma and eastern Kansas the sinking ‘was less rapid. There we have alternations of marine sediments with continental deposits. ‘The same is true across northern Texas. Again we find large areas of low-lying land on which sea-level fluctuates rapidly. ‘The existence of many swamps is indicated by the coal ‘beds. Sandstones cut down into lower deposits suggest {ng the presence of streams in many places at different ‘times. In eastern Kansas the shorelines of the ancient Cherokee sea have been clearly marked out by the long narrow trends of oil-producing pools in Greenwood and Butler counties. DELTAS IN OKLAHOMA. Among the ancient deltas of the world none is more fascinating than the one which was built in southeastern Oklahoma and southwestern Arkansas. Inasmuch as the Penn~ sylvanian rocks furnish the second most prolific Fig. 127. Sequence of drawings showing six stages ina shore line to indicate ‘the formation of swamp deposits as the result of the rise of sea level. (U.5.G.8. Prof. Paper 193)ORIGIN Cross-section from northern Oklahoma to the southeastern part of Oklahoma to show the rapid inerease in thickness of early Fig. 129. Pennsylvanian sediments. (Levorsen in Bull. AA.P.G. Bull. vol. 11 p. 660) abundance of source material for oil fields it will bbe profitable to examine this delta in detail. During all of Paleozoic time up to nearly the close of the Mississippian this part of the world was relatively quiet. To be sure there was abnormal subsidence in the foreland region involving the present site of the Arbuckle Mountains, but we are concemed for the moment with an area lying east of there. EARLIEST PENNSYLVANIAN. An enormous change took place in latest Mississippian time. For some reason, the land mass of Llanoria started rising and shedding sediments to the north and north- west of a point located in northwestern Louisiana. ‘The proof of this statement lies in the thick body of very coarse clastics which was accumulated. ‘These rocks have been studied very thoroughly by Bruce Harlton who gave them the name of Push- mataha. He subdivides the Pushmataha into 6 formations, the lowest one of which alone has a maximum thickness of over 5000 feet in the im- mediate vicinity of Llanoria. His columnar sec~ tions show the presence of 10 sandstone zones and an equivalent number of silty and shaly zones. We can safely assume that the sandstone zones imply a spasmodic rise in the landmass of Llanorla and that the succeeding finer material represents the wearing down of a proportionate amount of granite and related rocks. THICKNESS. The thickness of the formations ‘which make up the Pushmataha is very great. The lowest one is the thickest, but several others measure in the neighborhood of 4000 feet maximum. Several formations consist of a peculiar siliceous shale, ‘The presence of the abundant silica in these shales is explained by Harton in a novel way. Summing vp the total thickness of all formations we reach a figure in excess of 15,000 feet maximum. Naturally, a9 the thickness is greatest nearest the source and becomes rapidly less toward the northwest. In a distance of half a dozen counties the thickness 1s nearly zero. ENVIRONMENT. The environment under which these remarkable thicknesses were laid down was that of a delta, Practically all the layers contain ripple marks, rill marks and also fossils which imply shallow water deposition. The fossils con- sist for the most part of such seale trees and fern fragments as are shown in fig. 126. ‘The depth of ‘the water probably at no time exceeded 200 feet. This means that we must envision a sinking seg- ment of the earth next to the old landmass which went down spasmodically and with extreme rapidity uring the short span of time involved in earliest Pennsylvanian history. We have evidence of the accumulation of organic matter in the abundance of macerated materials in the shales, No doubt there were many temporary swamps and lakes in ‘which oll-soaked mud accumulated, There is also evidence of short periods of time during which purely marine conditions existed. Platy shales with numer~ ‘ous foraminifera, ostracods and shallow water bra- cchiopods are present at intervals in the Pushmataha, OUACHITA REVOLUTION. At length a time ‘was reached when the subsiding trough refused to go down any more, The rocks laid down in the trough were pushed up and in the process were folded and faulted. Compression between the land- mass and the foreland plate caused the rocks to be prominently thrust faulted. Great slices (of Ordovician rocks especially) were shoved upward {into the air and became subject to erosion, Other slices farther south were made up of the recently deposited Pushmataha rocks. The high mountains so formed are the ANCESTRAL OUACHITAS and they were located approximately on the site of the resent Ouachita Mountains. ‘MC ALESTER TROUGH. Concomitant with the rise of the ancient Ouachitas we see the forma tion of a new trough north of them. This trough has received several names of which the name McAlester trough is probably most often used. Deposition in this new trough began with a rush {as testified by the torrential accumulations of con- glomerates like those at Staff, Oklahoma and at Boles in Arkansas. As the mountains rose they were being denuded by erosion and in the course of time the McAlester trough became filled with approximately 1600 feet of sediments belonging to the Morrow subdivision of Pennsylvanian time. The rapidity of movement in the thrust slices which were being denuded is interestingly documented by the finding of curious boulder conglomerates especially in the middle formation of the Morrow series, The lange exotic boulders consist especially of fragments of the Ordovician and the Mississippian rocks, but some pieces of Pushmataha rocks are also present. Rocks of Morrow age have been found as far north in Oklahoma as the northeastern90 HOW OIL 18 FOUND LLANORIA Land Mass Igneous & Metamorphic Onoovic1an Aocks Camerian Fig. 130. A. Pushmataha Sediments LLANORIA ‘LAND Fig. 131, B. Building of Ancestral Ouachites Leanoasa Fig. 132, Diagrammatic cross-section to show the deposition of the Morrow, Lampasas, lower and middle Cherokee rocks in the McAlester trough.a1 ORIGIN eas See Vert MON ueF OW 8wi4e7 YSORUL I 208mwIO 7 Held T presses,92 HOW OIL IS FOUND TABLE VI. PENNSYLVANIAN CORRELATIONS SERIES EASTERN CENTRAL, NORTHERN | CENTRAL SOUTHEAST KANSAS KANSAS OKLAHOMA | OKLAHOMA | OKLAHOMA Wabaunsee | Wabaunsee | Wabaunsee | Vanoss Pawhuska viRGIL Shawnee Shawnee aoe Ada all absent Douglas Douglas Nelagony ‘Vamoosa Lansing Lansing Ochelata Ochelata Kansas City | Kansas City Belle City all absent ee Bronson Bronson Skiatook Francis, Bourbon Bourbon Seminole Holdenville Marmaton ‘Marmaton Marmaton Wewoka all absent Wetumka Upper Upper calvin — Cherokee absent Cherokee Senora all absent Stuart MOINES a Midate a absent absent Boggy Rogey absent absent absent savanna Savanna MeAlester McAlester LAMPASAS | absent absent absent Hartshorne | Hartshorne Atoka ‘Atoka Barnett Hill | Barnett Hill wapanucka | Round Prairie Morrow absent absent absent pa Union Valley Ss.| Union Valley Ss. Lower Tacktork PUSHMATAHA | absent absent absent ee StanleyoIGIN ‘counties, but they do not appear along the line of our cross-section (fig. 133) which Hes approximately ‘through Osage county. ‘DEPOSITS OF LAMPASAS TIME. Deposition ‘continued in the McAlester trough through Lampasas time; which means that rocks of the Atoka, Hart- shorne and McAlester formations were laid down. ‘These rocks make up a wedge 5000 fect thick at the south and thinning rapidly toward the north. ‘They do not reach as far north as the rocks of Morrow age. The rocks of Lampasas age are com= posed of sandstones largely, with numerous inter- ‘alations of shale present. They also show abun- dant signs of having been accumulated as sands and muds in a delta environment, Large production of oll from the Dutcher, Gilerease and Booch sands {n eastern Oklahoma testify to the abundance of or- ganic matter which must have been accumulated with the sediments. CHEROKEE TIME. The rocks called Lampasas by Cheney are called lower Cherokee by Lowman who {includes also the Savanna Sandstone and shale in the lower Cherokee. In his middle Cherokee series he Includes especially the Boggy sandstones and shales. ‘Together these comprise a thickness of about 1000 feet, laid down in the MeAlester trough. Apparently, the upward movements in the ancient Ouachitas which ‘caused so much sediment to be washed into the trough ceased about the end of Boggy time. The presence of the famous Bartlesville sands in rocks of Boggy age testifies to the abundance of organic matter. POST-BOGGY UPLIFT. There is much reason to believe that a broad uplift in southeastern Okla- homa occurred at the close of Boggy time, pro- ducing a new area subject to denudation. The main reason for this assumption is the fact that the strike of the mext sandstone, the Thurman is entirely dif- ferent from the strike of the older Pennsylvanian rocks. In Oklahoma the Thurman is the basal layer in the upper Cherokee series of Lowman and this, includes also the Stuart, Senora, and Calvin for- mations. They consist of alternating sandstones and shales. Again we have evidence of shallow water deposition and a favorable environment for organic accumulations, ‘The oll-bearing sands known as the Calvin and Prue sands belong here. DEPOSITS IN KANSAS. The oldest rocks of Pennsylvanian age so far found in Kansas belong to ‘the middle Cherokee division. ‘They are found at present only in the eastern third of the state where, however, they have proved to be very productive of bboth oll ‘and gas. West of the Nemaha Granite Ridge these rocks are not present over a wide area, How- fever, they do reappear in far southwestern portions fof the state. In the large central area of Kansas, where so much oil has been found, the oldest Penn sylvanian rocks belong to the Marmaton series, ‘Therefore our cross-section fig. 133 has at the base rocks of this age. Above them follow the isk, Geol. Survey Bull. 3. 93 rocks of the Missouri series and on top are the rocks of the Virgil series. In Barber County the total thickness of the three series is about 2000 feet and in Barton County about 1200 feet. CHANGE IN FACIES. The coarsely clastic rocks of southeastern Oklahoma gradually give way toward the north to less clastic rocks such as silt- stones and shales. In northern Oklahoma there is even some indication that the shales give way to limestones. In Kansas, the limestones predominate, indicating that the detritus from the mountainous areas in southeastern Oklahoma was not carried that far north by currents and undertow. The vertical variations in the sequence, so characteristic ‘of the rocks in northern Oklahoma and in Kansas, must be changed to the oscillations of sea level as ‘was described under linois, In fact cycles similar to those in Mlinois have been worked out by R. C. Moore in Kansas. ‘OUACHITA MOUNTAINS. The history of the ‘Ouachita Mountains is written in the record of the rocks which were derived from them. After the first violent uplift just after Jackfork time they continued to rise spasmodically until about the close of Boggy time (see table VI). The thick se- quences af coarse clastics laid down in the McAlester basin are proof of this statement. The exhaustive studies made by Croneis in Arkansas? seem to bear this out also, His cross-sections (of which one is, reproduced in fig. 134) show the Savanna forma~ tion as the highest one in the deformed strata of ‘Arkansas, It is therefore, likely that all of southeast en Oklahoma and practically all of central and western Arkansas was lifted up to become land; and, at the same time become the source of sand, gravel, and clay, to make possible sedimentation during the remainder of Des Moines time, (See table VD. After Des Moines time there was a tendency to push the shorelines of Pennsylvanian and Permian seas ever farther westward and north- ward, This suggests continued broad uplifting to ‘the southeast. ‘The cross-section fig. 134 shows the present attitude of the strata in western Arkansas from south to north across the highly deformed Ouachita Mountains of the present as well as across the great central Arkansas synelinorium farther north. Note the prominence of the Devonian novaculite which makes hard ridges in the mountains south- west of Little Rock. Novaculite is a form of chert and extremely hard. Mountain building in the Ar- ‘Buckle region came between Holdenville and Semi- ole time. It is therefore, likely that the folds shown in the cross-section were also made at that time. CRETACEOUS DELTAS. During Cretaceous time some large deltas were built in the western part of the United States. Great wedges of sand-HOW OIL IS FOUND Fig. 136, Map of a portion of the Mississippi delta to show one of the numerous channels of the river. (After Carsey in A.A.P.G. Bull. 34,43, p. 373) stone, siltstone and clays are present from Montana southward into New Mexico. These sediments accu- mulated so rapidly that they were mostly laid down ina geosynelinal environment. However, toward the east where the sinking of the land was more deliber~ ate wefind the same types of low-lying lands on which Fig. 135. Generalized dlagram to show the deltaic Cretaceous accumulations of coarse material at the west, changing into shales, etc. toward the east. (After Bartram in A.A.P.G. Bull. vol. 21 #7, p. 902) swampsform most of thetime, but which are covered at intervals by shallow sea water. Thisis especially true of the early Cretaceous sedimentation, In be- ‘tween marine conditions predominated. TERTIARY DELTAS, Most of the oil fields of the worldare associated withdeltas of Tertiary time, ‘Thegreat ancestral delta of the Mississippiis astrik- ing example, In California where nearly all the oll comes from Tertiary rocks, the deltas are predomi- nantly of the deep water type. There the sediments accumulated in troughs which generally contained sea water. In a certain sense they simulate geosyncline conditions as revealedelsewhere on the continent. In the oll-fieldareas of Burma, long narrow arms of the sea reached up toward the north between land masses. In these troughs great thicknesses of deltaic sediments, were accumulated, mostly in brackish waters. (See Fig. 2) MISSISSIPPI DELTA. In the Unitea States the largest stores of oil sofarfound are those which were accumulated in the Tertiary sediments of the Missis~ sippi deltas. The map in fig. 187 shows the different ages of rock which now appear at the surface in the area where the Mississippt River built its deltas. The word Is used in the plural, because the river began building deltas way back in Eocene time, some 60 million years igo. Eocene rocks are shown infour different patterns (or symbols) to identify the subdivisions called Midway,ORIGIN MEET sen eet laf ESE tom oe amd re enme anann ot) CZ romeo tt) isn at (Ee ee SSS we Fig. 137. Geological map of the Mississippi deltas. (Fisk in Miss. Riv. Comm., U.S, Army Corps, 1944)96 Clatborne and Jackson, It will be noted that they crop out from Cairo, Mlinois down to the city of Jackson in Mississipph. "The MIDWAY beds are dark to black clays, with some sandstones interbedded, They lie at the surface in northern Louisiana, but dip southward at a rate which puts them below present drilling depth in extreme southern Louisiana (below 15,000 feet). ‘The thickness also increases from north to south. ‘The WILCOX sediments consist of a complex of inter- bedded river deposits, delta deposits and marine de- posits. Sandstone lenses are interbedded with shales and somelignite, The Wilcox sediments thicken rap- idly from north to south reaching thicknesses in ex- cess of 2500 feet. ‘The CLAIBORNE rocks, comprise ou ER ese PsaoCT) a ES HOW OIL IS FOUND a mass of alternating delta, marine and brackish- water materials. Dark shales with abundant organic matter predominate. Some thin sandstones and lime- stonesbreak the monotony of the darkshales. ‘Thick- ening from north to south they reach a maximum of about 2500 feet. In the JACKSON group, river sedi- ‘ments and brackish-water sediments interfinger with marine sediments. The basal sandstone called the Moodys sand, is remarkably persistent over the whole area; and therefore, is admirably adapted to sub- surface contouring. OLIGOCENE ROCKS, During Oligocene time the marine invasions which characterized the Eocene epoch came to an end. Therefore, the rocks which Were laid down during the epoch consist of a com- plex of Interfingering sands, silts and clays of delta type; which in turn are interspersed with marine lime- ™ Stones, marls, and weeeeiZisis psbidesngSlams some ‘clastic rocks. ‘The marine tongues ccanbe identified by the presence of minute fossils called fora- minifera, (See fig. 498), On account of the rapid variations of ETE rae eggs agveMvariatns a casi Es ee el gel ae recs weusor (ULC ici srr SS eerie at eres sh aaa eee ee a coon Signet sions an Seen ee iets eRe Satttis Sie ay om oe - |CLAIBORNE ek J Ppt ae igitestie Fig. 138 Table showing some index foraminifera of Eocene and Oligocene age. ‘Much enlarged. (Michaue & Buck in A.A.P.G. Bull. vol. 20, June 1936)ORIGIN ~98 HOW OIL I8 FOUND Fig. 140. Map showing the band of prolific Miocene production in southern Loulslana submerged under Gulf waters off the ‘coust of Texas. (Carsey in A.A.P.G. Bull. 34, page 381) MIOCENE ROCKS. The rocks of Miocene age have produced most of the oil and-gas in southern Louisiana and southeastern Texas, It is significant to note that they consist almost entirely of delta materials (sands, silts and clays). To be sure, there are a few thin marine wedges of limestone in the extreme Gulf-ward portions of the deltaic ‘mass. Complex variations horizontally and vertically make it impossible to correlate except in very small areas. An isopach map of the Miocene rocks is shown as fig. 139. This map shows that the thick- ness is in excess of 8000 fect in extreme southera Louisiana. TEXAS GULF COAST. Some of the prolific sandy zones in the thick Miocene af southern Loul- siana are absent on the mainland of the Texas Gulf Coast, This situation is shown on a map prepared by Ben Carsey (See fig. 140). Unfortunately, the reports on Texas do not coincide in their use of the word Miocene with the reports on Louisiana. The thick group of sands called the Frio in Texas, is considered a part of the Miocene in Louisiana. In fact the so-called Miocene of Louisiana includes also the Anahuac and Catahoula of Texas which are there considered of Oligocene age. PLIOCENE ROCKS. Some difficulty has been found in separating the Pliocene rocks from thor> of Miocene age. Murray therefore Includes a grou af deltaic sediments, some 4000 feot thick, under the name Mlo-Pliocene series, A few thin bands of Umestone and sandstone of definite marine char- acter have been found interbedded with the deltaic sands, silts and clays. These questionable age sodi- ments have produced some ofl in pools of southern Louisiana. They are expected to provide much ofl TABLE VI. COMPARISON OF TERTIARY IN LOUISIANA AND TEXAS ‘TEXAS GULF COAST LOUISIANA, PLEISTOCENE Lissie 300 Sands & clays Various 250 Clays at top Names Sands pelow PLIOCENE. willis 100 Sand & gravel No outerop «1500 Sands, silts, Clays'& Ls. ‘MIOCENE, Fleming 1500 Clays & some sands No outerop -—-5000-—Sands, silts, Clays'& Ls. OLIGOCENE Catahoula 600 Shale and sands Catahoula Sands, silts, clay ‘Anahuae 0-3500 Wedge of marine (Anahuae 2) 3000 Same shale. Some sand Frio 200-3000 Wedge of non- (Frio 2) Same marine sands, ete. Vicksburg. 0-4000 Shales & thin’ sands Vicksburg «0-200. at top, organic shale ower down EOCENE,SS Si a s JE are A “us EE ose SS meive scanos™ y 7 Oo . ie “ah ts 5 +s 4 tere 3 a we or = = iano Fig. 141. Map showing the distribution of Quaternary deposits and the sub-sea level of ‘the base of the deposits on the present delts of the Mississippi River. (Alter Fisk in Miss, River comm., Corps of Eng., U.S. Army, 1944)100 in the off-shore tidelands area which is just now coming into the limelight. PLEISTOCENE. The modern Mississippi delta has laid down sediments south of Natchez and ‘Alexandria during the ice ages and in Recent time. ‘These sediments are 500 feet thick only a few miles south of Natchez and rapidly thicken to 3000 feet before the coast is reached. ‘The map fig. 141 shows that the sediments deposited by the modern river were also made in a sinking trough just like the more ancient sediments. SIGNIFICANCE OF SINKING TROUGH. From the foregoing’ data it can readily be seen that the Gulf Coast and the land for some distance to the north has been sinking ever since the beginning of the Tertiary period, (asa matter of fact the sinking began as far back as Jurassic time). The amount of sinking was relatively moderate from Cairo south- ward to a line running through Natchez, From there southward the sinking was much more a centuated. Consequently, wells drilled in that part of the state of Louisiana penetrate only into the Miocene at depths of 15,000 feet which is the pre- sent limit of drilling. Some geologists would call such a sinking trough a geosyncline. It is interesting to speculate where the line of maximum subsidence might be. Only a few years ago the opinion was generally held that the present coast line marks the line of greatest subsidence. Now, however, it is believed that the deepest part of the trough lies farther south, LACK OF CRUSTAL MOVEMENTS. One of the most striking conclusions which can be reached from a study of the Mississippi deltas is the lack of crustal adjustments, Under the terrific weight of 20,000 or more feet of sediments one would suppose that mutiny would take place. In other HOW OIL IS FOUND parts of the world, as we saw in Chapter UL, there ‘was mutiny when a trough or geosyncline reached a certain critical depth (or thickness of sediment). Perhaps in the area of the Missisaipp! delta that critical depth has not yet been attained. Neverthe- less, we have some comparative data from other parts of the world where Tertiary sediments also accumulated ina similar manner. One of these places is the Ventura basin of southern California. ‘There violent uplift took place after something like 15,000 feet of sediment had been washed into the narrow trough in that part of the state. VENTURA BASIN. Eocene, Oligocene and Miocene sediments have been found and measured fn the numerous oil fields of the Ventura basin. (See map fig. 142). The Oligocene beds are nearly all continental. The Miocene beds show a great variety of environmental conditions. ‘The Pliocene is best known from the Ventura Avenue fleld (see fig. 27). The very great thickness of the Pliocene variously estimated to be from 15,000 to 20,000 feet was evidently accumulated in a very narrow local trough and under extremely rapid conditions of accumulation, while mountain building was going fon nearby. The fossils found in these strata in- dicate shallow water at the time each layer was formed. Therefore, the sinking of the trough must Ihave been continuous to keep pace with the influx ‘of sediment. At a date before Quaternary time and after Pliocene time the compression of the Earth raised the Pliocene rocks and folded them into re- latively simple anticlines and synclines. This is in strong contrast to conditions farther east in the region of Oak Ridge and the Santa Susana Mountains. In those areas there was a development of over- ‘turning and thrust faulting on a complicated scale. (Gee fig. 143). Fig. 142. TSee Reed in A.A.P.G. Bull, vol. 20, page 1644, Map of the Ventura basin in CaliforniORIGIN, 101 EXAMPLES FROM OTHER CONTINENTS. On | show the Tertiary rocks very greatly disturbed other continents most of the oil which has been found to date comes from rocks of Tertiary age. Large accumulations have been found in Venezuela {in South America. On the continent of Asia probably the richest are those of southern Russia around the city of Baku on the Apsheron Peninsula. They will be described in detail on succeeding pages. The phenominal recoveries from the oil fields of Persia and Mesopotam{a have been mentioned previously. The oil fields of India and especially of Burma after they were formed. Large accumulations of Tertiary oils have been found in the Dutch East Indies on the islands of Sumatra and Java BAKU. One of the richest oil-producing districts in the world was found in southern Russia on the flanks of the Caucasus Mountains. The fig. ‘one shows the general location of this area. Here too Tertiary sediments were laid down under con- ditions very similar to those in southern Louisiana, ‘The stratigraphic sequence of the beds is as follows TABLE VIL SEQUENCE OF BEDS IN THE BAKU DISTRICT AGE THICKNESS DESCRIPTION QUATERNARY 100 Conglomerates, sands, clays. Broken shells, silts, salt ete. OROGENIC UNCONFORMITY TERTIARY PLIOCENE (upper) ‘Apsheron 1800 Limestones, sands, marls, clays. Contains gas-bearing sands. Aktehagil 150 Black organic clays, marls, sands. Oll-produeing in some fields. Productive Series (Upper) 2800 Clays with sand lenses. Large of production in many fields. (migdte) 600 Thick sand lenses with mud lumps. Large ofl production in many fields. (ower) 1800 Sands, clays and sandstones. Large oil production in many fields, OROGENIC UNCONFORMITY PLIOCENE (middle) Pontian 1500 Organic clays, siliceous marls. Lenses of detrital limestone. LOCAL UNCONFORMITY MIOCENE Diatom Beds 900 Diatomaceous clays and siliceous marls. Some oll at Binagady. Mediterranean 1500 Clays, mars, dolomitie limestone blocks. Some oil at Cheil-Dag. OLIGOCENE ‘Maikop 900 Clays, brown, green & yellow. Some are bituminous. Kown 1800 Clays, green, brown & white. Bituminous shales present. Oil shows throughout. EOCENE 3500 Clays, marls and sands.102 HOW OIL IS FOUND Fig. 143, Structure section across the Santa Clara valley and the Oak Ridge anticlinorfum, (ater W.SM. Kew) ‘The strata enumerated in table VII were laid | Miocene strata there is every indication that diatoms down in a rapidly subsiding environment by streams, | were buried by the billion. Sea weeds are also largely as deltaic accumulations. ‘The presence of | -prominent in the fossil assemblage. These furnished sea water at various levels is indicated by the mu- | much sapropel and no doubt later made important merous foraminiferal zones. Fish remains in the | contributions to the sum total of crude oil, Al- early Tertiary deposits are conspicuous. In the | though some oll has been found in Miocene strata, Het + + + + a. + ui + a * aimacgor. + Me caesar cs ae + 00 106 . eo, a t10K Ba : Fig. 148, Map of the Apsheron Peninsula in southern Russia. The map shows the prolific oil fields {in black and the mud volcanoes by menns of a plus sign, (After Goublin)onIGIN 103 it is apparent that most of the sapropel was never converted to crude oll. ‘The PONTIAN represents middle and also lower Pliocene deposition. ‘The influence of marine con- ditions is prominent in these layers and therefore, the presence of organic matter is subordinate. Quite the opposite is true in the overlying PRODUCTIVE SERIES. In the clays of this series there is much fonganie debris. The lower 1800 feet show evidence fof deposition in a deltaic environment. The middle 600 feet consists principally of sand lenses. They have characteristics of sand dunes and were probably accumulated above water in a desert environment. ‘The presence of mud lumps, which are clay balls | resulting from the eruption of mud volcanoes, 1s very interesting. ‘The absence of fossils confirms the conclusion that the rocks of the middle PRO- DUCTIVE SERIES are continental in origin. Inas- much as they now contain the bulk of the oil which was produced in the many pools of the Balu dis- trict, it is evident that the oil must have been from adjacent oll-soaked muds or must have entered from ‘some of the bituminous layers lower down. In the upper layers of the PRODUCTIVE SERIES clays predominate, but lenses of sand are numerous. ‘The fossils indicate that these strata were laid down ina fresh-water environment and probably represent mostly top-set beds of a delta with numerous in- tercalations of stream-lald sands, The sand lenses are filled with oil. ‘This oll very probably had a very local origin in the mud-soaked clays inter- bedded with the sands. However, there is a strong possibility, as we shall see later, that some of the oil came up from older strata AKTCHAGIL and APSHERON. The strata which are called Aktchagil and Apsheron contain Some oil in a few pools, but their productivity is pale beside the yield of the Productive Series. Some black organic clays are present to suggest the origin of the oil. It is also significant that the Apsheron formation contains much free gas. ‘As in so many parts of the world, we find that here too the gas is very migratory and tends to .ceumulate in the highest productive strata of a given petroliferous district. MUD VOLCANOES. During Aktchagil time the growth of mud voleanoes was greatly accentu- ated. Apparently the differential pressures which had been generated in the subsiding basin for so many millions of years reached theirfirst culmi~ nation during Aktchagil time. Some of the clays of the Oligocene Kown series were pushed up through the overlying sediments. The water which accom- panied the upthrust of the clays made them soft and therefore they erupted on the surface as mud volea noes. The fact that this process was initiated earlier is attested by the fact that the middle Productive Series has so many mud lumps in its thickness. ‘They were originally mud from erupting volcanoes and were later rolled around by waters during the time the upper Productive Series was being de- posited, Between Pliocene and Quaternary time ‘mud voleanoes must have been extremely numerous in the Baku region, for then the orogenic forces which had produced the necessary tangential pres- sures to produce them reached a climax. This assumption is based on the fact that a great an- gular unconformity is present in the oll flelds at the top of the Pliocene sequence. IMPORTANCE OF THE MUD VOLCANOES. ‘The mud volcanoes are not merely a freakish phe- nomenon of nature. They explain the pecullar lo- calization of the oil pools in the Baku region. The differential pressures which resulted from the piling fon of thousands of feet of sediment caused the Eo- ccene and in some cases even older rocks to break Fig. 145, Te is best exemplified by the Cheleken Islands ofl pool but also occurs in some of the pools on the Apsheron Peninsula Generalized diagram to show the typical oil-producing structure of the mud veleano type.104 HOW OIL 15 away from their foundations and come toward the surface. The Oligocene Kown series was particularly susceptible to disruption as it consists of clays of various colors. As these clays came up through the thick Miocene and Pliocene strata they were converted into mud by the water which was caused to migrate toward the fissures. ‘They lubricated the muds and enabled them to push higher and even- tually reach the surface. Oil and gas also surged toward the avenues of upward mud migration. ‘The gas in some cases became imprisoned, but in most cases issued.as seepages at the surface, Mean- while, the strata through which the muds forced their way were bent upward and broken by numerous issures and faults. TYPICAL OIL FIELD. All these processes combined to produce some of the most intricate and bizarre structural freaks in the world, The fig. 145 attempts to show the present appearance of the typical oil pool of the Baku district. It will be noted that the central core consists of thoroughly disturbed strata of all ages including some even older than the Tertiary*. ‘The strata in the core are usually vertical or overturned and generally crushed. The core is surrounded by a zone of in~ tense fracturing. Some of the fractures are faults and some are merely fissures in the flanking strata, ‘Therefore we find a zone present around the central core which is characterized by steep dips and nu- | merous breaks. Still farther away from the central core the strata are slightly arched and the dips are more gentle, One of the places where the central core may be inspected today is at Bog-Boga. ‘There the core is composed of the crushed clays of the | | Oligocene Kown series. An extinct mud yoleano is present as are also numerous seepages of gas and of oll. Nevertheless, the immediate vicinity of Bog-Boga is barren territory. However, on its flanks in the Balakhany district, the different mem- bers of the Productive Series are present; and there rich deposits of oil have been found by drilling, HISTORY OF MUD VOLCANOES, The history of mud voleanoes was rather fully «described by Professor Koralevski. He lists more than 160 such volcanoes either active today or recently extinct. Most of them are connected with the peculiar type of structure shown in fig. 145. Many of the is- lands off the coast of the Apsheron peninsula are now active mud voleanoes. Some of the imprisoned gas occasionally gets enough force to throw out some of the superincumbent mud to mimic a voleanic erup- tion. There is one island on record which has ap- peared and disappeared beneath the waters of the Caspian a number of times. ‘The broken pleces of erupted rock and mud accumulate to form a breccia or to result in the formation of mud balls, At Surakhany the mud volcano was active during the previous century. Gas seeped from the crest and ‘occasionally was ignited, ‘Therefore, the superstitious "See Goubkin in A.A.P.G. Bull. vol. 28, p. 651, 1934 FOUND priests of that time built a temple around the mound and the cult of fire worshippers was inaugurated, ‘Mount Lok Batan is a mud volcano which is pre- sently active. It has an eruption on the average of four to five years throwing out mud and gas. One of the most interesting corollaries of the activity of the modern mud volcanoes is the fact that the water level in the Caspian Sea is caused to fluctuate fon account of them, BURMA. Another region of prolific oll pro- duction from ‘Tertiary sands lies in Burma. The information on the pools of that country points di- rectly toward the conditions under which oil may originate. A map showing the location of the prin- cipal pools is fig. 2 in chapter L This map shows ‘that the pools lle ina very narrow belt which trends north to south in close proximity to the Chindwin and the Irrawaddy Rivers. They occupy a line of folding in an ancient Tertiary basin which now is 120 miles wide and over 700 miles long. Naturally the basin was wider at the time of the accumulation of sediments, for the folding of the rocks has made it narrower. OIL-BEARING ROCKS. The rocks found in the oil fields of Burma consist of a rapid alter nation of sands and clays. The individual layers are of varying thickness; and lenticularity is very prominent. In age they range from Eocene to upper Pliocene. They were laid down in a typical delta environment which simulates in many respects the conditions described for the Mississippi deltas. In Eocene time the southern portion of the great es- tuary into which the mountain-born streams were pouring their sediment, was occupied by sea water. ‘Therefore in southern Burma, the Eocene sediments show by their fossil content that they were laid down in fairly clear ocean water. However, in the northern part of the estuary the sediments acquire the nature of deltaic and river sedimentation. OLIGOCENE. The next higher (Oligocene) rocks show the same variation from south to north, Dat here we note that the deltaic and river sedi- ‘ments encroach farther toward the south. A very thick sequence of clays with mmerous interbedded sands was Iaid down. The clays are notably bitu- minous and carbonaceous. About the latitude of the ‘Yenangyoung field, (the largest in Burma) there is fa rather thick concentration of sands in the upper portion of the Oligocene called the Okhmintaung. ‘This sequence of sands is very petroliferous. Tt ‘was formed in an environment which alternated be~ tween marine and brackish-water conditions. Lignite and carbonaceous material is present indicating ‘swamps of both types. The lenticularity of the beds is pronounced. MIOCENE. Rocks of Miocene age also show the tendency toward marine conditions in the south and brackish or {resh water conditions toward the north, which is displayed by the older rocks. Clays,oriGIN 105 shales and many sandstone layers are present. In the Yenangyoung field sandstones are especially prom- nent near the middle of the sequence (Kyaukkok). ‘They are extremely petroliferous. The total thick- ness of the producing layers is in excess of 4500 feet. No less than 50 different sands are present {in the field from the surface down to a depth of 5500 feet. They vary in thickness from a few feet up to a maximum of about 150 feet. Stamp‘ re- ported in 1927 that 70 million barrels of of! had been taken from these sands within an area of less ‘than one square mile (or more than 100,000 barrels er acre). PLIOCENE ROCKS. Rocks of Pliocene age are very thin in the Yenangyoung field, but they be- ‘come very thick toward the north, In general they consist of gravels, sands and other coarse clasties. Apparently they were laid down in rivers for the ‘most part. There are many coneretions of calea~ reous, siliceous, and ferruginous nature. Fossil wood is abundant. The fossils are bones of land animals. These features suggest subaerial depo- sition in alluvial fans, and rapidly aggrading rivers, FAULTS AND MUD VOLCANOES. The oil pools of Burma are characterized by transverse faults and mud voleanoes. The latter are particu- larly prominent at Minbu about 15°miles south of Yenangyoung. About 8 vents are presently active. ‘Most of them are holes filled with mud and water from which bubbles of gas emanate continuously. ‘One of them is a mound about 100 feet high. In the Yenangyoung pool there are many signs of an- cient mud voleanoes. On the surface some thick accumulations of mud are present which evidently Hlowed out of an orifice. In drilling, “veins” of mud are frequently encountered which extend down- ward a considerable distance. They are believed to bbe associated with the faults. Tainsh’ reports that fossils taken from the mud in such fault fillings are the same as occur normally in upper Eocene and Oligocene layers. This suggests that similar processes were at work here as those which are ‘0 distinctive in the Balu district. During the folding of the Tertiary rocks, which took place after Pliocene time, differential pressures caused the deeply buried clays to be crushed and the fragments to rise to the surface. ORIGIN OF THE OIL. In view of the many faults present at Yenangyoung and several other de- scribed pools of Burma, the temptation to assign the original source of the ‘oil to the bituminous shales near the base of the Tertiary is great. No doubt some ofl did move through the fault fissures and certainly much gas escaped along the faults. How- ever, other evidence tends to prove that most of ‘the oll is local. That is it was formed in the clays which are’ associated with the present sand reservoirs. ‘See A.A.P.G. Bull. vol. 11, page 570. "See Bull, ALA.P.G. vol. 34, p. 854, 1950. ‘One argument against vertical movement of the oil is the presence of abnormal high pressures in the central part of the Yenangyoung pool. They are considerably greater than the normal rock pres- sure and amount to approximately one pound for each foot. Thus wells on the east flank which went to 9000 fect found that the water in the sands at depth have a pressure of 5000 pounds per square inch. This indicates that the fluids in the lower rocks were sealed off at the time of folding. Also the extreme lenticularity of the oil-bearing sands argues in favor of a nearby source for the oil. ‘The enviromnent in which all the strata of the petro- Iiferous sequence were deposited was the type which ‘might be called intermediate between fresh water on ‘the one hand and marine on the other. Tt is the type in which oll-soaked muds originate, In Burma as elsewhere coals are found in the Tertiary sequence. ‘They were formed in a fresh water environment. TRANSFORMATION OF SAPROPEL. If we grant that tt seems reasonably certain that sapropel forms most advantageously in a delta environment or at least in muddy sediments full of organic ma- terial and bacteria, it still remains to determine how fluid oil was produced. Several investigators conducted experiments to see if great pressure ‘might be involved. But thelr experiments seem to prove conclusively, that this is not the case. In the refinery and the chemical laboratory heat will ‘change sapropel into something akin to oil and as- phalt. Temperatures of the order of 100 degrees to 200 degrees centigrade are needed. Practically zno geologist will admit the likelyhood of such tem- peratures as having been present where oil pools are found today. Even at 16,000 feet the heat of the earth would scarcely equal 100 degrees centi- grade. Barton made a very exhaustive study of the ‘Texas Gulf Coast oils in 1984. It was his considered opinion that the temperature at no point or at any tUme exceeded 50 degrees. ‘The chemical changes which do take place to produce liquid oils and gaseous fractions are probably related to time. In other words, nature can accom= plish great changes if given enough time. We have hho way to imitate nature on this score. Some ex- perimental work has been done on this angle to the general problem by Maier and Zimmerly. They demonstrated that bitumens can be distilled from folly shales at any temperature provided enough time is allowed. They estimated for instance that it would take 80,000 years for 1% of a certain oll shale to change over into bitumen at a temperature of 100 de- grees C. At the same rate it would take approximately 67 million years at 2 temperature of 60 degrees C. (140 degrees F.). It is very probable that the pro- duction of bitumens from oil shales involves a much longer time span than the production of fluid ofl in fan oil-soaked mud by means of compression.106 |A very definite contribution to the problem was made by Hackford in 1982 when he demonstrated that he could produce liquid ofl from algae (one-celled plants) by means of acid hydrolysis at relatively | low temperatures. | RADIOACTIVITY. The suggestion that oil | ‘might be produced from organic matter by bombard- ment with alpha particles came originally from Dr. Lind. During 1945 Sheppard & Whitehead experi- mented with fatty acids to see if hydrocarbons could bbe produced in this manner. As the reader probably knows, alpha particles are thrown off during the decomposition of uranium disintegration. When uranium (or thorium or potassium) decays a num- ber of transformations are produced and finally the end product is lead. Each member of the series disintegrates to form the atom of the next lower member and emits typical radiations. Certain atoms emit only beta particles which are high-velocity electrons. Others always emit alpha particles which are helium nuclei. An alpha particle consists of ‘bro protons and two neutrons bound together in the micleus of helium. Eight alpha particles are pro~ duced in the changes from an atom of uranium to fan atom of lead. Inasmuch as fatty acids are present in diatoms and other microscopic organisms, Sheppard & White- head used similar acids' in their experiments. They proved that such saturated fatty acids are definitely converted into paraffin hydrocarbons. An interesting Sidelight on this angle of the problem is the fact that dark shales (organic matter produces the dark color) have a very high content of radioactive ele~ | ments. The Chattanooga shale of Devonian and Mississippian age is a very good example because it occurs over such a wide area. In the production of hydrocarbons by alpha particles from methane there is theoretically a great deal of hydrogen berated. This fact seems to be the greatest stumbling block to the acceptance | of this very intriguing hypothesis. CATALYSTS, In his interesting paper on the effect of catalysts, Brooks” has very carefully sum- marized all the arguments against the influence of alpha rays. He prefers to believe that catalysts are present which are able to convert sapropel into crude oll or at least to convert the first heavy crude into lighter crudes. He mentions the fact that clays of the nature of Fuller’s Earth have long been known to have a catalytic action in polymerizing unsaturated hydrocarbons. In one of his experiments Brooks studied the polymerizing effect of 18 common rocks and minerals. He found that 6 of the sandstones show a catalytic activity which compares to that of Fuller's Earth between 30 and 60 per cent. He also found that $ Oklahoma clays show activity Bul, Bull Bull pail AAPG. . AAPL. . ALALP.G. AAPG vol. 30, p. 46, 1946, 32 Dee. 1948, 31, ps 1496, 1947. 34 April 1950. vel, vel, vol. HOW OIL 1S FOUND which is almost as high as that of Fuller's Earth. It is entirely possible that the catalytic activity of different muds in contact with erude oils in their original condition, may account for the puzzling fact that crude oils with very different composition are present in two sands now separated only by a small vertical interval. ‘Much research work with clay minerals has been done by Ralph Grim. He has found that clay ‘minerals change quickly (in a matter of a few years) {n response to changes in environment. In explaining the catalytic effect of the clay mineral he states ‘that the microscopic structure of the clay mineral and the organle substance are brought into a state of balance. He also mentions that Kaolinite probably adsorbs organic matter only to a limited extent while Montmorillonite, on the other hand adsorbs ‘much more readily". RUMANIAN OILS. The most recent contribution to the problem of the origin of ofl was made by Hlauschek ''in his masterful discussion of the oils of Rumania. The chemical composition of the crudes is presented in various tables and graphs.- These show that the Dacian (see table IX) crudes are mostly of naphthene and naphthene-intermediate ‘base while those of the Meotian are mostly of par- affin to intermediate base. Guided by these rather sharp differences in the principal erudes of Rumania, lauschek goes into the various theories which have been presented to explain the origin and transfor- mation of ofls. He concludes 1) crudes do not ‘change their character because of varying amounts fof overburden; 2) pressure is not important in the chemical transformation of crudes; 3) Oxidation is not important. The last conclusion is based on the observation that oxidation produces compounds which fare not found in crude oils. Furthermore, the por- phyrins of plants are very sensitive to oxidation. ‘Their preservation implies lack of oxidation. Hlauschek further finds that hydrogenation which appeals so strongly to many geologists and also chemists as a method of transformation, must bbe ruled out. He mentions that hydrogenation would destroy the side chains which are characteristic of the higher fractions of naphthenic olls. Secondly, the presence of such units as neutral resins, as- phaltenes, and various oxygen and sulphur compounds is significant. These substances react very easily ‘with hydrogen and would split off before the olefins are produced. AS regards the importance of cata~ lysts, he believes that their effects, if present at all, are restricted to the transition phase from souree material to liquid ofl. ORGANIC MATTER. In theorizing on the original constitution of the material which Ister becomes crude oll, Hlauschek makes some veryoniGIN 101 TABLE IX, STRATIGRAPHY OF PLOEST! DISTRICT AGE THICKNESS LITHOLOGY PACIES QUATERNARY TERTIARY Pliocene Levantian 500-2500 Sands, congl. marls River and lake Dacian** 300- 400 ignite, sands, marls Sub-brackish Pontian 400- 800 Maris Brackish & fresh Meotiane++ 80-500 Maris, sands, Limest. Brackish & fresh Miocene Sarmatian 100- 300 Maris, sands, limest. Brackish water ‘Tortonian 0.1600 Maris, sands, limest. Brackish to marine Helvetian 1200 Sands, marls, gypsum ‘Brackish & marine Burdigalian 200 © Sands’ & conglomerates Marine Oligocene ‘Aquitanian Dark shales Lagunal Chattian Sands & shales Marine Rupelian Sands & shales Marine Sannoisian Sands & shales Marine ++ Meotian has produced 65 percent of Ploesti oil Dacian has produced 29 per cent of Ploesti oil ‘The Oligocene has produced 4 per cent and the Miocene less than one per cent. interesting remarks. He starts out with the conclu- sions reached by Waksman that the organic matter fon the sea bottom consists of elther a carbohydrate protein complex, or a ligno-protein complex. Lignin is characteristic of land plants and absent in plank- ton and ordinary marine plants. Furthermore, lignin and its derivatives contain aromatic rings which ean be reduced in the laboratory to naphthenle hydro carbons. There is a strong probability, therefore, that cyclic hydrocarbons of erude ofls were derived from ligno-protein complexes. This suggests that the Dacian oils of Roumania were formed where matter was plentiful. ‘The Meotian sediments which were laid down im brackish and fresh-water environments are prob- ably derived from the carbohydrate-protein com- plex. The mother substance of the Meotian oils was probably deposited farther off shore than that of the Dacian olls. ‘This hypothesis seems to find abundant confirmation in other areas where geolo- gists commonly find that the more marine beds con- tain predominantly paraffinic oils. The higher beds which are so olten characterized by continental de- position features such as the presence of coal beds land the absence of fossils, contain predominantly cyclic oils.Chapte: HOW FAR DOES 1H we assume that oil ean be formed in nature from organic matter in a porous mud, then we must attempt to explain why it commonly occurs in a sandstone, How did it get into the sandstone and how far-did it travel when it migrated into the sandstone? These questions are not only interest Ing, but extremely important in connection with the discovery of additional oil pools. EVIDENCE OF MIGRATION. The best evi- dence that we have for migration is seepage oll. Numerous seepages from all parts of the world were described in Chapter I. Some of these nat~ ural springs allow fluid oil to come to the surface. ‘Many allow only the gas or the lightest constituents to reach the surface. Most of them consist of heavy, tarry residue of inspissated oll. In Mexico the ofl comes up from a saturated Limestone, some 2000 feet, to the surface along the narrow zone of division between shales and intruded igneous rocks in dikes. It oozes out as fairly fluld material but later congeals as the lighter fractions disappear. In California along the western side of the San Joaquin Valley there are places where the oll has, migrated laterally up the slope of a sandstone res- ervoir and congealed on the ovierop. In the oil fields of Persia and Irag there are prominent gas seepages. These are due to the presence of many minute crevices in the rocks overlying the buried oil deposits. ‘OIL WELLS. Another indubitable bit of evi- dence is furnished by a bore hole which penetrates ‘an oil-bearing sandstone, As soon as the bit en- ters the zone of saturation oil and gas rush toward the bore hole and may even flow rapidly to the surface of the ground. Adjacent bore holes prove by their action that the oil migrates at least as far as the common distance between them which is 660 feet. There are numerous examples on record of far greater travel from one hole to another. Dobbin, in his report on the oil fields of northern Montana, mentions some wells which showed by their flow action that they were connected under- ground with other wells as far as 2 miles away. ‘One gas well, for instance was allowed to flow in an unrestricted manner for a short time. Immedi ately, the flow of oil from many wells in surround- ing leases was greatly increased. MARSH GAS. In many parts of the world gas is found in swampy land, This gas is com= bustible and numerous chemical analyses show that it ts composed largely of Methane (CH,). Apparently some of the organic matter in the presently form- ing swamps is being converted into hydrocarbons VI OIL TRAVEL? and is escaping through the overlying materials Into the air, In Michigan where the ancient ice sheet deposited great thicknesses of drift, marsh gas has been found at quite a number of widely separated places. It comes up from ancient swamps now covered with other materials. FUNDAMENTAL DATA. Many fundamental data enter into the question of oll migration and it will therefore, be necessary to digress for a mo- ment to consider some of them. One group of data may be called the physics of rock particles and involves such matters as grain size, pore space, porosity and permeability. Another group of data involves the relations of rock masses in the Earth's crust, say ina distance of 15,000 feet from the surface. Here we find problems in rock density, ‘weight, compressibility and similar matters ths’ vitally affect the migration of oil. Lastly we have ‘a group of facts to consider which are directly re- lated to the composition and physical behavior of ‘the oil and the other fluids commonly found with it. For, in oil fields the oll is rarely alone. Usually there is much gas dissolved in the oll or perched ‘upon the oil accumulation. On the sides of the oll and below it there is almost always water. In fact the water seems to be present in the same pores in which the oil is stored, ROCK PARTICLES. The small particles of rock which make up the common reservoir of oil pools in sandstones have certain characteristics well described by Nutting. He has analysed hun- dreds of samples from all parts of the world and finds that the size of the grain (with very few ex- ceptions) lies between 0.21 mm and 0.09 mm. It is true that some gas pools have coarser grains, but oil in such sands would probably drain out of them by gravity. When sand of uniform size is poured into a container filled with water, the grains arrange themselves in such a manner that a poros~ ity of 39 per cent results. After most vigorous agitation and treatment they shake down slightly, Fig. 146 ‘Three drawings to illustrate A. Well torted grains B. Poorly sorted grains €. Cement between grains. 108MIGRATION, bbut the porosity still remains greater than 36 per cent. Such high porosity is due to the uniformity PORE SPACES. The pore spaces are pecul- jar in shape as they constitute the spaces between nearly round grains. (See fig. 147) They act like by XO a 147. Gommon shapes of pore spaces (Graton & Fraser) capillary tubes because of their small average di- ameter. It is interesting to note that the size of the pore space is very important. For the condue- tivity of pores varies as the square of the diam- eter. In other words a pore space which is 5 times the diameter of another will have 25 times the capacity to transport oll. Measurements in the sands of western Pennsylvania (Bradford field) give an average of 0.15 mm as the diameter of the | grains and an average of 0.16 as the diameter of A B Fig. 148. Diagram showing two capillary tubes fof different diameter. Note how the capillary lift increases as the diameter of the tube decreases. (After Meinzer) 109 the pores, The maximum pore space is 0.5 mm. and the minimum pore space has a diameter of 0.04 mm. The finer pores in such a situation would {iN by capillarity and the coarser pores would prob- ably drain by gravity. In general when sand grains are coarser than 0.2 mm the oll drains by gravity. SURFACE TENSION AND CAPILLARITY. It is apparent that capillarity enters into the picture Fig. 149. Drawings of three capillary tubes of different shape. Note that the rise of fluid Is the same regardless of the shape of the tube. (After Meinzer) of oil migration on a very important scale, Take a glass tube which has a very small diameter and place some water into the tube. Immediately the water will rise against gravity. What causes it to rise? The attraction of the glass for the water is greater than the attraction of the water for itself, "This phenomenon is known as surface tension. Each fluid has its own surface tension and furthermore, the surface tension varies with temperature, Under normal temperature conditions on the surface of the ground, water has a surface tension which is three times as great as that of crude oll. Hence ‘water will tend to occupy the smallest pores while the oll wili have to take the larger ones. A good ‘way to demonstrate this tendency is to place an oil emulsion into a container in which later a small piece of diatomaceous earth is suspended. The di- ‘atomaceous earth has extremely minute pores. Al- most immediately, the water in the oil emulsion ‘will enter the pores of the diatom earth and leave the oil behind. Furthermore, and this may be very important in oil migration, surface tension is relatively independent of direction. Fluids are pulled vp into hair-like pores as readily as they are pulled down or sidewise. ADSORPTION & ADHESION. Sand grains have a ready affinity for oil. The clear dry grains are eager to acquire a coating of oily film. They pre- fer the heavy fractions of the oil. This extremely thin coating of asphaltic material thereafter tends110 to (sand becomes hydrophobic) repel water which ‘may want to circulate through the pores. Thus the pores of a sandstone for various reasons make it ‘easy for oil to enter and also easy to pass through and beyond the point of entry. EFFECT ON OIL-SOAKED MUD. The char- acteristics so far enumerated help to explain why a sandstone lying either above or below an oil- soaked mud will gather in the oil like blotting paper. Even though the sandstone may have water in its pores, there will still be the interchange, water selecting the small pores of the mud and oil being forced to take the larger pores so vacated. SPECIFIC GRAVITY. The specific gravity of the three fluids, oil, water and gas are different. Of the three water is the heaviest. Being usually taken as the standard of comparison, it has a spe cific gravity of one. Oil has a specific gravity ‘which in all cases is less than one and may be as low as six tenths. The common range of crude oils lies between 0.7 and 1.0. Gas of course is very light and tends to occupy the whole area avail- able to it. Therefore, there is a tendency for the gas to separate from the oll and rise to the upper parts of the enclosed chamber. Actually, in most oll fields the gas is dissolved in the oil, Because of its lightness, gas has a very valuable property ‘which is called buoyancy, and which plays an ex- tremely important role in migration. ROCK PRESSURE. The pressure which is found in oll fields is usually spoken of as rock pressure. Some physicists believe that this pres- sure at any given depth should correspond closely to the calculated weight of an equal column of water. ‘Many measurements have been made in oil fields and the departures from the expected pressure are considerable. For instance in Michigan the Upper ‘Traverse beds at a depth of 1600 feet have a pres- sure of 630 pounds per square inch as compared to a calculated hydrostatic pressure of 700 pounds. ‘The lower beds in the same region also show a similar disparity, Frank Clark in Problems of Petroleum Geology mentions some very striking ‘exceptions where the pressure is considerably less in certain producing sandstones in the Seminole (southern Oklahoma) field than the calculated hy- Grostatic head. In the gas fields of the Texas Panhandle which are the largest in the world, the pressure is about half of the calculated pressure. Professor Illing has studied this problem rather exhaustively, He mentions the fact that in most fields the gradual pressure decline is due to the exhaustion of the gas originally present with the oil. In some fields, where gas is either ab- sent or small in amount, water comes in to re- place the oll and maintains the pressure of the reservoir. This condition was noted especially in the so-called Golden Lane pools of Mexico, How- ever, there are some fields in which the water does’ not replace the oil as rapidly as it is drawn off and in those the pressure drop is considerable. HOW OIL 15 FOUND So long as the sediments remain in a plastic condition the pressure at depth is a function of the | rock mass and the included water, but when the rocks are consolidated and much of the water has been squeezed out by compaction, then differences become apparent. COMPACTION. The effect of weight on clays | has been studied especially by Athy. He finds that they are quite compressible and experience a nota- ble change in volume under an overburden. His experiments showed that a loss of 20 per cent oc~ curs at 1000 feet, 40 per cent at $000 feet and 47 per cent at 6000 fect. The loss is due almost en= tirely to the elimination of the contained fluids as the rocks are weighted down by superincumbent layers, This strongly suggests that migration with- in clays (and shales) is possible. No doubt com- paction is an extremely slow process and has operated throughout geologic time. It is probably going on today in geologically young regions. Compaction of sandstones, on the other hand sooms to be extremely slight. It amounts to pos= sibly a few per cent even with a thick overburden of rocks. Limestones, also show the effect of ‘weight only to a very slight degree. Even when the limestones are cavernous or porous, they do not seem to suffer much from the piling on of other rocks. DEEP WATER. The potable water in the Earth’s crust les within a very shallow zone. The ‘water table which is often defined as the top level of the saturated zone in the Earth’s crust, usually es within 30 feet of the surface. Below it there may be several hundred feet of saturated rock. In arid regions this is greatly reduced or non-existent. Lower down the rocks carry a certain amount of water as has been abundantly proved by drilling ‘operations. It will be profitable to inquire into the nature of this water and also to find out where it originated. As a general rule waters found below | say a depth of 1000 feet are saline waters. In many respects they resemble ocean water. Many geologists therefore believe that some ocean water 1s entrapped with the sediments at the time of dep- sition. ‘Then again there are some waters which are deep and yet fresh enough to drink. Such waters are usually called artesian. | ARTESIAN WATER. The first artesian water well was drilled in France near the village of Artois. Here some pioneers drilled to the remarkable depth of 1789 feet after many difficulties were conquered @uring 7 years work, ‘The well which was finished in. 1841 found a copious supply of water in a lime- stone reservoir. Ever since then similar water, | whieh is in confinement, and which rises toward | the surface when the reservoir is tapped, has been called artesian water. One well in North Dakota near Springfield, which derives its water from the famous Dakota Sandstone of Cretaceous age, had a pressure of 86 pounds per square inch at the time of drilling and produced nearly § million gallons of water per day.MIGRATION, EXAMPLES. In the United States artesian water is obtained in southern Wisconsin, Towa and northern Hlinois from a sandstone of Cambrian age often called the Potsdam. In the same general area, there is another sandstone, higher in the sec- tion called the St. Peter (of Ordovician age) which also produces much artesian water. Some wells get water from the St. Peter sandstone at a depth of 2000 feet some 200 miles away from the outcrop. Both sandstones dip away from the outerop toward : 3 i ? Madigon Wis. a | since then no less than 15,000 others have been completed. WOODBINE SANDSTONE. A different type of aquifer is the Woodbine sandstone of Cretaceous age ‘which crops out in central north Texas (See page 20). It contains fresh water for quite 2 distance down the ip, but gradually the water becomes brackish close to the Mexia fault zone. On the east side of the fault zone, the sandstone contains salty water very similar to the original ocean water whichwas probably buried i Patt EES N-Niagaran imestns EE] oaqotata EES r-ratvitesinestons EE] taLower Magnesia Fig. 150, Cross-section from central Wisconsin land the St. Peter sandstones are the south. ‘The rain water which enters on the out- crop flows down the dip of the sandstone and becomes available as drinking water or commercial water. ‘The hydraulic slope is about one foot per mile and the water travels about 1760 feet per year. Here is a clear case of migration of water underground. DAKOTA. In the United States the Dakota sandstone is the best known carrier of artesian water. It crops out in the eastern Rockies and some of the smaller mountain masses like the Black Hills of western South Dakota. The rainfall which centers the 100 foot layer is carried down under the Great Plains to be tapped in western Nebrasia, the Dakotas and to a lesser extent in Colorado’ and points farther south. With a porosity averaging 15 percent and a good permeability the water seems to travel with fair speed and great distances. Ge- | ologists are well aware that the Dakota sandstone is not a single layer, but rather consists of a com- plicated series of intertonguing sandstone lenses. Nevertheless, the circulation throughout its under ‘ground extent is well known from thousands of wells. ‘The first well was drilled to this layer in 1882 and EE] coitens aorta [EE] Ps-Potadam sandetone [Ey se-strser sanstone southward into the state of Illinois. shown with a dip toward the south. | ig. 152. Contour map of the Tyler basin in Dallas sactwavd and reach their gvestest Gupth in the hachured aveu marked Tyler Basin. Then they ae again into the | Morthwesierm corner of Lousiana Fig. 151 Dakota Sandstone Cross-section from the Black Hills eastward to the Missouri River to show the altitude of the (After Lobeck)2 with it, Deep within the East Texas basin the sa~ Malty of the water is twice as great as normal ocean water. Going in the direction of northern Louisiana toward the other outcrop it becomes less salty being about the same as sea water in the large East Texas pool, These data suggest that rain water has flushed out part of the ancient sea ‘water for some distance down the dip on both sides of the basin, CONNATE WATER, The name connate water thas been applied to underground water which has 2 salinity siniilar to sea water. The name is used ina rather flexible sense to cover a wide range of salinities. It originated as fossil sea water, but has been modified by various processes, so that its constitution is changed. One of the most in- teresting studies made on connate water is the one by Dott and Ginter whieh reveals the salinity of the Ordovician rocks from the outcrop in Missouri down dip into the southeastern part of Oklahoma. In that distance the character of the water changes from nearly fresh water to a salinity of about 0,000 parts per million in central Oklahoma, Then it changes more rapidly, eventually reaching a salin- ity of 250,000 parts per million. It will be recalled that normal ocean water has a salinity of 35,000 parts per million of which about 30,000 parts are sodium chloride (table salt). By comparison one sandstone in the Seminole field oof southern Oklahoma has 152,000 parts per million of sodium chloride. In the Garber field of north- fer Oklahoma, the sodium chloride content reaches the large figure of 248,000 parts per million, ‘This is exceeded by the Oriskany sandstone from Wash ington Pennsylvania where it has 275,000 parts per million of sodium chloride. This’ is truly salt water. HOW OIL 1s FOUND CONNATE WATER IN CORES. In a number of of areas, cores of producing formations have been studied and it has been found that connate water is present with the oil in the same stratum. For instance in the East Texas field Schilthuis re~ ports that a sample core shows an average of 10 per cent connate water and that the water near the base of the producing zone contains 30 per cent connate water. In the Anahuac pool of southeast ern Texas the percentage of water with the oil varies from 16 per cent to 98 per cent. At Tomball, nearby the average water saturation is 55 per cent. ‘The relations of water and ofl in Pennsylvania are shown in fig. 153. IMPLICATIONS. These data reveal that the sandstones mentioned which now carry oil were probably laid down in saline water and that some ff the fossil sea water is still present, even though il has come into the sandstone later. FUNCTION OF GAS. Almost without excep- tion the oil fields of the world have gas present with the oil. It may be segregated in the form of a “gas cap”, but more often it is present in’so- lution in the oil. ‘The imprisoned gas is under pressure and therefore, moves toward the bore hhole when a well has been drilled into the oil sand, Its buoyancy carries the oll with it, If proper control methods are used the gas will function as, an oil carrier for a long time. Therefore, it is customary nowadays to establish a correct gas-oil ratio as soon as a new field is found. Gas is ca~ pable of moving through smaller openings than oil as proved by gas seepages and also by other more significant data, For instance, it is common to find that the uppermost sands’ in a field with a number of producing zones will carry only gas. Gas also leaks to the surface over the area of an Pig 153, Water and oil in cores of the First Venango sand in western (Sherrill, Dickey and Matteson in A.A.P.G, Strat Type Ol Fields, p. 528)MIGRATION oil field and the soil is enough richer in gas to make the detection of the field possible. HELIUM IN OHIO. One of the most convine- | lng proots of the upward movement of gas has | been found in central Ohio. There the Clinton sand produces much gas. Helium is a relatively | rare gas found only in a few places. In Vinton County the Clinton sand contains 0.30 per cent he~ lium. In the same county a sand some 1850 feet higher than the Clinton also carries the same per~ centage of helium gas. THEORIES OF MIGRATION. ‘The evolution of theories on off migration is very Interesting. »Nat- urally, the early writers flrst focussed attention on 3 the relative specific gravities of the three fluids found in oil reservoirs, the ofl the gas and the water. They visualized’a separation according to density and were quick to point out that in a typi- cal anticline the gas should occupy the upper por- tion of the reservoir and the ofl should be found floating on the water lower down. ‘The gravitational theory, as it has been named was clearly formu- lated as early as 1886 by Edward Orton, state ge- ologist of Ohio. Later, it was found that the sepa ration is rarely complete but that the gas tends to remain in solution. Even the water seems to cling tenaceously to the walls of the little grains of sand while the large pores are occupied by oil and gas. Fig. 154, Idealized cross-section of an anticline to show the gravitational ‘The upper part of the drawing shows the corresponding contour lines. arrangement of the oil, (Alter Hewett Lupton)ns ‘The separation is more likely to be fairly complete in coarse grained sandstones. In fine-textured sands we should expect only a partial rearrangement of the three fluids. HYDRAULIC THEORY. In 1909 Munn enunci~ ated the hydraulic theory of oil migration. Since water moves under hydraulic and also capillary pressure, the sandstone lying above a poorly con- solidated mud will lose some of its water down- ward. Munn realised that compression causes re~ duction in volume and believed that the water and oil emulsion would be thereby forced out of the ‘mud into the overlying sand. Rich later expanded this theory to include long range migration. He believed that water could carry oil and gas long distances through porous sandstones like the Dakota and the Woodbine. Dur- ing their journey the oil and gas work up toward the roof of the carrier bed, A difference in po- rosity causes a screening action, permitting water to pass, but retarding the of and gas. REPLACEMENT THEORY. In 1919, McCoy proposed the replacement theory for oil migration, He suggested that the oll in the mud below the sandstone loses its ofl while the sand above loses its water. They change places on account of vari- ations in surface tension and also under the impulse of compression forces. The adhesive tension be- ‘tween water and the wall material is greater than the adhesive tension between oil and the wall mi terial. The displacement pressure caused by ad- hesion in the capillary tube is greater than the surface tension of the oil-water interface or the cohesive tension of the oll itself. Consequently small bubbles of ofl separate and find their way into the water tube of the capillary system. GRAVITATIONAL - HYDRAULIC THEORY. Later other writers modified this replacement the- ory somewhat. They suggested that the ofl mi- grates because it is carried by vertically circu- lating currents of water. The water comes from the muds which are being compressed by compa tion pressure. After reaching the reservoir sand- stone the oll moves elther up or down until it reaches a suitable trap. It moves up with capil- larity or down with gravity, Some writers have pointed out that when water and oil are both pres~ fent in a porous layer and moving in the same di- rection, that the water will have a tendency to by- pass the oil, Also they emphasize the fact that water adheres readily to sand while the oil lodges In the larger openings. ‘There it needs persuasion to be dislodged. ‘The gas present then pushes the oil on account of its greater buoyancy. COMPACTION-HYDRAULIC THEORY. In 1940 the compaction hydraulic theory was presented by Cheney’. Being impressed by the fact that ofl and gas often move up dip for considerable distances Bull, AVAD.G. vol. 24, Jan, ‘Physical Principles of Oil Production, 1940, p. 116 HOW OIL 15 MeGraw Hill Co. FOUND | and also by the fact that such movement is induced chiefly by increasing pressures due to overburden, he reasoned that fluids must move up the dip. He explains that this differs from the hydraulic theory of Munn, because of the direction of movement, since Munn postulated the movement of fluids in a down dip direction. The time of movement is largely restricted in Cheney's theory to the early periods ‘when porosity is being reduced by sedimentary load~ | ing. Also the source of the water is assigned to the expulsion of liquids from compacting sediments rather than from rain water at the outerop. ‘The water expelled in the process of compac~ ton is likely to be very saline because it was as- sociated for a long time with fine-grained sedi- ments. Such water may actually displace connate water (fossil sea water) in those reservoirs. in ‘which there is no lower outlet to encourage circu- lation of meteoric water. RESERVOIR ENGINEERING. Additional hints about oil migration have come from reservoir en- gineers, ‘Since many of the older oil fields are now pretty well depleted and since some. of the newer ones are approaching the depleted stage, the study of the reservoir behavior of oll and gas and water has become very much intensified. ‘Muskat ecently? has set out the fundamental concepts which control the flow of fluids through porous media with all the theoretical ramifications. He describes the reservoirs in which the gas is the propulsive force and in which water comes in during the last stages to mop up the remaining oil. He also de- scribes the undersatured oil fields in which gas never was abundant and where water was evidently the only propulsive force (or nearly so). The lime- stone fields of Mexico are the outstanding example of this, EAST TEXAS. In this country the outstanding example of the “compressible-Liguid theory of water= drive performance” is the very large East Texas | fietd. “Producing from the Woodbine sandstone at a | depth of about $200 feet, the field is about 42 miles Jong and from 4 to 8 miles wide. Fig. 155 shows that the sandstone pinches out up-dip under an un- conformity below the Austin chalk. "The thickness of the sand varies from zero on the east side to 300 feet on the west side. One core af the satu rated oil-producing sand showed five different sands which vary in thickness fom 6 inches to 10 feet, ‘The average total thickness of sand as revealed by 215 cores showed only a total of 30 fect. The sandy shales and voleanic ash beds interbedded with the sands, show porosities up to 18 per cent, but no saturation whatsoever. The average poros- ity of all sands is about 25 per cont and the aver- age permeability 1s about 1500 millidarcies. ‘The good intercommunication of all porous zones. is | amply proved by the very high initial production of 1949.MIGRATION ‘the early wells. It is also proved by the rapid adjustment of bottom-hole pressures at all stages of olf withdrawal (| GS A Fig. 155, Cross-section to show the sequence fof rocks in the East Texas pool. (after Lanes} ‘The initial reservoir pressure was 1620 pounds per square inch but the oll was saturated only to a pressure of 755 pounds per square inch. This Bives a gas - oll ratio of 365 cubic fect of gas per barrel of oil. By Jon 1, 1945 the pressure hhad dropped down to 1,001 pourds per square inch after 21/4 inillion barrels had been extracted, ‘The void ‘created by oil withdrawal was replaced by water coming in from the west. In recent years much water is being produced with the oll. This oll is being returned to the producing formation by ‘means of 60 water injection wells along the western 15 periphery of the field. These 80 wells were capable Of absorbing something like 521,000 barrels per day during early 1949, Thus for all practical purposes, the oil presently being produced in the field is water driven, Since 1945 the drop in pressure has been halted, ‘There was a small increase during the year 1945 and by the middle of 1949 it had been built back to about 1,018 pounds per square inch. From 1939 to the end of 1945 the average daily production was controlled and amounted to a figure between 330,000 and $87,000 barrels. Since 1945 there has been a very gradual decrease in the av- erage daily production from 358,000 to 240,000 bar- rels per day. A large part of this decrease is to be charged to voluntary curtailment since the end of 1948, SUMMARY. From all the data presented it appears that oll and gas originate in oll-soaked mud. They are dislodged from this mud by mi- grating into the nearest porous sandstone layer either a lens or a blanket sand, The interchange is directly related to differential pressures. Move~ ‘ment will continue until a pressure equilibrium has bbeen established in the area. The oil moves largely fon account of the imprisoned gas, but partly by being displaced by water having a greater surface tension. Some is forced out by compression or compaction pressures. After reaching the reser~ voir sandstone, the ofl and gas travel farther until suitable trap is found, The distance of travel is, usually very small since most sands are lenses of United extent. Great credit is due to Fred Lahee for his very penetrating and exhaustive study of migration after the oil reaches a porous reservoir’. He comes to the conclusion that lateral migration is, the predominant method of oil transportation under- ground. By lateral migration he means movement more or less parallel to the bedding planes of the strata, By vertical migration he means movement across the bedding of the strata. YOUNG STRATA WITH LENTICULAR SANDS. it is very important to remember the fact that most sandstones are laid down as lenses. These may be small or large, but the small ones greatly predominate in the geological column. ‘This is es- pecially true of the young sediments such as the ‘Tertiary. An examination of the map fig. 156 will show that there is a strong tendency for the oil fields to occur along trends. ‘The trends are really areas where shoreline sands were abundantly laid down during Tertiary time while the land along the Gulf Coast was slowly subsiding. Being in a near-shore environment, we ccan assume the existence of lagoons and therefore, ‘that swamp deposits were laid down with the sands. In fact thick sands like the Frio sands probably ‘contain within their thickness many zones of swampy ‘Problems of Petroleum Geology pp-400 to 424, published by the A.A.P.G. in 1934.116 HOW OIL 18 FOUND Fig. 156, Map of the Gulf Goast of Texas to show trends in the oll flelds. sediments, ‘These swampy sediments furnished the oll which is now stored in the sandstone reservoirs. Migration therefore took place over short distances only. Barton has studied the nature of the Gulf Coast crudes very exhaustively, He finds that there is a regularity of variations in their physical prop- erties which implies a very local origin. The regu- lar variation in the physical properties of the erudes proves that they are related to depth of burial and age of enclosing rock. They are not related toMIGRATION, progressive modification on account of vertical migra tion. Some local exceptions can be found close to salt plugs where we have undoubted evidence of faulting and the presence of vertical avenues of fluid movement. Brooks in 1949 prepared some graphs similar to those made earlier by Barton, These graphs ‘which include oils found in more recent pools show that the regularity in change with age and depth are not as uniform as indicated by Barton. Never- theless, the average results do show a general tendency in agreement with Barton’s original find- ings. Similar graphs prepared from Cretaceous crude analyses reveal no evidence of any correla~ tion with age and depth as was found in the Gulf Coast crudes. Brooks concludes that the latter must be considered unique. CALIFORNIA. In California we also have ofl pools in Tertiary strata. In the large Santa Fe pool (Los Angeles basin) we find 9 different pay zones separated by impervious shales. Each has its own edge water. The gravity of the oils varies from 29 to 95 degrees and the differences bear no Airect relation to depth. ‘The gasoline content of the various crudes varies from 2 to 35 pereent. It is uite apparent that these conditions imply lateral migration, ‘The situation at Ventura (Ventura basin) is entirely different. There the gravities of the various oils are different progressively downward. ‘The top zone has oil with a gravity of 56 degrees, while the lower zones carry oil with a gravity of 30 degrees. However, even here the migration was mostly lateral even if we grant a certain amount of vertical movement. A still different situation is exemplified by the large ofl accumulations in the Kettleman Hills. ‘There the upper zone contains ol! with a gravity of 60 degrees. The other four zones have oll which is light on the crest, but becomes heavier down on the flanks. Here we have clear indication of some vertical separation and zoning. Nevertheless, the evidence for lateral migration to account for most of the oll is overwhelming. The sandstone in the North Dome is 1900 feet thick and completely satu- rated, It contains the oil in strict conformity with the structural theory. The total amount of oil is proportional to the size of the structure which is a large anticline. ‘The nature of the water on all sides and its pressure is the same, This is true despite the fact that the lithology of the rocks is exactly the same whether they carry ofl or water. ‘CRETACEOUS FIELDS. The Cretaceous rocks fare somewhat older than the Tertiary rocks and in them we find two very different sets of conditions to consider. First there are the lenticular sands so well illustrated in the Rocky Mountain fields and also in the fields of northern Louisiana, Then secondly, we have beautiful examples of sheet sands for blanket sands like the Dakota in the Rocky Moun~ tain fields and the Woodbine in the Louisiana and ‘Texas fields. In the Rocky Mountain states these at fare found one above the other in addition to older sands below the Dakota. The largest pool in the Rockies is the Salt Creek pool in eastern Wyoming. It produces from lenticular sands in the Frontier ‘Strvcture contours on top Fig. 157. Structure map of the Salt Creek anticline, (After Beck) Fig. 158 ‘to show the comparative saturation of the sands Cross-section of the Salt Greek pool ‘and also the faults. Typ. Amer Oil Fields vol. (After Beck in Struc. »)118 HOW OIL IS FOUND Fig. 159. Cross-section of the HOMER off pool in Louisiana to show the Nacatoch and Oakes sands ‘and the fault, (Spooner in Struct. Typ. Amer. Oil Fields, vol. Il, p. 218) C a 2 TEXAS LOUISIANA et Melb en ff “4 Fig. 160. Map of northern Louisiana to show location of the HOMER of! pool fand the HAYNESVILLE pool.MIGRATION ‘zone and modified blanket type sands in the Dakota zone. The ‘water analyses in the three Frontier (Wall Creek) sands as well as the water in the Dakota sands shows marked differences in salinity. Furthermore, the oll in the second Wall Creek sand covers 22,000 acres while the area in the First and the Third Wall Creek sands covers much less area. These characteristics suggest local source for the oil and lateral migration in each of the producing sands. This statement can be made despite the abundant evidence of faults on the anticline. Some vertical migration is indicated by the finding of gilso- nite veins and similar material, but evidently it has been very subor- dinate in the accumulation of oil in the sands. 'WOODBINE FIELDS. The Woodbine sands were laid down under ‘conditions which imply shallow water near shore. This means that land conditions alternated with marine conditions and that swamps were numerous at many levels and in many places. Thus there is every reason to expect indigenous oil in the Woodbine sequence. The ‘numerous interlocking sandy lenses in the Woodbine cover many thou- sand square miles in northeastern Texas (Tyler Basin). Thus we have {deal conditions for long distance lateral migration besides a ready source for oil. Most of the oil available was evidently collected in the Mexia fault line pools, the Van pool and the East Texas pool. Let's examine the conditions in the Van pool. There the oil has accumulated In an area of 4200 acres on the top of a dome which covers 100 square miles. In other words the pool only takes in 6 percent of the favorable structural area. The Woodbine sand is 650 feet thick and the structural relief is 700 feet. There can be little doubt that the oil ‘in the pool accumulated from a very large area on all sides of the dome. Lateral migration on a considerable scale is indicated. ‘The East Texis pool described on page 116 is another example proving the same type of migration. The source of the oil was. within the thickness of the Woodbine sand and the migration of travel through the maze of sandy lenses within that formation was lateral, NORTHERN LOUISIANA. The pools in northern Louisiana have some peculiar and perhaps unique characteristics which will be well worth examination. Homer is one of the prolific pools of thatpart of the country. There the Nacatoch sand produces most of the oll but some is derived from the Oakes sand somewhat lower in the section. ‘The dome in which the oll was trapped covers some 70 square miles and has 1100 feet of closure. Faults are present. Both sands contain oil of essentially the same gravity. Vertical migration between the Nacatoch and the Oakes sands is clearly indicated. Furthermore, the character of the oil in the Nacatoch sand is very similar to the crude in the Nacatoch at Cotton Valley and Haynesville. These are also domes with high relief and not far away from Homer. Thus there seems to have been a continuous flow of fluids between them at some time. By contrast, some of the other pools of northern Louisi- lana which also produce from the Nacatoch sands, have oil with differ- ‘ent properties. These facts give us some clue to the distance oil thas been transported underground. This conclusion must be tempered with the knowledge that the Nacatoch sands are very lenticular. ‘Therefore, if they connect between the pools mentioned st must be by some kind of intertonguing relationship. MEXIA FAULT ZONE POOLS. The pools along the Mexia fault zone (see fig. 98) have many characteristics in common. The most prominent feature, of course is the presence of a fault on the ‘west side. We might assume that naturally there must be vertical migration involved, However, such is apparently not the ease. Most of the ofl occurs in the various sandy lenses of the Woodbine forma~ tlon. At Mexia there are two prominent sandy zones within the for- mation and the upper one has a distinct zone of bottom water. The salinity of the water in the producing sands is markedly different. The 3 o 8 3 i - z Bs Hy - 35 2 z wee 5 3 Fig. 161. Stratigraphic section to ‘show the rocks in the QUITMAN pool, (Seott in Struct. Typ. Amer. ‘Ou Fields, vol. II p. 423)120 HOW OIL IS FOUND SE. Wf 7 | __ | \, “TY wacarocm ta co NT : QUITMAN FIELD CROSS SECTION Fig. 162. Cross-section of the QUITMAN pool to show the faults. (Scott in Struct. Typ. Amer, Oil Fields, vol. Ill p. 428) ‘Woodbine sands show a lower salinity than the higher sands. They also show a much lower salinity than the limestones below them which are of lower Cretaceous age. Evidently migration along the fault zones has ‘been of no importance in localizing the accumulations in the Woodbine formation. QUITMAN POOL. One of the most interesting pools from the standpoint of ofl migration is the Quitman pool, in Wood County, Texas, not far from the Mexia fault zone pools. In the Quitman pool ‘the Woodbine sand carries only salt water in all its various lenses. Most of the oil in the pool comes from the Paluxy sandy zone which lies about 1000 feet lower down in the lower Cretaceous series of rocks. The Paluxy formation is 400 feet thick and practically all the upper 200 feet contains oil.MIGRATION In this 200 feet the sands are extremely lenticular 0 that the proportion of sandy zones varies any- where from zero to 123 feet. There is no linear pattern for these Sandy zones. The sand was evi- dently laid down as dunes on land and then later reworked by waves of oscillating seas. ‘The Quitman pool is faulted and the faults extend through all sandy zones from the Paluxy on up through the Woodbine into the Harris zone which also contains oil accumulations though of minor importance. The Harris sand which lies in the lower part of the Bagle Ford formation only a short distance above the Wood- bine, is a remarkably uniform sand of the blanket type. Production in this sand is confinedto the high upthrown blocks on the faults. Some 300 feet higher are the sands of the Sub-Clarksville zone (also in the Eagle Ford). They are completely saturated ‘with oll throughout the area of the field, even though they yield no commercial production. TALCO FIELD, Somewhat similar conditions have been found in the Taleo field not far away (see map fig. 93). In the Taleo field the produc tion also comes from the Paluxy sands. Since this pool owes its oil accumulation to a fault, the theory of migration along the fault has many ad~ herents. However, there is no evidence for such fan assumption. ‘The higher sands of the Woodbine, Eagle Ford, and Nacatoch contain salt waters, each of different’ character. GARBER. Tne Garber pool is one of the re~ markable pools of the mid-Continent region. It is, located in northern Oklahoma. The upper strata of Permian and Pennsylvanian age are arched into an anticline above a buried hill of much older rocks (mostly Ordovieian and Cambrian). The Mississip- pian rocks are present on the flanks. (See fig. 163) A very unusual number of strata produce oil on this anticline. It was found in the Ordovician dolo- ‘mite and also in 15 porous zones of Pennsylvanian and Permian age. All crude oils are of similar character and composition, Therefore, the evidence for vertical migration on this structure is indis- putable. The oil probably moved up through faults with small displacement. ‘The presence of such faults was detected during drilling operations when circulation was lost in rolary holes. Gish & Carr report that wagon loads of cotton-seed meal and hay failed to restore circulation. ‘The cause of the trouble was not due to porous rocks, inasmuch as it happened in sandstones and shales. Another Dit of evidence of vertical migration is the fact ‘that some wells in the Oswego zone were spectacu- larly large and had a very short life. Further- more during the early drilling when the Oswego ‘was penetrated and drilling proceeded down to the Arbuckle dolomite no water was found in the Oswego. But the Oswego wells referred to above showed salt water when they became depleted. This water must have come up from the Ordovician zone. ‘OIL IN LIMESTONES, All the above examples were limited to ofl accumulations in sandstones. i i ‘GENERALIZED CROSS-SECTION ‘OKLAHOMA GEOLOGICAL, SURVEY GARBER FIELD SECTION er SKCLARK a Cross-section of the Garber pool. 163, Fig.122 However, as we have learned, much oil is presently found in calcareous rocks such as limestones and dolomites. The evidence bearing on the migration of oil in such rocks is very significant and may allow us to reach a reasonable conclusion. REEF OIL. In recent years no word has caught the imagination of the oil man like the word reef, In fact it is doubtful if any catch phrase has ever excited as much interest at any time in the history of oil finding as the phrase reef accurmula- tion. One of the best descriptions of ol in reef rock is the one by Lowenstam regarding the Marine pool in Minois. The reef rock shows remarkable facies changes from the central core outward. The core, itself is composed of structureless dolomite, which is quite evidently derived by secondary al- teration from original limestone. Tt is full of fos- sil cavities and fissures, The rocks on the flank of the reef are a kind of rubble consisting of bro- ken fossil fragments which accumulated on the slopes of the central core, or one might say the original reef. At the Marine pool, there is also a similar detritus over the core which varies in thickness from zero to about 40 feet. This detrital material at present furnishes most of the oil in the pool. It is covered by a variable thickness of Limestone of the Wapsipinicon formation also of middle Silu- lan age. ‘CORES. Many cores have been taken in this pool and they tell an interesting story. ‘They show the existence of innumerable fissures throughout ‘the Wapsipinicon, the detrital cap rock and the reef core. The fissures have a diameter anywhere from a tiny width to as much as 2 inches, The smaller ones are filled with clay, but the larger ones have clay and considerable sand as well. Some rock Fig. 164, Map of Illinois and adjacent states to show the location of the Silurian reefs. (Lowenstam in Ills. Geol Rept Invest. 131) HOW OIL IS FOUND fragments are imbedded in the crevice fillings, as if pieces fell in from the side walls. ‘The fissures and crevices are evidently Iater than the deposition fof the Wapsipinicon formation. Therefore, they were avenues of oil migration to account for the finding of ofl in the Wapsipinicon limestone and also ina still higher sand which is found in struc turally low places around the reef mass. YATES POOL. The Yates pool of western ‘Texas became famous because it had the langest ‘well on record, This well produced 8000 barrels in one hour when it “came in’” during September 1929, At this rate the well could produce 204,000 varrels per day. This is, so far as the writer is aware, the world’s record flow of ofl from a single ‘well. "Only an underground cavern could produce 50 much fluid in so short a time. The producing rock is a dolomite of Permian age. It is fossilif- ferous and in all probability a reef. The ofl comes from at least 5 zones within a section about 100 feet thick. The oil evidently migrated into the porous zones from the side presumably from oil- soaked rocks lower down structurally. The-holes in the dolomite were produced by solution. ‘KEVIN-SUNBURST, Near the Canadian bor- der in northern Montana, Hes the Kevin-Sunburst pool which produces largely from a limestone of Mississippian age. The top of the limestone shows clear evidence of subaerial erosion which has pro- duced a pattern of hills and valleys. Waters which entered the joints and crevices existing at that time, ate away much of the limestone and thereby produced a great variety of openings. The flow of ‘wells indicates that caverns, vugs, and inter-granular porosity accounts for the oil. Most of the oll was trapped in the upper 6 to 8 feet; however, some oil has been found irregularly through an additional 180 feet of lower layers. In this case the oll very evidently entered after the holes were made in the reservoir. The cover over the limestone is a dark shale of Jurassic age. Presumably that was the source rock. GENESEO POOL. Oil in calcareous rocks is, much more abundant in the older strata than in the younger ones, Much of it is stored in Ordovician dolomites. In Kansas the Arbuckle dolomite is the chief source of oil at present. One of the out- standing pools is located in Rice County near the central part of the state. The fig. 167 shows the structural arrangement of the strata, Approximately 125 feet of the Arbuckle dolo- mite is saturated with oil. However, porosity is not continuous. Rather it is present in zones any- ‘where from a few inches to 10 feet thick separated from each other by dense rock without even a stain of oil. Furthermore, the zones are erratic and cannot be correlated from well to well. There is evidence of solution tubes parallel to the bedding and parallel to the joints. Several wells in the northwestern part of the pool show interference ef- fects which suggest the presence of underground123 MIGRATION124 HOW OIL IS FOUND Fig. 166, Map showing the Kevin-Sunburst oil ‘and gas ficlde on the Sweetgrass arch ‘in Montana, (After Dobbin & Erdenan) caverns. ‘The area of the pool is about 6 square miles and it has an estimated ultimate productivity of 82 million barrels of oll. This figures out to about 10,000 barrels per acre. KRAFT - PRUSA POOL. Another Kansas pool which has been adequately described is the Kraft-Prusa pool in northeastern Barton County, also near the central part of the state. The pool derives 85% of its oll from the Arbuckle dolomite of Ordovician age. Here again we have evidence of the fact that the dolomite was exposed to ero- sion for a long time producing a typical Karst to ography with hills, valleys, sinkholes and needles, As usual solution was selective, leaving areas of “tight”? rock. Some unusually ‘big wells indicate caverns. Most of the wells by their production in- dicate vugs of rather small size but interconnect- ing. ‘The average thickness of the producing zones is 23 feet, but the maximum range is 70 feet. Since the oil is undersaturated (very little gas present) the wells do not flow. Rather they fill ‘up when the producing zone is tapped. The rise of the of in the well is rapid, amounting to about 3000 feet in a few hours. There is abundant evi- dence that water is the driving force behind the oil. Inasmuch as the porosity was produced dur- ing the interval between Ordovician and Pennsylva- rnian time, the ofl could not be older than the Penn- sylvanian. It therefore, must have entered the rock after the overlying Pennsylvanian strata were deposited. Here is a clear case of infiltration from above. Shallow water and near-shore condl- tions existed over a wide area during early Penn- sylvanian time and this promoted the accumulation of source material to form oil. PENNSYLVANIAN OIL. Even more intriguing than the origin of the Ordovician oil, is the time of origin of the oil now stored in the Pennsylvanian sediments which overlie the dolomite. There are a number of producing zones present. One of these 4s in the sandy layers which lie just above the un- conformity between the Ordovician and the Penn- sylvanian. About 8% of the oll so far produced in the Kraft-Prusa pool comes from such local sandy layers. The other 1% comes from porous zones several hundred feet higher in the Lansing lime~ stones of Pennsylvanian age. In these limestones the porosity is of two very definite types, namely oocastic and oolitic. The former accounts for most of the oil. Surprisingly enough, the oocastie zones appear at certain stratigraphic levels which can be traced pretty much over the whole field. The high- est wells In the Lansing limestone, produce only gas, Thus we have evidence in these upper strata of a definite original gas cap. Lower structurally, the same colitic zones produce oil, The oolitic porous zones are thin. They average somewhere between 3 and 10 feet. Also the permeability is low, generally less than 10 millidarcies. ‘The question arises: Has the oil ascended in a vertical direction to become trapped in the oolitic zones? Or is the oll in these zones, of which there are several, indigenous? Gas, as we know travels far and may have been derived from the lower Ordovician dolomite, The fact that the latter 4s 50 lacking in gas seems to offer some proof. ‘Then, also we have oil in still higher limestones of the Pennsylvanian sequence (Shawnee). This oll, though small in amount, seems to have come up from below. SALT WATER. The salt water analyses may throw some light on the problem. In the Arbuckle dolomite the total salinity is only 18,000 parts per million. In the Lansing limestone the salinity is very high - no less than 137,000 parts per million, In the sandy layers at the unconformity, the salinity is var‘able, The analyses so far published indicate‘MIGRATION 135 a x Fig. 167, Cross-section to show the occurrence of oil in the GENESEO pool. (Stuart Clark, Arnett & Roysd in A.A.P.G, Struct, Typ. Amer, Oil Fields vel. I) ASM Raw + ke le tals Pee Nn pedis | coon |e + Fehon ett Fig. 168, Map of Barton County, Kansas to Fig. 169. Small index map to show leeation ‘show location of the KRAFT-PRUSA pool. of the cross-section in Fig. 170,128 HOW OTL, variations between 50,000 and 95,000 parts per million. ‘The pool covers an area of 18,000 acres and has produced to date about 1650 barrels per acre. It has been estimated that the total ultimate recovery will be in the neighborhood of 3600 bar- els per acre. ‘APCO POOL. One of the most interesting pools to study in connection with ol migration is, the Apco pool of Pecos County in western Texas. (See fig. 171). Here the Ellenburger dolomite of Ordovician age is unconformably overlain by Per- mian dolomite and has beneath it pre-Cambrian granite, schist and gneiss. The Ellenburger is 800 feet thick and has three porous zones that carry ofl, Curiously, the oil lies closer to the base than the top. It occurs in an interval some 150 to 300 feet above the base. During the time the Bllenburger was exposed to erosion, ground water enlarged the joint and bedding planes and produced other pas~ sageways. Presumably the solutions did not stop working ‘until the Permian dolomite was deposited, ‘Therefore, the oil must have entered at a later date. The attitude of the Ellenburger is that of a gigantic hogback of steeply dipping layers. The dip is 700 feet per mile toward the northwest. The oll must have entered from the southeast side. KIRKUK, Perhaps the most illuminating ex- ample of oil migration is furnished by the Kirkuk foil field in Iraq. This field lies 140 miles due north of the city of Baghdad on an anticline which is 63 miles long. The anticline is divided into three portions by saddles. ‘The northern dome is the Khurmala, the middle one the Avanah dome and the southern one is the Baba Gurgur dome. ‘The overall closure on the anticline is no less than 2600 feet while the highest dome (Baba Gurgur) has an independent closure of 1400 feet. Ever since the days of Nebuchadnezzar the gas has been escaping from the Baba Gurgur dome, In addition 18 FOUND there are also oll seeps. POROUS ZONES. The oil apparently occurs ‘in a Main limestone and subordinately in other thin- ner limestones higher in the section. These so- called Transition limestones are separated from ‘the Main Iimestone by apparently impervious beds of anhydrite and shale. The nature of the porosity is unique. When a well is drilled it derives its oil from very small fissures. These in turn are replenished more slowly from intergranular poros- ity in the limestone. RESERVOIR PRESSURE, Production so far has been limited to the highest part of the anticline which is the Baba Gurgur dome. On the crest of this dome there are 14 producers along a 9 mile stretch. Quite a few additional wells have been drilled on other parts of the anticline to serve as observation wells. They are used to record fluc ‘uations in gas - oll ratios and espeetally pressure changes. From them it was found that this par- ticular anticline is for all practical purposes one single reservoir despite its length and the 2400 foot depth of ofl saturation. (The water line lies at a depth of 2400 feet below the highest point on the crest). ‘The excellent horizontal communication through~ out the long reservoir is proved by the fact that the pressure on the Avanah and on the more distant Khurmala dome fluctuates with that on the main dome from which the ofl is drawn. To be sure ‘there is a slight lag, During the war when inter- ruptions were necessary, it was noted that fluctua- tions in the daily production rate were correlated ‘within 24 hours with an observation well 10 miles away. The equally good vertical communication in the large reservoir is proved by the fact that the pressure declines observed in the Main Kmestone are also identical with those observed in the higher | transition limestones, A unique confirmation of the Pennsylvanian rocks and the older rocks. 170, Cross-section of the Kraft-Prusa field to show the unconformable relations between (Walters in A.A.P.G, Bull. vol. 30, page 708,)this pressure relationship was obtained in 1937 when one observation well in the T'ran- sition (oil-bearing) imestones went to gas. In this unique pool vertical migration exists within a range of 2400 feet or more ‘and horizontal migration takes place over a distance of 60 miles. This is true despite the fact that the porosity is small and the permeability is probably considerably less than one millidarey on the average. Incl- dentally the 14 wells which are exploited ‘produce 00,000 barrels of oil per day. This has been found to be the maximum efficient rate of production. There are periods when as few as 10 wells produce the total amount of oll for the day. GENERAL CONCLUSIONS. From the foregoing remarks the reader will gather that the question of the migration of oll is a very complex problem. In- stead of attempting to analyse the signi- Aicance of all the lines of evidence pre- sented, the author will refer to a report by Van Tuyl, who has done more research fon this subject than any geologist. The report in question was published in January 1040 in the QUARTERLY of the Colorado ‘School of mines. Dr. Van Tuyl not only presents a penetrating analysis of all the theories of oll migration, but also con- tributes much original material based upon his own experiments, He reaches the fol- owing conclusions. 1) Each petroliferous area has a geologic history peculiar to itself. Therefore, no definite succession of events in the history of a given oil pool ‘can be made to apply to another pool neces~ sarily. 2) Certain accumulations of oil have had a simple history. 3) Some accumula- tions have had a more complicated history involving more than one concentration. 4) The practical solution of the problem de~ mands both regional and local research. Geologists, physicists and production en= gineers must cooperate to determine the special conditions which caused migration ineach area. Incidentally, a very valuable list of references is included in this report. MIGRATION a7 Fig. 171, Cross-section of the Apco pool in Texas to show uncenformable relations between the Permian ‘and the Ellenburger below. (After Ellison in A.A.P.G, Struct. Typ. Amer, Oil Fields mi, p. 416)Chapter VII WHERE DOES OWL, ACCUMULATE? Ever since the first oll pools were discovered, some geologists have attempted to explain where ‘and why oll accumulates to form pools of commer- cial value. The early speculators did not have the abundant information we now possess and were there- fore groping in the dark. ‘They knew practically nothing about the origin of the oll. They had only the haziest ideas about the transformation of organic matter into fluid crude oll. They knew nothing about the migration of oil, but assumed that it would have to be by means of porous and permeable strata, FISSURE THEORY. It may come as a sur- prise, therefore, to learn that the very earliest geologist to speculate on the occurrence af oil con- fidently announced in 1861 that its natural habitat is the anticline. This man was T. Sterry Hunt. In hhis explanation, one finds that he was influenced by ‘the thought that the rocks in an anticline are likely to break and have numerous fissures. Apparently, he was more concerned with providing fissures for the oil to hide in, than for a structurally favorable arrangement of the strata. For some years there- after, the fissure theory held sway. In the meantime much oil had been found in western Pennsylvania where it is exceedingly dif- ficult to find any anticline in connection with the ofl accumulations. ‘The map fig. 172 prepared by John Rich shows how definitely unrelated the oil pools are to anticlines. In the area shown by Rich the rocks are folded into very gentle anticlines and synelines. In the area of the northern part of the ‘map the folds are still more subdued. These folds ‘were worked out mainly on the basis of coal beds which are numerous in western Pennsylvania and the work was done some years after the oil pools were found, One of the men who did a great deal of geological work in western Pennsylvania during the early years of the Pennsylvania State Geological Survey was John Carll, He attempted to collect information regarding the depths of wells and the kind of rock from which the oil came. He was im- pressed by the fact that only sandstones with a fair amount of porosity yielded oil. His superior, J. Peter Lesley was influenced by the findings of Carll to believe that anticlines had nothing to do with the occurrence of ofl and that only porosity was necessary. VOLCANO ANTICLINE. By a very fortunate ‘circumstance, one of the most pronounced anticlines im the eastern part of the United States is located in northwestern West Virginia where it adjoins Ohio. It is called the Volcano anticline and is shown in fig. 173. This anticline had some gas seepages on it and early in 1860 some small oil wells were drilled near these seepages. Professor Andrews of Ohio, one of the leading geologists of ‘that time, noted the coincidence of the ofl and the gas seeps with the structure of the Voleano anti- cline. The fig. 173 shows that the anticline has a relief of 1700 feet in a distance of about 1 1/2 miles, This compares favorably with the high anti- clines in the Appalachian Mountains a good many miles to the east. It is very exceptional for the plateau region of southeastern Ohio, etc. In 1861 Andrews wrote as follow: ‘In the broken rocks along the central lines of a great uplift, we meet with the largest quantity of oil. It would appear to bbe a law that the quantity of ofl is in a direct ratio to the amount of fissures.” ‘Thus we see that the fissure theory still held sway despite the most convincing nature of evidence to prove the arching of the strata. ‘The geologists who were interested in the problem of oil occurrence from 1860 to 1885 were ‘mostly men like Logan, the head of the Canadian Geological Survey, and Lesley, the head of the Pennsylvanian Survey; and teachers like Andrews and Hitcheock. Conditions of travel in the oil country were primitive and the ofl operators did not hire geologists to help them find oil. A change came ‘when the Director of the West Virginia Geological Survey, Dr. 1. C. White, resigned his position and started to look for gas in behalf of a syndicate supplying fuel to industrial plants, ‘ANTICLINAL THEORY. In a short paper written in 1885 Dr. White says: ‘I was aided by Mr, William A. Earseman, who had noted that the principal gas wells then known in western Pennsyl~ vania were situated close to where anticlinal axes were drawn on the geological maps. After visiting all the great gas wells that had been struck in western Pennsylvania and West Virginia, I found that every one of them was situated directly on or near the crown of an anticlinal axis. Further ob- servations showed that the gas wells were confined to a narrow belt, along the crests of the anticlinal folds”. it will be noted that Dr. White does not men- tion oll in connection with the occurrence of anti clinal structure. Nevertheless, he is generally credited with being the first one to clearly point ut the significance of the so-called anticlinal theory. PENNSYLVANIA, Another point that should be ‘made clear at this time is the fact that gas accumu lations are found much farther east in Pennsylvania 128ACCUMULATION Fig. 172. Map showing the oll and gas pools in the Hundred Foot sand of western Pennsylvania superposed on a structure map Science of Petrolew) (Rich in than are oll accumulations. As was shown ina pre- vious chapter, the folds of the Appalachian Mountains are high and’steep in eastern Pennsylvania. They remain quite steep toa line often referred to as the Appalachian Front which passes through Altoona, West of that Tine the height of the anticlines and the steepness diminish very sharply. In fig. 174 the known anticlines are shown by black lines and the intervening synclines by dots. ‘The regional dip of the strata is also shown, Note that the strike is nearly west to east between Olean and Binghamton. 129 EXPLANATIONS 3 Se Ei Fig. 173. tictise Geological structure of the Voleano (after White and others in Boll. Geol. Soc. Amer, vol. 28, 564) | A tine comecting all the points of main curvatere | tn the regional dip contours would be the axis of the. Appalachian geosyncline." From’ Binghataton soutiwestward to the corner of the stale the con toure reveal a drop of over 2500 feet, ot otl'and gue pools, in western Pennoyivania, to Shown in fig 1760, Note tat te gas pools occupy early ove fall of the progucing terriory and at they Ile mostly inthe eastern Nal where he antt= flues new stepest. "A vasy elope inpection of the taap vl loo reveal tat te ga ools Got noe | SSonsly limit themselves tothe cresto of tne anti- tlines 4s Dr. White thought. Many of them occur tthe axis 6 tht syerlinas and some oosiby Ge entire area between two lines of antclines, "Aside | from the fact that much gas is imprisoned with the130 Fig. 174, Map of western Pennsylvania showing the position of the known anticlines and faynclines west of the closely folded ‘Appalachians. (Sherrill in Jour. Geol. April 1954) | HOW JIS OIL FOUND fol in the oll pools and that some gas occurs west of the main line of oil pools, it is interesting to speculate on the probable cause of the definite and distinct grouping of the fields. Trend lines are very apparent. Note also that the largest oil pool in the state which lies along the northern border, the Brad- ford pool, has two anticlinal axes through its area. BRADFORD. The first well in the Bradford district was completed in 1864, By 1880 over 7500 wells had been drilled and the field reached its peak production with a daily average of 69,000 bar- rels. ‘The next year it produced a total of 23 mil- on barrels. The decline lasted until 1906 when the production was only two million barrels for the year. Water flooding thereafter caused an increase so that in 1935 a second peak of 13 million barrels was reached. GEOLOGY. The geology of the Bradford pool was not well known until 1980 despite the long pe- riod of drilling activity. In that year the State Survey instigated a comprehensive study of cores from many wells and later an exhaustive report ‘was issued’, This is probably the most complete Fig. 175. Map showing the distribution of ofl and gas fields in western Pennsylvania. Wee Fettke in Penn, State Geol. sary. (Torrey in A.A.P.G. Geol of Nat Gaz. p. 464) Pub. No. M 21, 1938.ACCUMULATION ast Fig. 176, Structure map of the Bradford field on the top of the producing sand. (Alter Fettke in Bull. M21) report ever written on an oll pool. Dr. Fettke describes the structure as a dome with two anti- lines radiating away from it toward the south, ‘The fig. 176 shows the Knapp Creek dome in the northeast part of the field. Tt has a closure of over 150 feet, but the dips are relatively low. The approximate limits of oil production are shown by a dashed line. ‘The black spots in the field are to show the location of water floods, Practically all the oil so far produced has come from one sand in the Devonian sequence, the so-called ‘third sand” THIRD SAND. ‘The characteristics of this sand have been worked out in minute detail from cores. The porosity varies from zero to 25 per cent with a figure of 15 asa common average. The porosity varies greatly in each well and also from well to well. The permeability varies from zero to slightly over 300 millidarcies with the figure of132 8 md. rather common. This may seem to be a rather low figure for permeability and may explain the rather small initial potential of the wells. ‘The thickness of the sand is variable, yet Pettke reports that it occurs as a rather consistent blanket over the whole area of about 84,000 acres of the field. Nevertheless, the thinning in every direction must be emphasized, imsmuch as this factor sets definite Timits to the producing area of the field. The amount of water in the sand is surprisingly small and for that reason it is classed as a “dry” sand, GRAVITATIONAL SEPARATION. According to the specific gravities of the flulds in the sand there is a distinct separation of the gas from the oll and the little water that may have been origi- nally present. ‘The gas cap in the early days of drilling was present in the upper 40 feet of the sand over the area of the Knapp Creek dome. The total sand thickness in this part of the fleld is about 90 feet. OIL ACCUMULATION. The nature of the “third Sand” its thickness, and distribution, explain ‘the accumulation of oil. ‘The presence of the dome and the anticline is merely accessory, but of course helps to explain the gravitational separation and in part the maximum saturation. The fig. 177 shows the stratigraphic sequence of the beds beginning with the Pennsylvanian Pottsville at the top and descending through the Mississippian Knapp forma- tion. ‘The Oswayo is of Devonian age as are also the lower strata. Note the lenticular character of the unproductive sands above the “third sand” and also the variable thickness of the producing sand. HOW OIL 18 FOUND ‘The area of the thick sand development of the “third sand” coincides very closely with the present out- Lines of the pool. Therefore, it is entirely probable that we would have had an oil field here even with less structural development. The fig. 178 reveals the fact that the sand is by no means a continuous single body of sand grains. There are many part- Ings of shale and even a few of limestone present. ‘Yet, in all probability the thin lenses of sand within the ‘sand body as a whole, allowed migration from place to place in the field. CRADLE OF THE OIL INDUSTRY. After this, digression into the most prolific part of the Penn- sylvania oil fields, we must come back to the point where the first well was drilled. The map which accompanies fig. 179 shows the location of Titusville on Oll Creek. Approximately four miles south of Titusville, on Oil Creek, Drake drilled the first test purposefully drilled to find ofl in the United States. He found oll in August 1859 at the shallow depth of 69 1/2 feet, in what is now believed to be a thin stray sand in the lower part of the Riceville shale. (Refer to fig. 179) During the next year the first oil in the First Venango sand was found on the McClintock farm a stone’s throw south of the Drake well. On the McClintock farm the best oil seepage along the river had been used for years by Indians and trappers. ‘THE VENANGO SANDS. The first of! wells were drilled in Venango County and therefore the name Venango sands was soon applied to them, Of course, very little geological information was used during ‘the pioneering days. In fact it was not until Fig. 177, producing sand. Cross-section of the Bradford field to show the sequence of beds and the position of the (Alter Fettke) See Giddens in EARLY DAYS OF OIL, Princeton Univ. Press, 1948,ACCUMULATION Fig. Bradford (eld. the Penna. Stete Geol, Survey) 178, Porosity profiles of 3 cores in the (After Fettke in M21 of 1936, some 77 years after the discovery well was Grilled, that accurate data were compiled on the Stratigraphic sequence of the beds and the exact characteristics of the sands. During that year S. H. Cathcart of the Pennsylvania Geological Survey began 133 gathering core data, sample data and electric fogs of wells in Venango County. The fig. 179 is based on these research studies, It shows three sandy zones beneath the Riceville shale, ‘They all have slightly different characteristics. ‘The Venango group of sands lies in the De~ vonian system and the Conewango series. The ‘whole group is about 400 feet thick and consists of Alternating sands and shales, ‘The sands are dis Continvows, lenticular bodies and are apparently limited toa belt which ts about 50 miles’ long and approximately 10 miles wide, All the sands become fine and grade into shales both toward the north- west and also to the southeast. Tis rather sur~ prising to find that the sands are thickest and most pebbly noar thelr northwostern limit, for this di- ‘rection was toward the open sea water of the time. ‘The sands consist of clear quartz which constitites about 98 percent of the mineral aggrogate. Mica is fairly abundant, but other minerals, though pres~ ent, make up a very small percentage, Between the sand grains there is considerable ilies as a cement. The ealeite whieh Is present seems to fill the crevices and the mall cavities. "Consequently, the porosity and also the permeabilities are gen erally low. ‘The water content of the sands runs from 40 to 60 per cent. Oll and gas occur only where the sands are porous and permeable. STRUCTURE, The structure of the area in which the Venango sands produce their oll is that af @ low flattish synctinorium. (see fig. 174) The rocks are dipping toward the southwest at a rate of perhaps 20 feet per mile, ‘The slight folds which have been detected here are extremely gentle and {irregular in trend, Tt is very questionable. whether they have had any influence on oil or gas accume lation whatsoever, This was pointed out as eazly as 1875 by Carli? and was substantiated by. all Inter Investigations. FIRST SAND. The First Sand extends over the entire area as a zone about 100 feet thick con- sisting of shales and sandy lentils of cleaner, more Porous sand. Areas of such clean sand are small and highly irregular in distribution. ‘The lentils may appear anywhere from the top to the base of the zone, but seem to prefer the middle and lower portions of the zone. Sherrill believes that these Sands were laid down in or near delta distribe- faries. "Although the pools which produce from the First Sand are extremely patchy in their distribu- tion, they nevertheless line up in a northenst 10 southwest direction parallel to the shore line of the time of deposition. SECOND SAND. The Second Sand consists typically of two sandy zones separated by 30 feet of shale. The two sandy zones are much more inform, in thickness and lithology than the other sands of the Venango group. They have a fairly | straight northwest edge beyond which they grade "See Report of Progress in the Venango County Distriet., Second Penn, Geol. Surv. Rept. 1, 1875.ACCUMULATION 135 {into shale. They are coarsest and therefore most productive within 4 miles of their northwestern edge. To the southeast they become finer and eventually grade into red shales. In permeability the Second Sand ranges from zero to 100 milli darcies. (See Fig. 20 on page 17). ‘The origin ‘of the Second Sand is believed to be due to littoral currents distributing sands parallel to the shoreline ff the time of deposition. (See page 15) THIRD SAND. The Third Sand takes In the lower 110 feet of the Venango group. Here again there are two sandy zones, the upper one being called the “third stray” and the lower one the “third sand”. This follows the nomenclature set ‘up by Carll way back in 1875, Production in the ‘Third Sand usually occurs in long narrow strips. One of these, the Triumph Streak, is 9 miles long and less than 1000 feet this bar is composed of quartz pebbles two to three millimeters in diameter. ‘The sand thickens east= ward to a maximum of 120 feet in the central- eastern part of the bar, The Third Sand is good example of pseudo-structure, for it shows contours atthe top which mimic an anticline, Except for re- ional tilting and downward scouring, the bottom ofthe Sand is essentially a horizontal plane. On account of the good porosity of this sand some ofthe early wells dried in 1660 had intial production of 1000 barreis per day. is interesting to note that the Triumph ool was abandoned and then later reopened. In 1898 it was de-watered and new wells drilled there pro- diced from 10 to 20 barrels per day. The present average production is 1/2 barrel per day per well. ‘CHURCH RUN POOL. The well drilled by Drake lies within the area of ‘what 1s presently S "Tht sand comprising | known as the Chruch Ran pool. "Fig. 160" shows Fig. Venango group- 180, Map showing @ portion of the poole which produce oil from the Third Sand of the (Sherrill Dickey & Matteson in A.A.P.G, Strat. Type Oll Fields, p. 534)136 this pool as a long narrow bar. The sand is over | 50 feet thick at its maximum, but thins rapidly to- | ward both edges. It is very pebbly, some beds | showing unconsolidated gravel with pebbles up to fone inch in diameter. Permeabilities here reach vup to 5000 millidarcies. ‘The sand body cuts out abruptly toward the west into shales, while east- ward the body shows progressively finer textures. ORIGIN. ‘The origin of the Third Sand is very interesting. ‘The long, narrow trends as well as the pebbly nature of the sand suggest bars formed parallel to the shore line of the time of deposition. ‘The bars are multiple and occur at slightly dif- ferent levels. ‘THE SEEPAGE ERA. During the years from 1860 to 1900 roughly, may be called the seepage era, because oil finding was guided almost entirely during that time by drilling near seepages. To be sure some geologists became interested in helping the wildeatter find his oil, like Dr. White in West Virginia, but in general the search went on without benefit of technical advice. The excitement of find- ing oil, like the early urge to find gold, stimulated a group of hardy pioneers to spend money where the opportunities seemed most favorable. So we find that activity was concentrated largely in west- ern Pennsylvania for a long time. Between the years 1860 and 1890 some 29,000 wells were drilled In western Pennsylvania and adjacent parts of New York. Up to 1900 the total number of wells in that area was 38,000, CREEKOLOGY. The guiding principle used by the early operators is what someone has face~ tiously called creekology. In other words the drilling was done along the creeks in Pennsylvania, first along Oil Creek and then later along other tribu- faries of the Allegheny River. When a few ven- turesome men stepped out and drilled some test wells on the slopes of the streams and found oil there also, it was a great step forward. Some rillers were influenced by the early finding of oil in wells drilled for salt water. For that reason ‘we find some operators drilling holes in south- eastem Ohio and in southern Kentucky. Still those states were slow in getting under way. By 1890 only 268 wells had been successfully completed in eastern Ohio and only 32 in Kentucky. By 1900 the score reads 3500 successful wells in eastern Ohio and 53 in Kentucky. The state of West Virginia with its Voleano anticline came in for some atten- tion, Between 1860 and 1890, 493 wells had been successfully completed there and by 1900 the number ‘was up to 16,000. NUMBER OF POOLS. The number of pools found in the early years is greatest in Pennsylvania and rapidly diminished away from there. By 1890 the total number of pools found in western Penn- sylvania was 138 and by 1900 the number was 200. Similar figures for the adjoining states show a total of 24 pools in West Virginia by 1890 and 83 by the end of 1900; for eastern Ohio the total number HOW OIL 1S FOUND of pools found to the end of 1890 was 20 and 60 by the end of the century. In Kentucky the wild- catters found 28 pools by 1890 and 32 by the end of 1900. In Pennsylvania out of the total of 200 pools found to the end of 1900 about 70 were gas pools. DRILLING ELSEWHERE. In the meantime enterprising men had looked for oil near seepages in other parts of the United States. The first ofl was found in Texas in the northeastern part of the state in 1865. However, here the yield was small and it was 1896 before drilling really got underway ona big scale with the discovery of oil at Corsicana. In the southern part of Texas the first oil was not found until 1901 with the discovery of Spindletop. In Kansas the earliest drilling took place in 1860 near Paola in Miami County. Small returns there dampened the spirits of the operators until 1889 ‘when more valuable deposits were found farther south, WESTERN STATES. The seopages on Oil Creek in central Colorado encouraged drilling in 1862, Here ofl was found in fractured shales within fa syneline, Production was small for many years. In Wyoming the first small wells were drilled near some seepages at Dallas in the west-central part of the state California with its many spectacular ‘seepages beckoned to the ofl operator as early as, 1860. However, for one reason or another the early tests were all disappointing. By 1867 as many as 50 tests has been drilled and only 5000 barrels were marketed to pay for all the drilling. In 1872 the discovery of oll at Pico Canyon started the in- dustry off to a more optimistic future. Some early drilling near the asphalt seeps around McKittrick in 1866 led to failures. ‘The real oll deposits in that rich field were not found until 1898. In the ‘equally rich Midway-Sunset area the first oil wells were not found until 1900. PRODUCTION AND PRICE. ‘That the wild- catter was successful in finding enough ofl during ‘those years is attested by the production and the prices received. When Drake drilled his well in 1859 the price of oil per barrel was about 20 dol- lars, But during the next year the flood of oil from the Oil Creek area reduced the price to about 50 cents. Production gradually increased from then fon until it reached an annual total of 49 million barrels in 1890, Of this total the fields in the Appalachian states contributed about 30 million bar- els. The only other important contributing area at that time was the Lima-Indiana district in Ohio and northeastern Indiana. It produced 15 million barrels in 1890. By the end of the century the annual production was 68 million barrels of which again the Lima-Indiana district contributed 21 mil- Hon, Prices in the meantime had fluctuated con- siderably especially between 1861 and 1869 when the price range lay between 50 cents and six dollars. ‘Thereafter the price range was more stable, but reached 2 low point in 1893 when oil sold for 50ACCUMULATION cents once again. Between 1893 and 1900 the price ranged from a low figure of 50 cents to about 1.25 per barrel. GEOLOGICAL ERA, By the year 1897 some rather large oil companies had been built up and Some of these began to feel the need for new ter- ritory to operate in. ‘The Dutch interests who had started looking for oil in the jungles of the East Indies ted the way by hiring geologists to make preliminary explorations before drilling wells. The {influential Pearson interests in England used geol- ogists to select the best drilling sites on their ex- tensive holdings on the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, In the United States the Southern Pacific railroad held large tracts of land which contained seepages. They employed Edwin T. Dumble in 1897 to supervise drilling operations. The Union Oil Company, which also held extensive prospec- tive lands in California induced W. W. Orcutt to advise them on the methods of selecting the best place to drill their lands. One of the first con- | sulting geologists was H. B. Goodrich who exam- ined the oil seepages in New Brunswick for his clients. Va SN Fig. 181, Map of northeastern Oklahoma showing the distribution of the Ba e 137 ‘The United States Geological Survey had sent out quite a number of their men to find out why oll had accumulated in some of the fields known by 1900. Their reports issued between 1905 and 1815 indicated strongly that an understanding of the stratigraphy and structure would aid in locating new fields, Among them were Frederick Clapp, Ralph Arnold, C. W. Hayes, C, W. Washburne and E. W. Hopkins. All these men later became influ- ential in oil explorations. Most of them began their work about 1908 as consulting geologists, MID-CONTINENT. At this time the mid- continent area held the spotlight. Oil had been found in Kansas as early as 1889 and by 1906 the wild- | eatters of the time like Guffey, Galey, and Gillespie had penetrated some distance down into Oklahoma im their ever widening search for oll, The prolific Glenn poo! was found by Galbreath & Chessley when they completed their first test on the Ida Glenn farm in December 1906. ‘There was no apparent geological reason for the drilling of this well, but it opened one of the wonder pools of the state. By the autumn of the next year a daily production of 120,000 barrels had been reached, (After D. R. Snow)138 HOW OIL IS FOUND Fig. 182, Cross-section of the thinning of the sand. (Wilson GLENN POOL. The stratigraphy and structure of the Glenn pool have been described by W. B. Wilson who says that the producing sand, called the Glenn sand, is the correlative of the Bartlesville ‘sand which has been such a good provider of pools {in subsequent years. A map showing the distribu- tlon of the sand is shown in fig. 181. This map was prepared by D. R. Snow in 1932 after many large fields had been discovered and after many dry holes had been drilled in an effort to find the Bartlesville sand between prolific pools. The city of Bartlesville, where the sand had originally been found productive, is shown in Washington County. ‘The other sensational pools which produce from the same sand are also shown. ‘They are the Burbank in Osage County, the Bird Creek pools north of Tulsa, and the Nowata pools in the county by the same name, The map also shows that the sandstone crops out west of Vinita and that the outcrop. can be traced southward to Wagoner and Muskogee. Continuous lines on the map show where the sand has been found in well logs. Blank areas show where it 1s entirely absent. The broken lines show ‘where it is present, but poorly developed, or shaly. It will be noted that the Glenn pool as well as the | Burbank and the Nowata pools lie at the edge of the continous underground sand body and that east cof each of these there is an area without sand. We ‘can assume that the oil in the Bartlesville sand migrated up the dip (which here 1s to the west at fa gentle angle) and accumulated in a trap produced by the pinching out of the sand. Fig. 182 made by Wilson shows exactly that condition. He reports that the thickness of the sand in the heart of the pool is 100 feet and that it maintains this thickness: “See AVAD.G. Bull. vol. 21, ps ‘Geomorphology page 352. 59, 1937. GLENN Pool to show the eastward sn ALA.P.G, Bull, vol. 11, p. 1063) for many miles to the south and to the west. At or near the eastern limits of the pool, the sand thins to nearly zero ina distance of a mile and a half. A structure map on the top of the sand shows a great many domes and anticlines with corresponding ravines, basins and synclines. Here | is another case of pseudo structure. The con- tours in other words show the converities 1n the top of te sand rather than deformation of the fand._ This is proved by structure map based ora lower sand in which most of the prominent “Gtructures” are absent of shown in more sub- ued form. BURBANK POOL. The large Burbank poot which also produces trom the Bartlesville sand ts | Dellewed to be a large fan-shaped group of off-chore Date Dill into the Cherokee sea. it was filly de- Seribed by Buss* who shows the striking similarity between the present Cape Cod off the coast of Mas Sachusetis and the underground distribution of sand in the Burbank and the Soutn Burbank pools, Lobeck would call ita compound recurved spit” and explains tat the successive cubankments of sand which are aided to a growing compound spit give 1a corni= gated or ribbed aspect. These embarkments usually ise trom 3 t0 20 feet above high tide level and re separated from each ober by depressions oF Swat in which organic matter accumalates. Here wwe have an ideal geting Tor the origin and preser= Yation of bituminous. matter, and the subsequent Tecumulation of the fluids repulting therefrom. in proper storage beds nearby, In fact all te reports Sn he Bartesvile sand in Fecent years make pointed Feference to bie abuntance of black shaly material found withinACCUMULATION 199 Se i ZA Cy GUC a TION mera wa eraser 1 connie feeael | SA ceric ogres 7 Rae ee Rae Rae Fig. 182. Subsuslace map of the GLENN pool Fig. 184. Subsurface contour map of the GLENN ‘howing the convenes at the top af the pool showing the attitue of the state st the Bartlowville sunt. (Wilton te AAPG. Tees! ofthe Wileow sand, The dark pote alts vole 1s 1059) te producing areus. (ilson in AAPG Bull. vol. 11, p. 1061) RICHNESS OF THE BARTLESVILLE. The statistics on oil fields presented each year by the | pools has been pretty well drained of readily re- ‘American Institute of Mining Engineers reveal some | coverable oil. Therefore, secondary recovery meth- significant data on the remarkable richness of the | ods have been applied in recent years. Much coring Bartlesville sand. In the area called “east central | has been done to ascertain the porosity, permeability Oklahoma” there are 87 separate pools listed. Of | and fluid content of the sand. The results of such these no less than 30 derive some or all their | core studies are shown in fig. 1852, The figure production from this sand, The whole area has | shows at the extreme left a picture of the lithology Produced over 220 million barrels of oll, In Creek | of the Bartlesville. It reveals a certain percentage County there are 45 separate pools listed, of which | of shale as well as sandy shale zones. The oll 21 produce some or all the oll in the pool. Of the | content in barrels per acre foot is shown in the 108 pools listed for Osage County 72 produce all | second column. In the third column the oll satu- or some of the oll from this sand. The total pro- | ration is shown. Note that the shaded portion rep- duction from the Burbank and Burbank south pools | resents ofl that could not be recovered by water- has been over 270 million barrels to the end of | flooding in the laboratory. The percent of water 1949. The total production from the Glenn pool is | saturation is shown in the fourth column, the po- nearly 240 million barrels. rosity in the fifth column, and the permeability in "The Bartlesville sand in the large productive | the sixth column. Note here that the permeability140 HOW OIL 18 FOUND Fig. 185, Map of the Burbank and South Burbank oll pools showing the thickness of the sand, Black areas show where the sand is thickest. (Base in A.A.P.G. Bull, vol. 21, p- 57) STR nie ERE Fig. 185e, Analysis of a Bartlesville sand core from a well in 36-26-16E, Nowata County, Oklahoma. (World O11 August 1950)ACCUMULATION varies within wide limits from zero to 130 milli- darcies. In secondary recovery projects it is very Important to distinguish between horizontal perme~ ability and vertical permeability. CUSHING. After the Glenn pool was 5 years fold one of the successful operators in the pool, (C. B. Shaffer) decided to probe for another similar pool. He stepped out § miles at a time toward the west. The first four tests were dry, but the fifth fone found a pool which has to date has produced 380 million barrels of oll, truly a marvelous find. ‘This was in the year 1912 when geologists were still relatively few in the oll flelds. Many operators ‘were attracted to the new find and soon the number of wells was sufficient to outline the structure un- derground. The contour maps constructed from driller’s logs showed an anticline in the Pennsyl- vanian strata. PLANE TABLE SURVEYING. One of the ge- ologists working for the United States Geological Survey made a careful map from surface outcrops ‘and found that the anticline was very prominent on the surface also, He used a plane table and an alidade in his surveying. ‘This instrument had been introduced by Griswold in 1901 when he mapped the surface structure in the Cadiz quadrangle in Ohio. Other geologists were quick to appreciate the value of this instrument and it suddenly became very Popular. In fact the finding of the Cushing surface anticline was the spark which set off the most ex- tensive series of geological investigations witnessed in the history of the oll industry. ‘The word “structure”? took on new meaning. Every operator and every ‘company executive became interested in finding more “structures”, The demand for geologists increased many fold. By 1918 some companies like the Empire Oil Company (parent company of Cities Service) had a5 many as 200 geologists looking for anticlines. Eastern Oklahoma and eastern Kansas, where the rocks crop out at the surface, and where many thin Hmestones alternate with shales, constituted an ideal area for the use of this new tool. ‘Thus we find that a sufficient stimulus had been given to encourage the ofl companies to hire geologists to help find more ofl. For ten years they swarmed over the hills and valleys of eastern Kansas and eastern Oklahoma; and, indeed, spread ut from there in every direction where surface rocks are abundantly exposed. This ten year period apparently was enough to find all the anticlines which were visible at the surface. Thereafter the alidade and the plane table were relegated to a ‘much reduced role. GEOLOGY OF CUSHING. Before continuing with the story of oll finding it will be well to ex- amine the geology of the Cushing pool, since it serves as a pattern for so many others. Some of the details have been given in a previous chapter. ‘The surface rocks are of Pennsylvanian age and ‘See AA.P.G. Struct, Typ. Amer, 141 the total thickness of the Pennsylvanian rocks in the pool area is about 2500 feet. Unfortunately our information on the Pennsylvanian sequence is very sketchy. In the days of rapid development of the pool it was not customary to collect well cuttings as is now done. ‘The study of well cuttings did not Dogin until about 1924 and then only on a very Himited scale, Our information comes from driller’s logs which mainly record the producing sands. THE UPPER STORY. The Cushing oll pool is a two story structure, The upper story com- prises the Pennsylvanian rocks and the lower story fakes in all the older rocks. The sands in the up- per story which produced ofl or gas (or both) at Cushing are surprisingly numerous. They are the Bruner, Layton, Jones, Cleveland, Prue, Red Fork, Wheeler, Skinner and Bartlesville. ‘This long list arouses ‘the suspicion that vertical migration has taken place in this particular pool. ‘The Prue, ‘Skinner, Red Fork, Cleveland and Jones sands turned out to have only insignificant amounts of oll and gas stored in them. The Wheeler ‘‘sand”” which {is really a double bedded limestone, also proved to hhave little oil and gas. It produced large wells, ‘but these went to salt water ina year's time, The large amounts of oll apparently were stored in the | Layton sand found at 1400 feet and the Bartlesville | sand found at 2600 feet. It is interesting to note | that these two sands contained thelr precious cazgo | over very different areal limits. The Layton pro- | duced ofl over an area of 14 square miles, while the Bartlesville produced over an area of 28 square miles, Weirich* who has described the pool very carefully, states that the Bartlesville probably ac~ counted for 8000 barrels per acre of a total of 18,000 barrels per acre (for all sands), including production up to the end of 1927. | STRUCTURE. The surface structure as mapped by Beal is shown in fig. 186. It will be noted that there are three domes on the anticline and that the northern one, called the DROPRIGHT DOME has a closure of 150 feet. Note also that the slope on ‘the flanks is about equal on both sides. The max- imum relief on the surface anticline is 225 feet. Beal also constructed subsurface structure maps fon the Layton sand, on the Wheeler “sand” and on the Bartlesville sand. They show somewhat greater relief. For instance the map on the Layton sand | (ee fig. 187) shows a closure of 200 feet on the Dropright dome and the subsurface map based on the top of the Bartlesville also shows a relief of 200 feet on the Dropright dome. This variation in structural relief is probably due to differential com- action rather than to repeated uplift. Beal who did his work in 1916 after some 2500 wells had been drilled on the 35 square miles of productive territory, attempted to make 2 con- vergence map between the Layton and the Bartlesville | sand. He found that the thickness of the rocks Oil Fields vol. 11, p. 396-406.aaa R6E HOW OIL 18 FOUND revealed by the anticline in the older rocks is very interesting. ‘The sequence of beds shown in the cross-section fig. 103 on page 72 includes the Mississippian Imestone 250 feet thick, the Chatta- nooga shale 85 feet thick. Below them there is a gap in the record, as the Devonian and Silurian rocks are entirely ‘missing. The Ordovician system Fig. 186. Structure map of the surface rocks at Cushing. (After Beal in U.S. Geol. ‘suv. Bull, 658) between the two sands is exceedingly variable and ‘came to the conclusion that the apparent structure at the top of each was as much due to depositional irregularities as to deformation. The smallest re- corded interval between the two sands is 945 feet and the largest is 1966 feet. ‘THE LOWER STORY. Under the Pennsylvanian rocks the drill has found a buried anticline with considerably steeper dips than the dips in the upper story. Weirich reports that the dips on the east flank of the older beds is 15 degrees, In fact the easter limb dips so steeply as to suggest faulting on that side. The western limb dips more gently. His map shows a rellef of about 500 feet in the same area as the surface structure map. GEOLOGIC HISTORY. The geological history a 7|T eer, Powhusks limestone ts ae pe " 4 Surface ground I a | et seo| Fresh water ee A Fresh water s ‘ook Fresh water . alte 7 at N . T Shi wster TINS Satewatar + 6 ? N Leyton time"(some oss) yaad FRPP civ andes) ee ee eo SS Soe (eP e cae Se snd ee os Ee lees | LES gmt nso pe ee in the Cushing pool. U.S. Geol. Surv, (After Beal in Bull, 658)ACCUMULATION {is represented by the Tyner shale 250 feet thick, the Burgen (or Wilcox) sandstone 130 feet thick, and the Arbuckle (penetrated only in two wells) 630 to 1405 feet thick. These older rocks were laid ‘down in proper sequence without any disturbance of importance. During the great Pennsylvanian rev- olution (see page 45) they were arched into an un- symmetrical anticline. Later, in middle Pennsyl- vanian time the sea covered the anticline; and, in if, the Pennsylvanian rocks were deposited. It is interesting to note that in some places on the anti- cline the Bartlesville rests directly on the older rocks, while elsewhere older shales of Cherokee age are present between them. ‘The unequal thickness of the Bartlesville (in some places exceeding 200 feet) suggests that it may have been laid down in valleys on the angular unconformity. SIGNIFICANT POINTS. The story which is revealed by the geological history of the Cushing anticline might be repeated with slight variations at many other places in the mid-Continent region. In central Kansas the pools like EI Dorado, Augusta, Hollow-Nikkel, Burrton, Valley Center, Churchill, Oxford and Rainbow Bend show a two story arrange ment of the strata with an angular unconformity between the Mississippian and the Pennsylvanian EAST-WEST CROSS SECTION A:A| THOMAS FIELD 25N- Rge.2W. .Y CO. OKLA, 143 rocks. In north-central Oklahoma there are four such pools in Kay County, the Thomas, Tonkawa, ‘Mervine and Blackwell pools. The fig. 188 which shows the arrangement of strata in the Thomas pool is fairly representative. Enough wells were drilled here to show the attitude of the strata in ‘the lower story. ‘They are dipping steeply and faulted. They also show erosion during the brief interval between early and middle Pennsylvanian time. The name “white lime” in the cross-section refers to what is now called the Viola limestone of Ordovician age. The Oswego in the cross-section is the same as the Wheeler “sand” in the Cushing pool. It is a limestone in the Pennsylvanian sequence ‘which has a very wide distribution and can be used conveniently for correlation purposes. Note also, ‘that the upper rocks including the Layton sand are arched to mimic the buried structure, It was Sidney Powers, one of the great pioneers in petroleum ge- ology, who early gave the name of “buried mountains” to similar situations, He got the idea from a close study of the Healdton and Hewitt pools in southern Oklahoma. West of the Arbuckle Mountains in southern Oklahoma there are a great many two Storied anticlines, such as for instance the Roberson pool. In the newly discovered Golden Trend area, Fig. 188. Cross-section of the THOMAS pool in Kay County, Oklahoma, showing typical relations between the lower greatly deformed rocks and the upper less deformed rocks. (Stonrt Glark in A.A.P.G. Bull, vol. 10, page 647)144 the two storied effect is present in very compli cated form. In Texas similar two-storied anticlines have been found along the northern border in the s0- | called Red River uplift district anid especially in the West Texas district. In those districts the stratigraphic sequence is somewhat different, as the Permian rocks are present above the Pennsyl- vanian. In the West Texas district there is also present a great thickness of Silurian and Devonian Tocks to modify the picture. In brief the picture shows a great period of deformation in early Pennsylvanian time when the older rocks were bent and possibly broken. ‘Then, during a surprisingly short interval, while the rocks ‘were above sea level and subject to erosion, they were in large part eliminated from the highest portions of the uplifted areas. By middle Pennsyl- vanian time they were again submerged in sea water and the rocks of the wpper story were deposited on the irregular stumps of the older beds, thus pro- ‘ducing an angular unconformity. ‘The building of the second story took place in Pennsylvanian time and, in some of the fields mentioned, continued into’ Permian time. Then ‘came another deformative movement which arched the strata a second time, Some geologists believe that the arching of the strata was repeated a num- ber of times basing their assumption on the thinning of the section. But differential compaction during deposition would accomplish the same result and is more likely. Wilcox Sand Sonasn Se Viole be Syan Srole: Fig. 189, Block diagram of the Oklahoma City pool. HOW OIL IS FOUND OIL IN THE LOWER STORY. One of the most significant features of this kind of a pool ts the fact that some oll was stored in the rocks below the angular unconformity. At Cushing this oll was found in the Ordovician Wilcox sandstone over a wide area and in the Arbuckle dolomite on the northern dome. When first encountered in 1914 the oll in these lowest zones was called the “Tucker” sand. A notable fact is that the area of oil pro- duction in these very old strata is limited to the crests of the highest domes. In the Cushing pool, the northern dome does not have any Wileox sand~ stone left on it, so that, the Arbuckle comes di- rectly under the Pennsylvanian, Hence the oil on that dome occurs in the dolomite. WHERE DID THE OIL COME FROM? In such cases as these, where we have oil in many strata at different levels, it is difficult to make a deci- sion regarding the place of origin of the oll, Did it all originate at the time of the Pennsylvanian overlap? Or did it originate at the various times fof deposition of the reservoir rocks? The answer cannot be given dogmatically. In all probability most of the oil originated at the time of the Pean~ sylvanian overlap of oil-soaked muds and sands. ‘The lower Pennsylvanian strata are commonly dark colored. ‘Then we would have to assume downward migration into the Ordovician strata and possibly {upward migration into the many sands in the Penn- Sylvanian sequence. At Garber (see page 122) the evidence was fairly convincing. At Cushing where wwe lack data regarding the Pennsylvanian history it er Simpson Been Te. Sywen Shale (Alter Basil Zavoico)ACCUMULATION is less evident. One could reason that an anticline the height of the Cushing anticline could not be made without some faulting and much fissuring. ‘That assumption would permit vertical migration as likely. EVIDENCE FROM OKLAHOMA CITY. The Oklahoma City pool was found in 1928 after it had become customary to collect well cuttings during the drilling of an important well, Therefore, we hhave much more complete information on this pool. ‘The fig. 189 shows the structure as if the upper story were stripped off. Note the fault along the east side marked “fault scarp”. This fault has a ‘maximum displacement of 2000 feet” and the fault scarp shown in fig. 189 is about 250 fect high. In the diagram the fault along the eastern side of the Oklahoma City oil pool is shown as having its maximum displacement in the middle and then dying out in both directions. During the Invasion of the middle Pennsylvanian seas (Cherokee time) we can imagine a piling up of sediments against the fault scarp to equal the 250 foot face of the cliff. Only one well has been drilled on the east side of the fault and therefore we have very Little specific information regarding the nature of the sediments. Presumably the Cherokee sediments eventually covered the whole of the buried structure, ‘coming to rest on the Arbuckle dolomite on the very crest and on successively higher strata like the Simpson series, Viola, Sylvan and Hunton in structurally lower positions. This is well illus- trated in fig. 190 where Levorsen has shown by means of symbols the stratigraphic levels at which foil and gas were found, Note particularly that the 145, ol is found at various levels in the thick Arbuckle dolomite and not in the top portion as is commonly the case elsewhere. The oil evidently migrated directly into the dolomite from the eastern side where oil-soaked muds were accumulating in Penn- sylvanian seas, The first well in the pool found the top of the Arbuckle dolomite at a depth of 6143 feet. It found the first flow of oil at a depth of 6402 fect where the well was capable of making 218 barrels per hour. ‘Thus we find that porosity existed at a depth of 254 feet below the top of the Arbuckle. Consid- ering the fact that some of the Arbuckle is doubt less missing by erosion, the depth is still greater. In later wells porosity and oil were found at various other depths higher and lower. ‘The porous zones are irregularly distributed in the dolomite. They were probably created by circulating ground water during the short period of time that the dolomite was exposed to surface agents. ‘The oil in the Simpson group, which here comprises three sands, occurs just beneath the un~ conformity and in the upper levels of the dipping strata. Here also we can assume confidently that the olf originated in the Pennsylvanian muds and then migrated downward into the porous beds until equilibrium had been established, Some geologists have argued that this downward migration did not take place, because a tarry accumulation was found in a few wells at the base of the Cherokee shale and just above the contact with the Simpson sand, ‘They interpret this tarry residue as an old seepage and thus argue that the original accumulation was in the Ordovician strata; and, that what is now Fig. of Petz. Geol. p. ‘gee foley in Bull. A.A.P.G. vol. 18, p. 259, 1934 190. Cross-section of the Oklahoma City pool to show deposition the angular unconformity and algo the eecumulation of oil and (Levorsen in A.A.P.G. Problems 7)146 found is merely that portion which did not leak out 1m the ancient seepages. PRODUCTION FIGURES. The total production of oll from the Oklahoma City pool to the end of 1950 is approximately 680 million barrels. ‘The last year for which separate figures are available is 1939, At the close of that year the Wilcox sand is credited with $47 million, the lower Simpson sand with 108 million and the upper Simpson sand ‘with two million. In addition there was production fn the Cleveland sand amounting to 1 1/2 million barrels and also in the Pawhuska “sand” totalling 11/2 million barrels. All other zones were lumped together and credited with 20 million barrels. Of this 20 million about 18 million is credited to the Arbuckle dolomite. OTHER ANTICLINES. When the oil man found out at Cushing that anticlines contain large accumu- lations of oll, he was inspired to search for others. Geologists knew how to find them and also knew where some had been found previously. Therefore the oll company executives started to hire geolo- gists in great numbers, One of the places where Anticlines had been seen in abundance was Wyoming. ‘There they stand out like a yucca tree in a desert. Even an inexperienced person would have no trouble finding them, i{ he were given a simple description of their nature. It comes as no surprise therefore that considerable numbers of anticlines were tested during the years from 1912 to 1920. ‘WYOMING. In Wyoming 2 few anticlines had been tested before 1912, One of these was the Greybull anticline in the Bighorn basin, another the Salt Creek anticline in the Powder River basin, and a third the Dallas anticline in the Wind River basin, In each case the early prospectors had been HOW OIL 18 FOUND lured on by small seepages. The Dallas anticline was tested as early as 1884 and small production ‘was obtained for a mimber of years. At Salt Creek small wells had been secured by Shannon who drill at the far north end of the structure, At Greybull ‘he production also was small and had not aroused much enthusiasm, In all these cases the presence ‘of the anticline had not been considered important, Beginning with 1913 the story was different. Many very well saturated anticlines were found by ‘the geologists who invaded the state. The first one to be tested was Oregon Basin. Lamb was found productive in 1913, Grass Creek and Little Buffalo asin in 1914, Elk Basin in 1915 and Lost Soldier in 1916, These have all become important pro- ducers. A number of barren anticlines were also found and tested during those initial years. TYPES. The anticlines in Wyoming are of ‘many patterns. Some are quite symmetrical, but most of them are unsymmetrical with one limb steeper than the other. A few are simple folds ‘without any known faults. Most of them have some faults and many have numerous faults. The shape of some is so nearly circular that they can be called domes. The great majority have a notable elongation parallel to the nearest mountain area. STEEPNESS. Whereas a few anticlines in ‘Wyoming have gentle dips on the flanks, the great- est number have rather steep flanks and dips of considerable magnitude. Common dips on the flanks Fig. 191. Map of the Bighorn bain to show location of anticlines and pools. Fig. 192. Little Buffalo Basin ofl and gas field Showing the structure by means of contours Grawn on the top of the Tensleep sandstone. (Dobbin in A.A.P.G, Bull. vol. 31, p. 818)ACCUMULATION Rioow j RWow wT MW | AA i zi48 HOW OIL 1S FOUND range from 20 to 50 degrees. Among those with | very steep dips are Lander, Dallas, Lost Soldier and Wertz. In the following pages an attempt will ‘be made to describe a good example of each type. LITTLE BUFFALO BASIN. One of the few anticlines on which no faults have been found is the Little Buffalo Basin anticline, The fig. 191 shows the location of the anticline in the Bighorn basin. On this map it is called simply Buffal ‘The shape of the anticline is shown in fig. 192 to be a somewhat symmetrical and slightly elongated fold. ‘The map also shows a small companion fold to the northwest. The contours drawn on the pro- ducing zone have an interval of 100 feet and reveal a closure of slightly over 1000 feet. It will be noted that the Mesaverde sandstone crops out on the surface and makes a complete enclosure for the double fold. The dips are indicated and range from 10 degrees to 35 degrees on this surface stratum, OIL & GAS. The Buffalo Basin anticline con- tains oil in the limestones and sandstones of Permian and Pennsylvanian age. ‘The Permian stratum is called the Embar limestone and the Pennsylvanian stratum is called the Tensleep sandstone, Note that the oil occurs only on the main anticline and not on the companion fold to the northwest. The gas on this structure is found in the Cretaceous Frontier sandstones. OREGON BASIN. ‘The Oregon Basin anticline is an example of a nearly symmetrical anticline with very few faults. It is located a short distance north of the Buffalo Basin anticline in the Bighorn basin, ‘The fig. 193 prepared by P. 'T. Walton shows ‘that the anticline has a closure of over 1700 feet maximum, when measured on the top of the Embar limestone. It will be noted that there are two domes on this fold and that the southern one has ‘more relief than the northern one. Four faults are shown crossing the fold in a nearly transverse direction. The surface expression of this fold is similar to the Buffalo Basin fold. The Mesaverde sandstone makes 2 complete rim rock around the fold and shows dips away from the center in all directions. Erosion has cut away enough material to produce a topographic depression. Therefore, this fold was called the Oregon Basin. Tt is rather common to find that anticlines in Wyoming have a graphic basin in the center. The faults which cut the Embar limestone also appear on the surface and can be traced clearly, Walton states that they appear to be high angle faults which were formed at the time the folding took place. STRATIGRAPHY. The sequence of strata in the Oregon Basin fold is shown in fig. 193 at the left of the structure map. This same sequence is also found on the Buffalo Basin dome except that drilling on the latter has not yet been carried on down to the granite at the base. In a general way the rocks are similar all over the extent of the Bighorn basin. Therefore, this may be considered a generalized section for the northwestern part of F UMESTOWE Fonwavion 194, Cross-section from north to south to show the: change in lithology in the Fig. Embar and the Tensleep formations (Walton)ACCUMULATION Fig. 195. Contour map of field mapped on th w (Map prepared by Morley and published in the A.A.P.G. Struet. Typ. Amer. Oil Fields vel. 1, p. $80)150 HOW OIL Wyoming. Walton made the very important dis- covery that the Embar and the Tensleep formations grade into each other by more or less imperceptible changes. The fig. 194 shows that the sandy char- acter of the Tensleep varies considerably from north to south on the structure. Conversely the limy nature of the overlying Embar changes also. If we wish to extend these changes into the rest of the Bighorn basin, we can imagine that the names Embar and Tensleep have been used rather care~ lessly in past years. In other words when the rock is a sandstone the name Tensleep is applied and when it is a limestone the name Embar is used. Changes of this type are called facies changes by geologists, and have been noted elsewhere in the United States. OIL & GAS. The stratigraphic section in fig. 193 shows that the Frontier, Cloverly and Chug- water formations contain gas on this structure. ‘The oll occurs in the Embar, Tensleep and Madison formations. ELK BASIN. The best anticline to show nu~ merous faults and thelr influence is the Elk Basin ‘anticline Tocated in the north end of the Bighorn basin, This basin is a very broad and large syn- cline measuring 150 miles long by 42 miles wide. It lies between the Bighorn Mountains on the east and the vast complex of rocks called the Beartooth and the Absaroka range on the west. ‘The Elk Basin anticline is essentially symmetrical with dips fn the east and also on the west averaging from 10 degrees to 24 degrees. ‘The closure in fig. 195 is at least 800 feel, but it is estimated that the total closure is probably 2500 feet. ‘The reason for the uncertainty is the fact that deposits of re- cent age obscure the rock outcrops. The area in- volved in the closed contour lines is about 4 miles, but Bartram estimates that the area from which oil could be drawn exceeds 100 square miles. This 4s a very significant statement when one considers the likelyhood of lateral migration of oil into a suitable trap. Inasmuch as the structure cannot be adequately mapped on the surface, the map in fig. 495 ts presented. It was prepared by comparing records of well logs on the most reliable subsur- face datum plane. The map shows the highest closing ‘contour line on the 3800 foot level and the lowest closing contour line on the 2550 foot contour line. FAULTS, The anticline is broken by three distinct sets of faults, Two of these sets are nearly parallel with each other and have a north~ east to southwest trend. The third set cuts the other two sets at right angles and trends nearly parallel to the antictinal axis. These faults appear fon the surface and can be seen in excellent out- erops. Of the ten large transverse faults which have the dowathrow side on the south the dips of ‘the fault plane range between 40 degrees and 15 degrees. ‘The vertical throw varies and reaches a "See Stract, Typ. Amer. Oil Fields vol. Il, p+ $81, 18 FOUND + Fig. 196. Structure map of the Elk Basin ‘anticline with contours drawn on the top fof the Tensleep sandstone. (Dobbin et Ali in A.A.P.G, Bull, 31, p. 809) ‘maximum of about 700 feet. Several of the faults show horizontal movement as well as vertical move- ment, Two faults of the longitudinal kind have been mapped and they show planes dipping about 65 de- grees, ‘The downthrow side is on the east and Teaches a maximum of 170 feet. The time of fault- ing was contemporaneous with the folding which ‘occurred at or soon after the close of the Cretaceous period. (see page 51) 1929.181 ACCUMULATION TABLE NO. X. IMPORTANT OIL POOLS IN BIGHORN BASIN NAME DISCOVERY YEAR AREA PRODUCTION PRODUCING ZONES ACRES END 1949 Oregon Basin 1927 4800 57 million Cloverly, Embar, Tensleep, Madison Bik Basin 1915 4850 38 million Frontier, Cloverly, ‘Morrison, Tensleep, Madison Grass Creek 1914 1480 38 million Frontier, Embar Tensleep Byron 1918 1640 24 ‘million Frontier, Embar Tensleep, Frannie 1928 1200 16 million ‘Tensleep, Madison Garland 1906 1480 16 million Front. Clov. Embar ‘Tensleep, Madison Hamilton 1918 7200 18 million Embar, Tensleep Little Buffalo Basin iid 1430 5 million Frontier (gas) Emb. & Tensl, (oil) Badger Basin 1930 00 1-1/8 million Frontier INFLUENCE ON OIL ACCUMULATION. The Jaults in the main part of the anticline cannot be used for evaluation purposes, inasmuch as enough ofl was present to fll the sands both on the down- throw and the upthrow sides. However, on the south end the influence of the faults becomes ap- parent. There the oil has accumulated only on the high parts of four fault blocks. ‘The areas between ‘three of them is practically barren. DEEP PRODUCTION. From the discovery ate until about 1942 all oll was produced from the sands in the Frontier formation. In 1942 the first deep test was drilled to asceriain the possibilities inthe Permian and the Pennsylvanian zones. Large wells in the ‘Tensleep sandstone were found and the field took ona new lease of life, In 1948 Dobbin, Kramer, and Miller made a map based on the 1 cords of all deep wells to show the structure on the Tensleep level. This map is reproduced as fig. 196 which shows also the outcrop of the Eagle sandstone near the axis of the anticline and the ‘Lance formation farther away from the axis. The faults shown on the map are the surface faults described above. Apparently these faults do not tk eo “o me Ppa 1 an et Vane Sn ° . vow nye sunet ME yea tae Sos ae Nt Soe a 2 tH gy . STwaTen he serps hi, peng Fig. 197. Map of the Wind River basin to how the location of oil and gas pools. (oil pools in black; pools stippled)152 carry down to the level of the Tensleep sandstone. Like in so many places, where oil has been found, the faults are only “skin deep”, The two maps fare on a different scale, It will be noted that in the northeast corner of Section 24 where the anti- cline reaches its highest point the contour line on the Tensleep is above 500 feet plus (above sea level). In the center of section 24 the contour line is zero or at sea level. Enough wells have been drilled toward the southwest corner of the section to show that the Tensleep drops off another 1500 feet in that direction, On the second Wall Creek sand map the contours are drawn only to HOW OIL Is FOUND the center of section 24. In a comparison of the ‘two maps with these points in mind it will be noted that the correspondence is very close and both show a dip of about $00 feet ina half mile toward the southwest. In the other direction the dip is steeper, on both maps. Bartram reports that despite the large num- ber of faults in the field no seepages of oil or of gas are known. Also the different sands had nor- ‘mal pressure when first drilled into. He therefore, believes that the 1100 feet of shale between the surface and the Frontier sands sealed off the faults ‘thus preventing migration. Similarly, the 1000 feet st Fig. 198. Contour map of the Sage Creek and Winkleman structures. (Dobbin et Al. in A.A.P.G. Bull. vol. 31, p. 814)ACCUMULATION 153 of shale between the Frontier sands and the Dakota sand sealed off any migration from that sand. In- asmuch as the drilling of the Frontier wells was done before the days of preservation of well cuttings, no precise description of them is available, PRODUCTION. From 1915 to 1942 when only the Frontier sands were in production a total of 11 million barrels of oil were obtained from an area of 580 acres. Wall Creek sand was by far the better sand of the two and probably accounted for most of the oi Between 1942 and the end of 1948 only a small amount of oil was produced from the Frontier sands. ‘The Tensleep sand during that time interval pro- duced over 20 million barrels and was producing at an annual rate of 4 million barrels at the close of the year. Furthermore the area from which the TTensleep was producing at that time was 4650 acres, anarea nearly 8 times as large as the area drained by the Frontier sands. In December 1948 one well ‘was drilled into the Madison limestone of Missis- sippian age and completed as a 240 barrel well. The producing section is several hundred feet thick. UNSYMMETRICAL ANTICLINE. The Sage Creek anticline is located in the Wind River basin 2 map of which is shown in fig. 197. It is located just south of the Winkleman pool and on the same line of folding. A map of the Sage Creek anticline was made by Sharkey, Dobbin, and Hom which shows ‘that the western side of the Structure is overturned and probably thrust faulted. ‘The map in fig. 198 shows a surface structure with a dip of 2500 feet Bartram reports that the second | in 3 miles on the east side with vertical and over- turned beds on the west side, Seven test wells on ‘the anticline have reported good shows of oil in the Tensleep formation, but none are large enough to make a commercial pool likely. Oil seeps are present along the line of steep dips on the west flank and it is entirely possible that the original ofl in the structure has escaped during past ages. ‘This probability is suggested on account of the fact that the Winkleman portion of the structure pro- duces ofl from the Tensleep sandstone. LOST SOLDIER & WERTZ. The description of anticlines in Wyoming would be incomplete with- out some reference to the most remarkable pool, the Lost Soldier pool. Fig. 199 shows the location of the Lost Soldier field along the northeast side of the Green River basin in the southwestern part of the state, This structure and its twin, the Wertz dome are located on an anticlinal ridge which is about 25 miles long. The two domes are about 2 miles apart and separated by a deep syncline. The oil field on the Lost Soldier dome is located on the very crestal part of an egg-shaped structure which has a closure of at least 4000 feet. The surface beds on all sides dip at angles between 35 and 55 degrees, The dome is faulted in a complex manner a5 should be expected in such a tight fold, ‘The faults radiate out from the crest, On the northeast flank the beds are thinned by stretching and in some places actually torn apart®, OIL ON LOST SOLDIER. The first ofl was found on the Lost Soldier structure in 1916 at a ting eats pa ht fatty Seeernare, — “Sa armen ae m oe geal ae en WASHAKIE eee basin yee es pene caetiy tone Fig. 199. Map of the Green River Basin to show the location of the oil and gas pools. (Gas poots are stippled; off pools in selid black) "See Krampert in A.A.P.G. Bull. vol. 33, p. 2001, 1949.HOW OIL 18 FOUND 154 OAR SaLLNNO> NoguvO @ waLYMLaaMS saNod Z1MaM 8 31S 1S07 Wousas $s0u0 2H00 wa708 AsoACCUMULATION depth of 265 feet in the first Wall Creek sandstone of Cretaceous age. Wells drilled into this sand later proved that it is completely faulted. Oi was also found in the shale above the sand at a depth of no more than 40 feet from the surface in some cases. There were other streaks of producing zones below the first Wall Creek at a number of levels down to the Dakota sandstone, In 1919 the first ‘well was drilled into the Dakota sandstone and dur- ing the next year the Lakota was found productive. ‘These two sands vary greatly in thickness over the fold and one or the other may even be missing in certain locations. By contrast with first Wall Creek sand which produces from about 160 acres, the sands at the Dakota and the Lakota levels produce over an area of 460 acres. The next lower sand~ stone to be found productive was the Sundance, which here is 300 feet thick. It has yielded off over an area of 160 acres. In 1930 a test well to the Tensleep was successfil in finding oil at a depth of 4000 feet. Later drilling proved that this Sandstone was saturated with oil over an area of 1000 acres. In 1948 still deeper probing found oil in the Darwin sand and also in the Madison lime- stone of Mississippian age. The Madison limestone contains porous zones throughout its 300 feet, but is most productive in the lowest 200 fect. The Madison limestone rests directly on the sandstone of Cambrian age which here is 700 feet thick. Late in 1948 the first ofl was found in this basal sandstone. ‘The best porosity seems to lie within the basal 200 feet of the arkosic and quartzitic rock. “The dis- covery well was drilled on down for some 130 fect into the pre-Cambrian schist and granite. Even here the crevices contained some oil. The column of producing zones in the Lost Soldier dome and | its twin the Wertz dome is shown in fig, 200, It will be noted that gas was found in the Wertz dome at a LOWER level than the oll was found in the same four sandstones on the Lost Soldier dome. ‘The oll in lower zones is found on both domes, but at different levels. OTHER ANTICLINES. Only a few examples have been selected from the many known anticlines in the state of Wyoming. The map fig. 201 shows all the anticlines which are presently producing oll or gas in Wyoming. A few of those on the map are not anticlines. ‘The four pools north of Neweastle in the northeastern part of the state produce from sands on a monocline. Several of the pools east of Casper also fall into such a classification. Also it must be emphasized that the map does NOT show all the known anticlines in Wyoming. For a large number of them have proved to be entirely barren. A remarkable instance of this kind is the Powder River_anticline located a few miles north of the Salt Creek pool. This anticline is 16 miles long | and 10 miles wide. It bas good dips and good 155 Fig. 201, Map showing the oll and ges pools in Wyoming. contrast the Salt Creek anticline has produced 335 million barrels of oll from seven different zones varying in age from the Cretaceous to the Pennsyl- vanian, For the reader who wishes further details re- garding producing structures in Wyoming reference ‘ean be made to an article by Dobbin™ in which 63 are described briefly in tabular form. The tables give location, prineipal producing zones, age, depth, grav- ity of the oll, and some remarks about the kind of fold. MONTANA. The search for anticlines which began in 1912 led to the testing of many promising structures in the state of Montana. In 1912 the very large Bowdoin dome in the northeastern part of the state was drilled and found to contain gas. ‘Two years later the Havre and the Cedar Creek structures were also found to contain gas. The Devils Basin anticline was found to contain oll in 1919, the Cat Creek anticline was found to contain oil in 1920. During the years from 1912 to 1920 many other structures were tested. Among them may be mentioned the very large and promising Porcupine dome at the end of the Big Snowy uplift. Smaller tnes also located on this uplift are the Alice, Ingomar, Ragged Point, Howard Coulee, Big Wall, and Gage structures, All these were disap- pointments. Farther southwest and south of Wheatland lie the Little Blk, Harlowton, Woman's Pocket and Shawmut anticlines. They all show up prominently in the topography and for that reason invited tests. No oil or gas was found in-any of them. These early failures dampened the enthusiasm of the wild- ceatter and postponed the discovery of such produc- ing domes as Soap Creek (1921) and Dry Creek (1830). Consult fig. 202.” bao During the Second World War when the need for new oil fields was urgent, some of the struc- closure. No oil or gas have been found on it, By *A.AP.G, Bull. vol. 27, p. 417-477, 1943. tures mentioned were tested again, This time someHOW OIL 1S FOUND 156 (rng “102 “Sf wy uueuIpL 9 Hage) ssmuop pue sounisnue yo woryeaot aq mous op eHCLOWY Jo doy “202 “hEACCUMULATION oll was found on the Gage and the Ingomar anticlines. PATTERNS. The anticlines of Montana are of various patterns and sizes. A large number are nearly circular and the word dome can justly bbe applied to them. The Whitlash dome which is | located on the northeast flank of the broad Sweet grass arch (see page 125) has a nearly circular | form and shows about 500 feet closure. Tt produces both gas and oil. The Dry Creek structure found | productive by the Ohio Oil Company in 1930 is quite symmetrical. It has 1500 feet of closure and ‘many faults. Here gas was found in two shallow Cretaceous zones and oil at the base of the Cr taceous in the Cloverly formation. The Bowdoin structure is quite symmetrical and nearly circular. It ts a very broad dome with gentle dips on all flanks. Perched on the main uplift with about 700 feet of regional closure are two subsidiary domes each having about 100 feet closure. CAT CREEK. The anticline which has pro- duced the most oil is the Cat Creek anticline. It 4s located on the north side of the very large up- Lift which has been called the Big Snowy anticlino- rium. Fig. 203 shows the structure of the Cat Fig. 203. Structure map of the Cat Creek anticline. (Reeves in U.S. Geol. Surv. Bull, 786) Creek anticline to be a long, narrow, unsymmetri- cal structure with many transverse faults. Also it will be noted that there are three subsidiary domes perched on the anticline. The anticline as a whole has steep dips on the north side which show a maximum relief of about 2500 feet. The dips on the south side are much more gentle, The length ‘of the anticline is about 10 miles. PORCUPINE. In view of the fact that the Cat | Creek anticline has produced over 15 mfllion bar- | rels of oil, it seems rather surprising to find that the nearby’ Porcupine dome is entirely barren. On the map fig. 202 the Porcupine dome will be noted 187 at the extreme eastern end of the Big Snowy anti- clinorium. This dome was tested to the lowest possible producing zones, not once but many times. ‘Only small puffs of gas’ were found. In fact east and north of the Cat Creek anticline only gas has been found in Montana. CEDAR CREEK. The best gas field in the state is the Cedar Creek anticline sometimes called ‘the Baker-Glendive anticline, It is located in the southeastern corner of the state and is 100 miles long. A structure map of this most unusual struc- ture is shown in fig. 204, Gas has been found in very thin sandy layers located in the upper portion of the thick Cretaceous shales. It will be noted ‘that the anticline is strongly unsymmetrical, and hhas steep dips on the southwestern side. At least three deep holes have been drilled on this anticline to test the possibilities of the older rocks. ‘Two Fig. 204. Map of the Cedar Greek anticline (Aiter U.S. Geol. Surv.)158 HOW OIL of the wells found oil in the Mississippian lime- stones, but not in sufficient quantity to make a commercial pool. The last test was drilled by the Carter Oil Company in 1941. It was completed in pre-Cambrian rocks at a total depth of 9680 fect. Some shows of oil were found, but too much water ‘came in with the oil to make the venture profitable. COLORADO. In the state of Colorado some drilling had been done as early as 1902 on the Rangely anticline. Oil was found in crevices in the Mancos shales of Cretaceous age. In 1908 this anticline was described briefly in U. S. Geol. Survey Bulletin No. 350. It may seem somewhat surprising, therefore, to find that it was not adequately tested until 1983. In that year a deep test to the Penn- sylvanian sandstone uncovered a very large reserve of oil. RANGELY. On the map shown in fig. 205 the | Rangely pool appears in the northwestern part of | the state on the north side of the Uinta basin. The | structure is very clearly outlined on the surface | Fig. 205. Map of Colorado to show the location of oll and gas pools. The oll pools are in 18 FOUND by outerops of the resistant Mesaverde sandstone of Cretaceous age. The center of the structure has been eaten out by erosion of the soft Mancos shales. Careful mapping shows that the anticline is somewhat elongated in a northwest to southeast direction and that it is unsymmetrical, The sur- face rocks show dips from 15 to 95 degrees on the southwest side and dips of 5 degrees on the gentle northeast side. The anticline has a closure of 1900 feet and embraces an area of 100 square miles. One major fault is present which cuts the anticline from northeast to southwest. A few minor faults are present on the steep southwest flank. OIL AT RANGELY. The main source of oil fon the anticline is in the Pennsylvanian sandstone ‘there called the Weber sandstone. Many cores have been taken and these reveal that the producing zone is made up of many lenticular sandstone mem- bers which vary in porosity and permeability. Cross- bedding in prominent. The permeability does not average higher than 20 millidarcies and the poros- ity at most 16 per cent. ‘The thickness of the oil column measured from the top of the highest well tothe water line in the sandstone is about 830 feet. Approximately 60 million barrels of ofl have been produced from this sandstone up to the end of 1950. ‘The area which produces ofl involves 20,000 acres cof the 64,000 acres total area of the structure. In table No. XI the important oil pools of Colorado are listed. It will be noted that all ex- cept one are anticlines. The Ft. Collins and Wel- ington anticlines are both located on the same structure and close together. The sub-surface closure at Wellington is approximately 1100 feet and the sub-surface closure at Ft, Collins about 800 feet. ‘The whole structure is 16 miles long. Pro- duction comes from sands near the base of the Cretaceous system. Wilson Creek, les, Hamilton (or Motfat) and ‘Tow Creek all He in the northwestern part of the state. Wilson Creek is a very symmetrical struc- ure almost circular in shape. It has 900 feet of structural closure and encloses about 15,000 aeres. solid black, the ges pools are stippled. ‘TABLE NO. XI. IMPORTAN NAME DISC. STRUCTURE YEAR Florence 1862 Shales Ft. Collins 1923, Antiel. Wellington 1924 “Anticl. Moffat 1924 Anticl. les 1924 Anticl. ‘Tow Creek 1924 Anticl. Rangely 1902 Shales Rangely (deep) 1983 Anticl. Wilson Creek 1938 “Anticl. Gramps 1935 Anticl. Ol is found in two Jurassic sandstones. The Hes IT OIL POOLS IN COLORADO AREA PRODUCING PRODUCTION TO ACRES ZONES END OF 1949 9,000 Pierre 14 million 520 Muddy 2-1/2 million 1,900 Dakota 5-1/2 million ‘400 Dakota, Entrada = 7 million 860 Morrison, Entrada 18° million 400 Niobrara 2 million 2,700 Mancos 3 million 20,000, Weber 47 million 2,800 Morrison, Entrada 14 million 120 Dakota 3 millionACCUMULATION structure is a nearly circular anticline with 900 feet of closure. It 1s cut olf sharply at the south end by faults. ‘The Moffat or Hamilton structure is also very symmetrical and has a closure of 500 feet on the surface. The Gramps field has some unique features. It is located in the southwestern part of the state in the San Juan basin area. The structure is an elongated anticline less than 3 miles long and about half as wide, The axis which trends nearly north to south is broken by a fault trending east to west, Production is found only on the south side of the fault, and comes from a sandstone in the Dakota formation of Cretaceous age. The ex- istence of this pool went practically unnoticed from the time of its discovery in 1935 to 1946 when it was described by Waldschmidt. ‘The HIAWATHA and Powder Wash pools are interesting because they produce ffom non-marine sands in the Tertiary sequence. Both have anti~ clinal structure. Some oil and much gas is being produced. Hiawatha dome has a closure of about 295 feet and Powder Wash dome has a closure of 90 feet, NEW MEXICO. In the San Juan basin of northwestern New Mexico a number of small nearly circular structures have been found which carry an unusually high gravity oll. The Hogback dome came Into production during 1922 when oil was found in the Dakota sandstone at the shallow depth of 705 fect. In fig. 206 the Hogback dome is shown as number 3. A cross-section of the San Juan basin Is shown in fig. 28 in Chapter Il. On this cross- section one of the producing domes is shown. ‘The ‘success at Hogback Jed to the testing of five other Anstona New Mexico Fig. 206, Map of northwestern New Mexico to show the general structure of the San Juan basin and location of oil and gas fields, 159 domes nearby. The second to come into production was the Rattlesnake dome (1924) which lies 13 miles west of the Hogback dome and contains approxi- mately 10,000 aeres on structure. Here also the Dakota is the producing formation and it has yielded somewhat over 5 million barrels of oil. The sand- stone is more lenticular than at Hogback and occurs in three benches with a total productive thickness of 28 feet, In 1925 the third dome was brought {into production, the Table Mesa dome. It was dif- ficult to map, because of the paueity of outcropping rocks. This dome covers 6000 acres, but only 160, are actually productive. Oil was found in a very thin development of the Dakota sand (2 to 7 feet thick). ‘The most interesting feature about the oil secured from these three domes is the gravity of the oll. At Hogback the oll measures 63 degrees and at Table Mesa it measures 58 degrees. OTHER POOLS. Among the other pools shown fon the map Hospah is a dome with 100 feet closure. Barker Creek 1s a faulted dome with a closure of about 300 feet. The Ute dome is unsymmetrical and cut by many faulés, At Kutz Canyon the ofl was trapped by @ change in the lithology of the producing sandstones. Similar conditions obtain in the Aztec, the Bloomfield and Seven Lakes pools. CALIFORNIA. Another petroliferous region ‘where earth movements have been severe, and where anticlines can be expected, is the southern part of California, In the annual summary of statistics given by the American Institute of Mining Engi neers, 56 different oil pools are listed in the San Joaquin valley with a notation regarding their struc- ture. Of these 26 are anticlines or faulted anticlines TABLE XM. LIST OF IMPORTANT ANTICLINES IN THE SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY NAME DISCOVERY PRODUCTION YEAR TO END 1950" Kettleman 1927 315 Hills Lost Hills 3910 66 Belridge (north) 1912 60 Belridge (south) a911 50 Elk Hills 1919 200 Buena Vista 1908 400 Paloma 1959 20 ‘Ten Section 1936 48 Rio Bravo 1937 55 * Production in millions of barrels160 or exactly half of the total. The map fig. 207 shows the location of these structures. The most prolific anticlines are listed in table XII in order Irom northwest to south and then northeast. KETTLEMAN HILLS. Next to the very pro- Lific Buena Vista field, the Kettleman Hills field hhas produced the most oil to date. The so-called North Dome has accounted for more than 99 percent fof that total. It is located 10 miles southeast of ‘the city of Coalinga on a very large symmetrical anticline which can be clearly depicted in airplane views. As early as 1910 the geological work done HOW OIL 18 FOUND by Ralph Arnold and Robert Anderson” drew atten— tion to the possibilities of this anticline and a test hole was drilled in 1910 to a depth of 4500 feet. Unfortunately this was not deep enough to find the oll which was stored in the anticline. Between 1910 and 1928 as many as 15 tests were drilled on the structure and all failed to penetrate deep enough. Finally, @ test hole was drilled to a total depth of "7236 feet in 1928 and it found the ofl in the TEMBLOR_ formation. GEOLOGIC SETTING. It is interesting to note ‘that all the antielines listed in the table No. XII Fig. 207. Map of the San Joaquin Valley to show location of pools. see US.G5. Bull. 39) (Herold Hoots)ACCUMULATION it are located at some distance from the foothills farther west. The general situation is well shown fn fig. 208 where the horizontal distance from the ‘outcrop to the crest of the anticline is about 9 miles. At the outcrop the Temblor lies at an ele- vation of 1500 feet above sea level while in the anticline the same formation rises only to a point 5840 below sea level. How low it descends in the ssyncline between them is not known. ‘The structural closure on the North Dome is 1500 feet on the surface and about 2200 feet on the producing zone. ‘The axial portion of the structure is rather flat, but the dips on the flahks are pro- nounced. On’ the surface the dips are 2 degrees fon both flanks. ‘This dip angle changes gradually downward until it amounts to 45 degrees on the southwest flank and 40 degrees on the northeast flank. ‘The anticline plunges gently in both direc- tions. The northward plunge can be seen clearly on the surface, for a distance of 5 miles, and amounts to an average of 6 degrees. Many faults are visible in the axial part of the fold, While Fig. 208. Cross-section from Reef Ridge in the Tar Canyon exposure fof the Temblor formation eastward across the syncline to the Kettleman Hills North Dome. (Atter Stanley Herold) Fig. 209. Cross-Section of the Kettleman Hills North Dome. AAPG. Geol. of Nat Gas, p. (Hoots & Herold in 134)162 ‘most of them have a small displacement, some reach 2 displacement of 400 feet. They are of the normal type and dips on the fault plane average 60 degrees. STRATIGRAPHY. The sequence of beds in this interesting anticline are shown in fig. 209 which also shows the gradually steepening angle of dip on the flanks. ‘The producing formation has a thick- ness of 1800 feet which largely accounts for the great stores of oil. Tt is divided into five sandy zones separated by four intervening shale zones. ‘The sandy zones are lenticular within themselves ‘but intercommunication between them is very good. ‘The other anticlines listed in table No. XII present a similar structural pattern and will there- fore, not be described in detail. CALIFORNIA OlL FIELOS HOW OIL 18 FOUND LOS ANGELES BASIN. The oil fields of the state of California are pretty well scattered over the southern portion of the state. The map in fig. 240 shows the San Joaquin valley at the north and the Los Angeles basin at the south. These two districts have anticlines which are fairly symmet- ical and show similar structural characteristics. ‘The other three districts are quite dissimilar and ‘will be described separately. TYPICAL ANTICLINES. In the Los Angeles basin 29 out of a total of 34 oil pools listed in the American Institute of Mining Engineers annual re- ports are located on anticlines. The most revealing picture of these is given by Hoots and Herold.'? ‘One of their figures is reproduced in fig. 211, which shows by means of contour lines the structure of Fig. 210. Map showing the relative location of the various districts in California. (Minehall & Whitaker in A.LM.E. for 1948) Dark portions are relatively mountainous terrane. TICAD.G, Geol. Nat Gas pages 172-220, 1935.ACCUMULATION ee en Fig. 201 contour maps on subsurface information. ‘three felds located on the coastal trend. (Compare fig. 26 in Chapter 11). ‘The Dominguez field is lo- cated 4 miles northwest of the eity of Long Beach on ‘2 prominent topographic feature known as Dominguez HII. It is interesting to note that this hill was formed by anticlinal folding during the Pleistocene epoch of the Quaternary Period; in other words, only yesterday in geologic time. Oil was discovered on this anticline in 1923. Long Beach field is lo- cated at the northern limits of the city about 2 miles from the ocean. It was found to contain oil in 1921. Almost all the land within the productive area had been divided into town lots before oil was discovered, As a result of this wells were Grilled close together and in rapid order. Signal Hill marks the erest of the underlying anticline. Dips in the rather soft Pleistocene rocks show angles from § degrees to about 30 degrees. Evi- dence of faulting 1s present on the surface in the prominent topographic scarps along the southwest side of the ridge. Apparently, these faults do not extend down deep enough to affect the migration of oll. SEAL BEACH is located about 2 miles south- east of the Long Beach field. Here production was found in 1926 after considerable probing had been done. Apparently this field is a double anticline separated by a syncline, The northwest area occu- ples Alamitos Heights, a topographic feature which rises about 75 feet above the lower land. The southeast part of the field lies between Alamitos Heights and Landing Hill. The two subsidiary folds in the field are small by comparison with others in the basin. The northwestern one con- tains 110 acres and has 100 feet of closure, while — et Dominguez, Long Beach and Seal Beach fields shown in cross-section and by means of (Hoots & Herold in A.A.P.G. Geol. Nat Gar, p- 182) the southeastern one contains $30 acres and has 200 feet of closure. By comparison the Long Beach field contains 1200 acres and has 1000 feet of closure. PLAYA DEL REY, From a theoretical stand- point, the Playa del Rey (or Venice) oil field is probably the most interesting in the basin. As the fig. 212 shows considerable oil has been found below 200 feet of black oil shale. The producing zone below the black shale is peculiar in that it is com- posed of schist fragments imbedded in a matrix of coarse sand. Indeed, the metamorphic rock below the basal sand also contains oil in fractures. There ‘can be little doubt that the oil which was generated, when the black shale was an oil-soaked mud, was, forced downward into the sandy zone (and into the schist as well), when pressure from above caused compression. COMPLICATED ANTICLINES. Some of the earliest prospecting in California was done in the Ventura Valley district where ofl and tar were erally oozing out of the mountain sides. The fig. 213 shows Sulphur Mountain which has the largest seepages. ‘The Scott interests who had Grilled the first well in California in 1865 (Humboldt County 216 miles north of San Francisco) were also attracted to the seepages in the Ventura Valley. ‘They purchased thousands of acres in the vicinity of Sulphur Mountain and drilled five holes near there in 1865. ‘The sixth hole, drilled in 1868 was successful in finding a little oil. The heavy gravity ff the oil found no market at that time. Prospecting continued between 1866 and 1875 without much suc- ‘cess; and, as we shall see in a moment, the pros~ pectors could hardly have picked a more difficult164 area to prospect in than the Ventura Valley. Fi nally, in 1875 a light gravity pool was found at the east end of the Valley near Newhall in Pico Canyon. GEOLOGIC SETTING. Our knowledge of this part of California is based upon the monograph by W. S. W, Kew.? ‘The report describes not only the rocks of the area but also the very complicated structural relationships. A sample of the structure is presented in fig. 143 on page 103. This some- ‘what simplified structure section appears in Kew's report on plate I and reveals that the Santa Clara valley is located between two overthrust faults. Even more involved relationships are found in other parts of the district. In order to understand the structural complications in this portion of California itis necessary to fit it into the surrounding portions. ‘The Ventura basin is bounded on the north by ‘the Santa Inez Mountains and their eastward coun- terparts into the Topatopa and allied smaller ranges. Fig. 212, Generalized cross-section of the Playa del Rey anticline, Geol. Nat. Gas, p. "U.S, Geol. Survey Bull. 753, 1924. HOW OIL IS FOUND ‘These ranges trend nearly east to west which is quite contrary to the general arrangement of struc- tural blocks in California. On the south side of the valley the bounding ranges are the Santa Monica Mountains and the Channel Islands. In other words, a large part of the southern boundary features is buried beneath the ocean. The east end is closed by the San Gabriel and the Santa Susana Mountains. ‘This structural alignment in a nearly east to west direction explains some of the complexities of the district. Quite evidently, it is a portion of the state which has been greatly compressed between ‘much larger and very strong blocks of the Earth's crust. In such a setting we must expect steeply @ipping strata, high anticlines, overturned anticlines, faults, and overthrust faulted anticlines. The cross- sections drawn by Kew reveal all these to be present. SOUTH MOUNTAIN POOL, The South Moun- tain pool is a good sample of the type of anticline (Hoots & Herold in A-A.P.G. 194)ACCUMULATION 165 Fig. 213, Map of the Ventura Basin district showing the topography and the location of the principal ‘ll pools. (Oil & Gas Journal) ‘A-AY NORTH-SOUTH SECTION 2 MILES EAST OF SANTA PAULA Fig. 214, Cross-section from north to south across the South Mountain ofl Held. (P.-L, Bailey in A.A.P.G. Bull, vol. 31, p- 1920)186 HOW OM 1S found under such circumstances. ‘This pool is lo- cated at the western extremity of a long anticlino- rrhum which is a westward continuation of the Santa Susana thrust fault. The oil is trapped in an anti- cline which is bounded on the north by a thrust fault called the Oak Ridge fault as shown in fig. 214, It will be noted that the displacement is very great. This cross-section also reveals the details of the faulting on the opposite side of the Santa Clara River valley. Farther east along the Oak Ridge the struc- tural relations are even more complicated as sug- gested by some cross-sections published by Sheller and Bien* ‘Their cross-sections reveal the presence of several overlapping overthrust faults between which the strata are disposed in a very disturbed attitude. Kew mentions in his report that the rather soft shales of the Tertiary sequence have a tend~ ency to become crumpled and to be shattered in cerush zones. OCCURRENCE OF OIL. In the Ventura basin district oil occurs on overthrust anticlines, against faults, in synclines, along shear zones, in zones of crushed and fissured shales and in combinations of these. Furthermore, the stratigraphic range of oil occurrence is greatest in this part of the state. | ‘The Eocene rocks are very thick here, but only | the uppermost formation, the Tejon, produces oll. | ‘The Sespe formation which belongs to the Oligocene, | Miocene and possibly upper Eocene series is the most productive. It comprises 5000 fect (more or less) of river-laid and lake-laid sediments which are characterized by a variety of bright colors. ‘The lower Miocene Vaqueros, so important in other parts of the state, has produced only minor amounts af oll here. One exception is the Elwood field (which lies along the ocean shore some distance west of the South Mountain pool) where the Va~ queros has produced most of the 85 million barrels TABLE NO. XI. IMPORTANT FOUND credited to the pool. Some sandstones in the Santa Margarita formation have produced oil in the dis- trict, The Pico and Repetto formations produce in only three ‘pools, but one of these, the Ventura Avenue, has produced more oll than ‘all the others taken together, Statistics on the pools in this dis- trict will be found in the table No. XII The very great stratigraphic range of oil production in this district has led to many speculations regarding its original hiding place (or places) and its probable migrations. At present no convincing statement can be made on this question. SOUTHERN OKLAHOMA. In southern Oklahoma anticlines, showing complicated underground rela~ tions, are present. ‘The general geologic setting for the Arbuckle Mountain district was deseribed on previous pages, At least twice, strong moun- tain building movements affected this area, ‘The map fig. 215 provides a pleture of the regional setting of the pools, ‘The area called Anadarko- Ardmore geosyncline is an area which was affected in a similar manner to the Santa Clara valley in California. Great overthrusts were created and the rocks were intricately folded. An example of fn oil pool in which oil has been found on such structure is the Velma pool described by Mallory. The location of the Velma pool is shown on the regional map fig. 21. A cross-section which was made from well records in the pool is shown as fig. 216. Mt will be noted that the older rocks from the Simpson (of Ordovician age) up to and including the Springer*(of early Pennsylvanian age) were folded before they were broken by the thrust fault. Note also that the peculiar relation exists here of having younger rocks thrust over older rocks. CRESCENT POOL. The Crescent pool is to- cated in Logan County, Oklahoma, some distance north of the Oklahoma City pool’ described on a POOLS IN VENTURA BASIN COASTAL POOLS | YEAR | AREA | STRUCTURE | PRODUCTION ‘ZONES Capitan 1o2a | 240 | Ant. faulted | 13 million | Vaqueros & Sespe Elwood 1e27 | 390 | Ant. faulted | 85 million | Modelo, Vaqueros & Sespe Summerland 1994 160 | Monoctine ‘3 million | Pliocene Rincon 1927 550 | Ant. faulted | 24 million | Pico & Repetto San Miguelito 1931 | 400 | Ant. faulted | 19 million | Pico & Repetto Ventura Ave. reie | 2400 | ant. fauited | 372 million | Pico & Repetto INLAND POOLS Sespe ete. teat | 500 | ant. ete. 3-1/2 million | Various South Mountain 1916 | 600 | ant. favitea | 32 million | Sespe Bardsdale 1891 240 | ant. faulted 3 million | Sespe & Tejon Shiels Canyon i911 650 | Ant, faulted 13 million | Sespe ‘Torrey Canyon 1996 | 130 | Ant. faulted 5 million | Miocene, & Oligoc. Newhall 1876 230 | Various 7 million | Pliocene & Miocene Wee AAPG. Bull. vol. 31, p. 1505.ACCUMULATION previous page. It shows some peculiarities which fare worth pointing out. ‘The cross-section in fig. 217 reveals the usual pattern of a two story anti- cline modified by peculiar fault complications. The prolific recoveries from the Second Wilcox sand fare shown here to be partly controlled by a trap against a fault in which the downthrown side is on the west. ‘The pool has produced (to the end of 1950) 23 million barrels of oil and most of this has come from the BIG PAY zone in the Second Wilcox sand. FAULT TRAPS. In some pools the oil has | very evidently been trapped by a fault. The clearest | case of such a situation is the Irma pool in south- | ern Arkansas. The map in fig. 218 shows the | producing wells, the fault and the contours drawn fon the top of the producing sand, the Nacatoch of Cretaceous age. It will be noted that no producers have been drilled on the north side of the fault. Note also that the pool 1s enclosed by anticlinal flanks on the other three sides. ‘The cross-section shown in fig. 219 reveals the fact that a graben or double fault exists here. ‘The central portion of the area has been dropped down with reference to the two sides. ‘The oil moving up dip from the south has been trapped against the fault on the south side of the graben. TALCO. A very similar situation has been found at Talco in northeastern Texas. Here the 167 much older Palusy sand is the producing formation. ‘The fig. 220 shows that the northwest side went down and the southeast side was displaced upward. ‘The oll is trapped in the Paluxy sand at the base of the section against the fault. A contour map Grawn on the base of the Goodland limestone with a contour interval of 20 feet shows that the pool fon the south side of the fault has an anticlinal structure. Oil was trapped between the highest contour at minus 3740 down to the contour at minus 3960 in the eastern part of the pool and down to minus 3900 at the western end of the pool. The area of closure involves 220 feet of south dip, but 4s sharply delimited on the north by the fault. "The pool covers 9000 surface acres. It is interesting to note that the surface fault has a displacement of 360 feet (maximum) on the surface, but a displace- ment of 1400 feet on a zone below the producing sand. Variations in thickness on the two sides of ‘the fault indicate continued movement along the fault plane from very early Comanchean time on- ward. The sands in the Paluxy are lenticular and vary greatly in porosity and permeability. An av- erage figure for porosity is 25 per cent. The permeability varies from about 100 md. to 10,550 md. The gravity of the crude varies from the top of the formation to the base. It is approximately 25 degrees at the top of the sand and only 16 Fig. 215. Regional Index map of southern Oklahoma to show location of Arbuckle anticline (AA); of ‘Ardmore Basin (AB): pool (R}: end Velma pool (V). ad Hunton-Tishomingo Uplift (HTU); Wichita Mountains (WM); Robberson (Mallory in AA.P.G. Bull vol. 32, p. 1950)168 degrees at the base. The total production to date has been over 100 million barrels. MEXIA. The very {amous fault line pools of Mexia, Wortham ete., which He along the same line of faulting in northeastern Texas, have been deseribed on a previous page. (see figs. 93 and 94). ‘They also show a fault closure on one side | and antielinal dips on the other three sides. | HOMER. In northern Louisiana several faulted | ‘domes have been found. The Homer pool was briefly described in Chapter Vi (see fig. 159). ‘The Bellevue pool is located not far from the Homer pool. It is a nearly circular dome broken by two faults. ‘The oil is very definitely trapped against these two | faults which produce a horst (raised wedge) in the center of the domed area. The characteristics of these two pools in northern Louisiana remind one of the salt domes in the southern part of the state. ‘Their almost perfect symmetry and their high re- ef coupled with the presence of surface faults are all elements which can be duplicated on a typical salt dome. Up to date no test hole has been drilled deep enough on Homer or Bellevue to test this theory. 'SAXET. One of the most interesting pools in ‘which a fault plays a major role is the Saxet field in southern Texas. For the location of this pool | Fig. 216. Cross-section from northeast to southwest across the Velma pool. (Mallory in A.A.P.G. Bull. vol. 32, p. 1970) HOW OIL 18 FOUND near Corpus Christi see fig. 156 in Chapter VI. Gas was discovered here in 1923 and 7 years later oil was found. In subsequent years one deeper sand after another was found until eventually a total of no less than 30 were proved productive, ‘The major fault which curves through the field from northeast to southwest has its downthrow side fon the east or oceanward side. The structure on ‘the upthrow side is that of an anticline. The struc- ture on the downthrow side is also in the nature of a closed anticline which develops into a gently plung- ing nose. These statements can be appreciated by an inspection of fig. 221 in which the major fault 4s indicated by a heavy black line and the minor faults (of which there are many) by much lighter black lines. Some of the complexities introduced by faulting are shown in fig. 222. In this figure the grouping of the sands into Oakville, Catahoula, Greta, Sinton, and Frio-Vicksburg groups. Here is one case where the help of electric logs is plainly mainfest. It would have been quite impos- sible to work out the complexities introduced by faulting in this pool without their aid. PRODUCTION, The Saxct pool has produced approximately 70 million barrels of oll and distillate to the end of 1950. It has also produced 100,000 ‘million cubie feot of gas. Fifteen of the sands’ are Fig. 217. Oklahoma, to show the underground structure. (Stuart Clark in A.A.P.G, Boll. vol. 28, p. 250) Cross-section of the Crescent pool in169 ACCUMULATION170 HOW OIL 1S FOUND rete Fig. 219. Cross-section through the Irma pool along the Line A~A‘ in fig. 218, The second fault is not visible in fig. 218 except at the west end. (Teas in A.A.P.G. Str. Typ. Amer. Oil Fields vol. 1, p- 9) Fig. 220. Cross-section of the Taleo pool showing the sequence of beds in the Talco pool and also the fault, (Wendlandt & Shelby in A.A.P.G. Str. Typ. Amer. Oil Fields vol, Ill, p. 446) quite good and fifteen are much less productive. | the western or downthrow side of the major fault ‘The many highly saturated gas sands on the down- | also has migrated from other sands on the other thrown side of the major fault described above, | side of the fault, Examination of cores gives some suggest that the gas has migrated along and across | very interesting information on porosity and per- this fault. Poole believes that some of the oil on | meability. The four major producing sands haveACCUMULATION fan average porosity of 30 percent. The range is from 7 to 45 percent. The permeability of the same sands ranges from 0 to 6100 md. The gravity of the oil varies considerably - all the way from 22 degrees to as high as 57 degrees. The high gravity and distillate all come from sands below | the so-called Great unconformity while the low gravity oll and the dry gas are concentrated in the sands above this unconformity. CONROE. The Conroe pool is located in southern Texas near the Gulf Coast (see fig. 156). It also shows faults cutting the productive sands. ‘The structure of the pool is roughly circular and the two major faults produce a graben near the center. Vertical displacement on the faults amounts to 150 feet. The oll has accumulated in the Cock- | field formation of Eocene age in sands which lie appreximately 800 feet above their general level in Fig. 221. Contour map based on the 4700 foot sand. (Poole in A.A.P.G. Bull. vol. 24, pe m surrounding territory. Free communication and ‘equalization of fluids across the faults is indicated by the nature and distribution of these fluids in all parts of the pool. A large gas cap overlies the ofl occupying an interval of 170 feet. The proved area comprises over 17,000 acres and the total production to the end of 1950 amounts to more than 300 million barrels of oil. A geologic struc- ture map of the pool is given in fig. 223 and shows a relief of approximately 2000 feet. The map in fig. 224 shows the effect of the faults on the gas cap. A cross-section made along the line A-A in fig. 223 is given in fig. 225. This interesting sec- tion reveals the lenticular nature of the sands as Well as the influence of the faults on the distribu- tion of oil and gas. Most of the oll comes from a sandy zone 250 fect thick, called the Conroe sand, Which shows variable amounts of clay and sand. SAXET FIELD 14000/ SAND CONTOUR MAP 1820)HOW OIL, 1S FOUND argc 4 Z| oe i Fig, 222. Cross-section of into groups. 24, p. 1816.)ACCUMULATION The average porosity of this group of sands is 28 percent and the average permeability is 260 md. Drilling of wells has revealed the interesting fact ‘that the sands are more indurated at and close to the faults. Therefore, the highest porosities and Permeabilities are found away from the faults. ‘As a sidelight on the vagaries of the oil busi ness it is interesting to find that this large pool was discovered by chance drilling. This was done after the area had been surveyed by torsion balance and also by refraction selsmograph methods on the part of no less than § major oil companies. Each ‘company felt that the picture revealed did not jus- tify retention of their acreage. SALT DOMES, A special type of anticline is ‘the nearly round structure dipping in all directions away from the center and which owes its configu- ration to salt intrusion. An inspection of fig. 73, will give the reader a preliminary hint as to their origin and peculiarities. Tt will be noted that a peneil-like mass of salt has been pushed up from great depth toward the surface. As it rises it punches its way through the soft sediments until am the growth stops. ‘Then there may be renewed growth with additional puncturing of the strata OR simply uplift of the overlying strata. It is very prob- able that the Conroe pool was produced inthis manner. DISCOVERY HISTORY. The first salt dome was found during the Civil War when Captain Avery drilled a hole into the island named after him and found salt at the shallow depth of 16 feet. The island was so named because it formed a prominent topographic feature in the swampy coastal area of southern Louisiana. It is one of five hills which Line up along a nearly straight trend beginning with Belle Isle in southeastern St. Mary Parish, thence northwest to through Weeks to Jefferson Island in Theria Parish. The pressing need for salt after ‘the Civil War led to drilling at Cote Blanche in 1862 and at Jefferson Island in 1864. ‘Three years later a man by the name of Lucas drilled for salt on Weeks Island. This island rises to a height of 185 feet above the general level of the coastal swamps. Here the salt was found at a depth of 276 feet by Lucas. Frequent “puffs” of gas were encountered during the drilling operations. This: Phenomenon led Lucas to suspect that similar mounds ‘ight be the hiding place of commercial gas pools. Contour map of the Conroe pool on (Michawe & Buek in A.A.P.G, Bull. vol. 20, p. 746) Fig. 223, the top of the produeing sand. Fig. 224, Map showing the areal extent of the [axe cap in the Conroe pool. (Michaux te Buck in A.A.P.G. Bull. vol. 20, p. 756)174 SPINDLETOP. With the ald and encourage- ment of J. M. Guffey one of the leading wildeatters of all time, Lucas decided to test his theory near Beaumont in southern Texas where a rather high hill called Spindletop is located. It was necessary to drill to a depth of 1100 feet before results were obtained, ‘The results were so sensational that they remain one of the outstanding events in the history of oll finding. An uncontrollable amount of oil rushed into the hole and burst out at the surface with such force that the column rose above the crown block to a height of several hundred feet. ‘Truly this was a gusher. No methods were known at that time of controlling such a wild well and therefore, it contimed to flow until it was acciden- tally ignited 10 days later. Reliable estimates place the flow of oil at 80,000 barrels per day. ‘This event transpired in the year 1901, at a time when many operators in the United States knew the value of oil, Consequently they rushed in from all parts of the compass and began drilling near every hill known in that part of the country. In rapid succession such salt domes as Jennings 225, Cross-section of the Conroe pool along the line A-A in f HOW OIL IS FOUND (1902), Welch (1903) and Anse ‘La Butte (1905) were found to contain oil in Louisiana; and Saratoga (1901), Sour Lake (1902), West Columbia (1902), Batson (1903) and Humble (1904) were found in Texas. ‘The race was on, By 1924 all mounds which might contain oil had been tested in southern Louisiana. Unfortunately, most of them were disappointments, for every mound did not contain oll, or at least it proved difficult to find it, This explains why only nine salt domes were proved to be oil-bearing be- ‘tween 1901 and 1924 in Louisiana, In Texas many salt domes were found at a depth of 1500 feet or less up to the year 1910, but none contained oil in quantity. In that year a new discovery was made, Wells which were drilled on the flanks of the Humble and also the Sour Lake domes found oil on the flanks of the salt mass. ANSE LA BUTTE. The hill at Anse La Butte which is 15 feet high and which had gas seepages ‘around it, was tested in 1901 shortly after Spindletop lew in, ‘Good production was found in sands above the salt in 1907, but it was not until 1927 that the ‘g00d production on the flanks was found. Even then - 223. (Michoux & Buck in A.A.P.G. Bull. vol. 20, p. 748)ACCUMULATION the ol proved elusive and further testing was nee~ essary to find the really rich deposits. Before 1940 no less than 129 tests had been drilled on the top or near the top of the dome. Of these 39 were small ofl producers, two were gas wells, five were salt wells and the rest were dry. ‘This is merely a sample of the early experience with salt domes. Of the wells drilled between 1940 and 1942 on the flanks of the dome 59 were good producers. ‘They found oil in the Breaux zone, the Patin sand, the Martin zone and the Hackberry zone, Some of these are shown in fig. 226 which is a block dia~ gram to show how the sands are pinched off against the salt mass. ‘The production from this pool up to the close of 1950 has been 24 million barrels. CAPROCK. At Anse La Butte the salt has risen to within 160 feet of the surface and has no caprock above it. At other places a very hard capping material has been found. Apparently, when the salt rises to within range of surface waters there is a tendency for the salt to dissolve and leave behind the insoluble residues. ‘The most com- ‘mon impurity in the salt is anhydrite (calcium sulphate). The anhydrite is converted into gypsum by the addition of water. In rare cases some of the gypsum is converted into sulphur to make com- ‘mercially valuable deposits. The calcium sulphate also is converted into limestone by the substitution fof carbonate for sulphate, Thus it happens that many salt domes are equipped with a very resist- ant punching device consisting of limestone at the top and anhydrite (or gypsum) below. Some of the various types of caprock found to date are shown 195 in fig, 207 and 228, The Barbers_Hill dome has 2 fairly tick eaprock whick overhangs tn the east Bide,” Note that some oll was found in the eaproc on the eastside Just above the overhang. Note how the oil in the flanking sands has been accumulated inthe up-dip wedges against the impervious sat In the Sugarland dome the caprock fa at least 61 feet thick. "Since no well has drilled entirely through 4, the maximum is not known. Only limestone and anhydrite are present and the gypsum probably did net form in this particular instance. Note that in this salt dome souch of the production wa fund in sands above the eaprock (super-caprock production). ‘This dome has produced 88 million barrels of oil to the ‘close of 1990, from the Frio sands above the eaprock and from Oligocene ‘sands onthe flanks. SIZE. ‘The size of salt domes. is usually | rather small, Very few measure more than two | miles across, The comparative sizes and shapes of some representative producing domes is shown, | fn tig. 228 | DISTRIBUTION, Sait domes have been found abundantly in southern Loulsinan and also’ in ie Gull Coast ares of Tenas In what is usally called the “upper Gull Coast's At preseat there are over 40 sall domes producing ol in southern Lousiana, The upper Guil Coast of Texas takes In the area Tetwou the border with Louisiana anda fine through the deep indentation whieh les along the shore be teen Jackson and” Calhoun Counties. in tnt port | ef Texas several hundred salt domes are loown of hich a2 are presently in production. Salt domes | Ere‘siso und’ tn Basissgpi "On the’ map fi. 280 Fig. 226. Block diagram to show oll-bearing sands on the flanks of the Anse La Butte salt dome, (Bates & Wharton in A.A.P.G. Bull. vol. 27, p. 1144).HOW OIL 1S FOUND Fig, 228. Cross-section of the Sugarland dome. (Houston Geol. See.)Fig. 230 ACCUMULATION an |e e a ——————_ --* — t Fig. 229. Gulf Coast type salt domes, showing areas of production in black and the shape of the salt masa beneath, (Houston Geol. Soe.) —~'| | the salt domes are indicated by short dashes ar- | | ranged in the form of a circle, “The most northern fone found to date is the Kilmichael dome near the center of the state. The Bruinsburg, Kings and ‘McBride domes, west of the Jackson oil field pro- duce gas. ‘The others have so far proved barren. In Louisiana salt domes have also been found in | thenorthern part of the state. Similarly, salt domes | have been found northward from the coast in Texas | as far north as the Tyler basin in the northeastern FAULTS. In recent years (beginning in 1935) electric log correlation has become common in salt dome areas. With closer correlations it has, been discovered that faults are very abundant above and around salt domes. A good example is the Jennings field in Acadia Parish of Louisiana de- scribed by Roach. His contour map reproduced in fig. 291 shows many of the faults found on the 1 southern periphery of the dome. They are shown VA i in cross-section in fig. 232, The first oll found at se Nl Jennings was in 1901 when the deposits in the su- ~ percap sands were located. Flank production was Map of southern Mississippi te show | not found until 1929 and active development was the location of alt domes. delayed until 1936. Drilling after that date revealed178 HOW OIL IS FOUND that the Frio sands were broken by many faults. The cross-section also shows that the fault blocks are buried under an unconformity suggesting that the faults were produced immediately after the dep- ‘sition of the sediments which carry Heterostegina fossils. However, there were later movements of the salt mass as indicated by thinning of sediments toward the salt mass, The salt mass has grown Into the middle Miocene strata and is covered by a thick caprock. A very interesting, and probably ‘unusual, mineralization has taken place where the ccaprock is in contact with the sands on the eastern side. Evidence derived from electric logs shows clearly that certain sands were invaded by heavy brines from the top of the salt, This must have taken place while the salt was close to the surface and at 2 time when surface waters could enter and dissolve the salt. Furthermore, the large amount ‘of salt which must have gone into solution was re- placed contemporaneously by new salt rising from below. SEDIMENTS INVADED BY SALT. The wedge of sediments which were invaded by salt masses in coastal Texas is shown in fig. 233. It will be noted that the youngest sands lie under Galveston County at the coastline. These are the rich producing sands of the Louisiana coast also, ‘The next great body of sands, the Frio group reaches its thickest development Somewhat farther inland under the Friendswood pool. Note that the sands change their fit ek il HN Fig. 231. Contour map of the Jennings dome drawn on the top of the salt and the Heywood sand, (Roach in A.A.P.G, Bull, vol. 27, p. 1108)ACCUMULATION facies westward and merge into shale bodies, The Cockfield sands which have done so well at Conroe begin to show encouraging thickness about at the point where the Frio sands lose their strength. ‘They in turn change to shales in an up-dip direc- tion and lose thelr value as reservoir rocks in Walker County. But here the Wilcox sands appear in full strength and at a convenient depth to serve as reservoir rocks. On the background of thi cross-section, it is possible to picture the TRENDS which are £0 apparent on the map shown in fig. 156. (Chapter VI) GERMAN SALT DOMES. In northwestern Germany many salt domes have been found from Hanover northward to the border of Denmark and from Swerin in the Russian zone of occupation west ward to the sea and the Dutch border. Among several hundred known salt masses about 93 have 179 been proved to be oll-bearing. The relations of a structural nature seem complicated when compared to the American occurrences. A fair sample is the Reitbrook pool shown in the fig. 234. It will bbe noted that numerous faults have been found in the strata above the salt mass. One deep test drilled to a depth of 10,600 feet passed through successive masses of zones of country rock and ended in anhydrite with gas shows. Ina recent publication issued by the Geological Survey at Han= hover the salt domes are fully described. The most complicated salt stock seems to be the one fat Elcklingen, This stock has a mushroom-shaped overhang which spreads out in all directions sug~ gesting that the salt came up as a small diameter pencil and then spread out after reaching the surface. One well was drilled entirely through the salt to a depth of over 10,000 fect and ended in sedimentary HP a Fig, 232. Cross-section of the peripheral area along the south side of the Jennings deme. (Roach in A.A.P.G, Bull. vol 22, p. 1106)180 bod HOUSTON DISTRICT GULF COAST HOW OIL 1S FOUND ie Diagrammatic dip section through the Houston district showing the nature and the age Fig. 233. (Houston Geol. Soe.) of strata penetrated by rising sl rocks, while a number of wells on the flanks were drilled through the overhang. The picture presented by this salt stock reminds one of the salt glaciers ‘of southwest Persia. In the Bicklingen dome the foil was found underneath the overhang in strata of ‘uppermost Jurassic age. RUSSIAN SALT DOMES. In southern Russia on the northeast side of the Caspian Sea a large number of salt domes have been found, The map fig. 235 shows the location of approximately 100 known domes and also the location of six domes which were in production before 1997. ‘This area Ves about 200 miles northeast of the rich Balu district described in Chapter V. (see fig. 144) ‘The salt domes of Russia have a size varying from 3 to 8 miles in diameter in the central Emba re- gion, but are smaller in the southern part of the Fegion. Some of the domes like Koschagyl have a caprock and it probable that most of them show this characteristic, Although some eaprock oil has been found it is of little consequence. Better pro- @uction has been obtained from supercap accurmula- tions. But most of the oll in the Emba district comes from flanking sands, as at Iskine. The il- lustrations of prospected domes published by the Russian geological surveys show striking similari- ties to those of southern Texas and Louisiana. Faults are present above the salt and they have a tendeney to produce the graben effect immediately above the erest of the intrusive plug. Production figures on these salt dome fields, of which Dossor and Makat are the most important, were given by Zavoico up to and including 1937." The daily av- verage during that year was 7900 barrels and the cumulative total to the end of 1937 was somewhat over 38 million barrels. In methods of exploration ‘we find that geology was used up to 1932 and that gravitymeter surveys were used to 1995. There- after main reliance was placed upon reflection seis- mograph surveys. It is also interesting to find that soil surveys were conducted here somewhat earlier than in other countries and that they have been carried out with great earnestness over the extent of the Emba region. OTHER COUNTRIES, The salt domes of south- em Persia have been described by J. V. Harrison. Apparently they are of ancient vintage, inasmuch fas they have brought up slices of Cambrian rock, ‘Thelr shape 1s mostly round or oval. In distinction the salt anticlines of Roumania are elongated. Oro- genie movements in Roumania have produced the difference in type. Another striking difference in Roumania is the presence of mud or clay with the salt. This characteristic shows the congenerity between salt domes and mud voleanoes. (see fig. 145) In fact the structures in Roumania generally show more clay than salt. OIL IN REEFS. Reefs made by sea-dwelling animals and plants were described in chapter Tl. Trans, ALM. vol. 127, pe 690.ACCUMULATION ‘A cross-section of several typical reef mounds is, presented in fig. 30 and a map of the many reefs, in Indiana and adjacent states is shown in fig. 164. ‘The Marine oil pool in western Mlinois is briefly described in chapter VI. The fact that reef rocks might furnish an ideal reservoir for oil and gas had been known for many years, but it remained for the rather sensational discovery of the Leduc field in western Canada to focus attention on them. LEDUC. The oil at Leduc was found in Feb- | ruary, 1947 when the Imperial Oil Company com- | pleted the first commercial well in the D2 zone. ‘The pool is located 15 miles southwest of Edmonton and 160 miles north of Calgary in the provinee of Alberta. At this point in the province all rocks between the lower Cretaceous and the Devonian rocks are missing. Therefore, the bit passed through 400 feet of dolomitic Imestone and several hundred feet of anhydrite and red shale before the oil was found. ‘The fig. 236 shows the detailed variations in lithology as well as the electric log picture of the Devonian rocks penetrated in the No. 181 3 well, After a considerable mmber of other wells had been drilled the outlines of a reef in the D3 zone were rather clear. The profile as outlined by ariling up to the early months of 1950 reveals 2 bioherm with a width of about 5 1/8 miles and a Telief above the adjacent sea floor of about 200 feet. No well on the top of the reef has yet been drilied entirely through the reef, but from the Te- cord of a deep dry hole it is calcolated that the rect has a thickness of aboct 760 feet at the center. ‘A-cross-section of the reef is shown in fig. 297 showing that the D2 zone in which the first oll was found is a normal bed of dolomite, but that the D3 zone in which the rich deposits of oil are stored {s'a typical reef mound. The types of porosity in the reel have been rather fully described by Waring and Layer. There 1s considerable intererystalline and pin-point porosity present. Tn adéition the cores Also’ show wugs intercomected with mimerous small irregular crevices. These crevices were probably prodiced by the crushing weight of the overburden. ‘At any rate they are extremely important in connection Fig. 24a, Map of northwestern Germany to show location of salt plugs nd oil fields. (From Erdoel and Koble Ian 1950) Salt plugs encircled ~ oll fields solid black182 with migration of the ofl ana gas, In some cores there are numerous voids created by the solution of stromatoporoid material. At the end of 1950, there were 450 wells in the pool and the total production up to that time is 21 million barrels. REDWATER, One year after the Leduc dis- covery another find was made at Woodbend, Later drilling proved that the Woodbend and Leduc pools fare part of the same reservoir. In August 1948 a very important find was made 20 miles northeast ‘of Edmonton at Redwater. The reef found in that ool seems to be mainly limestone rather than dolo~ mite as at Leduc. Up to the close of 1950, 600 wells ‘were completed in the newpool and the production up to that date was 10 million barrels. A third reef was found four miles west of the Woodbend well in April 1949, This reef appears to be relatively small. It has been named the Golden Spike pool. NORMAN WELLS. In 1919 a test well was staked out in the far north of western Canada near HOW OIL IS FOUND Norman Wells by Theodore Link, then geologist for the Imperial Oil Company. This place lies 1000 miles north of Edmonton and 90 miles within the Arctic Circle, on the banks of the Mackenzie River. (See fig. 238) Seepages had been known along the river ever since Mackenzie made bis original trav- erse in 1789. The Devonian Fort Creek shales which line the river for miles are extremely bitu- minous and evidently had burned because the gas seepages were occasionally ignited. The spot se- lected for the first test was located on the flank of a large anticline, the axis of which les 8 miles from the river. Nevertheless, the selection proved fortunate, for a reef was found at the shallow depth of 783 feet. The cross-section of this reef is shown in fig. 289. Development of the pool was slow until 1942 when the Canol Project was initiated, Even- tually an area~of 4000 acres was proved to be oll-bearing and it is estimated that this pool will produce something like 36 million barrels before abandonment becomes necessary. Fig. 234b. Cross-section through the ofl pool at Reitbrack. (J. Brian Eby in Oil Weekly April 1947)183 ACCUMULATION184 HOW OIL IS FOUND DEVONIAN SECTION IMPERIAL LEDUC No.3 ‘ANHYD. ZONE B ootomite SH. ZONE em Limestone sur D3 ZONE GB Annvonite NA swate Fig. 236, Detailed columnar section of the Devonian rocks in the Leduc field. (Waring & Layer in A.A.P.G. Bull. vol. 34, ps 296) NE>SW. SECTION AGROSS THE LEDUG FIELD VERTICAL SCALE EXAGGERATED 20 TIMES SCURRY COUNTY. Another spot where reef production was of a sensational nature is Scurry County in west-central Texas. (See fig. 165). In- terest was aroused in this area when the Sun Company in December 1946 completed the discovery well in ‘the Jameson pool (Coke County) in a reef of Penn~ sylvanian age. In July 1948 another reef well was completed as the No. 1 Schattel, This well is 1o- cated on a reef pinnacle. In November 1948 the main part of the reef was found when the North Snyder pool was discovered by the Standard Oil Company of Texas. Two months later the Diamond 'M pool was found, ‘These pools are shown in fig. 240 in which contours are drawn on the top of the reef limestone of Pennsylvanian (Canyon) age. The con- tour interval is 100 feet. The P on the map refers to wells which are being pumped and the W refers to wells making water, SEYMOUR. Drilling has not proceeded far enough to give us a clear picture of the reef in Scurry County and its surrounding geological asso- ciations. However, we have a very complete account of a reef of similar age in Baylor County.!* The original test well in the Seymour pool was completed in December 1938 and produced 238 barrels a day fn the porous section at the top of the reef. At present the producing area covers 680 acres. Dis- covery is credited to seismograph information. The surface rocks in this part of Texas dip northwest ata rate of 50 feet to the mile, They show no Indication of the reef at depth. Unfortunately the porosity in this pool occupies only 12 feet in thick~ ness and therefore, the recovery has been small. ‘The appearance of the reef and the arrangement of | the strata above and below the reef are admirably | shown in fig. 241. UNCONFORMITIES. In many places oll has been accumulated at lunconformities. The oil may be found below the unconformity or above it, Some cases have already been cited where migration from overlying beds into older beds below an unconformity have trapped oil. A prominent case of this kind is the "eee Oklahoma City field deseribed on a preceeding page (fig. 190). Other arts of Oklahoma farther south re veal similar situations. ‘The two story anticlines in the northern part of the state as well as in Kansas show many examples of oil accumula seer tons at unconformities. Fig. 237. Cross-section of the Leduc reef from northeast to southwest. (Waring & Layer in A.A.P.G. Bull. vol. 34, p.298) MSee AAPG, Strat, ‘Type Ol Fields p. 760-775.ACCUMULATION 185 SECTION B-B idwee NORMAN WELLS FIELD Fig. 239. Cross-section of the Fort Norman sect. (Stewart in A.A.P.G. Str. Typ. ‘Amer, Oil Fields vol. Ill, p. 100) Fig. 238. Map of western Canada to show location of pools mentioned in the text. TABLE XIV. STRATIGRAPHY FOR THE SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY OIL FIELDS. — Sra err eee eg ere iatarooen | aan = ra emma saad oe ES ae ee ee aoa | eee, SS a errs Led Capay ‘Yokut Ss bausocene ee UPPER CRETACEOUS | panoche Panoche Panoche186 CALIFORNIA. In California there are exam- ples of very large accumulations of oil because of tunconformities. ‘The map fig. 242 shows the com- plicated geological relations along the western side ff the San Joaquin valley. The sequence of forma- tions in the valley is given in table XIV. In fig. 242 the north dome of the Kettleman Hills shows up prominently near the center of the western side of the valley. Northwest of it lies the city of Caolinga. HOW OIL 15 FOUND the ol fields west of the city are located on a mono- cline, The oil occurs in the strata of Miocene age (Temblor) in a zone which 4s anywhere from 400 to 100 feet thick. The sands in the Miocene lie on an unconformity. The sands can be found on the | outcrop still farther west where they are either impregnated with tar or else strongly stained with oll. It is entirely probable that the sands form ‘wedges of varying thickness and thin out toward ‘According to Anderson and Pack"? | the west. The relations are not simple. Y K)RKRANG @ FIELOS Fig. 240, Map showing the main part of the Scurry reef. (Ol & Gas Journal, April 27, 1950) MUS, GEOL. SURV. Bull. 603. 1915,ACCUMULATION BELRIDGE, The Belridge and North Belridge pools are located farther south on prominent anti- ‘lines. However, even here the influence of uncon- formities on oil occurrence is prominent. The sands {in the Tulare formation lie upon the older rocks with an angular unconformity between them. ‘There- fore, the oil in them would have accumulated there regardless of the anticlinal arching of the beds. MIDWAY - SUNSET, Still farther south lies the very prolific Midway ~ Sunset field. It stretches from the town of Taft northward past Fellows to | 187 Midway. Fig. 243 shows the structural features in the vicinity of Taft. The rocks dip eastward from the Temblor Range into the syncline of the Midway valley. Numerous seepages in the foothills of the ‘Temblor Range led to the early attempts to find oll farther east. After many wells had been drilled it was found that a great deal of the oil accumulated either above an unconformity or below an uncon- formity. ‘The fig. 244 shows the Etehigoin forma wring zone and is labelled with - The Pliocene Tulare formation overlies the WEST-EAST CROSS SECTION Fig. 241 Cross-section through the Seymour pool in Strat. Type Oil Fields, p. 770) (murphy, Purcell & BartonHOW OIL IS FOUND 188 Btchigoin with unconformity relations and it is be- Heved that much of the ofl was trapped on that account. (Tulare formation is labelled ‘‘b”” in the figure 244 while ‘“d” is the Maricopa shale). ‘The Maricopa beds dip more steeply and they le be- neath the Etchigoin with angular unconformity. ‘They ‘also contain sands which are believed to contain their oil on account of being trapped beneath the unconformity. This is shown more clearly in fig. 245 where the oll-bearing sands are shown in black beneath the Etchigoin-Maricopa unconformity. A rather detailed map is shown in fig 246 and on SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. CALIFORNIA i ai pe - if oamen 4 ! i Fig. 242, Geological mop of the San Toagsin velley im Califor (Cunninghasn & Kleinpell in A.A.P.G. Prob. of Pet Geol p. 788)ACCUMULATION Fig. 243. Map showing structural axes from Taft northward across the Buena Vista Hills and the Elk Hills to the San Joaquin Valley. (Woodring ‘Roundy and Farnsworth in U.S.G.5. Bull. 835) 189 this map some smaller structural features are also indicated such as the Spellacy anticline and the fault northwest of it. OIL PRODUCTION. The pools in the San Joaquin valley have produced over 3 1/2 billion darrels of oil. Of this amount the Coalinga area has accounted for 625 million. The Midway - Sunset area has exceeded that total and has accounted for 143 million barrels. The table No. XV printed be- low gives additional details on the structure of the pools and the number of acres in each. SANTA MARIA. Perhaps the most interesting ‘example of unconformity pools is the Santa Maria pool in the valley by the same name. (see fig. 38 Chapter 11) The whole valley takes in about 130 square miles and the Santa Maria pool lies near the center of this valley. A stratigraphic section of the rocks in the pool is shown in fig. 247 which also reveals the position of the oil-bearing zones as well as the names of the foraminifera which were used to date the rocks. There is an angular unconformity between the Miocene and the younger rocks. This explains the oll saturation in the Sisquoc and the Foxen “tar sand”. Oll has seeped up from a pnaion Bachan tune emaion hpi tmatonte ‘SECTION ALONG LINE AA’ cit parinem merino edt) Marcepe tle Fig. 244, Cross section from west to enst across the Midway-Sunset field end also the Midway Valley and the Buena Vista Hills anticline, showing the occurrence of ofl in the Etchigoin formation. (R.W. Pack in US.G.S. Prof. Paper No. 116) TABLE NO. XV. DATA ON THE IMPORTANT POOLS IN THE SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY NAME pisc. STRUCTURE YEAR Coalinga 1896 Monocl. & Unconf. MeKittrick 1887 Faulted Monocl. ete. Midway-Sunset 1887 Faulted Monoel. ete. Kern River 1899 Unconf. & Monocl. Belridge 1901 ——-Faulted anticline Buena Vista 1908 Anticline Lost Hills 1910 Anticline Elk Hills 1919 Faulted Anticline Wheeler Ridge 1922 Anticline Mt. Poso 1926 Faulted Monocline Kettleman Hills 1927 Anticline Round Mountain 1927 -—-Faulted Monocline Fruitvale 1928 Monoel. & Uncont. Mountain View 1933 Faulted Monocline ‘Ten Section 1936 Anticline Rio Bravo 1937 _—_Anticline ‘Total Production for all pools in the San Joaquin Valley AREA PRODUCING PRODUCTION ‘acres ‘ZONES END 1949 20,000 Pio, Mio, Eo. Cret. 625 million 3,000 Pi. Mio. Ol. Boe. 130 million 18,000 —_—Plioe. Miocene 743 million 7,000 Pliocene 306 million 8,000 Pi, Mio. Olig. 104 million 16,000 Pliocene 380 million 2,300 Pliocene 65 million 18,500 ioe. Mioe. 200 million 260 Plioe. ‘Mioe. 5 million 8,000 Miocene 118 million 17,000 Moe. Eocene 362 million 1500 Miocene 57 million 11,800 Pliocene 44 million 2,000 Plioe. Miocene 50 million 2,000 Miocene 46 million 2,000 Miocene 50 million 3,500 million190 fon of of Below the uncon- formity in the Signal area of the Sunset field pear Maricops, (Cunningham and Kleinpell in A\A.P.G. Prob. of Pet. Geol. p. 793) below. In fact the very considerable accumulation of tar in the base of the Foxen is a true seepage accumulation. In addition to the unconformity at the top of the Monterey there is a surprising in- It increases crease in thickness of this formation. HOW OIL 18 FOUND from zero to more than 3000 in a little less than 2 miles across the pool. Below the Monterey there is another angular unconformity. OIL ZONES. At present only two zones are being produced, One of these is a shaly zone like most of the other pools in the valley. In fig. 247 its called the Cherty Zone. Tis zone is the better of the two and has good permeability as well as good porosity. The fractured nature of the cherty shales produces these favorable conditions, The best producers are usually found close to a fault, Considerable gas is stored in this zone with the ofl. ‘The lower producing zone is (on fig. 241) the interval from the top of the Dark Brown Zone to the base of the Monterey. STRUCTURE. The structure in this unique pool is shown in fig. 248 and it reveals more or less of a monoclinal arrangement of the younger strata broken by a fault, The older strata (Monterey etc.) are shown to lie under the younger strata with angular unconformity. There is also an angu- lar unconformity shown between the Monterey and | the “Franciscan” rocks. In this pool there is little | doubt about migration. The Monterey rocks are | the original reservoir rocks for the ofl. The other | accumulations higher up are due to migration along faults and fissures across the unconformity, It is evident that much of the original store of oil leaked away during the deposition of the Foxen ‘tar sand’. ‘The production from this pool to the end of 1950 has been nearly 110 million barrels; and Canfield estimates that the ultimate total will approximate 500 million barrels. Fig. 246, Map showing the moncelinal the wells on the anticline east oil wells west of Taft and ‘of Taft in the Buena Viste Hills, (RW, Pack in U.S.G.S. Prof. Paper No. 116)ACCUMULATION ‘UPPER MIDDLE PLIOCENE TO RECENT ALLuyiUM eveutow STREAM GRAVELS GRAVELS PASO, ROBLES GRAVELS" a ee FOXEN FINE SAND ig =| lo} roxen, sursrone je sod npat REL TAR SAND ae luztr.| sisquoc Hi Jens eSATA MARGARITA TL tu] [eee cnenry zo ha eh ERTY ZONE Sls Se meow career fu Slax, i =| S\Sg ei onnn snowy zone sommes || tuls|'swme on sano zowe Base | een = B}O | caw SILTSTONE AND E®] me wevireme |2| 3/=)°""" ‘SHELL ZONE ef Semen comer TE] “enseweng. cowncex omnes ie S| veranciscans é Fig. 247, Sequence of rocks in the Santa Maria pool. (Canfield in A.A.P.G. Bull. vol. 23, p. 51) Fig. 248, 191 WEST EDMOND. The most striking example of unconformity of! accumulation in (Oklahoma is the large oil pool at West Edmond. In fig. 249 it will be noted that the Bois D’Arc (Hunton) Limestone of Devonian age was eroded off in sucha manner as to make a wedge below the Pennsylvanian shales. If we reconstruct the Hunton after uplift and before the time of the deposition of the shale, we can imagine a limestone dipping gently toward the west (less than the present dip) and subject to solution by surface waters. An inspection of fig. 35 ‘in Chapter II will show the result, The joint planes would be enlarged, but especially the bedding planes would be affected inasmuch a5 they would be inclined in the direction of the escaping waters. A great network of under- ground channels and passageways would be created. Then later when the Pennsylvanian ‘seas covered the region these solution chan- nels would become filled with oll which was ‘being pushed down from the oll-soaked muds in the Pennsylvanian sediments on account of the weight of overlying sediments. HISTORY. The history of this pool is very interesting. It was found in 1942 by Ace Gutowsky who gives credit to the divining rod for his faith in the area, Certainly none of the off companies were interested enough to support the first test. ‘They entered the area only after the initial test had been drilled down into the Ordovician and then plugged back to 2 good showing in the Hunton limestone. A test at this level showed 522 barrels of high gravity oll per day. Development thereafter was very rapid and by the end of 1948, 780 ‘wells had been drilled which recovered a total of 62 million barrels of oil, SEMINOLE DISTRICT. Another part of Oldahoma in which oll has been found under a major unconformity is the Seminole district in ‘the south central part of the state. The oll ‘which has been found in the Hunton’ limestone in that area appears to have had the same origin as the oll in the West Edmond pool. Cross-section from north to south across the Santa Maria pool. (Canfield in A.A.P.G, Bull. vol. 23, p. 71)192 HOW OIL IS FOUND ‘The fig. 250 shows by means of a block dlagram | 108) also has a considerable amount of oil in the the unconformity at the top of the Hunton lime- | Wilcox sand which is associated with an angular stone. It should be mentioned that the Hunton | unconformity. Underlies the Chattanooga shale of Mississipian TODD FIELD. One of the most fascinating age in many of the other pools of that district. | examples of oil accumulations. in connection with Nevertheless, the unconformity is present in either | an unconformity is the Todd field in the Midland case Basin of West Texas. (See fig. 165). The Todd OTHER EXAMPLES. On page 128 in chapter | pool is located just south of the World pool. Here Vi (see fig. 171) the Apco pool in West Texas was | ofl was found in a crinoidal limestone of Pennsylvanian described. This pool also seems to have trapped | age in 1840 and in dolomite of Ordovician age in the oil because of an unconformity between the | 1844. The cross-section in fig. 251 shows the re- Ordovician dolomite and the overlying Permian dol- | lations of these two producing zones to each other- omites. In that same part of the country there | A careful study of cores and cuttings reveals the are quite a few examples at present which show | fact that the erinoidal limestone is a reef with a similar relations to an unconformity. The fig. 107 | maximum thickness of 400 feet, It has been es- shows the Central Basin Platform of West Texas | timated that this reef contained 100 million barrels with its widespread unconformity and suggests the | of oil when it was first tapped. That there is an area in whieh the pools have been found. In fig. | unconformity at the top of the reef is proved by 104 the ofl accumulation in the large El Dorado | the absence of the Canyon and Cisco series of the ool is shown to be definitely associated with an | Pennsylvanian system, for fossils of Strawn age angular unconformity. The Cushing anticline (fig. | were found in the reef and directly above it fossils Fig. 249. West to east cross-section of the West Edmond pool in north-central Oklahoma. (After McGee and Jenkins)ACCUMULATION Fig. 250, Block diagram of the Pearson pool in the Seminole district. (Drawn by J. M. Dale and taken from A.A.P.G. Struct Typ. Amer. Oil Fields vol. Il, p. 347) of lowest Permian (Wolfcamp) age. Between the reef rocks and adjacent shales there is another unconformity, for here all the rocks of Devonian, Silurian and upper Ordovician age are missing. It is evident that a high arch in the Ordovician dolo- zaite was present here when the Pennsylvanian rocks were deposited upon the unconformity. The arch ‘was above water and was being bored full of holes by solution. It is remarkable how deep this solution 193 was effective, for porosity and of saturation have boen found at three general levels, The first level lies on the upper 100 feet of the dolomite, ‘The second zone Hes on the broad west flank of the arch and 1s 300 feet thick showing porosity at various levels. Close to the crest of the arch a third zone in the Ellenburger dolomite has been found which is stratigraphically lower than the other two. OL ACCUMULATION. It is obvious from the relations pictured that the oil was formed in early Pennsylvanian seas in oil-soaked muds above ‘the Ordovician (Ellenburger) dolomite and adjacent to the erinoldal limestone. Compression from above Tie to accumulating sediments forced the oil and the other fluids into the solution holes in the two calcareous rocks probably after Permian deposition had begun. MICHIGAN. In recent years a great deal of ‘oll has been found in central Michigan in assocla- tion with an unconformity in the lower part of the Devonian sequence. The fig. 252 shows the rocks {in that part of the state from the lower Mississippian, on down to the base of the Devonian system. It will be noted that unconformities are shown above the Rogers City limestone and also above the Dundee limestone. The rather mimerous ofl pools found to date have produced oil and gas trom both these limestones. The most recent description of one of ‘the pools is by Landes.» He mentions the fact that the Deep River oil pool 1s NOT associated with structure. Tie oil occurs in calcareous rocks ina long narrow trend on the flank of an anticline (2) Fig. 251. Cross-section from west to east in the Todd pool. (mbt & MeCollum in A.A.P.G. Bull, vol. 34, p. 252), *Sce AALD.G. Struct. Typ. Amer. Oil Fields vol. II, p. 303.