Chapter 2

Chapter 2: SONET/SDH and GFP
TOPICS
T1/E1 SONET/SDH - STS 1, STS -3 frames SONET devices Self-healing rings Generic frame protocol, and Data over SONET
Connection-Oriented Networks - Harry Perros 1
T1/E1
Time division multiplexing allows a link to be utilized simultaneously by many users
1 2 M U X link N N input links D E M U X 1 2 N N output links
Connection-Oriented Networks - Harry Perros
The transmission is organized into frames. Each frame contains a xed number of time slots. Each time slot is pre-assigned to a specic input link. The duration of a time slot is either a bit or a byte. If the buffer of an input link has no data, then its associated time slot is transmitted empty. A time slot dedicated to an input link repeats continuously frame after frame, thus forming a channel or a trunk.
Pulse code modulation

TDM is used in telephony Voice analog signals are digitized at the end ofce using Pulse Code Modulation. A voice signal is sampled 8000 times/sec, or every 125 sec. A 7-bit or 8-bit number is created every 125 sec.
The Digital Signal (DS) and ITU-T standard

A North American standard that species how to multiplex several voice calls onto a single link. The DS standard is a North American standard and it is not the same as the international hierarchy standardized by ITU-T. Both standards are independent of the transmission.
T carrier / E carrier
The DS signal is carried over a carrier system known as the T carrier.
T1 carries the DS1 signal, T2 carries the DS2 signal etc
The ITU-T signal is carried over a carrier system known as the E carrier. The DS and ITU-T hierarchy is known as the plesiochronous digital hierarchy (PDH). (Plesion means nearly the same, and chronos means time in Greek).
Digital signal number Voice channels Data Rate (Mbps) DS0 1 0.064 DS1 24 1.544 DS1C 48 3.152 DS2 96 6.312 DS3 672 44.736 DS3C 1344 91.053 DS4 4032 274.176
Table 2.1: The North American Hierarchy
Level number Voice channels Data Rate (Mbps) 0 1 0.064 1 30 2.048 2 120 8.448 3 480 34.368 4 1920 139.264 5 7680 565.148
Table 2.2: The international (ITU-T) hierarchy
The DS1 signal

F Time slot 1 Time slot 2 Time slot 3 ... Time slot 24
24 8-bit time slots/frame

Each time slot carries 8 bits/ 125 sec, or the channel carries a 64 Kbps voice. Every 6th successive time slot (i.e, 6th, 12th, 18th, 24th, etc), the 8 bit is robbed and it is used for signaling.
F bit: Used for synchronization. It transmits the pattern: 10101010

T1:
Total transmission rate: 24x8+1 = 193 bits per 125 sec, or 1.544 Mbps
E1
30 voice time slots plus 2 time slots for synchronization and control Total transmission rate: 32x8 = 256 bits per 125 sec, or 2.048 Mbps
Fractional T1/E1
Fractional T1 or E1 allows the use of only a fraction of the T1 or E1 capacity. For example: if N=2, then only two time slots are used per frame, which corresponds to a channel with total bandwidth of 128 Kbps.
Unchannelized frame signal

The time slot boundaries are ignored by the sending and receiving equipment. All 192 bits are used to transport data followed by the 193rd framing bit. This approach permits more exibility in transmitting at different rates. This scheme is implemented using proprietary solutions.
The synchronous optical network (SONET)

Proposed by Bellcore (Telecordia).
It was designed to multiplex DS-n signals and transmit them optically.
ITU-T adopted the synchronous digital hierarchy (SDH), as the international standard.
It enables the multiplexing of level 3 signals (34.368 Mbps)
STS, STM, OC
The electrical side of the SONET signal is known as the synchronous transport signal (STS) The electrical side of the SDH is known as the synchronous transport module (STM). The optical side of a SONET/SDH signal is known as the optical carrier (OC).
The SONET/SDH hierarchy

Optical level OC-1 OC-3 OC-9 OC-12 OC-18 OC-24 Oc-36 OC-48 OC-96 OC-192 OC-768 OC-N SONET level (electrical) STS-1 STS-3 STS-9 STS-12 STS-18 STS-24 STS-36 STS-48 STS-96 STS-192 STS-768 STS-N SDH level (electrical) STM-1 STM-3 STM-4 STM-6 STM-8 STM-12 STM-16 STM-32 STM-64 STM-256 STM-N/3 Data rate (Mbps) 51.840 155.520 466.560 622.080 933.120 1244.160 1866.240 2488.320 4976.640 9953.280 39813.120 N*51.840 Overhead rate (Mbps) 1.728 5.184 15.552 20.736 31.104 41.472 62.208 82.944 165.888 331.776 1327.104 N*1.728 Payload rate (Mbps) 50.112 150.336 451.008 601.344 902.016 1202.688 1804.932 2405.376 4810.752 9621.504 38486.016 N*50.112
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SONET/SDH is channelized.
STS-3 consists of 3 STS-1 streams, and each STS1 consists of a number of DS-1 and E1signals. STS-12 consists of 12 STS-1 streams
Concatenated structures (OC-3c, OC-12c, etc)

The frame of the STS-3 payload is lled with ATM cells or IP packets packed in PPP or HDLC frames. Concatenated SONET/SDH links are commonly used to interconnect ATM switches and IP routers (Packets over SONET).
The STS-1 frame structure

1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 91 181 271 361 451 561 631 721 2 2 92 182 272 362 452 562 632 722 3 3 93 183 273 363 453 563 636 723 4 4 94 184 274 364 454 564 634 724 5 5 95 185 275 365 455 565 635 725 6 6 96 186 276 366 456 566 636 726 90 90 180 270 360 450 560 630 720 810
16
Main features
The frame is presented in matrix form and it is transmitted row by row. Each cell in the matrix corresponds to a byte The rst three columns contain overheads The remaining 87 columns carry the synchronous payload envelope (SPE), which consists of user data, and additional overheads referred to as the payload overhead (POH)
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An SPE may straddle between two successive frames

1 1 2 3 4 2 3 4 5 6 . . . 90
... ... ... 276 ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 275 276 ... ... ... ... ... ...
Frame i
5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4
Frame i+1
5 6 7 8 9
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The section, line, and path overheads

A1 STS-1 ... A STS-12 A12 STS-1 Section Section Section Section Section regenerator regenerator B STS-12 B12 STS-1 B1 STS-1 ...
Line
Line
Line
Path
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Section: a single link with a SONET device or a regenerator on either side of it. Line: A link between two SONET devices, which may include regenerators The section overhead in the SONET frame is associated with the transport of STS-1 frames over a section, and the line overhead is associated with the transport of SPEs over a line.
The SONET stack

Path Path
Line
Line
Line
Line
Section
Section
Section
Section
Section
Section
Photonic
Photonic A
Photonic Regenerator
Photonic Regenerator
Photonic B
Photonic Bi
Ai
21
STS-1: Section and line overheads

1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Column 2 A2 E1 D2 H2 K1 D5 D8 D11 Z2
3 J0 F1 D3 H3 K2 D6 D9 D12 E2
LOH SOH
A1 B1 D1 H1 B2 D4 D7 D10 Z1
22
The following are some of the bytes in the section overhead (SOH) :
A1 and A2: These two bytes are called the framing bytes and they are used for frame alignment. They are populated with the value 1111 0110 0010 1000 or 0xF628, which uniquely identies the beginning of an STSframe. J0: This is called the section trace byte and it is used for to trace the STS-1 frame back to its originating equipment.
23
B1: This byte is the bit interleaved parity byte and it is commonly referred to as BIP-8. It is used to perform an even-parity check on the previous STS-1 frame after the frame has been scrambled. The parity is inserted in the BIP-8 eld of the current frame before it is scrambled E1: This byte provides a 64 Kbps channel can be used for voice communications by eld engineers.
24
The following are some of the bytes in the line overhead (LOH) that have been dened:
H1 and H2: These two bytes are known as the pointer bytes, and they contain a pointer that points to the beginning of the SPE within the STS-1 frame. The pointer gives the offset in bytes between the H1 and H2 bytes and the beginning of the SPE. B2: This is similar to the B1 byte in the section overhead and it is used to carry the BIP-8 parity check performed on the line overhead section and the payload section. That is, it is performed on the entire STS-1 frame except the section overhead bytes.
The path overhead bytes

J1 B3 C2 G1 F2 H4 Z3 Z4 Z5 J1 B3 C2 G1 F2 H4 Z3 Z4 Z5
Location of the POH
The POH bytes
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The following are some of the bytes that have been dened:
B3: This byte is similar to B1 used in the section overhead and B2 used in the line overhead. It is used to carry the BIP-8 parity check performed on the payload section. That is, it is performed on the entire STS-1 frame except the section and line overhead bytes. C2: This byte is known as the path signal label and it indicates the type of user information carried in the SPE, such as, virtual tributaries (VT), asynchronous DS-3, ATM cells, HDLC-over-SONET, and PPP over SONET.
The STS-1 payload

The payload consists of user data and the path overhead. User data:
Virtual tributaries: sub-rate synchronous data streams, such as DS-0, DS-1, E1, and entire DS-3 frames ATM cells and IP packets
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Virtual tributaries
The STS-1 payload is divided into seven virtual tributary groups (VTG). Each VTG consists of 108 bytes (12 columns) Each VTG may carry a number of virtual tributaries, i.e., sub-rate streams.
29
The following virtual tributaries have been dened:

VT1.5: This virtual tributary carries one DS-1 signal and it is contained in three columns, that take up 27 bytes. Four VT1.5s can be transported in a single VTG. VT2: This virtual tributary carries an E1 signal of 2.048 Mbps. VT2 is contained in four columns, that is it takes up 36 bytes. Three VT2s can be carried in a single VTG.
VT3: This virtual tributary transports the unchannelized DS-1 signal. A VT3 is contained in 6 columns that takes up 54 bytes. This means that a VTG can carry two VT3s. VT6: This virtual tributary transports a DS-2 signal, which carries 96 voice channels. VT6 is contained in 12 columns, that is it takes up 108 bytes. A VTG can carry exactly one VT2.
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ATM cells
4 1 2 3 Cell 2 10 Cell 1 Cell 3 Cell 2 90
POH
8 9 Cell 15
Cell 14
Cell 15
Mapped directly onto the SPE. An ATM cells may straddle two SPEs.
IP packet over SONET

IP packets are rst encapsulated in HDLC and the resulting frames are mapped into the SPE payload row by row as in the case above for ATM cels.
4 10 90 1 2 3 POH 7E 7E 7E
8 9
7E 7E 7E
33
IP packets can also be encapsulated in PPP instead of HDLC. A frame may straddle over two adjacent SPEs, as in the case of ATM. The interframe ll 7E is used to maintain a continuous bit tstream
34
1st STS-1
1 270
2nd STS-1
3rd STS-1 1st STS-1
2nd STS-1 3rd STS-1
Overhead section
1st STS-1 2nd STS-1 3rd STS-1 1st STS-1

6
2nd STS-1 3rd STS-1
7 8
...
The STS-3 frame structure
Payload section
10
1st STS-1 2nd STS-1 3rd STS-1
11 12
35
The channelized STS-3 frame is constructed by multiplexing byte-wise three channelized STS-1 frames. As a result:
Byte 1, 4, 7, , 268 of the STS-3 frame contains byte 1, 2, 3, , 90 of the rst STS-1 frame. Byte 2, 5, 8, , 269 of the STS-3 frame contains byte 1, 2, 3, , 90 of the second STS-1 frame Byte 3, 6, 9, , 270 of the STS-3 frame contains byte 1, 2, 3, , 90 of the third STS-1 frame.
This byte-wise multiplexing, causes the columns of the three STS-1 frames to be interleaved in the STS-3 frame
The rst 9 columns of the STS-3 frame contain the overhead part and the remaining columns contain the payload part. Error checking and some overhead bytes are for the entire STS-3 frame, and they are only meaningful in the overhead bytes of the rst STS-1 frame.
SONET/SDH devices
Several different equipment exist:
Terminal multiplexer (TM) Add/drop multiplexer (ADM) Digital cross connect (DCS)
38
The terminal multiplexer (TM):

It multiplexes a number of DS-n or E1 signals into a single OC-N signal It consists of a controller, low-speed interfaces for DS-n or E1 signals, an OC-N interface, and a time slot interchanger (TSI) It works also as a demultiplexer
DS-n OC-N ... DS-n TM
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The add/drop multiplexer (ADM)

It is a more complex version of the TM It receives an OC-N signal from which it can demultiplex and terminate (i.e., drop) any number of DS-n or OC-M signals, where M<N, while at the same time it can add new DS-n and OC-M signals into the OC-N signal.
OC-N OC-N ADM
... DS-n. OC-M
40
SONET rings
ADM 1 OC3 ADM 2
OC3
OC3
ADM 4
OC3
ADM 3
SONET/SDH ADM devices are typically connected to form a SONET/SDH ring. SONET/SDH rings are self-healing, that is they can automatically recover from link failures.
An example of a connection
A DS1
TM 1
ADM 1 OC3 OC12
OC12
ADM 2
OC12 OC3 DS1

TM 2
ADM 4
OC12
ADM 3
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A transmits a DS-1 signal to TM 1 TM 1 transmits an OC-3 signal to ADM 1 ADM 1 adds the OC-3 signal into the STS12 payload and transmits it out to the next ADM. At ADM 3, the DS-1 signal belonging to A is dropped from the payload and transmitted with other signals to TM 2. TM 2 in turn, demultiplexes the signals and transmits As DS-1 signal to B.
Connection setup:
Using network management procedures the SONET network is provisioned appropriately. This is an example of a permanent connection. It remains up for a long time.
The connection is dedicated to user A whether the user transmits or not.
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A digital cross connect (DCS)

It is used to interconnect multiple SONET rings It is connected to multiple incoming and outgoing OC-N interfaces. It can drop and add any number of DSn and/or OC-M signals, and it can switch DSn and/or OC-M signals from an incoming interface to any outgoing one.
ADM ADM
ADM
Ring 1
DCS
Ring 2
ADM
ADM
ADM
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Self-healing SONET/SDH rings

SONET/SDH rings have been specially architected so that they are available 99.999% of the time (6 minutes per year!) Causes for ring failures: Fiber link failure due to accidental cuts, and transmitter/receiver failure SONET/SDH device failure (rare)
46
Automatic protection switching (APS)

SONET/SDH rings are self-healing, that is, the rings services can be automatically restored following a link failure or degradation in the network signal. This is done using the automatic protection switching (APS) protocol. The time to restore the services has to be less than 50 msec.
47
Protection schemes: point-to-point

Schemes for link protection
dedicated 1+1 1:1 Shared 1:N
Working ADM Protection ADM
48
Working/protection bers
The working and protection bers have to be diversely routed. That is, the two bers use separate conduits and different physical routes. Often, for economic reasons, the two bers use different conduits, but they use the same physical path. In this case, we say that they are structurally diverse.
Classication of self-healing rings

Various ring architectures have been developed based on the following three features:
Number of bers
2 or 4 bers
Direction of transmission:
Unidirectional bidirectional
Line or path switching

Number of bers: 2- or 4-ber rings

1 ADM 1 5 4 8 6 2 ADM 2 ADM 1 ADM 2
7 ADM 4 3 ADM 3 ADM 4 ADM 3
Two-ber ring: bers 1, 2, 3, and 4 are used to form the working ring (clockwise), and bers 5, 6, 7, and 8 are used to form the protection ring (counter-clockwise).
1 ADM 1 5 ADM 2 ADM 1 ADM 2
7 ADM 4 ADM 3 3 ADM 4 ADM 3
In another variation of the two-ber ring, each set of bers form a ring which can be both a working and a protection ring. In this case, the capacity of each ber is divided into two equal parts, one for working trafc and the other for protection trafc. In a four-ber SONET/SDH ring there are two working rings and two protection rings, one per working ring.
Direction of transmission Unidirectional ring:

signals are only transmitted in one direction of the ring.
Bidirectional ring:
signals are transmitted in both directions.
53
Line and path switching

Path switching: Restores the trafc on the paths affected by a link failure (a path is an end-to-end connection between the point where the SPE originates and the point where it terminates.) Line switching: Restores all the trafc that passes through a failed link.
54
Based on these three features, we have the following 2-ber or 4-ber possible ring architectures:
Unidirectional Line Switched Ring (ULSR) Bidirectional Line Switched Ring (BLSR) Unidirectional Path Switched Ring (UPSR) Bidirectional Path Switched Ring (BPSR)
55
Of these rings the following three are used:

Two-ber unidirectional path switched ring (2F-UPSR) Two-ber bidirectional line switched ring (2F-BLSR) Four-ber bidirectional line switched ring (4F-BLSR)
56
Two-ber unidirectional path switched ring (2F-UPSR)

1 A ADM 1 5 Working ring 4 8 6 2 Protection ring 7 ADM 4 3 ADM 3 ADM 2 B
57
Features:
Working ring consists of bers 1, 2, 3 and 4, and the protection ring of bers 5, 6, 7, and 8. Unidirectional transmission means that trafc is transmitted in the same direction. A transmits to B over ber 1 of the working ring, and B transmits over bers 2, 3, and 4 of the working ring. Used as a metro edge ring to interconnect PBXs and access networks to a metro core ring
Self-healing mechanism:
Path level protection using the 1+1 scheme. The signal transmitted by A is split into two. One copy is transmitted over the working ber 1, and the other copy is transmitted over the protection bers 8, 7, and 6. During normal operation, B receives two identical signals from A, and selects the one with the best quality. If ber 1 fails, B will continue to receive As signal over the protection path. The same applies if there is a node failure.
Two-ber bidirectional line switched ring (2F-BLSR)

ADM 1 A 7 6 12 11 5 10 C ADM 6 ADM 5 4 ADM 4 8 9 1 ADM 2 2 ADM 3 B
60
Features:
Used in metro core rings. Fibers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6 form a ring, call it ring 1, on which transmission is clockwise. Fibers 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, and 12 form another ring, call it ring 2, on which transmission is counter-clockwise. Both rings 1 and 2 carry working and protection trafc. This is done by dividing the capacity of each ber on ring 1 and 2 to two parts. One part is used to carry working trafc and the other protection trafc. A transmits to B over the working part of bers 1 and 2 of ring 1, and B transmits to A over the working part of bers 8 and 7 of ring 2.
Self-healing mechanism:
The ring provides line switching. If ber 2 fails then the trafc that goes over ber 2 will be automatically switched to the protection part of ring 2. That is, all the trafc will be re-routed to ADM 3 over the protection part of ring 2 using bers 7, 12, 11, 10, and 9. From there, the trafc for each connection will continue on following the original path of the connection.
Four-ber bidirectional line switched ring (4F-BLSR)

ADM 1 A ADM 2 ADM 3 B
Working rings Protection rings
ADM 6
ADM 5
ADM 4
63
Features
Two working rings and two protection rings. The two working rings transmit in opposite directions, and each is protected by a protection ring which transmits in the same direction. The advantage of this four-ber ring is that it can suffer multiple failures and still function. In view of this, it is deployed by long-distance telephone companies in regional and national rings.
Self-healing operation (span switching):

If a working ber fails, the working trafc will be transferred over its protection ring. This is known as span switching.
ADM 1 ADM 2 ADM 3 ADM 1 ADM 2 ADM 3
Normal operation
Span switching
65
Self-healing operation (ring switching):

Often, the working and protection bers are part of the same bundle of bers. When the bundle is cut the trafc will be switched to the protection bers. This is known as ring switching.
ADM 1 Working ADM 2 A Protection ADM 3 A Protection ADM 1 Working ADM 2 ADM 3
B ADM 6 ADM 5 ADM 4 ADM 6 ADM 5 ADM 4
66
Generic Framing Procedure (GFP)

This is a light-weight adaptation scheme that permits the transmission of different types of trafc over SONET/SDH and in the future, over G.709.
67
GFP permits the transport of

a) frame-oriented trafc, such as Ethernet, and b) block-coded data for delay-sensitive storage area networks (SAN) transported by networks such as Fiber Channel, FICON, and ESCON over SONET/SDH and G.709.
GFP is a result of joint standardization effort by ANSI committee T1X1.5 and ITUT. It is described in ITU-T recommendation G.7041
Existing and GFP-based transport options for end-user applications
Voice
Data (IP, MPLS, IPX)
SAN
Video Fiber Channel
Private lines Frame Relay
Ethernet
ESCON
FICON
DM
POS
HDLC
ATM
GFP
SONET/SDH
WDM/OTN
69
The GFP stack

Ethernet IP over PPP GFP client-dependent aspects GFP GFP client-independent aspects SAN data
SONET/SDH
G.709
70
GFP frame structure

Payload length Payload length Core HEC Core HEC
GFP core header

Payload length indicator (PLI) - 2 bytes. It gives the size of the payload. Core HEC (cHEC) - 2 bytes. It protects the PLI eld. Standard CRC-16 enables single bit error correction and multiple bit error detection.
Core header
Payload header Payload
Payload
Payload FCS
71
The GFP payload structure

Payload type Payload type Type HEC Payload header Type HEC 0-60 bytes of extension header PTI PFI UPI EXI
Payload
Payload FCS Payload FCS Payload FCS Payload FCS Payload FCS
72
GFP payload header

variable-length area from 4 to 64 bytes.
Payload type - 2 bytes
PTI Payload type Payload type Type HEC Type HEC 0-60 bytes Of Extension header PFI UPI EXI
Payload type identier (PTI) - 3 bits. Identies the type of frame:

User data frames , Client mgmt frames
Payload FCS indicator (PFI) - 1 bit. Identies if there is a payload FCS Extension header identier (EXI) - 4 bits. Identies the type of extension header. User payload identier (UPI) - 8 bits. Identies the type of payload
Frame-mapped Ethernet Frame-mapped PPP (IP, MPLS) Transparent-mapped Fiber Channel Transparent-mapped FICON Transparent-mapped ESCON Transparent-mapped GbE
Type HEC (tHEC) - 2 bytes. It protects the payload header. Standard CRC-16.
73
GFP payload trailer

Payload header
Payload
Payload FCS Payload FCS Payload FCS Payload FCS Payload FCS
Optional 4-byte FCS. CRC-32 Protects the contents of the payload information eld.
74
GFP-client independent functions

The client independent sublayer supports the following functions:
Frame delineation Client/frame multiplexing Payload scrambler Client managment
75
Frame delineation
The frame delineation mechanism is similar to the one used in ATM. The cHEC is used to assure correct frame boundary identication
Non-correctable core header error Sync No 2nd cHEC Correct cHEC 2nd cHEC match
hunt
Presync
76
Operation:
Under normal conditions, the GFP receiver operates in the Sync state. The receiver examines the PLI eld, validates the cHEC, and extracts the framed higher-level PD. It then moves on to the next GFP header. When an uncorrectable error in the core header occurs (i.e., cHEC fails and more than one bit error is detected), the receiver enters the Hunt state.
Hunt state:
Using the cHEC it attempts to locate the beginning of the next GFP PDU, moving one bit at a time (Same as in ATM - see Perros An introduction to ATM networks, Wiley 2001. Once this is achieved it moves to the Pre-Sync state, where it veries the beginning of the boundary of the next N GFP PDUs. If successful, it moves to the Sync state, otherwise it moves back to the hunt state.
Frame multiplexing
Client data frames and client management frames are multiplexed, with client data frames having priority over client management frames. Idle frames are inserted to maintain a continuous bit ow (rate coupling)
79
GFP client-specic functions

The client data can be carried in GFP frames using on of the two adaptation modes:
Frame-mapped GFP (GFP-F) applicable to most packet data types Transparent-mapped GFP (GFP-T) applicable to 8B/10B coded signals
Frame-mapped GFP
Variable length frames such as:
Ethernet MAC frames, PPP/IP packets HDLC-framed PDUs
can be carried in the GFP payload. One frame per GFP payload. Max. size: 65,535 bytes
Transparent-mapped GFP
Fiber Channel, ESCON, FICON, Gigabit Ethernet high-speed LANs use 8B/10B block-coding to transport client data and control information. Rather than transporting data on a frame-byframe basis, the GFP transparent-mapped mode, transports data as a stream of characters.
Specically, the individual characters are de-mapped from their client 8B/10B block codes and then mapped into periodic xedlength GFP frames using 64B/65B block coding. This reduces the 25% overhead introduced by the 8B/10B block-coding. Also, transparent mapping reduces latency, which is important for storage related applications
The rst step, is to decode the 8B/10B codes. The 10 bit code is decoded into its original data or control codeword value. The decoded characters are then mapped into 64B/65B codes. A bit in the 65-bit code indicates whether the 65-bit block contains only data or control characters are also included 8 consecutive 65-bit blocks are grouped together into a single superblock. A GFP frame contains N such superblocks.
Data over SONET/SDH (DoS)

The DoS architecture provides an efcient mechanism to transport data coming from interfaces such as: Ethernet, Fiber Channel, ESCON/FICON over SONET/SDH. It relies on a combination of
GFP, Virtual concatenation, and Link capacity adjustment scheme (LCAS)
Virtual concatenation
This procedure maps an incoming trafc stream into a number of individual sub-rate payloads. The sub-rate payloads are switched through the SONET/SDH network independently of each other At the destination, they are used to reconstruct the original trafc stream.
86
Example Let us consider the case of transporting the 1 GbE signal over SONET/SDH. According to the specications, an STS48c (2,488 Gbps) has to be used, thus leaving a lot of unused capacity. Using the virtual concatenation scheme, 7 independent STS-3c (7x155,520 = 1,088) can be employed to carry the 1 GbE signal at full rate.
This works as follows: At the transmitter the incoming stream is de-multiplexed and distributed in some fashion over 7 different payloads, each an STS-3c. Intermediate SONET/SDH nodes only see different payloads and they are not aware of the concatenation At the destination, the seven ows get multiplexed into the single original GbE stream.
Link capacity adjustment scheme (LCAS)

This scheme permits to dynamically adjust the number of sub-rate payloads allocated to a trafc stream, whose transmission rate may vary over time. LCAS can be also used when re-routing trafc due to a failure.
89

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Chapter 2: SONET/SDH and GFP

Connection-Oriented Networks - Harry Perros

Pulse code modulation

The Digital Signal (DS) and ITU-T standard

Connection-Oriented Networks - Harry Perros

Connection-Oriented Networks - Harry Perros

The DS1 signal

24 8-bit time slots/frame

F bit: Used for synchronization. It transmits the pattern: 10101010

Connection-Oriented Networks - Harry Perros

Unchannelized frame signal

The synchronous optical network (SONET)

The SONET/SDH hierarchy

Connection-Oriented Networks - Harry Perros

Concatenated structures (OC-3c, OC-12c, etc)

The STS-1 frame structure

Connection-Oriented Networks - Harry Perros

Connection-Oriented Networks - Harry Perros

An SPE may straddle between two successive frames

Connection-Oriented Networks - Harry Perros

The section, line, and path overheads

Connection-Oriented Networks - Harry Perros

The SONET stack

Connection-Oriented Networks - Harry Perros

STS-1: Section and line overheads

Connection-Oriented Networks - Harry Perros

Connection-Oriented Networks - Harry Perros

Connection-Oriented Networks - Harry Perros

The path overhead bytes

Location of the POH

The POH bytes

Connection-Oriented Networks - Harry Perros

The STS-1 payload

Connection-Oriented Networks - Harry Perros

Connection-Oriented Networks - Harry Perros

The following virtual tributaries have been dened:

Connection-Oriented Networks - Harry Perros

IP packet over SONET

Connection-Oriented Networks - Harry Perros

Connection-Oriented Networks - Harry Perros

3rd STS-1 1st STS-1

2nd STS-1 3rd STS-1

Connection-Oriented Networks - Harry Perros

The STS-3 frame structure

1st STS-1 2nd STS-1 3rd STS-1

Connection-Oriented Networks - Harry Perros

The terminal multiplexer (TM):

Connection-Oriented Networks - Harry Perros

The add/drop multiplexer (ADM)

... DS-n. OC-M

Connection-Oriented Networks - Harry Perros

ADM 1 OC3 OC12

OC12 OC3 DS1

Connection-Oriented Networks - Harry Perros

The connection is dedicated to user A whether the user transmits or not.

Connection-Oriented Networks - Harry Perros

A digital cross connect (DCS)

Connection-Oriented Networks - Harry Perros

Self-healing SONET/SDH rings

Connection-Oriented Networks - Harry Perros

Automatic protection switching (APS)

Connection-Oriented Networks - Harry Perros

Protection schemes: point-to-point

Connection-Oriented Networks - Harry Perros