NHIT NG HC

S GIO DC V O TO HNG YN
SNG KIN KINH NGHIM
TI :NHIT NG HC
Ngi vit: Nguyn Th Ngc
Anh
n v cng tc: T H!"
T#ng TH$T chuy%n Hng &%n

NG'&(N TH) NGC ANH * + * TH$T CH'&,N H-NG &,N
NHIT NG HC
PHN I: M U
! C" #$ %&'( &)* *+( #,-. %/0- %/-& -.&/12 *3- -.&/4- *56:
C" #$ 78 769-
Nhit ng hc l mt khoa hc nghin cu v s bin ho dng nng l ng
n! thnh dng nng lng khc v thit l"# cc $nh lu"t c%a s bin ho &'
(in na! nhit ng hc nghin cu mt s) l*n nh+ng hin tng v"t l, v ho hc
k-m th.o s bin /i nng lng' Nh+ng nghin cu b0ng #h1ng #h# nhit ng
hc kh2ng nh+ng ch3 cho #h4# a n s c5n b0ng c%a nng lng m c6n 7c
$nh chiu h*ng v gi*i hn m mt 8u t9:nh c& th; 7<! 9a t9ong nh+ng iu
kin nh=t $nh' Nh v"! nhit ng hc cho #h4# iu khi;n th.o , mu)n
nh+ng 8u t9:nh l,> ho hc t9ong s<n 7u=t'
Nhit ng ho hc nghin cu s bin ho c%a cc dng nng l ng khc
nhau t9ong #h<n ng ho hc> cc 8u t9:nh ho tan> ba! h1i> kt tinh> h=#
#h?'v'v''
Nhit ng ho hc s@ d?ng cc 8uan i;m v cc kt lu"n c%a nhit
ng hc l, hc' A9ong nhit ng ho hc ngBi ta ch3 74t t9ng thi Cu v
t9ng thi cu)i c%a cc h ho hc D t9ong 8u t9:nh bin ho c%a chEng v d
on bin thin nng lng c%a nh+ng 8u t9:nh c l"# v*i cch bin /i t)c
#h<n ng v b<n ch=t c%a nh+ng s<n #hFm t9ung gian c to nn t9ong #h<n
ng'
C" #$ :&;* :/<-
Trong nhng nm qua, thi hc sinh gii Quc gia thng hay cp ti phn
nhit ng hc !i nhiu g"c # $h%c nhau& Tuy nhi'n, trong s%ch gi%o $hoa ph( th)ng ,
!o iu $in gii h*n + thi gian n'n nhng $i,n th-c tr'n ch. /c cp ,n m#t c%ch
s0 1/c& Qua th2c ti3n gi4ng !*y #i tuy5n hc sinh gii Quc gia nhiu nm t)i nghi'n
c-u, 12a chn +6 h thng nhng $i,n th-c 17 thuy,t c0 84n, trng t9m: su tm nhng 86i
tp i5n h;nh 5 so*n chuy'n .Chi/u h0ng 1in 2in c3" 4u t#5nh h!" hc6 cp
+ +<n nhit #ng hc gi=p cho hc sinh hi5u s9u +6 +n !>ng /c tt nhng $i,n
th-c ? hc +6o +ic gi4i c%c 86i tp, g"p phn n9ng cao ch<t 1/ng gi4ng !*y +6 hc tp
m)n @"a hc&
NG'&(N TH) NGC ANH * 7 * TH$T CH'&,N H-NG &,N
NHIT NG HC
=! M>* ?@*& *+( #,-. %/0- %/-& -.&/12
G5! dng h th)ng c5u hHi v bi t"# #hCn INhit #ng hcJdKng cho hc
sinh l*# chu!n (o hc D b"c A(LA giE# hc t96 hc t)t h1n v chuFn b$ t)t h1n
cho cc kM thi hc sinh giHi (&a hc c< v l, thu!t N bi t"# N #h1ng #h# gi<i>
g&# #hCn n5ng cao ch=t lng gi<ng d! v hc t"# m2n (&a hc'
A! B/ :CD-. -.&/4- *56E F&G2 H/ -.&/4- *56
A t6i .NHIT NG HC6 tp trung h thBng 17 thuy,t +6 su tm c%c 86i tp
i5n h;nh c" 1i'n quan ,nC
+8 9NT:;$I <=>
78 NG'&,N ?@ II CAA NHIT NG HC
B8 =C DIEN THI,N = T:;NG F'G T:HNH DIEN II T:JNG THGI CAA CHKT
L8 = T:;NG F'G T:HNH GIMN NN ONG NHIT PH@ ?@ T-NNG
Q8 =C DIEN THI,N 9NT:;$I CAA CHKT NG'&,N CHKT TH9; NHIT
R8 9NT:;$I T'&T SI
T8 =C DIEN THI,N 9NT:;$I T:;NG $HUN VNG H;G HC
W8 THE NHIT NG
X8 Y NGHZA [\T ?@ CAA G
+]8 ^T =S T@NH CHKT CAA H_^ G
++8 T@NH G CAA ^T =S F'G T:HNH:
B/ :CD-. -.&/4- *56 7I *,* %&J( &)* #/-& ?K/ :6LM- N; :&/ &)* #/-& ./O/
P6B* ./( :Q -R2 =SST ?0- -R2 =S
U! K0 &'G*& -.&/4- *56
D%ng $i,n $inh nghim n6y t)i ? nghi'n c-u gi4ng !*y 8Bi !Eng hc sinh #i tuy5n
!2 thi hc sinh gii quc gia, t*i trng T@F@ chuy'n @ng G'n tH nm hc IJJKLIJMJ&
V! P&C"-. F&,F -.&/4- *56
aN& Oghi'n c-u t6i 1iu
8N& Th2c nghim Pgi4ng !*yN, 9y 16 ph0ng ph%p ch7nh
W! T&X/ ./(- &'I- :&I-&
Q nm
Y! CZ6 :[\* *+( #,-. %/0- %/-& -.&/12
Ogo6i phn mR u, $,t 1un +6 t6i 1iu tham $h4o, s%ng $i,n $inh nghim 8ao gBm
c%c phn ch7nh sau 9yC
S&TU DV WX T@YGZT
NG'&(N TH) NGC ANH * B * TH$T CH'&,N H-NG &,N
NHIT NG HC
SS& [\S T]F ^]O _`Oa


PHN II: NI DUNG
I! C] S ^_ THUYT
! `NTaOPI bSc
L Trong s2 8i,n (i thun nghbch +) ccng nh R T d const h trao (i +i m)i trng m#t
1/ng nhit Q
TO
th; s2 8i,n thi'n entropi trong qu% tr;nh n6y 16C !
D
d
T
Q
TN

D 16 h6m tr*ng th%i Pfgmo1&hN

L O,u s2 8i,n (i 16 8<t thun nghbch th; !
D
i
T
Q
TN

L ^; 16 h6m tr*ng th%i n'n $hi chuy5n tH tr*ng th%i M sang tr*ng th%i I 8jng 8i,n thi'n
thun nghbch hay 8<t thun nghbch th; D
I
L D
M
d D d

I
M
T
Q
TN

PD
TO
d D
[TO
N
=! NGUYN ^_ II Cde NHIT NG HC
!D
T
Q
L Trong h c) 1p Q d J& n'nC
k !D d JC trong h c) 1p entropi cla h $h)ng (i n,u m4y ra qu% tr;nh thun nghbch&
k !D i J C trong h c) 1p, qu% tr;nh t2 m4y ra P[TON theo chiu tng entropi cla h +6
tng cho ti $hi *t gi% trb mam th; h sn *t tr*ng th%i c9n 8jng&
o pntropi 16 thc o # hqn #n cla hC A# hqn #n cla M h hay M ch<t c6ng 1n $hi h
hay ch<t " gBm nhng h*t +6 s2 !ao #ng cla c%c h*t c6ng m*nh P$hi 1i'n $,t gia c%c
h*t c6ng y,uN&
^_C D r D r D
D r D r D
@
I
P$N s
I
P$N s
Q
P$N
@
I
sPrN
@
I
s P1N
@
I
s PhN
D 16 M *i 1/ng !ung #&
A! Sf gIN THIN S TaONG hU TaiNH gIN jI TaNG THI Cde CHkT
NG'&(N TH) NGC ANH * L * TH$T CH'&,N H-NG &,N
NHIT NG HC
hhi ch<t nguy'n ch<t n"ng ch4y hotc s)i R F d const th;C
T d const D d

I
M
T
Q
d
T
H
@ d nhit 8i,n thi'n tr*ng th%i d W
ngc
hotc W
h
U! S TaONG hU TaiNH GIlN N mNG NHIT KH_ ^_ TNG
uvt n mo1 $h7 17 tRng gi?n nR th5 t7ch tH ^
M
^
I
R t
o
d const& ^; n#i nng cla $h7 17
tRng ch. ph> thu#c nhit # n'n trong s2 8i,n (i n6yC
Y d Q
TO
k w
TO
d Q
[TO
k w
[TO
d J
Q
TO
d L w
TO
d nxT& 1n
M
I
V
V
P d LPL F& ^N d
dV
V
nRT
&
I
M

N&
T d const D d
T
Q
TN
d nx1n
M
I
V
V
d n&x&1n
I
M
P
P
V! Sf gIN THIN `NTaOPI Cde CHkT NGUYN CHkT TH`O NHIT
L Qu% tr;nh F d constC Aun n"ng M ch<t nguy'n ch<t tH T
M
T
I
, $h)ng c" s2 chuy5n phaC
D d

I
M
T
T
TN
T
Q
^i Q d Q
F
d !@ d n&T
F
&!T
D d
T
dT
C n
T
T
P
& &
I
M

o Trong $ho4ng nhit # hyp, coi T

F
d const D d n&T
F
&1n
M
I
T
T
L Qu% tr;nhC ^ d const D d n &T
^
&1n
M
I
T
T
W! `NTaOPI TUYT nI o NGUYN ^_ A Cde NHIT NG HC
L pntropi cla ch<t nguy'n ch<t !i !*ng tinh th5 ho6n ch.nh R JPhN 8jng JC D
PT d JN
d J
o uu<t ph%t tH ti'n tr'n ta c" th5 t7nh /c entropi tuyt i cla c%c ch<t R c%c nhit #
$h%c nhau&
^_C T7nh D cla M ch<t R nhit # T n6o ", ta h;nh !ung ch<t " /c un n"ng tH JPhN
TPhN mvt R Fdconst& O,u trong qu% tr;nh un n"ng c" s2 chuy5n pha th;C
D d D
T
L D
PT d JN
d D
T
d

z
M i
i
S
D
T
d
T
dT
C n
T
L
n
T
dT
C n
T
L
n
T
dT
C n
T
T
h P
S
S
T
T
l P
nc
nc
T
r P
S
S
nc
nc
& & & & & & & &
N P N P
J
N P
M

+ + + +
ai% trb entropi /c m%c bnh R F d M atm d const +6 R nhit # T n6o " /c gi 16 gi% trb
NG'&(N TH) NGC ANH * Q * TH$T CH'&,N H-NG &,N
NHIT NG HC
entropi chu{n, $7 hiu 16 D
J
T
, thng T d IK|h D
J
IK|
Y! Sf gIN THIN `NTaOPI TaONG PHpN qNG HO HC
k hhi ph4n -ng th2c hin R F d const, T d const th;C D d DPspN L DPtggN
k O,u R iu $in chu{n +6 Iz
J
T th;C D
J
IK|
d D
J
IK|
PspN L D
J
IK|
PtggN
k ^; D cla ch<t $h7 ii ch<t r}n, 1ng n'n n,u s mo1 $h7 s4n ph{m PspN i s mo1 $h7 tham
gia th; D i J +6 ng/c 1*i& T~n trong trng h/p s mo1 $h7 R I +, 8jng nhau hotc ph4n
-ng $h)ng c" ch<t $h7 th; D c" gi% trb nh&
r! TH NHIT NG
Dc) 1p d D h k D mt J
r!! T&0 ?s-. ,FE ?s-. -&/1: G b-R-. 7CD-. G/tt#c
uvt h m4y ra s2 8i,n (i R F, T u $h)ng (i trong qu% tr;nh n6y m)i trng nhn cla
h m#t nhit 1/ng @
mt
!o h to4 ra @
mt
d L @
h
d L @
D
mt
d L
T
H
k Aiu $in t2 !i3n 8i,n cla hC
D
c) 1p
d D
h
L
T
H
i J @ T& D r J
k @ R tr*ng th%i c9n 8jng $hi @ T& D d J
k Att a d @ TD R nhit #, F $h)ng (i th; qu% tr;nh m4y ra theo chiu c"
a d @ T& D r J
^6 *t ti tr*ng th%i c9n 8jng $hi a d J&
r!=! T&0 ?s-. :@*&E ?s-. -&/1: u bNR-. 7CD-. Hv72&'7:wc
O,u h 8i,n (i R iu $in T, ^ $h)ng (i nhit ng t7ch m6 m)i trng nhn cla
c%c h 16 Y
mt
D
mt
d L
T
U
mt

iu $in t2 !i,n 8i,n cla h trong qu% tr;nh ng nhit, ng t7ch 16 C d Y T& D r J
^6 *t tr*ng th%i c9n 8jng $hi d J
Trong " C d Y TD
^; @ d Y k F^ a d @ TD d Y TD k F^ a d k F^
k Ai +i qu% tr;nh T,F d const a d wmam
k Ai +i qu% tr;nh T, ^ d const D d wmam
T WS C
NG'&(N TH) NGC ANH * R * TH$T CH'&,N H-NG &,N
NHIT NG HC
` Fu t#5nh abng c: $ d cenft
o Cx-.: wF d L F&!^ d Ln&x&!T wF d L F& ^ d L nxT
o N&/1:: QF d !@ d n&
P
C &!T QF d @ d n&
dT C
T
T
P
&
I
M

o NK/ -R-.: !Y d Q k w Y d @ F& ^ d @ n&x& T
o `-:['F/: !D
T
Q
TN

I
M
T
Q
TN

D
TO
d
T
dT
C n
T
T
P
& &
I
M

d
T d C n
T
T
P
1n & &
I
M

O,u
P
C d const D
TO
d n&
P
C &1n
M
I
T
T
` Fu t#5nh abng tgch
o Cx-.: w
^
d L F&!^ d J w
^
d J
o N&/1:: Q
^
d !Y
^
d n& V
C
&!T Q
^
d Y
^
d
dT n C
T
T
V
& &
I
M

O,u V
C
d const Q
^
d n& V
C
&T
o NK/ -R-.: Y
^
d Q
^
k w
o `-:['F/: D
T
Q
V
d

T
dT
C n
T
T
V
& &
I
M
T d C n
T
T
V
1n & &
I
M

D n& V
C
&1n
M
I
T
T
P V
C
d
constN
o `-:(-F/: @ d Y k F^ !@ d !Y k F&!^ k ^&!F d !Y k ^&!F P!^ d JN
@ d Y k ^ & F
` Fu t#5nh abng nhiht
o Cx-.: w
T
d L F!^ d L
dV
V
nRT
&
w
T
d L
M
I
I
M
M
I
1n 1n 1n & &
I
M
P
P
nRT
V
V
nRT
V
V
nRT
V
dV
RT n
V
V

o N&/1:: Y
T
d Q
T
k w
T
d J Q
T
d L w
T
d nxT 1n
M
I
V
V
o NK/ -R-.: Y
T
d J
o `-:(-F/: @
T
d Y
T
k PF^N
T
d Y
T
k nx& T d J
NG'&(N TH) NGC ANH * T * TH$T CH'&,N H-NG &,N
NHIT NG HC
o `-:['F/: D
TO
d
nc
nc TN
T
L
T
Q

hotc d
S
h
T
L
` [0i 4u t#5nh 1in nj khg lg tjng thumn nghch
D d

T
W U
T
Q
TN
+

T
dT
C n
V
T
T
& &
I
M
dV
V
nRT
V
V

I
M
O,u T
^
d const D d n&
M
I
1n
T
T
C
V k nxT 1n
M
I
V
V
^; T d const D d nxT 1n
M
I
V
V
d nxT&1n
I
M
P
P
` Fu t#5nh aenn nhiht
o N&/1:: Q d J
o NK/ -R-. HI *x-.: !Y d Q k w d w d LF!^ d
T
dT
C n
V
T
T
& &
I
M

`Fu t#5nh 2ot thumn nghch

!Y
[TO
d w
[TO
d LF
ng
&!^ d LF
I
&!^
Y
[TO
d w
[TO
d LF
ng
&P^
I
^
M
N d n&T
^
& T
` Fu t#5nh thumn nghch w d Y d n&T
^
PT
I
L T
M
N
T
M
& ^
M
M

d T
I
& ^
M
I

T
I
d T
M
&P
I
M
V
V
N
LM
L pntanpiC @ d n &T
F
PT
I
T
M
N
L pntropiC D
TO
d
T
Q
TN
d J
y P&C"-. :[z-& P'/##'-: P_cng cho qu% tr;nh thun nghbchN
T !
M
V { *'-#:| P!V

{ *'-#:|
V
P
C
C

o w
[TO
d LF
I
P^
I
^
M
N d L F
I
&P
N P N
M I
M
M
I
I
T T nC
P
nRT
P
nRT
V

T
I
Y d w d &&&&
^
I
o a d @ TD d Y k F^ TD

,
_

P
T
G
L D :

,
_

T
P
G
L ^
^i ph4n -ng omi ho% $h c" th5 !i3n ra trong pin inC a d L np
dT
G d
d L n&
dT
dE
d L D D d n&
dT
dE
@ d a k T& D d nP T&
dT
dE
L pN
NG'&(N TH) NGC ANH * W * TH$T CH'&,N H-NG &,N
NHIT NG HC
T! } NGH~e VT ^_ Cde G:
a d @ TD d Y k F^ TD
!a d !Y k F&!^ k ^&!F T&!D D!T d Pw k QN k F!^ k ^!F T&!D D!T
^; w d w k PLF!^N
Q T&!D !a w k ^!F D!T
_<u d -ng +i qu% tr;nh thun nghbch +6 c)ng 1n nh<t&
!a d w
mam
k ^!F D!T
o Ai +i qu% tr;nh ng nhit, ng %p !F d !T d J
!a
T,F
d w
mam
a d w
mam
o Ai +i qu% tr;nh [TOC w gi4m: Q tng $hi ho6n to6n [TO w d J
S! MT Sn T_NH CHkT Cde HM G:
!a d ^&!F D!T P coi w d JN
S!! S; F&> :&6K* *+( G HI' T:
L hhi F d const
P
T
G

,
_

d L D
P
T
G

,
_

d L D
a d @ T& D d @ k T&
P
T
G

,
_

T&
P
T
G

,
_

L a d L@
I I
&
T
H
T
G
T
G
T
P

,
_

I
T
H
T
T
G
P

,
_

dT
T
H
T
G
d
T
T
T
G
T
G
T
T
& &
I
M
I
I
M
I
M

dT
T
G
T
G
T
G
T
T
T T
&
I
M
M I
I
M I

O,u coi @
o
$h)ng ph> thu#c +6o nhit # th;C
,
_

IK|
M M
IK|
IK|
T
H
G
T
G
o
o
T
S!=! S; F&> :&6K* HI' P:
hhi T d const
V
P
G
T

,
_

( ) ( )


I
M
M
I
M
I
& &
I
M
P
P
P T
P
P
P T
dP V G G dP V dG
L ^i ch<t r}n, 1ng coi ^ d const $hi F 8i,n thi'n PtrH min %p su<t 1nN th;C
( ) ( )
N P
M I
M I
P P V G G
P T P T
+
NG'&(N TH) NGC ANH * X * TH$T CH'&,N H-NG &,N
NHIT NG HC
L ^i ch<t $h7 17 tRng ^ d
P
nRT

( ) ( )
M
I
1n &
M I
P
P
nRT G G
P T P T
+
O,u %p su<t 8;nh thngC F
M
d F
o
d M8ar PM atmN a
TPFN
d a
o
T
k nxT&1nF PF t7nh 8jng 8ar PatmNN&
! T_NH G Cde MT Sn hU TaiNH:
!! G/- -- ?s-. -&/1: %&@ 7@ :C$-.
a d nxT&1n
M
I
P
P
d nxT&1n
I
M
V
V
!=! T[K- 7- ?s-. -&/1:E ?s-. ,F = %&@ 7@ :C$-.:
a d n

&xT1nm

k n
[
&xT1nm
[
!A! h6, :[z-& *&6LM- F&( :&69- -.&*& b:G/ -&/1: ?K *&6LM- F&(c: a
c
d J
!U! h6, :[z-& *&6LM- F&( :&69- -.&*& $ T T
*
Oguy'n t}cC %p !>ng chu tr;nh nhit #ng& ^; a 16 h6m tr*ng th%i n'n a ch. ph> thu#c
tr*ng th%i u, tr*ng th%i cui, $h)ng ph> thu#c +6o qu% tr;nh 8i,n thi'n&
!V! G *+( F&- 5-. &', &)*: a
o
p
d a
o
DPs4n ph{mN
L a
o
DPtham giaN
II! gI TP VN DNG
Dpi +8 Che cc fq lihu nhiht arng c3" srt fq chtn ung f"u j 7XWP
=q chtn ung $htn ung
H
e
7XW
<kv>
<+>
7NH
B
w BN
7
; LN
7
w BH
7
; +]++
<7>
N
7
; w BH
7
N
7
H
L
w H
7
; B+T
<B>
7NH
B
w ]xQ;
7
N
7
H
L
w H
7
; +LB
<L>
H
7
w ]xQ ;
7
H
7
; 7WR
=
]
7XW
<N
7
H
L
> d 7L] vyP8sel z =
]
7XW
<H
7
;> d RRxR vyP8sel
=
]
7XW
<N
7
> d +X+ vyP8sel z =
]
7XW
<;
7
> d 7]Q vyP8sel
"> Tgnh nhiht tne thpnh H
e
7XW
c3" N
7
H
L
z N
7
; vp NH
B
8
2> [it chng t#5nh c3" chtn ung chy Hi1#"{in vp tgnh H
e
7XW
x G
e
7XW
vp h|ng fq
c}n 2|ng P c3" chtn ung npy8
c> Nu h~n hc 2"n au gs 7sel NH
B
vp ]xQsel ;
7
th5 nhiht c3" chtn ung <B> j th
tgch khng ai lp 2"e nhi%u
Dpi giti
aN Ta s}p m,p 1*i ph0ng tr;nh 1=c u 5 $hi c#ng trit ti'u c%c ch<t +6 /c
NG'&(N TH) NGC ANH * +] * TH$T CH'&,N H-NG &,N
NHIT NG HC
O
I
k @
I
O
I
@

& A" 16C

O
I
k Q@
I
s IO@
Q
k QO
I
s L@
M
QO
I
s k K@
I
QO
I
@

k Q@
I
s Q@
I
IO@
Q
k J,z s
I
O
I
@

k @
I
s @
Q
@
I
s @
I
k J,z s
I
L@

Dau $hi c#ng ta /cC O

I
k |@
I
O
I
@

c" @
z
Duy ra @
z
d PL@
M
k Q@
I
k @
Q
L @

N C
d PMJMM L Q & QM L MQ k I|N C d VSEYV %2'7
TH @
z
+6 @

+6 @
I
t7nh /c @ O N
I
d @
z
k @

L @
I
d zJ,z L I| k QM d rEYV %2'7
TH @
z
+6 @

+6 @
Q
t7nh /c @
Q
NH d @
z
k @

L @
Q
d P zJ,z L I| k MQ N C I d UWE=V %2'7
8N O
I
@

k s
I
O
I
k I@
I
s
@
J
IK|
d I P I|N zJ,z d W==EYV %2'7
D
J
IK|
d MKM k PI ,N IJz IJ d MIJ,| fgh
a
J
IK| d II,z P MIJ,|& MJ
Q
IK|N d VrWEYV %2'7
1n h d
G
RT

d
Q
z|, z&MJ
|, QM IK|

d IQ,| : K { S
SA
&
cN @ d Y k F^ d Y k nxT Y d @ nxT
^i n d M I,z d M,z cho Y d MQ&MJ
Q
P M,zN |,QM IK| d AT %
Dpi 78 Tni nhiht ar npe f chuyn + sel n0c lng thpnh hi n0c j c fuot khg 4uyn
+"ts lp srt 4u t#5nh t ty #"8 Dit nhiht he hi + sel n0c lng 2|ng L]QWTxW] v
vp 2in thi%n nt#eci c3" f chuyn t#nng thi npy 2|ng +]WxRW vyP8
Dpi giti
a d @ TD d Jz|,|J T& MJ|,|
T*i c9n 8jng @
I
s PlN @
I
s PhN th; a d J n'n Jz|,|J d MJ|,|&T

T d
QQ, h
^y mun qu% tr;nh t2 m4y ra th; T i QQ, h
Dpi B8 Nit#efyl cle#u" lp srt chot #ot arcx khi aun n!ng f ch}n hu thpnh nit
seneit vp cle8
NG'&(N TH) NGC ANH * ++ * TH$T CH'&,N H-NG &,N
NHIT NG HC
"> Hiy vit chng t#5nh che chtn ung npy
2> Tgnh Pc c3" chtn ung j 7XWP<the "ts vp the $">8 Che:
Nit#efyl cle#u" Nit seneit Cl
7
H
e
7XW
<kvysel>
Q+xT+ X]x7Q
=
]
7XW
<vyP8sel>
7RL 7++ 77B
c> Tgnh gn ang Pc c3" chtn ung j LTQP
Dpi giti:
aN IOsT1 IOs k T1
I
&
8N @jng s c9n 8jng nhit #ng 12c hc /c t7nh theo ph0ng tr;nh a d xT1nh
Trong " a d @ T& D
@ d PI KJ,Iz& MJ
Q
N k J PI zM,M& MJ
Q
N d J|J fgmo1
D d PI IMMN k IQQ PI IN d MM fgmo1
a d J|J IK| MM d IIM fgmo1
+6 1n h d
IIM
|, QM IK|
d M KF { AETr! S
r
(:2 HI KF { UESU! S
A
P(
cN T7nh gn =ngC
1n
I
M
P N
P N
Kp T
Kp T
d
M I
M M H
R T T
_

,
1nhpPzhN d
J|J M M
|, QM IK| z
_

,
k 1nhpPIK|N
1n hp PzN d z,zz

KF { UEA=! S
A
(:2 &(L KF { UAYP(
Dpi L8 H|ng fq c}n 2|ng <P
c
> c3" srt chtn ung kt hc A <k> w D <k> AD <k>
j 7Q
]
C lp +xW8 +]
B
?ysel vp j L]
]
C lp BxLQ8+]
B
?ysel 8
"> Git f H
e
khng ch thurc nhiht arx hiy tgnh H
e

vp =
e
8
2> Hiy tgnh cc h|ng fq c}n 2|ng Pc vp P tni 7XWx+Q Pz c fuot tepn chn lp + "ts
Dpi giti:
aN ^i 1n
I
M
P N
P N
Kp T
Kp T
d
M I
M M H
R T T
_

,
1n
Q
Q
Q, z&MJ
M,|&MJ
d
M M
|, QM IK|,Mz QMQ,Mz
H _

,
T7nh /c H { AAEWY %2'7
^i a d @ T& D d xT1nh PQQ, MJ
Q
N T
I
& D d |,QM T
I
& 1n Q,z&
MJ
Q
&
D d
Q Q
PQQ, &MJ N |, QM QMQ,Mz 1nQ, z&MJ
QMQ,Mz
+
d YVE=V K!2'7
NG'&(N TH) NGC ANH * +7 * TH$T CH'&,N H-NG &,N
NHIT NG HC
8N ^; hp d hc&PxTN
n
+i n d M n'n hp d
Q
M,|&MJ
|, QM IK|,Mz
d SEY=W (:2

&
hp d hm& PFN
n
+i n d M n'n hm d J,I M d SEY=W
Dpi Q8 Aseni hi1#efunu" lp srt chot khng 2/nx 1 ch}n hu thpnh NH
B
<k> vp H
7
=
<k>8 Che 2it:
Hc chot
H
]
<kvysel> =
]
<vyP8sel>
NH
L
H= <#>
+QRxX
++BxL
NH
B
<k>
LQ8X
+X7xR
H
7
= <k>
7]xL
7]QxR
"> Hiy tgnh H
e
7XW
x=
e
7XW
vp G
e
7XW
c3" chtn ung t#%n
2> Hiy tgnh h|ng fq c}n 2|ng Pc tni 7Q
]
C c3" chtn ung t#%n
c> Hiy tgnh h|ng fq c}n 2|ng Pc tni BQ
]
C c3" chtn ung t#%nx git thit H
]
vp =
]
khng ch thurc nhiht ar8
1> Git f che +x]] sel NH
L
H= <#> vpe srt 25nh t#qng 7Qx]] ?8 Hiy tgnh c fuot tepn
chn t#eng 25nh chu" nu chtn ung ch}n hu ant c}n 2|ng tni 7Q
]
C8 D 4u" th
tgch c3" NH
L
H= <#>8 Nu 1ung tgch 25nh chu" lp +]]x]]?x hiy tgnh lni c fuot tepn
chn t#eng thg nghihs t#%n8
Dpi giti:
aN @
J
d z,K IJ, P Mz,K N d TSEW %2'7
D
J
d MKI, k IJz, MMQ, d =rUEr K!2'7
a
J
d @
J
T& D
J
d KJJJ IK|,Mz I|,| d z| fgmo1 hay VEWrY %2'7
8N a
J
d xT&1n h
a
z| d |,QM IK|,Mz 1n h
a
& h
a
d J,MJJ|
hp d ha d SESSr (:2
=
&
cN T0ng t2 t*i Qz
J
T, a
J
d @
J
T& D
J
d I|QK fgmo1 n'n ha d J,QQJI +6 hp d
SEAAS= (:2
=
&
!N _o F Pto6n phnN d F PO@
Q
N k F P@
I
DN

F PO@
Q
N d F P@
I
DN d J,zF Pto6n phnN
hp d J,zF Pto6n phnN
I
d J,MJJ|

F Pto6n phnN d SEWAV (:2

s mo1 $h7 d
PV
RT
d
J, Qz Iz
J, J|QM IK|,Mz

d J, mo1

s mo1 O@

@D d M J,zJ,d J,|
NG'&(N TH) NGC ANH * +B * TH$T CH'&,N H-NG &,N
NHIT NG HC
o O,u !ung t7ch 8;nh MJJ W th; s mo1 $h7 d
J, Qz MJJ
J, J|QM IK|,Mz

d I,z mo1
s mo1 O@

@D d M J,z I,z d J,I|

$h)ng c~n ch<t r}n

hhi " M mo1 ch<t r}n chuy5n h,t th6nh I mo1 ch<t $h7 n'n
F Pto6n phnN d
nRT
V
d
I J, J|QM IK|,Mz
MJJ

d SEV (:2
Dpi R8 Che cc fq lihu f"u:
H
B
$;
L
<11> H
7
$;
O

<11>
H$;
P
O

<11> $;
Q
O

<11>
H
7
; <lng>
H
]
<kvysel>
+7WW +7XR +7X7 +7TT QR
=
]
<vyP8sel>
+QW X]
BB 77]
W+
"> Tgnh H
]
vp G
]
c3" cc chtn ung t#ung hep tng noc H
B
$;
L
2|ng ki/s
H
n
$;
n Q
O

w ;H

H
n+
$;
n O
O

w H
7
;
2> Tgnh h|ng fq aihn ly c3" H
B
$;
L
j 7Q
]
C the cc fq lihu t#%n
c> Tgnh th tgch c3" nhng 1ung 1ch ]x+ sely? c3" "it vp c3" ki/s sp khi t#rn
chng v0i nh"u th5 thu ac 7Q sl 1ung 1ch vp cht #" srt lng nhiht lp X] v8
Dpi giti:
aN @
J
+6 D
J
cla @
k
u 8jng JC @
I
J
H O @
J
OH

d z $fgmo1
@
J
n
d @
J
Q n
@
J
Q M n +
z : D
J
Q
d D
J
Q n
D
J
n
k |M
Theo a
J
d @
J
T& D
J
c"
o @
J
M
d MIK k P zN P MI||N d WU %2'7 : D
J
M
d KJ k |M Mz| d MQ fgmo1&h
a
J
M d IK|,Mz MQ& MJ
Q
d WYET %2'7
o @
J
I
d MIKI k P zN P MIKN d V= %2'7 : D
J
I
d QQ k |M KJ d I fgmo1&h
a
J
I d zI IK|,Mz P I& MJ
Q
N d ATEV %2'7
o @
J
Q
d MI k P zN P MIKIN d U %2'7 : D
J
Q
d IIJ k |M P QQN d MJ
fgmo1&h
a
J
I d M IK|,Mz P MJ& MJ
Q
N d TEU %2'7
8N a
I
J
H O d z IK|,Mz P|M&MJ
Q
N d |J,Mz $fgmo1
Theo a
J
d xT&1n h

1n h d
J
G
RT

NG'&(N TH) NGC ANH * +L * TH$T CH'&,N H-NG &,N

NHIT NG HC
T( h/p @
Q
Fs

k s@

@
I
Fs

k @
I
s a
J
M
@
I
s s@

k @
k
@
I
J
H O
Tho @
Q
Fs

@
k
k @
I
Fs

a
J
M a
d a
J
M
@
I
J
H O d ,K P |J,MzNd MI,Iz $fgmo1
1n h
aM
d
Q
MI, Iz&MJ
|, QM IK|
d ,K K
(
{ YET! S
A
&
T0ng t2 @
I
Fs

@
k
k @Fs
I

a
J
I a d J,z $fgmo1 : K
(=
{ rES! S
r
&
@Fs
I

@
k
k Fs
Q

a
J
Q a d J,z $fgmo1 : K
(A
{ UEU! S
A
&
cN D mo1 @
Q
Fs

d J,M^
M
: s@

d J,M^
I
&
o O,u t*o hqn h/p I mui amit C J,M^
M
k PJ,M^
I
J,M^
M
N zI d J,JK +6 ^
M
k ^
I
d
J,JIz
ai4i pt cho V
=
{ SESV ^ | V

{ SES ^
o O,u t*o hqn h/p mui amit +6 mui trung h~aC
zI J,M^
M
k PJ,M^
I
J,M^
M
N M d J,JK

V
=
{ SESYV ^ | V

{ SESSY ^
Dpi T8 Che cc fq lihu f"u:
C
7
H
Q
;H <h> C
7
H
L
<k> H
7
; <h>
G
J
IK|,s
<kvysel>
+RWxR
RWx+7
77WxQX
=
J
IK|
<vysel8 P>
7W7x] 7+XxLQ +WWxT7
[0i chtn ung : C
7
H
L
<k> w H
7
; <h> C
7
H
Q
;H <h>
"> Hi j ai/u kihn chun vp 7Q
]
C chtn ung ty #" the chi/u npe
2> $htn ung t" nhiht h"y thu nhiht
Dpi giti:
aN a
J
IK|
d M|, |,I k P II|,KN d |,MQ $f r J n'n ph4n -ng theo chiu thun&
8N @
J
IK|
d a
J
IK|
k T& D
J
IK|

D
J
IK|
d I|I,J PM||,I k IMK,zN d MI,M fg h
@
J
IK| d |,MQ& MJ
Q
k PMI,M IK|N d zI|, f r J ph4n -ng ta nhit&
Dpi W8 Che cc fq lihu f"u j 7T
]
C:
NG'&(N TH) NGC ANH * +Q * TH$T CH'&,N H-NG &,N
NHIT NG HC
NH
L
C;;NH
7
<#>
C;
7
<k> NH
B
<k>
H
J
QJJ,s
<kvysel>
RLQx7 BXBxQ LRx7]
G
J
QJJ
<kvysel>
LQWx] BXLxL +RxRL
[0i chtn ung : NH
L
C;;NH
7
<#> C;
7
<k> w 7 NH
B
<k>
"> Hi j ai/u kihn chun vp 7T
]
C chtn ung ty #" the chi/u npe
2> Nu cei H
]
vp =
]
khng ai aqi v0i T th5 2t au j nhiht ar npe chtn ung j ai/u
kihn chun ty #" the chi/u ngc v0i chi/u chtn ung j 7T
]
C
Dpi giti:
aN a
J
QJJ
d P QK,N k P M, IN P z|,JN d QJ,QI $f i J
Theo a d k F^ hay a d k F^ d k n&xT +i n d Q
th;
J
QJJ d QJ,QI& MJ
Q
Q |,QM QJJ d II|Q, f i J n'n ph4n -ng m4y ra theo chiu
nghbch&
8N @
J
QJJ
d P QKQ,zN k P ,I IN P z,IN d MzK,Q $f
D
J
QJJ
d
J J
QJJ
H G
d
MzKQJJ QJQIJ
QJJ

d IK,KQ fgh m6 Y
J
d @
J
nxT
Y
J
QJJ
d MzKQJJ Q |,QM QJJ d MzM|M, f
A5 ph4n -ng m4y ra theo chiu ng/c +i chiu R I
J
T th;
J
d Y
J
TD
J
ph4i r J

J
d MzM|M, T IK,KQ r J

T i QzQ,MI h t-c 16 R |J
J
T th; ph4n -ng (i
chiu&
Dpi X: Tgnh f 2in thi%n nt#eci c3" 4u t#5nh aun n!ng ]xQ sel H
7
; t Q]
e
C an
Q]]
e
C j $ d +"ts8 Dit nhiht n!ng chty c3" n0c j 7TBP d R]]Lvyselz nhiht 2"y hi
c3" n0c j 7TBP d L]RR]vysel8 Nhiht 1ung sel abng c
o
P
C c3" n0c a vp n0c
lng ln lt 2|ng BQxQR vp TQxBvyselPz
o
P
C c3" hi n0c lp <B]x7 w +]
*7
T> vyselP8
Dpi giti:
@
I
s
PrN
@
I
s
PrN
@
I
s
P1N
@
I
s
P1N
@
I
s
PhN
@
I
s
PhN
D
M D
I
D
Q
D

D
z

Qh
QQh QQh IQh IQh
IIQh
o
o o o o
D
I
D
Q
D

D
z

o o o o
d k k k k
D
o
D
M

o
d n& 1
]
1

+ + + +

IQ
IIQ
QQ
IQ
Q
QQ
N P N P N P
&
QQ
&
IQ
&
T
dT
C
L
T
dT
C
L
T
dT
C
h P
h
l P
nc
r P
NG'&(N TH) NGC ANH * +R * TH$T CH'&,N H-NG &,N
NHIT NG HC
dJ,z&
1
]
1

+ + + + +

N QQ Q P MJ
QQ
Q
1n & I , QJ
QQ
JJ
IQ
QQ
1n & Q , z
IQ
JJ
IIQ
IQ
1n & z , Qz
I
{
TAErVbKc
Dpi +]8 Tgnh f 2in thi%n nt#eci khi t#rn ln 7]]g n0c j +Q
e
C v0i L]]g n0c j R]
e
C8
Dit #|ng hh lp c lmc vp nhiht 1ung sel c3" n0c lng lp TQxB vysel8P
Dpi giti:
ai T 16 nhit # cla h sau $hi pha tr#n&
_o Q
thu
d Q
to4
n'nC
M|
IJJ
&
P
C PT I||N d
M|
JJ
&
P
C PQQQ TN
T I|| d I&QQQ IT T d
Q
I|| QQQ & I +
d QM|PhN
D
h
d D
M
k D
I
d
T
dT
& Q , z &
M|
IJJ
QM|
I||

k
T
dT
& Q , z &
M|
JJ
QM|
QQQ

d
M|
IJJ
&z,Q 1n
I||
QM|
k
M|
JJ
&z,Q 1n
QQQ
QM|
d z,| PfghN i J
Qu% tr;nh san 8jng nhit # n6y t2 m4y ra&
Dpi ++8 Tgnh f 2in thi%n nt#eci vp G c3" f h5nh thpnh + sel h~n hc khg lg
tjng gs 7] N
7
z Q]H
7
vp B]NH
B
the th tgch8 Dit #|ng h~n hc khg ac tne
thpnh 1e f khuch tn B khg vpe nh"u 2|ng cch nqi B 25nh ang B khg thng v0i
nh"u8 Nhiht ar vp c fuot c3" cc khg lc au a/u j akc <7TBPx +"ts>8
Dpi giti:
^; $h7 17 tRng $hu,ch t%n +6o nhau n'n qu% tr;nh 16 ng nhit&
ai th5 t7ch cla M mo1 hqn h/p $h7 16 ^ th5 t7ch mqi $h7 8an u PR ccng iu $inN 16
I
N
V
d J,I^:
Q
NH
V
d J,Q^:
I
H
V
d J,z^&
_o ^ d n
I
N
n
d J,I mo1:
I
H
n
d J,z mo1:
Q
NH
n
d J,Qmo1&
L D2 8i,n thi'n entropi /c t7nh theo TTC D d nx1n
M
I
V
V
I
N
S
d J,I &|,QM&1n
V
V
I , J
d I,fgh
I
H
S
d J,z&|,QM&1n
V
V
z , J
d I,||Mfgh
Q
NH
S
d J,Q&|,QM&1n
V
V
Q , J
d Q,JJQfgh
D d
I
N
S
k
I
H
S
k
Q
NH
S
d |,zPfghN
NG'&(N TH) NGC ANH * +T * TH$T CH'&,N H-NG &,N
NHIT NG HC
o Qu% tr;nh $hu,ch t%n $h7 17 tRng 16 ng nhit n'n @ d J
a
IQ
d @ T& D d LIQ&|,z d LIQQ,||PfN
Dpi +78 T#eng cc chtn ung f"ux nhng chtn ung npe c! = ]z = ] vp = ] gt8
C
<#>
w C;
7<k>
7C;
<k>
<+>
C;
<k>
w
I
M
;
7<k>
C;
7<k>
<7>
H
7<k>
w Cl
7<k>
7HCl
<k>
<B>
=
<#>
w ;
7<k>
=;
7<k>
<L>
Dpi giti:
Fh4n -ng PMN c" n $h7 d I LM d M i J D i J
Fh4n -ng PIN c" n $h7 d M LML
I
M
r J D rJ
Fh4n -ng PQN, PN c" n $h7 d J D J 7t&
Dpi +B8 Che 2it c:

R
P
(
OSkT
U (
P
V
ShT
R
P
(
W
V(
ShT
v c c s) liu sauX
C
7
H
Q
;H C
7
H
L<k>
H
7
;
<h>

N g P
IK| ,
mol kJ G
o
S

+RWxR RWx+7 * 77WxQX

N g P
IK|
mol kJ S
o
7W7x] 7+XxLQ +WWxT7
"> Hi ai/u kihn chun c3" chtn ung npy lp ai/u kihn nh th npe
2> j ai/u kihn chun vp 7Q
e
C chtn ung ai the chi/u npe
c> Tgnh
o
H
IK|

c3" chtn ung8 $htn ung tet nhiht h"y thu nhiht
Dpi giti:
aN Aiu $in chu{nC N P
I
k H C
P
d N P
I
h O H
P
d N P
z I
h OH H C
P
d Matm +6 ph4n -ng /c th2c hin
R t
o
, F $h)ng (i&
8N

Y
#Z
[ Y
o
Z Y
o
Z Y
o
o
\>P]^SR
P
(
W
V(
h
T
\>P]^SR
P
(
Ok
T \>P]^S(
P
V
h
T
[ _`^>` Z `^>_P U PP^>W] [ Z ^>_Q SkaT
Y
#Z SP]^T
[ Z^>_Qka b c Lh<n ng 7<! 9a th.o chiu thu"n
o

cN
NG'&(N TH) NGC ANH * +W * TH$T CH'&,N H-NG &,N
NHIT NG HC
o
\
P]^>#Z
[ \
o
Z \
o
Z \
o
P]^S(
P
VT
P]^SR
P
(
O
T
P]^SR
P
(
W
V(T
[ P^P Z P_]>OW Z _^^>dP [ Z _P`>_dSaefT
Y [ ( Z A' \
(
P]^>#Z
[ Y
P]^>#Z
U A' \
P]^>#Z
[ Z^>_Q U P]^SZ _P`>_d '_c
ZQ
T [ Z OW>dP^``SkaT
(
P]^>#Z
b c #h<n ng to< nhit

o
o
o o
Dpi +L8 ^rt sel khg lg tjng an nguy%n t j B]]P vp +Q"ts giin nj t0i c fuot +"ts8
= giin nj ac thc hihn 2|ng cen ang:
"> bng nhhit vp thumn nghch nhiht arng8
2> bng nhiht vp khng thumn nghch8
c> enn nhiht vp thumn nghch8
1> enn nhiht 2ot thumn nghch8
T#eng cc 4u t#5nh 2ot thumn nghchx f giin nj chqng lni c fuot +"ts8 Tgnh Fx x
'x Hx =
tc
che s~i t#ng hc&
Dpi giti:
aN T d const Y d J : @ d J
wTO d L

I
M
PdV
d L nxT1n
M
I
V
V
d LnxT1n
I
M
P
P
w
TO
d LMPmo1N&|,QM Pf&mo1
LM
h
LM
N &1n
M
Mz
&QJJPhN d Lz,IPfN
Q d Lw d z,IPfN
Qu% tr;nh gi?n nR thun nghbchC D
tp
d D
mt
k D
h
d J
8N T d const Y d J : @ d J
w
[TO
d LF
ng
P^
I
L ^
M
N d LF
I
P
I
P
nRT
L
M
P
nRT
N d nxTP
M
I
P
P
L MN d M& |,QM&QJJ&P
Mz
M
L MNd
LIQI,KIPfN
Q
[TO
d Lw d IQI,KIPfN
D
tp
d D
mt
k D
h
D
hP[TON
d D
hPTON
d
T
Q
TN
d

T
W U

I
M
T
dT
nC
V
k
dV
V
nR

I
M
d nx1n
M
I
V
V
d nx1n
I
M
P
P
d M&|,QM &1n
M
Mz
d II,zMzPfghN
D
mt
d
T
Q
mt
d L
T
Q
h
d
QJJ
KI , IQI
d L,PfghN D
tp
d II,zMz L , d M,zz PfghN
NG'&(N TH) NGC ANH * +X * TH$T CH'&,N H-NG &,N
NHIT NG HC
P Qu% tr;nh gi?n nR n6y t2 m4y raN
cN Ao*n nhit Q d J
Ao*n nhit thun nghbch Theo Foisson T&^
L M
d const
6 ^ d
P
nRT
T&
M

,
_

P
nRT
d const T

&F
ML
d const
A
_
'L
_
[ A
P
'L
P
A
_
A
P
[
L
P
L
_

A
_
A
P
L
P
L
_
d

ML
ML

ML

ML
A
P
[ A
_
'
L
P
L
_

ML
^i $h7 17 tRng 0n nguy'n t th; T
^
d
I
Q
x: T
F
d
I
z
x

d d
T
F
T
^
z
Q
M L
d
M L
d LJ,
T
I
d QJJ&
LJ,
d MJM,zzPhN

z
Q
z
Q
Mz
M
Y d w d nT
^
PT
I
L T
M
N d M&
I
Q
&|,QM&PMJM,zz L QJJN d LI,|PfN
@ d nT
F
PT
I
L T
M
N d M&
I
z
&|,QM &PMJM,zz L QJJNd L MI,|PfN
D
TO
d
T
Q
d J
!N Ao*n nhit Q d J
Ao*n nhit, $h)ng thun nghbch $h)ng %p !>ng /c FT poisson
Y d w nT
^
& T d LF
ng
& ^
n&
I
Q
&xPT
I
L T
M
N d LF
I
P
I
I
P
nRT
L
M
M
P
nRT
N

I
Q
PT
I
L QJJN d LP T
I
L
M
I
P
P
&T
M
N

I
Q
T
I
L zJ d LT
I
k
Mz
M
&QJJ
NG'&(N TH) NGC ANH * 7] * TH$T CH'&,N H-NG &,N
NHIT NG HC
^
I
d
I
I
P
nRT
d
M
M|| & J|I , J & M
d Mz,MP1N
^
M
d
I
I
P
nRT
d M,P1N
Y d w d M&
I
Q
&|,QM&PM||L QJJN d LMQK,zIPfN
D
tp
d D
h
d
T
Q
TN
d

T
W U

I
M
T
T
V
T
dT
nC
k
dV
T
P
V
V

I
M
d

I
M
1n
T
T
V
T d nC
k
dV
V
nR
V
V

I
M
d nT
^
1n
M
I
T
T
k nx1n
M
I
V
V
d M&
I
Q
&|,QM&1n
QJJ
M||
k M& |,QM &1n
, M
M , Mz
d MI,|JMPfghN
i J
Dpi +Q8 Tgnh
J
IQ
G
c3" chtn ung: CH
L<k>
w H
7
;
<k>
C;
<k>
w BH
7<k>
Dit: CH
L<k>
H
7
; <k> C;<k> H
7<k>
J
IK| , S
H
<kvysel> * TLxW * 7L+xW *++]xQ ]
J
IK|
S
<vyselP> +WRx7 +WWxT +XTxR +B]xRWL
"> T gi t# G
]
t5s ac c! th kt lumn g5 v/ kht nng t 1in 2in c3" kht nng
chtn ung j BTB
e
P
2> Tni nhiht ar npe th5 chtn ung ai che t ty #" j ai/u kihn chun
<Cei H
]
x =
]
khng ch thurc T>
Dpi giti:
J
p!
H
d Q&J k MPLMMJ,zN LPL,|N LPLIM,|N d IJ,MP$fN
J
p!
S
d Q&PMQJ,|N k MK, L M||, L M|,I d IM,zI PfghN
_o @
J
, D
J
$h)ng ph> thu#c +6o T n'nC

J
IQ
G
d @
J
L T& D
J
d IJ,M d QQ&IM,zI&MJ
LQ
dMIz,KKzP$fN i J
R $c +6 T d QQh Fh4n -ng $h)ng th5 t2 !i3n 8i,n&
8N A5 ph4n -ng t2 !i3n 8i,n R nhit # TPhN th;C
J
T
G r J @
J
L T& D
J
r J
T i
J
J
S
H

d
zI , IM
MJ & M , IJ
Q
d KzK,MPhN
Dpi +R8 9nt"nci t 1e chun c3" chtn ung tne thpnh H
7
; t cc an chot ch thurc
vpe T the chng t#5nh f"u:
J
,T S
G
d *7L]]]] w RxXQT w +7xXTlgT <vysel>
Tgnh G
]
x =
]
vp H
]
c3" chtn ung tne thpnh H
7
; j 7]]]P
NG'&(N TH) NGC ANH * 7+ * TH$T CH'&,N H-NG &,N
NHIT NG HC
Dpi giti:

J
IJJJ , S
G
d LIJJJJ k ,Kz&IJJJ k MIK&IJJJ1gIJJJd LMJKQQ,IPfgmo1N
!a d ^!F L D!T
P
T
G

,
_

d LD

J
IJJJ
S
d L
P
T
G

,
_

J
d ,Kz k MI,z&1gT k MI,KT&
MJ 1n &
M
T
d ,Kz k MI,K1gT k
MJ 1n
K , MI
d ,Kz k MI,K1gIJJJ k
MJ 1n
K , MI
d zz,MQzPfgmo1hN

J
IJJJ
H
d
J
IJJJ
G
k T&
J
IJJJ
S
d LMJKQQ,I k IJJJ& zz,MQz d LQJI,Jz Pfgmo1N
Dpi +T8 ^rt Hc finh khi lps 2pi tng t#5nh thg nghihs ae nhiht ar aqt chy srt hc
chot hu c che #|ng: H d ' w $8 [8 = aqt chy t#eng 2es nhiht lng k lps
che [ d ]x 1e a! H d '8 Pt lumn npy f"i j a}u
Dpi giti:
@ d Y k F&^ @ d Y k PF^N d Y k F& ^ k ^& F
@ay @ d Y k PnxTN
Trong 8om nhit 1/ng $, th;C ^ d J n'nC @ d Y k ^& F d Y k PnxTN
Dpi +W8 Hiy ch #" nhng shnh a/ f"i:
"> qi v0i + hh kgnx 4u t#5nh giin nj khg lp aenn nhiht hh lp c lmc F d ]z = d ]8
2> ^rt hh 2ot k c! th t 1in 2in t0i t#nng thi c! nt"nci thoc hn <H ]> vp
nt#eci l0n hn <= ]>8 H"y hh c! th 1in 2in the chi/u gits nt"nci t 1e <G
]>8
c>
J
T
G d
J
T
H * T8
J
T
S
[0i chtn ung he hc j T d cenft8 Nu
J
G
] $htn ung t 1in 2in the chi/u
nghch8
J
G
d ] : $htn ung j t#nng thi c}n 2|ng8
J
G
] : $htn ung t ty #" the chi/u thumn8
Dpi giti:
aN Dai & _o D d J ch. $hi qu% tr;nh 8i,n (i thun nghbch&
T~n +i qu% tr;nh 8i,n (i 8<t thun nghbch th; D i
T
Q
D i J&
8N Dai & _o mnh n6y ch. =ng trong iu $in T, F d const&
T~n +i qu% tr;nh 8i,n (i m6 ^, T d const th; ph4i mvt &
cN Dai& _o +i qu% tr;nh ho% hc th; ph4i mvt gi% trbC
NG'&(N TH) NGC ANH * 77 * TH$T CH'&,N H-NG &,N
NHIT NG HC
a d a
J
k xT1nQ ch- $h)ng ph4i !2a +6o a
J
&
"T!# nhi%n& c' th( coi r)n*
J
T
G ++ , th- .!/ tr-nh c' th( 01# ra 234c c1 5 2i6! ki7n
ch!8n 9: 2i6! ki7n th;c< Khi
J
T
G ++ , th- 96 n*!#%n t=c ch> c' .!/ tr-nh n*34c l?i m@i
01# ra& khAn* th( 0/c 2Bnh 234c chCnh 0/c *i@i h?n cDa
J
T
G m: tho 2' .!/ tr-nh 01# ra
tho chi6! n:# ha# chi6! kh/c< EFt c/ch *Gn 2Hn* c' th( coi r)n* c/c *i@i h?n n:#
kho1n* chIn* t J, kJKmolL<
Dpi +X8 ^rt khg lg tjng c! C
[
d B: khng ch thurc T ac giin nj aenn nhiht t#eng
ch}n khng t0i th tgch goc ai8 Hc finh A lg lumn #|ng aqi v0i 4u t#5nh aenn nhiht
th5
M
I
M
M
I

,
_

V
V
T
T
v0i d
Q

1e a! T
7
d
Q
M
M
I
T
Hc finh D che #|ng: ' d F w A d ] w ] d n8C
[
8 T T d ] T
7
d T
+
Hc finh npe n!i ang Hiy ch #" l~i f"i c3" Hc finh ki"8
Dpi giti:
L @c sinh [ n"i =ng&
L @c sinh n"i sai C ^; qu% tr;nh gi?n nR trong ch9n $h)ng 16 qu% tr;nh 8<t thun nghbch
n'n $h)ng s !>ng /c ph0ng tr;nh poisson&
Dpi 7]8 Tgnh chot nhiht arng c3" srt fq ch}n t vp ien j t#nng thi ti%u chun tni 7Q
e
C
nh f"u:
C
B
H
W<k>
;
7<k>
C;
7<k>
H
7
;
<l>

I
Q
CO
<"4> ;H
*
<"4>
J
S
H
<kvysel> *+]+xWQ ] * BXBxQ+ * 7WQxWB * RTTx+L * 77XxXX
=
]
<vyselP> 7RXxX+ 7]Qx+BW 7+BxTL RXxX+ * QRxX * +]xTQ
t 4u t#5nh ei he hepn tepn + sel C
B
H
W
<k> v0i ;
7
<k> tne thpnh the 7 cch :
"> Dot thumn nghch
2> Thumn nghch <t#eng + t 2pe aihn he>
+> Tgnh H
]
x '
]
x =
]
x G
]
c3" chtn ung t#eng s~i cch n!i t#%n
7> Tgnh nhihtx cng th tgchx cng chi th tgch <tuc lp cng hu gch> sp hh t#"e ai v0i
si t#ng t#eng s~i cch
B> Tgnh = c3" si t#ng vp = tng crng c3" v t# khi tin hpnh 4u t#5nh the
s~i cch8
L> ^rt s h5nh t 2pe aihn he khc lps vihc 1" t#%n chtn ung ei he C
B
H
W
<k> 2ji
;
7
<k> khi c! st 1ung 1ch P;H Q^ v0i aihn cc $t8 Cc leni ch}n t vp ien <t#
NG'&(N TH) NGC ANH * 7B * TH$T CH'&,N H-NG &,N
NHIT NG HC
P;H> a/u j t#nng thi ti%u chun8 Hiy vit cc n" chtn ung j c"tet vp "net vp chtn
ung tng crng t#eng t 2pe aihn he8 Nu t t 2pe aihn he a!x j 7Q
e
Cx t" thu ac
1ng aihn +]]sA8 Hiy tgnh cng fuot cc ani c! th ant ac8
Dpi giti:
T
Q
@
|P$N
k zs
IP$N
QTs
IP$N
k @
I
s
P1N
MN _o c%c h6m @, Y, D, a 16 h6m tr*ng th%i n'n !c ti,n h6nh theo c%ch n6o th; c%c gi% trb
Y, @, D, a cng nh nhau +i ccng tr*ng th%i u +6 cui& ^yC
J
p!
H
d Q
J
N P ,
I
k CO S
H
k &
J
N P ,
I
l O H S
H
L
J
N P ,
| Q
k H C S
H
L z&
J
N P ,
I
k O S
H
d LQ& QKQ,zM L I|z,|Q & k MJQ,|z d LIIIJ P$fN
J
p!
H
d IMQ,& Q k &K,KM L IK,KM L z& IJz,MQ| d LQ, PfghN
J
p!
G
d @
J
L T& D
J
d LIIIJ k IK|,Mz &Q,&MJ
LQ
d LIMJ|,I P$fN
Y
J
d @
J
L PF^N d @
J
L nxT d LIIIJ L PLQN&|,QM&IK|,Mz&MJ
LQ
d LIIMI,zP$fN
IN aN Qu% tr;nh 8<t thun nghbchC
L Ohit m6 h trao (i +i m)i trng 16 Q
[TO
d @
J
d LIIIJ P$fN
L w
tt
d L

I
M
&dV P
d LF& ^ d Ln
P$N
&xT
d Q& |,QMz&IK|,Mz d Q,KPfN
L w d J
8N Qu% tr;nh thun nghbchC
L Q
TO
d T& D d IK|,Mz PLQ,N d L MMMI|,QMPfN
L w
mam
d a d LIMJ|,IP$fN r J C @ sinh c)ng
L w
tt
d L n
P$N
&xT d Q,KPfN i JC h nhn c)ng
QN aN Qu% tr;nh 8<t thun nghbchC
D
mt
d
T
Q
mt
d L
T
Q
MTN
d L
T
H
J

d L
Mz , IK|
MJ & IIIJ
Q
d z, KM PfghN
D
+ tr>
d D
mt
k D
h
d z,KM L Q, d JM,MPfghN
8N Qu% tr;nh thun nghbchC
D
mt
d
T
Q
mt
d L
T
Q
TN
d
N g P , Q
Mz , IK|
QM , MMMI|
K J
D
+ tr>
d D
mt
k D
h
d J
N T%c na ph4n -ngC
notC T
Q
@
|
k Is@
L
Q
I
Q
CO
k M@
I
s k IJe
NG'&(N TH) NGC ANH * 7L * TH$T CH'&,N H-NG &,N
NHIT NG HC
TatotC s
I
k I@
I
s k e s@
L
Fh4n -ng t(ng c#ngC
T
Q
@
|P$
N k zs
IP$N
k s@
L
PaqN
Q
I
N P Q a.
CO
k @
I
s
P1N
D0 B pinC
PLN Ft, T
Q
@
|
PMatmNghs@PzN, h
I
Ts
Q
PMNg s
I
PMatmN, Ft PkN
J
p!
H
d QPL,MN k &PLI|z,|QN k MJQ,|z L z&J L PLIIK,KKN d LIz|,PhfN
J
p!
S
d Q&PLz,KN k &K,KM L IK,KM L z&IJz,MQ|L PLMJ,N d LKMI,QPhfN
J
p!
G
d
J
p!
H
d T&
J
p!
S
d LIz|, k IK|,Mz&KMI,Q&MJ
LQ
d L II,QKKPhfN

J
p!
E
d L
nN
G
J

d
K|z & IJ
IIQKK
d M,M|P^N
p d p
J
L
z
Q I
Q
I | Q
& &

1g
IJ
JzKI , J
O H C
P P OH
CO

d M,M| L
IJ
JzKI , J
1gPzN
L
d M,MKP^N
F d p &S d M,MK &J,M d J,MMKPwN
Dpi 7+8 Tgnh 2in thi%n nt#eci khi chuyn L+WxLv nhiht t vmt c! t
]
d +Q]
e
C an vmt c!
t
]
d Q]
e
C8
Dpi giti:
Qu% tr;nh 8i,n (i tr'n 16 $h)ng thun nghbch /c coi nh gBm Q qu% tr;nh 8i,n thi'n
thun nghbchC
MN ^t R MzJ
o
T truyn nhit thun nghbch R T d const&
D
M
d
T
Q
d
Mz , IQ MzJ
, M|
+

d L J,K|KPfghN
IN @ 8i,n thi'n o*n nhit tH MzJ
o
T ,n zJ
o
T
D
I
d J
QN ^t R zJ
o
T nhn nhit thun nghbch R T d const
D
Q
d L
T
Q
d
Mz , IQ zJ
, M|
+
d M,IKzPfghN
_o D 16 h6m tr*ng th%i n'nC
D
[TO
d D
TO
d D
M
k D
I
k D
Q
d J,QJPfghN
Dpi 778 Dit j *+Q
e
Cx $
hi
<H
7
;x l> d +xL7W <te##>
j *+Q
e
Cx $
hi
<H
7
;x#> d +x7+Q<te##>
Hiy tgnh G c3" 4u t#5nh ang ac + sel H
7
;
<l>
thpnh n0c a j *+Q
e
C vp +"ts8
Giti:
NG'&(N TH) NGC ANH * 7Q * TH$T CH'&,N H-NG &,N
NHIT NG HC
_W
o
R> _ mol (
P
V l
Z_W
o
R> _mol (
P
VS9T
SQT
Y
gAN
[ h
S_T
Siu t9:nh AN do
(
P
V h1i> bj o ho
n0m c5n b0ng v* i (
P
VSlTT
Z _W
o
R> _mol (
P
V
_>OP^ Ao99
SPT
Z_W
o
R> _mol (
P
V ShT
_>P_W Ao99

PMN, PQN 16 qu% tr;nh chuy5n pha thun nghbch

a
M
d a
Q
d J
a d a
I
d nxT1n
M
I
P
P
d M&|,QM& Iz|,Mz 1n
I| , M
IMz , M
d LQ,|PfN
Dpi 7B8 C! + sel ;
7
nguy%n chot j 7Q
e
Cx 7"tsz + sel ;
7
nguy%n chot j 7Q
e
Cz +"ts
+ sel ;
7
j 7Q
e
C t#eng khng khg t#%n st aot <$ d +"tsx ;
7
chis 7+ [ khng khg>
* =e fnh gi t# hps G c3" + sel ;
7
t#eng B t#ng hc t#%n hn ks nh"u 2"e nhi%u
v8 T a! #t #" kt lumn: Pht nng chtn ung c3" ;
7
t#eng s~i t#ng hc t#%n c"e
h"y thoc hn fe v0i t#ng hc khc
Dpi giti:
o a
J
16 h6m ai88 cla M mo1 s
I
R Matm
L M mo1 s
I
, Matm, Iz
o
T M mo1 s
I
, Iatm, Iz
o
T
Pa
J
N Pa
M
N
a
M
d a
M
L a
J
d nxT1n
M
I
P
P
d M& |,QMz &IK|,Mz&1n
M
I
d MM|,IKPfN
a
M
i a
J
&
L ai a
I
16 h6m ai88 cla Mmo1 s
I
R Iz
o
T trong $h)ng $h7 PJ,IM atmN
Mmo1 s
I
, Iz
o
T, Matm M mo1 s
I
, Iz
o
T, J,IMatm
Pa
J
N Pa
I
N
a
I
d a
I
L a
J
d M& |,QMz &IK|,Mz&1n
M
IM , J
d LQ||,|PfN
a
I
r a
J
&
^yC
a
I
PMmo1 s
I
, Iz
o
T, J,IMatmN r a
J
PM mo1 s
I
, Iz
o
T, MatmN r a
M
PM mo1 @
I
s, IzoT, IatmN
L M ch<t c" h6m a c6ng cao th; c6ng $vm 8n M mo1 s
I
R Iz
o
T, Iatm c" $h4 nng ph4n
-ng cao nh<t c~n M mo1 s
I
njm trong $h)ng $h7 th; 8 nh<t c" $h4 nng ph4n -ng $vm
nh<t&
NG'&(N TH) NGC ANH * 7R * TH$T CH'&,N H-NG &,N
NHIT NG HC
Dpi 7L8 Nhiht hep t"n <H
ht
> ]xRT7g chnel t#eng +BQxXg cle#ees lp *WWv vp c3" +xQRg
chnel t#eng +LWxRXg cle#ees lp *+T7v8
Tgnh nhiht ch" leing aqi v0i 1ung 1ch c! nng ar nh 1ung 1ch thu 7 chu" + sel
chnel khi ch" leing an nng ar c3" 1ung 1ch thu nhot 2|ng cle#ees8
Dpi giti:
]Og #h.nol U R(Rl
Q
dd P dd _
( #ha loj ng
U R(Rl
Q
(
ht SPT
(
htS_T
(
#ha loj ng
[ (
htS_T
Z (
htSPT
[ Z 'SZ_dPT U SZ^^T [ Z PccO>^dSaT
c>`dP
]O
_>W`]
]O

Dpi 7Q8 Nhiht hep t"n + sel PCl t#eng 7]] sl n0c 10i c fuot $ d +"st lp:
t
]
C 7+ 7B
H +Wx+QL +TxW7L <kv>
c anh H
7XW
vp fe fnh v0i gi t# thc nghihs lp +TxQTW <kv>
Dpi giti:
Theo bnh 1ut hirchhoC
@
IK
d @
IK|
k T
F
&PIK L IK|N d M|,z P$fN
@
I|
d @
IK|
k T
F
&PIK L IK|N d M,|IP$fN

@
IK|
d M,K P$fN
T
F
d LJ,Mz P$fghN
@
IK|PWTN
L @
IK|PTON
@
IK|PTON
J,|

^y @
IK|
t7nh /c theo 17 thuy,t sai $h%c +i gi% trb TO 16 J,|&
Dpi 7R8 Tgnh = c3" 4u t#5nh he hi B sel H
7
; <l> j 7Q
e
Cx +"ts8
Che: H
hh
x
H7;<l>
d L]xRQR kvyselz N P ,
I
l O H P
C
d TQx7X+ <vyP8sel>z N P ,
I
h O H P
C
d BBxQW
<vyselP>
Dpi giti:
uvt chu tr;nhC
NG'&(N TH) NGC ANH * 7T * TH$T CH'&,N H-NG &,N
NHIT NG HC
PW
o
R> Q mol (
P
V
SlT
> _atm PW
o
R> Q mol (
P
V
S9T
> _atm
_cc
o
R> Qmol (
P
V
SlT
>_atm _cc
o
R> Qmol (
P
V
ShT
>
_atm
\
\
_
\
P
\
Q
D
M
d
T
Q
M
d

I
M
& &
N P
T
T
l P
T
dT
C n
d nT
FP1N
1n
M
I
T
T
d Q& z,IKM&1n
Mz , IK|
Mz , QQ
d zJ,|IIPfghN
D
I
d
T
Q
I
d
T
H n
l hh&
&
d Q&
Mz , QQ
MJ , z , J
Q
d QI,|JzPfghN
D
Q
d
T
Q
Q
d

M
I
& &
N P
T
T
h P
T
dT
C n
d nT
FPhN
1n
M
I
T
T
d Q& QQ,z|&1n
Mz , QQ
Mz , IK|
d L II,JPfghN
D d D
M
k D
I
k D
Q
d Qz,KQ|Q PfghN
Dpi 7T8
"> Tgnh cng t#eng 4u t#5nh aqt chy + sel #u tylic j akc vp 7Q
e
C8
2> Nu H
7
; j 1nng hi th5 cng ks the 4u t#5nh npy lp 2"e nhi%u
Dpi giti:
aN T
I
@
z
s@
P1N
k Qs
I P$N
ITs
I P$N
k Q@
I
s
P1N
n d LM
w d LF
ng
& ^ d LF
ng
&
n*
P
RT n&
d x&T d |,QM&IK|Mz d I|,|I PfN
8N O,u @
I
s R !*ng h0i th;C n d I&
w d L n& xT d LI &|,QM &IK|,Mz d L Kz,PfN
Dpi 7W8 Tgnh =x G t#eng 4u t#5nh giin khng thumn nghch 7 sel khg lg tjng t Llgt
an 7] lgt j QL
e
C8
Dpi giti:
^; D, a 16 c%c h6m tr*ng th%i n'n D, a $h)ng ph> thu#c +6o qu% tr;nh 8i,n thi'n 16
thun nghbch hay 8<t thun nghbch m6 ch. ph> thu#c +6o tr*ng th%i u +6 tr*ng th%i cui&
^; +yC
D d nx1n
M
I
V
V
d I& |,QM&1n

IJ
d I, PfghN
T d const @ d J: Y d J
a d @ L T& D d J LPIQ,Mz k zN &I, d L |zz,M PfN
NG'&(N TH) NGC ANH * 7W * TH$T CH'&,N H-NG &,N
NHIT NG HC
Dpi 7X8 ^rt 25nh c! th tgch [ d Q<l> ac ngn lps 7 chn 2|ng nh"u8 $hn + chu"
N
7
j 7XWP vp c fuot 7"tsx chn 7 j 7XWP vp c fuot +"ts8 Tgnh Gx Hx = c3" 4u
t#5nh t#rn ln 7 khg khi ngi t" 2 vch ngn ai8
Dpi giti:
R T d IK|h : ^
8
PO
I
N d ^
8
Ps
I
N d
I
z
P1N
D d DPO
I
N k DPs
I
N d
I
N
n
&x1n
M
I
V
V
k
I
O
n
x1n
M
I
V
V
d
RT
V P
N N
I I
&
x1n
z , I
z
k
RT
V P
O O
I I
&

x1n
z , I
z
d I 1n
& &
I I I I
T
V P V P
O O N N
+
d J,JMP1&atghN d J,JM &MJM,QIz d M,Q PfghN
L Qu% tr;nh ng nhit @ d J
a d @ L T& D d L IK| &M,Q d L zIz,Q PfN
Dpi B]8 Che cc 1 lihu f"u a}y j 7XWP
Chot
J
S
H
<kvyselP> =
]
<vyselP> [<s
B
ysel>
C
th"n ch5
]x]] QxRXR QxB+8+]
R
C
kis cng
+xX] 7xL7T BxL+R8+]
*R
+> j 7XWP c! th c! srt chn #ot nh kis cng cng tn tni v0i th"n ch5 ac khng
7> Tgnh c fuot tqi thiu chti 1ng a c! th ai/u ch ac kis cng j 7XWP
Dpi giti:
MN

R
kim cZ 1ng
R
than ch:
Y
c
[ h
IK|

@
o
d @
o

than ch;
L @
o

$im c0ng
d J L M,K d LM,K P$fN
D
o
d D
o

than ch;
L D
o
$im c0ng
d z,K L I,I d Q,IK PfghN

J
, IK| p!
G
d @
o
L T& D
o
d LMKJJ L IK|&Q,IK d LI|,MIPfN
a
o
r J PTuy nhi'n a
o
$h)ng qu% 9mN
Fh4n -ng t2 m4y ra theo chiu thun $h)ng tBn t*i m#t 1/ng nh $im c0ng ccng
+i than ch;&
IN

Y
c
[ UP^dO>_`P SaT
IK|

R
than ch:
R
kim cZ 1ng
^ d ^
hT
L ^
TT
d Q,M&MJ
L
L z,QM&MJ
L
d M,|K&MJ
L
Pm
Q
gmo1N
NG'&(N TH) NGC ANH * 7X * TH$T CH'&,N H-NG &,N
NHIT NG HC
Ta c"C !a d ^!F L D!T

T
P
G

,
_

d ^
T
P
G

,
_

d ^

I
P
G
L
M
P
G
d ^PF
I
L F
M
N
A5 iu ch, /c $im c0ng tH than ch; th;C
I
P
G
J

M
P
G
k ^PF
I
L F
M
N J
F
I
L F
M
L
V
G
P

M
P_o ^ r JN
F
I
F
M
L
V
G
P

M
d M k
QIz , MJM & MJ & |K , M
MI , I|
Q
F
I
MK,z PatmN
^y %p su<t ti thi5u ph4i !cng 5 iu ch, /c $im c0ng tH than ch; 16 MK,zatm&

NhZ v"! D PW
o
R> c5n b0ng than ch: kim cZ 1ng tkn t i D # su=t kho<ng
MzJJJ atm& R %p su<t cao h0n qu% tr;nh chuy5n than ch; th6nh $im c0ng 16 t2 !i3n 8i,n,
mtc !u +i tc # r<t chm& un tng tc # ph4i tng nhit # +6 %p su<t, trong th2c t,
qu% tr;nh chuy5n than ch; th6nh $im c0ng /c ti,n h6nh $hi c" m=c t%c POi k Tr k N R
nhit # tr'n MzJJ
o
T +6 F zJJJJatm&
oooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooo
PHN III: KT ^UN
^ic hc tp s%ng $i,n $inh nghim sn thu /c $,t qu4 tt n,u 4m 84o c%c y'u cu
sauC
@c sinh ph4i c" tr;nh # nhn th-c +6 t !uy t0ng i tt& uu<t ph%t tH i t/ng hc
u 16 hc sinh $h% gii, n'n $h4 nng ti,p thu $i,n th-c $h% nhanh +6 ch}c ch}n& A" 16
tin r<t tt 5 c" th5 truyn th> m#t $hi 1/ng $i,n th-c trong ccng m#t 0n +b thi
gian nhiu h0n so +i hc sinh $h%c& ai%o +i'n cn 8i,t tn !>ng c" hiu qu4 nhng $h4
nng ", chng h*n, 8jng c%ch a t6i 1iu, y'u cu hc sinh t2 nghi'n c-u trc sau "
tr;nh 8y, a ra nhn mvt, $,t qu4 thu /c trong ti,t hc chuy'n Oh +y sn gi=p
hc sinh 1nh h#i $i,n th-c s9u s}c h0n, t*o iu $in 5 c%c em 8c u tp !/t nghi'n
c-u $hoa hc&
! K0: P6 :&;* :/<-
NG'&(N TH) NGC ANH * B] * TH$T CH'&,N H-NG &,N
NHIT NG HC
Qua th2c t,,t)i c" tham gia m#t s 8u(i !*y #i tuy5n : tr2c ti,p gi4ng !*y s%ng $i,n
$inh nghim n6y trong c%c ti,t chuy'n 8Bi !Eng hc sinh !2 thi hc sinh gii quc gia
m)n @"a MI t*i trng T@FT chuy'n @ng G'n , +i 1/ng $i,n th-c +Ha ph4i +6 h
thng +7 !> phc h/p ? gi=p hc sinh ti,p thu $h% tt, $7ch th7ch +6 ph%t huy $h4 nng t
!uy, +n !>ng t(ng h/p $i,n th-c m#t c%ch 1)gic, say m' t2 gi%c hc tp, g/i mR "c t;m t~i
s%ng t*o $hoa hc&
@c sinh #i tuy5n 1p MI !2 thi hc sinh gii quc gia ? t2 tin h0n $hi gtp c%c 86i
tp + nhit #ng hc
h,t qu4 thi chn hc sinh gii quc gia m)n @"a 1p MIC
Om hc IJJK IJMJ c" g hc sinh *t gi4iPz gi4i 8a :M $huy,n $h7chN
Om hc IJMJ IJMM c" g| hc sinh *t gi4i Pz gi4i 8a:I $huy,n $h7chN
Om hc IJMM IJMI c" g| hc sinh *t gi4i PM gi4i nh; :z gi4i 8a:M $huy,n $h7chN
=! gI/ &)* %/-& -.&/12
D%ng $i,n $inh nghim n6y /c gi4ng !*y cho c%c th, h hc sinh c%c 1p chuy'n ,
n'n cn /c thng muy'n trao (i, cp nht 1i'n t>c c%c 86i to%n 1i'n quan ,n nhit
#ng hc
A! K/0- -.&E ? 6Z:
A9n 5! l h th)ng c5u hHi v bi t"# #hCn INhit #ng hcJ m t2i j
# d?ng t9ong gi<ng d!' N& t1ng )i #hK h# v*i !u cCu v m?c lch gi<ng d!>
bki dmng hc sinh kh> giHi D t9Bng chu!n chuFn b$ d thi hc sinh giHi cc c=# '
N& c& th; dKng lm ti liu hc t"# cho hc sinh cc l*# chu!n (o hc v ti
liu tham kh<o cho cc thC! c2 gio t9ong gi<ng d! v bki dmng hc sinh giHi (o
hc D b"c A(LA g&# #hCn n5ng cao ch=t lng gi<ng d! v hc t"# m2n (o hc'
Au! nhin> 5! ch3 l mt #hCn 9=t nhH t9ong ch1ng t9:nh 2n lu!n cho
hc sinh chuFn b$ tham gia vo cc kM thi hc sinh giHi cc c=#' n: v"!> t2i 9=t
mong cc AhC! > R2 kng nghi# g&# , kin cho t2i v chu!n n! v cKng
nhau #ht t9i;n sang cc chu!n khc ; hc t96 chu!n (o ng! cng c&
nhiu ti liu hc t"# mt cch h th)ng h1n'
NG'&(N TH) NGC ANH * B+ * TH$T CH'&,N H-NG &,N
NHIT NG HC
TI/ 7/16 :&(2 %&'
! C" #$ 78 :&6L0: &J( &)* PGS< N*!#On H?nh
=! C" #$ 78 :&6L0: &J( &)* PGS< L% EP! Q!#6n
A! C" #$ 78 :&6L0: *,* P6, :[z-& &J( &)* VQ RSn* RF
U! gI/ :9F &', &)* ?G/ *C"-. T3Un* VSn R1m
V! gI/ :9F &J( &)* ?G/ *C"-. o TrGn Hi7p H1i
W! gI/ ./-. HJ( ?G/ *C"-. RHKTCN
NG'&(N TH) NGC ANH * B7 * TH$T CH'&,N H-NG &,N
NHIT NG HC
NG'&(N TH) NGC ANH * BB * TH$T CH'&,N H-NG &,N