1.

0 Stress at a Point

REVIEW OF MECHANICS OF MATERIALS

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Stress is an internal quantity. Stress has units of force per unit area. Stress at a point needs a magnitude and two directions to specify it (i.e. stress is a second-order tensor). The sign of a stress component is determined from the direction of the internal force and the direction of the outward normal to the imaginary cut surface. Shear stress components are symmetric

direction of outward normal to the imaginary cut surface.

Fj ij = lim --------- A i 0 A i
direction of the internal force.

2.0 Strain
Measure of relative movement of two points on the body. (deformation) 1. Elongations are positive normal strains. Decrease from right angle results in positive shear strains. 2. Small strain ( < 0.01) can be calculated using just the deformation in the original direction of the line. 3. Small strain results in a linear theory
= = = = + = = + Engineering Strain xx = x yy zz xy yx yz zy y z y x z y 4. tensor normal strains = engineering normal strains and tensor shear strains = (engineering shear strains)/ 2 u v w u v v w zx = xz = w u + x z

3.0 Generalized Hookes Law

Assuming no temperature change, we have the following: For isotropic materials
xx xx = --------- -- ( + zz ) + T E E yy yy yy = --------- -- ( + zz ) + T E E xx zz zz = -------- -- ( + yy ) + T E E xx E G = ------------------2(1 + ) xy xy = -------G yz yz = -------G zx zx = -------G xx yx 0 xy yy 0

Plane Stress

0 0 0

Generalized Hookes Law

xx yx 0

xy yy 0

0 0 zz = -- ( + yy ) E xx

xx

xy yy 0

0 0 0

Plane Strain

yx 0

Generalized Hookes Law

xx yx 0

xy yy 0

0 0 zz = ( xx + yy )

4.0 Stress Transformation

Stress transformation equations relate stresses at a point in different coordinate systems.
2 2

nn = xx cos + yy sin + 2 xy sin cos

nt = xx cos sin + yy sin cos + xy ( cos sin )

where, xx, yy, and xy are the stresses in x-y-z coordinate system, nn, tt, and nt, are the stresses in n-t-z coordinate system, is measured from the x-axis in the counter-clockwise direction to the n-direction. The value of stresses on a plane through a point are unique and depend upon the orientation of the plane only and not how its orientation is described or measured. Planes on which the shear stresses are zero are called the principal planes. Principal planes are orthogonal. The normal direction to the principal planes is referred to as the principal direction or the principal axis. The angles the principal axis makes with the global coordinate system are called the principal angles. Normal stress on a principal plane is called principal stress.

The greatest principal stress is called principal stress one. Principal stresses are the maximum and minimum normal stresses at a point. The maximum shear stress on a plane that can be obtained by rotating about the z axis is called the in-plane maximum shear stress. The maximum shear stress at a point is the absolute maximum shear stress that is on any plane passing through the point. Maximum in-plane shear stress exists on a two plane which are at 45o to the principal planes.
( xx + yy ) xx yy 2 2 1, 2 = ---------------------------- ---------------------- + xy 2 2 1 2 p = ----------------2

2 xy tan 2 p = --------------------------( xx yy )

where, p is the angle to either principal plane one or two, 1 and 2 are the principal stresses, p is the in-plane maximum shear stress.
Plane Stress 0 3 = zz = ( xx + yy ) Plane Strain

1 2 2 3 3 1 max = max -, -----------------, ---------------- ----------------2 2 2

At a point there are always three principal stresses.

5.0 Failure Theories

Maximum shear stress theory: max ( 1 2, 2 3, 3 1 ) yield ---Ductile materials Maximum octahedral shear stress: von = ------ ( 1 2 ) + ( 2 3 ) + ( 3 1 ) yield ---Ductile materials
von is called von-Mises stress. 1 2
2 2 2

Maximum normal stress theory max ( 1, 2, 3 ) ult ---Brittle materials

2 1 Modified Mohrs theory: ----- ----- 1 ---Brittle materials with different tensile and compressive strength.

6.0 Strain Transformation

Strain transformation equations relate strains at a point in different coordinate systems.
nn = xx cos + yy sin + xy sin cos xy tan 2 p = ------------------------( xx yy )
2 2

nt = 2 xx sin cos + 2 yy sin cos + xy ( cos sin ) ( xx + yy ) xx yy 2 xy 2 1, 2 = -------------------------- --------------------- + ----- 2 - 2 2 p 1 2 ---- = --------------2 2

where, p is the angle to either principal plane one or two, 1 and 2 are the principal stresses, p is the in-plane maximum shear stress.
0 Plane Strain 3 = ----------- ( + yy ) Plane Stress 1 xx max 1 2 2 3 3 1 ---------- = max ---------------, ---------------, -------------- 2 2 2 2

The principal directions for stresses and strains is same for isotropic materials.

1 = [ 1 ( 2 + 3 ) ] E

Generalized Hookes Law in principal coordinates: 2 = [ 2 ( 3 + 1 ) ] E

3 = [ 3 ( 1 + 2 ) ] E

7.0 Pressure Vessels

Stress Approximation 1. Free Surface 2. Thin Bodies. 3. Axi-symmetric Bodies.

xx

xx

Hoop stress: Axial stress:

= pR ----- t pR = -----xx 2t

Thin spherical pressure vessels = = = pR -----2t xs T = -----------2tA E

Thin cylindrical pressure vessels

Torsion of thin tubes

8.0 Logic in Structural Mechanics

Displacements

Ki ne

External Forces and Moments

ilib Equ rium ds gy Ener

1 ma tic s Strains
s Mate rial M odel

ho Met

Internal Static Equivalency Forces Stresses and 3 Moments

Structural Analysis
Axial (Rods)
Displacements Strains

Torsion (Shafts) ( x, y, z ) = ( x ) d dx d dx

Symmetric Bending (Beams) dv u ( x, y, z ) = y v = v( x) w = 0 dx xx = y dv dx

2 2 2

Unsymmetric Bending u ( x, y, z ) = y xx = y dv dx
2 2

u ( x, y, z ) = u ( x ) xx = du dx du dx

dv dw z v = v( x) w = w( x ) dx dx dw dx
2 2 2

x =

Stresses

xx = E xx = E

x = G x = G

xx = E xx = Ey

dv dx
2

xy 0 xx

xx = Ey N =

dv dx
2

Ez

dw dx
2

xy 0 xx xz 0 xx

Internal Forces & Moments

N =

xx dA
A

T =

x dA
A

N =

xx dA
A A

= 0

xx dA
A

= 0 M z = y xx dA M y = z xx dA
A A

M z = y xx dA
Homogenous Cross-section

Vy =

xy dA
A

Vy =

xy dA
A

Vz =

xz dA
A

xx

N = --A

T x = -----J

M z y xx = --------I zz V y Q z q = xs t = -----------I zz

I yy M z I yz M y I zz M y I yz M z xx = ---------------------------------y ---------------------------------z 2 I yy I zz I 2 I I I yz yy zz yz
- V ------------------------------------- V ------------------------------------q = xs t = 2 z 2 y I yy I zz I yz I yy I zz I yz I yy Q z I yz Q y I zz Q y I yz Q z

N ( x2 x1 ) du N = ------- u u 1 = ------------------------EA dx EA 2
Composite Cross-section

T ( x2 x1 ) d T = ------ 1 = ------------------------GJ dx GJ 2 Gi T ( x ) i = -----------------------n

dv dx
2

Mz = --------- v = EI zz

- dx -----EI

Mz

dx + C 1 x + C 2

N Ei ( xx ) i = --------------------

j=1

Ej Aj

j=1

Gj Jj

E i y Mz ( xx ) i = ---------------------------

Ej ( Izz )j
j=1

N ( x2 x1 ) u 2 u 1 = ------------------------ Ej Aj dN = px ( x ) dx

T ( x2 x1 ) 2 1 = ------------------------[ Gj Jj ] dT = t ( x ) dx d d = t ( x ) GJ d x d x

V Q comp y q = xs t = --------------------------------- n E ( I ) j zz j j=1

2 d v 1 I yy M z I yz M y = -- --------------------------------------2 2 E dx I yy I zz I yz

2 d w 1 I zz M y I yz M z = -- --------------------------------------2 2 E dx I yy I zz I yz

v =

dx ------------------------ Ej ( Izz )j

Mz

dx + C 1 x + C 2 dV y = py ( x ) dx dM z dV z = Vy = pz ( x ) dx dx dM y = Vz dx

dV y = py ( x ) dx
2

dM z = Vy dx

du o d EA = p x ( x ) dx dx

2 d d v EI zz 2 = p y ( x ) 2 dx dx

9.0 Buckling:
Bending due to compressive axial forces is called buckling. It is sudden and catastrophic. Buckling occurs about the axis of minimum area moment of inertia. Euler Buckling Load Pcr can be calculated from: P cr

EI = ----------2 L

Slenderness ratio is defined as L/r where L is length of column and r is radius of gyration.

10.0 Stress Concentration

Sudden changes in geometry, loading, and material properties cause a concentration of stresses. The impact of the stress raisers (causing the stress concentration) dies out rapidly with distance as per Saint Venants principle. Stress concentration factor: K conc = ---------------------------------------------- . The formulas of mechanics of materials give us the nominal stress. Use charts in handbooks to obtain Kconc and find the predicted maximum stress. d H t P P r max r T d d
Maximum Stress Nominal Stress

T d

M
P P D D D

11.0 Superposition
Applicable only to linear systems.

Example 1:
y w P1=wL y P1=wL y w

x Lm

x Lm

x Lm

P1 L v max = ----------- 3EI ( wL ) L wL 11wL v max = ------------------ ---------- = --------------- 3EI 8EI 24EI
Example 2:
y w y y

wL v max = ---------- 8EI

4

x Lm

x Lm

A
Lm

RA

vA

R A L wL 4 = ------------- ---------- = 0 8EI 3EI

or

3wL R A = ---------8EI