AUTOMATIC BRAKING SYSTEM FRONT AND BACK

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of degree of BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING IN AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING BY

Under the guidance of

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2004-2005
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

CERTIFICATE
Register number:

T!is is t" #erti$% t!&t t!e 'r"(e#t re'"rt tit)e* INTELLIGENT BRAKING SYSTEM submitte* b% t!e $"))"+ing stu*ents $"r t!e &+&r* "$ t!e *egree "$ b&#!e)"r "$ engineering is re#"r* "$ b"n&$i*e +"r, #&rrie* "ut b% t!em-

D"ne b% Mr- .Ms-

In '&rti&) $u)$i))ment "$ t!e re/uirement $"r t!e &+&r* "$ *egree in Diploma in Automobile Engineering During the Year !""#$!""%& ''''''''''''''''' (ea) o* Department C"imb&t"re 012032D&te:
Submitte) *or the uni+er,it- e.amination hel) on '''''''''''

''''''''''''''' Gui)e

''''''''''''''''' Internal E.aminer

'''''''''''''''' E.ternal E.aminer

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ACKN/0LEDGEMENT
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ACKNO4LEDGEMENT

At thi, plea,ing moment o* ha+ing ,u11e,,*ull- 1omplete) our pro2e1t3 4e 4i,h to 1on+e- our ,in1ere than5, an) gratitu)e to the management o* our 1ollege an) our belo+e) 1hairman 5 4ho pro+i)e) all the *a1ilitie, to u,6 0e 4oul) li5e to e.pre,, our ,in1ere than5, to our prin1ipal 5 *or *or4ar)ing u, to )o our pro2e1t an) o**ering a)e7uate )uration in 1ompleting our pro2e1t6 0e are al,o grate*ul to the (ea) o* Department 8ro*6 665 *or her 1on,tru1ti+e ,ugge,tion, 9 en1ouragement )uring our pro2e1t6 0ith )eep ,en,e o* gratitu)e3 4e e.ten) our earne,t 9 ,in1ere than5, to our gui)e o* 663 pro2e1t6 Department

Me1hani1al *or her 5in) gui)an1e 9 en1ouragement )uring thi,

0e al,o e.pre,, our in)ebt than5, to our TEAC(ING an) N/N TEAC(ING ,ta**, o* MEC(ANICAL ENGINEERING DE8ARTMENT36 C/LLEGE NAME&6

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INTELLIGENT BRAKING SYSTEM

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CONTENTS
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CONTENTS

1. SYNO S!S ". !N#$O%U&#!ON '. (!#)$*#U$) SU$+)Y ,. #Y )S O- .$*/!N0 1. !$ S)NSO$ 2. N)U3*#!& .$*/!N0 &O3 ON)N#S

4. .(O&/ %!*0$*3 5. 6O$/!N0 $O&)%U$) 7. * (!&*#!ON *N% *%+*N#*0)S

18. (!S# O- 3*#)$!*( 11. &OS# )S#!3*#!ON 1". &ON&(US!ON 1'. .!.(!O0$* 9Y 1,. 9O#O0$* 9Y

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SYNO6SIS
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SYNOPSIS

#he technolog: of pneumatic; ha; gained tremendou; importance in the field of wor<place rationali=ation and automation from old-fa;hioned timber wor<; and coal mine; to modern machine ;hop; and ;pace robot;. !t i; therefore important that technician; and engineer; ;hould ha>e a good <nowledge of pneumatic ;:;tem? air operated >al>e; and acce;;orie;. #he air i; compre;;ed in an air compre;;or and from the compre;;or plant the flow medium i; tran;mitted to the pneumatic c:linder through a well laid pipe line ;:;tem. #o maintain optimum efficienc: of pneumatic ;:;tem? it i; of >ital importance that pre;;ure drop between generation and con;umption of compre;;ed air i; <ept >er: low.

#he aim i; to de;ign and de>elop a control ;:;tem ba;ed an intelligent electronicall: controlled automoti>e bra<ing ;:;tem
SYSTEM. is called INTELLIGENT BRAKING

Intelligent Braking s ste! i; con;i;t; of !$ tran;mitter and $ecei>er circuit? &ontrol Unit? neumatic brea<ing ;:;tem. #he !$ ;en;or i; u;ed to detect the

ob;tacle. #here i; an: ob;tacle in the path? the !$ ;en;or ;en;e; the ob;tacle and gi>ing the control ;ignal to the brea<ing ;:;tem. #he pneumatic brea<ing ;:;tem i; u;ed to brea< the ;:;tem.

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INTRODUCTION
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INTROD"CTION

6e ha>e plea;ure in introducing our new pro@ect INTELLIGENT BRA#ING SYSTEM$% which i; full: equipped b: !$ ;en;or; circuit and neumatic brea<ing circuit.

!t i; a genuine pro@ect which i; full: equipped and de;igned for *utomobile >ehicle;. #hi; form; an integral part of be;t qualit:. #hi; product underwent ;trenuou; te;t in our *utomobile >ehicle; and it i; good.

#he PNE"MATIC BRA#ING CIRC"IT can ;top the >ehicle within " to ' ;econd; running at a ;peed of 18 /3. #he intelligent brea<ing ;:;tem i; a full: automation pro@ect.

#hi; i; an era of automation where it i; broadl: defined a; replacement of manual effort b: mechanical power in all degree; of automation. #he operation remain; an e;;ential part of the ;:;tem although with changing demand; on ph:;ical input a; the degree of mechani=ation i; increa;ed.

%egree; of automation are of two t:pe;? >i=. -ull automation. Semi automation.

!n ;emi automation a combination of manual effort and mechanical power i; required wherea; in full automation human participation i; >er: negligible.

NEED FOR A"TOMATION&

*utomation can be achie>ed through computer;? h:draulic;? pneumatic;? robotic;? etc.? of the;e ;ource;? pneumatic; form an attracti>e medium for low co;t automation. #he main ad>antage; of all pneumatic ;:;tem; are econom: and ;implicit:. *utomation pla:; an important role in ma;; production.

-or ma;; production of the product? the machining operation; decide the ;equence of machining. #he machine; de;igned for producing a particular product are called tran;fer machine;. #he component; mu;t be mo>ed automaticall: from the bin; to >ariou; machine; ;equentiall: and the final component can be placed ;eparatel: for pac<aging. 3aterial; can al;o be repeatedl: tran;ferred from the mo>ing con>e:or; to the wor< place and >ice >er;a.

Nowada:; almo;t all the manufacturing proce;; i; being atomi=ed in order to deli>er the product; at a fa;ter rate. #he manufacturing operation i; being atomi=ed for the following rea;on;.

#o achie>e ma;; production #o reduce man power #o increa;e the efficienc: of the plant #o reduce the wor< load #o reduce the production co;t #o reduce the production time

#o reduce the material handling #o reduce the fatigue of wor<er; #o achie>e good product qualit: (e;; 3aintenance

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LIERATURE SUR7EY
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LITERAT"RE S"R'EY

SAFETY SYSTEM&

#he aim i; to de;ign and de>elop a control ;:;tem ba;ed on pneumatic brea<ing ;:;tem of an intelligent electronicall: controlled automoti>e bra<ing ;:;tem. .a;ed on thi; model? control ;trategie; ;uch a; an Aantiloc< bra<ing ;:;temA B*.SC and impro>ed maneu>erabilit: >ia indi>idual wheel bra<ing are to be de>eloped and e>aluated.

#here ha>e been con;iderable ad>ance; in modern >ehicle bra<ing ;:;tem; in recent :ear;. -or eDample? electronicall: controlled *.S for emergenc: bra<ing? electronicall: controlled h:draulicall: actuated indi>idual bra<e-b:-wire B..6C ;:;tem; for ;aloon car; and electronicall: controlled pneumaticall: actuated ;:;tem; for hea>: good; >ehicle;. #he wor< of recent :ear; ;hall form the ba;i; of a ;:;tem de;ign approach to be implemented. #he no>elt: of the propo;ed re;earch programmed ;hall lie in the de;ign and e>aluation of control ;:;tem; for achie>ing indi>idual wheel motion control facilitated b: ..6. !n the ca;e of ..6 the bra<e pedal i; detached from the h:draulic ;:;tem and replaced b: a Abra<e pedal ;imulatorA. #he ;imulator pro>ide; an electrical ;ignal for the electronic control ;:;tem.

reliminar: modeling and ;imulation wor< con;ider; a quarter car; initiall: followed b: a natural progre;;ion to the half car and full four wheel ;tation
cases. The

model is to be constructed in modular form thus allowing the replacement / interchange of the various blocks and their associated technologies. Upon completion of the full vehicle braking model, sensitivity analyses will be carried out. Once the preliminary simulation model has been thoroughly benchmarked and existing control system strategies evaluated, an audit of the technology used is to take place and this will provide a basis for comparison of iterative technologies / techni ues.

#he final pha;e of the new modern vehicle shall include!

%e>elopment of impro>ed *.S control ;:;tem; %e>elopment and a;;e;;ment of an electro-h:draulic-..6 B)9-..6C ;:;tem !ndi>idual wheel bra<ing combined with traction control *;;e;;ing ;en;or failure and fault tolerant control ;:;tem de;ign reliminar: ;tudie; into an electricall: actuated ;:;tem $e-engineering u;ing ;implified model;.

PNE"MATICS

#he word EpneumaF come; from 0ree< and mean; breather wind. #he word pneumatic; i; the ;tud: of air mo>ement and it; phenomena i; deri>ed from the word pneuma. #oda: pneumatic; i; mainl: under;tood to mean; the application of air a; a wor<ing medium in indu;tr: e;peciall: the dri>ing and controlling of machine; and equipment.

neumatic; ha; for ;ome con;iderable time between u;ed for carr:ing out the ;imple;t mechanical ta;<; in more recent time; ha; pla:ed a more important role in the de>elopment of pneumatic technolog: for automation.

neumatic ;:;tem; operate on a ;uppl: of compre;;ed air which mu;t be made a>ailable in ;ufficient quantit: and at a pre;;ure to ;uit the capacit: of the ;:;tem. 6hen the pneumatic ;:;tem i; being adopted for the fir;t time? howe>er it will; indeed the nece;;ar: to deal with the que;tion of compre;;ed air ;uppl:.

#he <e: part of an: facilit: for ;uppl: of compre;;ed air i; b: mean; u;ing reciprocating compre;;or. * compre;;or i; a machine that ta<e; in air? ga; at a certain pre;;ure and deli>ered the air at a high pre;;ure.

&ompre;;or capacit: i; the actual quantit: of air compre;;ed and deli>ered and the >olume eDpre;;ed i; that of the air at inta<e condition; namel: at atmo;phere pre;;ure and normal ambient temperature.

#he compre;;ibilit: of the air wa; fir;t in>e;tigated b: $obert .o:le in 172" and that found that the product of pre;;ure and >olume of a particular quantit: of ga;. #he u;ual written a; +G& BorC H+H G "+"

!n thi; equation the pre;;ure i; the ab;olute pre;;ured which for free i; about 1,.4 ;i and i; of courage capable of maintaining a column of mercur:? nearl: '8 inche; high in an ordinar: barometer. *n: ga; can be u;ed in pneumatic ;:;tem but air i; the mo;tl: u;ed ;:;tem now a da:;.

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TY6ES OF BRAKING
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TYPES OF BRA#ING
#he bra<e; for automoti>e u;e ma: be cla;;ified according the following con;ideration;.

1. ". '. ,. 1.

U$ OS) (O&*#!ON &ONS#$U&#!ON 3)#9O% O- *&#U*#!ON )I#$* .$*/!N0 )--O$#

.a;ed on the abo>e con;ideration;? bra<e; are cla;;ified with re;pect to following factor;.

1. 6ith re;pect to application? a. b. -oot bra<e 9and bra<e

". 6ith re;pect to the number of wheel;? a. b. #wo wheel bra<e; -our wheel bra<e;

'. 6ith re;pect to the method of bra<ing contact a. b. !nternal eDpanding bra<e; )Dternal contracting bra<e;

,. 6ith re;pect to the method of appl:ing the bra<ing force. a. b. Single acting bra<e %ouble acting bra<e;.

1. 6ith re;pect to the bra<e gear? a. b. 3echanical bra<e ower bra<e;

2. 6ith re;pect to the nature of power emplo:ed a. b. c. d. e. +acuum bra<e *ir bra<e 9:draulic bra<e 9:dro;tatic bra<e )lectric bra<e

4. 6ith re;pect to power tran;mi;;ion? a. b. %irect acting bra<e; 0eared bra<e;

5. 6ith re;pect to power unit? a. b. &:linder bra<e; %iaphragm bra<e

#he foot bra<e or ;er>ice bra<e i; alwa:; applied b: a pedal? while the par<ing bra<e i; applied b: a hand le>er. #he par<ing bra<e i; intended chiefl: to hold the car in po;ition. #he par<ing bra<e can be ;et in the ON po;ition b: mean; of a latch while the ;er>ice bra<e remain; on onl: a; long a; the dri>er pre;;e; down on the pedal.

#he hand bra<e i; normall: u;ed onl: after the dri>er ha; ;topped the car b: u;ing the foot bra<e. !t; other u;e i; a; an emergenc: bra<e to ;top the car if the foot bra<ed ;:;tem ;hould fail. #he hand or par<ing bra<e; operate; on a pair of wheel;? frequentl: the rear wheel;. 6hen drum t:pe rear bra<e; are u;ed? the ;ame ;hoe; can be u;ed for both hand and foot control.

#he drum t:pe of bra<e ma: either be a band bra<e or a ;hoe bra<e. .oth band bra<e; and ;hoe bra<e; ma: be either eDternal or internal. #he band bra<e; generall: are eDternal and ;hoe bra<e; internal. !n drum bra<e; the drum i; attached to the wheel and re>ol>e; with it. -riction to ;low the drum i; applied from in;ide b: the ;hoe; which do not rotate but are mounted on a ;tationar: metal bac< plate. #here are different t:pe; of drum bra<e; ;uch a; a two leading ;hoe arrangement which gi>e; an augmented re;pon;e to pedal effort becau;e of it; ;elf appl:ing arrangement. * leading-trailing ;hoe i; a cheaper and better alternati>e a; it i; equall: effecti>e whether the car i; going forward or bac<ward;.

3anufacturer; de;ign drum bra<e; ;o that rain? ;how or ice or grit cannot get in;ide and decrea;e bra<ing efficienc: for moi;ture greatl: reduce; the friction between the lining; and the drum.

#he di;;ipate quic<l: the con;iderable amount of heat generated when bra<ing a fa;t mo>ing hea>: car large bra<e drum; would be required. %i;c bra<e; do the @ob more efficientl:? for the cooling air can get to the rubbing between each pi;ton and the di;c? there i; a friction pad held in po;ition b: retaining pin;? ;pring plate; etc. a;;age; are

drilled in the caliper for the fluid to enter or lea>e the each hou;ing. #he;e pa;;age; are al;o connected to another one for bleeding. )ach c:linder contain; a rubber ;elling ring between the c:linder and the pi;ton.

#he bra<e; are applied? h:draulicall: actuated pi;ton mo>e the friction pad; into contact with the di;c? appl:ing equal and oppo;ite force; on the later. On relea;ing the bra<e;? the rubber ;ealing ring; act a; return ;pring; and retract the pi;ton; and the friction pad; awa: from the di;c.

Now let u; ;ee in detail about different bra<ing ;:;tem; in automobile;.

MECHANICAL BRA#E&

!n a motor >ehicle? the wheel i; attached to an auDiliar: wheel called drum. #he bra<e ;hoe; are made to contact thi; drum. !n mo;t de;ign;? two ;hoe; are u;ed with each drum to form a complete bra<e mechani;m at each wheel. #he bra<e ;hoe; ha>e ba<e lining; on their outer ;urface;. )ach bra<e ;hoe i; hinged at one end b: on anchor pinJ the other end i; operated b: ;ome mean; ;o that the bra<e ;hoe eDpand; outward;. #he bra<e lining; come into contact with the drum. $etracting ;pring <eep; the bra<e ;hoe into po;ition when the bra<e; are not applied. #he drum enclo;e; the entire mechani;m to <eep out du;t and moi;ture. #he wheel attaching bolt; on the drum are u;ed to contact wheel and drum. #he bra<ing plate complete; the bra<e enclo;ure? hold; the a;;embl: to car aDie? and act; the ba;e for fa;tening the bra<e ;hoe; and operating mechani;m. #he ;hoe; are generall: mounted to rub again;t the in;ide ;urface of the drum to form a; internal eDpanding bra<e a; ;hown in the figure.

HYDRA"LIC BRA#ES&

#he h:draulic bra<e; are applied b: the liquid pre;;ure. #he pedal force i; tran;mitted to the bra<e ;hoe b: mean; of a confined liquid through a ;:;tem of force tran;mi;;ion.

#he force applied to the pedal i; multiplied and tran;mitted to bra<e ;hoe; b: a force tran;mi;;ion ;:;tem. #hi; ;:;tem i; ba;ed upon a;calF; principle? which ;tate; that #he confined liquid; tran;mit pre;;ure without lo;; equall: in all direction;.

!t e;;entiall: con;i;t; of two main component; ma;ter c:linder and wheel c:linder the ma;ter c:linder i; connected b: the wheel c:linder; at each of the four wheel;. #he ;:;tem i; filled with the liquid under light pre;;ure when the bra<e; are not in operation. #he liquid i; <nown a; bra<e fluid? and i; u;uall: a miDture of gl:cerin and alcohol or ca;ter-oil? denatured alcohol and ;ome additi>e; Spring pre;;ure? and thu; the fluid pre;;ure in the entire ;:;tem drop; to it; original low >al>e? which allow; retracting ;pring on wheel bra<e; to pull the bra<e ;hoe; out of contact with the bra<e drum; into their original po;ition;. #hi; cau;e; the wheel c:linder pi;ton al;o to come bac< to it; original inward po;ition. #hu;? the bra<e; are relea;ed.

AIR BRA#E&

*ir bra<e; are widel: u;ed in hea>: >ehicle li<e bu;e; and truc<; which require a hea>ier bra<ing effort that can be applied b: the dri>erF; foot. *ir bra<e; are applied b: the pre;;ure of compre;;ed air? in;tead of foot pre;;ure? acting again;t fleDible diaphragm; in bra<e chamber. #he diaphragm; are connected to the wheel bra<e;. #he;e diaphragm; are controlled through a hand or foot operated >al>e. #he bra<e >al>e control; bra<e operation b: directing the flow of air from a re;er>oir again;t diaphragm; in the bra<e chamber when the bra<e; are applied and from bra<e chamber; to tube atmo;phere when the bra<e; are relea;ed. #he air compre;;or? dri>en b: the engine furni;he; compre;;ed air to the re;er>oir fall below a ;et >al>e.

ELECTRIC BRA#E&

)lectric .ra<e; are al;o u;ed in ;ome motor >ehicle;? although the;e are not >er: popular. 6arner electric bra<e i; one of the eDample; of ;uch bra<e;. *n electric bra<e e;;entiall: con;i;t; of an electromagnet within the bra<e drum. #he current from the batter: i; utili=ed to energi=e the electromagnet? which actuate; the mechani;m to eDpand the bra<e ;hoe again;t the bra<e drum? thu; appl:ing the bra<e;. #he ;e>erit: of bra<ing i; controlled b: mean; of a rheo;tat? which i; operated b: the dri>er through the foot pedal.

)lectric bra<e; are ;impler. #he;e bra<e; do not require complicated operating lin<age. Onl: cable i; required to ta<e current from the batter: to the electromagnet. *l;o? the;e are >er: quic< in action a; compared to other t:pe; of bra<e;.

'AC""M BRA#ES ( SER'O BRA#ES&

* ;er>e mechani;m fitted to the bra<ing ;:;tem reduce; the ph:;ical effort the dri>er ha; to u;e on the bra<e pedal mo;t ;er>o mechani;m; are of the >acuum a;;i;tance t:pe. * pre;;ure differential can be e;tabli;hed b: ;ub@ecting one ;ide of the pi;ton to atmo;pheric pre;;ure and the other ;ide to a pre;;ure below atmo;pheric pre;;ure b: eDhau;ting air from the corre;ponding end of the ;er>o c:linder.

REGENERATI'E BRA#ING&

)lectricit: powered >ehicle; u;e regenerati>e bra<ing for ;topping the >ehicle. 6ith regenerati>e bra<ing pre;;ing the bra<e pedal doe; not nece;;aril: acti>ate a con>entional friction bra<e. #he motor controller controlling the >ehicle i; treated a; a generator which ;low; the >ehicle and ;imultaneou;l: pro>ide; an output for charging the batter:. #he effecti>ene;; of regenerati>e bra<ing fall; of with >ehicle ;peed. )lectric >ehicle; will ha>e to be fitted with con>entional h:draulic friction bra<e; a; well a; with regenerati>e ;:;tem;.

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IR SENSOR
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IR SENSOR

* ;en;or i; a tran;ducer u;ed to ma<e a mea;urement of a ph:;ical >ariable. *n: ;en;or require; calibration in order to be u;eful a; a mea;uring de>ice. &alibration i; the procedure b: which the relation;hip between the mea;ured >ariable and the con>erted output ;ignal i; e;tabli;hed.

&are ;hould be ta<en in the choice of ;en;or: de>ice; for particular ta;<;. #he operating characteri;tic; of each de>ice ;hould be clo;el: matched to the ta;< for which it i; being utili=ed. %ifferent ;en;or; can be u;ed in different wa:; to ;en;e ;ame

condition; and the ;ame ;en;or; can be u;ed in different wa:; to ;en;e different condition;.

TYPES OF SENSOR& Passi)e sens*rs detect the reflected or emitted electro-magnetic radiation from natural ;ource;? while a+ti)e sens*rs detect reflected re;pon;e; from ob@ect; which are irradiated from artificiall: generated energ: ;ource;? ;uch a; radar. )ach i; di>ided further in to n*n,s+anning and s+anning s ste!s.

* ;en;or cla;;ified a; a combination of pa;;i>e? non-;canning and n*n,i!aging !et-*. i; a t:pe of profile recorder? for eDample a microwa>e radiometer. * ;en;or cla;;ified a; pa;;i>e? non-;canning and i!aging !et-*.? i; a camera? ;uch a; an aerial ;ur>e: camera or a ;pace camera? for eDample on board the $u;;ian &OS3OS ;atellite.

Sen;or; cla;;ified a; a combination of pa;;i>e? ;canning and imaging are cla;;ified further into i!age /lane s+anning sens*rs? ;uch a; #+ camera; and ;olid ;tate ;canner;? and *01e+t /lane s+anning sens*rs? ;uch a; multi-;pectral ;canner; Boptical-mechanical ;cannerC and ;canning microwa>e radiometer;.

*n eDample of an acti>e? non-;canning and non-imaging ;en;or i; a profile recorder ;uch a; a la;er ;pectrometer and la;er altimeter. *n acti>e? ;canning and imaging ;en;or i; radar? for eDample ;:nthetic aperture radar BS*$C? which can produce high re;olution? imager:? da: or night? e>en under cloud co>er. #he mo;t popular ;en;or; u;ed in remote ;en;ing are the camera? ;olid ;tate ;canner? ;uch a; the &&% Bcharge coupled de>iceC image;? the multi-;pectral ;canner and in the future the pa;;i>e ;:nthetic aperture radar.

(a;er ;en;or; ha>e recentl: begun to be u;ed more frequentl: for monitoring air pollution b: la;er ;pectrometer; and for mea;urement of di;tance b: la;er altimeter;.

#he ;en;or; are ;ub di>ided in to three t:pe;. 6e will ;ee about it one b: one.

1.

roDimit: ;en;or;.

". #ouch ;en;or;. '. -orce and torque ;en;or;.

23 Pr*4i!it sens*rs&

roDimit: ;en;or; generall: ha>e a binar: output? which indicate; the pre;ence of an ob@ect within a ;pecified di;tance inter>al. #he proDimit: ;en;or; are di>ided into fi>e t:pe;. 1. !nducti>e ;en;or. ". 9all-effect ;en;or. '. &apacitate ;en;or. ,. Ultra;onic ;en;or. 1. Optical proDimit: ;en;or.

23 In.5+ti)e sens*r&

!nducti>e ;en;or; are ba;ed on a change of inductance due to the pre;ence if a metallic ob@ect i; among the mo;t widel: u;ed indu;trial proDimit: ;en;or;. #he

principle of operation of the;e ;en;or; can be eDplain; a; a inducti>e ;en;or which ba;icall: con;i;t of a wound coil located neDt to a permanent magnet pac<aged in a ;imple? rugged hou;ing.

63 Hall,e77e+t sens*r&

#he 9all )ffect related the >oltage between two point; in a conducting or ;emi conducting material to a magnetic field acro;; the material. #he all-effect ;en;or; can onl: detect magneti=ed ob@ect;.

#he 9all-effect ;en;or; are ba;ed on the principle of (oren= force which act; on a changed partial tra>eling through a magnetic field. #hi; force act; on the aDi;

perpendicular to the plane e;tabli;hed b: the direction of motion of the charged particle and the direction of the field.

83 CAPACTI'E SENSOR&

Unli<e inducti>e and 9all-effect ;en;or; which detect onl: -erromagnetic material;? capaciti>e ;en;or; are potentiall: capable Bwith >ariou; degree; of ;en;iti>it:C of detecting all ;olid and liquid material;. *; thi; name implie;? the;e ;en;or; are ba;ed on detecting a change in capacitance induced b: a ;urface that i; brought near the ;en;ing element;.

93 "LTRASONIC SENSORS&

!n our pro@ect we are u;ing "LTRASONIC SENSOR$. Now? we will ;ee about it in detail. #he re;pon;e of all the proDimit: ;en;or; di;cu;;ed thu; far depend;

;trangel: on the material being ;en;ed. #hi; dependence can be reduced con;iderabl: b: u;ing ultra;onic ;en;or;. #he following figure ;how; the ;tructure of a t:pical ultra;onic tran;ducer u;ed for proDimit: ;en;ing.

#he ba;ic element i; an )lectro-acou;tic tran;ducer? often of the pie=oelectric ceramic t:pe. #he re;in la:er protect; the tran;ducer again;t humidit:? du;t? and other en>ironmental factor;J it al;o act; a; an acou;tical impedance recei>ing? fa;t damping of the acou;tic energ: i; nece;;ar: to detect ob@ect; at clo;e range.

#hi; i; accompli;hed b: pro>iding acou;tic ab;orber;? and b: de coupling the tran;ducer from it; hou;ing. #he hou;ing i; de;igned ;o that it produce; a narrow acou;tic beam for efficient energ: tran;fer and ;ignal directionalit:.

#he operation of an ultra;onic proDimit: ;en;or i; be;t under;tood b: anal:=ing the wa>eform; u;ed for both tran;mi;;ion and detection of the acou;tic energ: ;ignal;.

:3 OPTICAL PRO;IMITY SENSORS&

#he;e are ;imilar to ultra;onic ;en;or in the ;en;e that the: detect proDimit: of an ob@ect b: it; influence on a propagating wa>e a; it tra>el; from a tran;mitter to a recei>er. #hi; ;en;or con;i;t of a ;olid ;tate light emitting diode B()%C? which act; a; a tran;mitter of infrared light? and a ;olid ;tate photo diode which act; a; a recei>er. #he cone; of light formed b: focu;ing the ;ource and detector on the ;ame plane inter;ect in a long? pencil-li<e >olume. #hi; >olume define; field of operation of the ;en;or ;ince a reflecti>e ;urface. 6hich inter;ect; the >olume i; illuminated b: the ;ource and ;imultaneou;l: ;een b: the recei>er.

63 TO"CH SENSOR& #ouch ;en;or are u;ed in robotic; to obtain information a;;ociated with the contact between a manipulator hand and ob@ect; location in the wor<;pace. #he touch ;en;or; are di>ided in to two t:pe;. 1. .inar: ;en;or;. ". *nalog ;en;or;.

83 FORCE AND TOR<"E SENSORK -orce and torque ;en;or; are u;ed primaril: for mea;uring the reaction force; de>eloped at the interface between mechanical a;;emblie;. #he principal de>eloped for doing thi; are @oint and wri;t ;en;ing.

,.,.". TRANSD"CERS AND SENSORS * tran;ducer i; a de>ice that con>ert; one t:pe of ph:;ical >ariable Be.g.? -orce? re;;ure? #emperature? +elocit:? -low rate? etc.?C into another form. * common

con>er;ion i; to electrical >oltage? and the rea;on for ma<ing con>er;ion i; that the con>erted ;ignal i; more con>enient to u;e and e>aluate.

* ;en;or i; a tran;ducer that i; u;ed to ma<e a mea;urement of a ph:;ical >ariable of intere;t. Some of the common ;en;or; and tran;ducer; include ;train gauge; Bu;ed to mea;ure -orce and re;;ureC? thermocouple; Btemperature;C? ;peedometer; B+elocit:C?

and pilot tube; B-low rate;C.

*n: ;en;or or tran;ducer require; calibration in order to be u;eful a; a mea;uring de>ice. &alibration i; the procedure b: which the relation;hip between the mea;ured >ariable and the con>erted output ;ignal i; e;tabli;hed. #ran;ducer; and Sen;or; can be cla;;ified into two ba;ic t:pe; depending on the form of the con>erted ;ignal. #he two t:pe; are? 1. *nalog tran;ducer;? ". %igital tran;ducer;.

*nalog tran;ducer; pro>ide a continuou; analog ;ignal ;uch a; electrical >oltage or current. #hi; ;ignal can then be interpreted a; the >alue of the ph:;ical >ariable that i; being mea;ured. %igital tran;ducer; produce a digital output ;ignal? either in the form of ;et of parallel ;tatu; bit; or a ;erie; of pul;e; that can be counted.

!n either form? the digital ;ignal repre;ent; the >alue of the mea;ured >ariable. %igital tran;ducer; are becoming more popular becau;e of the ea;e with which the: can be read a; ;eparate mea;uring in;trument;. !n addition the: offer the ad>antage in automation and proce;; control that the: are generall: more compatible with the digital computer than analog-ba;ed ;en;or;.

CHARACTERISTICS OF OPTICAL SENSOR&

Optical ;en;or; are characteri=ed ;pecified b: ;pectral? radiometric and geometric performance. #he s/e+tral +-ara+teristi+s are ;pectral band and band width? the central wa>elength? re;pon;e ;en;iti>it: at the edge; of band? ;pectral ;en;iti>it: at outer wa>elength; and ;en;iti>it: of polari=ation.

Sen;or; u;ing film are characteri=ed b: the ;en;iti>it: of film and the tran;mittance of the filter? and nature of the len;. Scanner t:pe ;en;or; are ;pecified b: the ;pectral characteri;tic; of the detector and the ;pectral ;plitter. !n addition? chromatic aberration i; an influential factor.

#he ra.i*!etri+ +-ara+teristi+s of optical ;en;or; are ;pecified b: the change of electro-magnetic radiation which pa;;e; through an optical ;:;tem.

#he: are radiometr: of the ;en;or? ;en;iti>it: in n*ise e=5i)alent /*>er% . na!i+ range? ;ignal to noi;e ratio BS(N rati*C and other noi;e;? including quantification noi;e. #he geometric characteri;tic; are ;pecified b: tho;e geometric factor; ;uch a; field of >iew BFO'C? in;tantaneou; field of new; BIFO'C? band to band regi;tration? 3#-? geometric di;tortion and alignment of optical element;.

!-O+ i; defined a; the angle contained b: the minimum area that can be detected b: a ;canner t:pe ;en;or. -or eDample in the ca;e of an !-O+ of ".1 milli radian;? the detected area on the ground will be ".1 meter; D ".1 meter;? if the altitude of ;en;or i; 1?888 m abo>e ground.

a3 RANGE&

#hi; refer; to the minimum and maDimum change in input ;ignal to which the ;en;or can re;pond. #he ;en;or ;hould po;;e; a wide operating range.

03

RESPONSE&

#he ;en;or ;hould be capable of re;ponding to change in the ;en;ed >ariable in minimum time. !deall:? the re;pon;e ;hould be in;tantaneou;.

+3

ACC"RACY&

#he accurac: of the mea;urement ;hould be a; high a; po;;ible. #he output of the ;en;ing de>ice ;hould properl: reflect the input quantit: being mea;ured or ;en;ed.

.3

SENSITI'ITY&

!t refer; to the change in the output eDhibited b: the ;en;or for a unit change in input. #he ;en;iti>it: ;hould be a; high a; po;;ible.

e3

LINEARITY&

#he ;en;or: de>ice ;hould eDhibit the ;ame ;en;iti>it: o>er it; entire operating range.

#he following are the other con;ideration;K1. #he de>ice ;hould not di;turb or ha>e an: effect upon the quantit: it

;en;or; or mea;ure;. ". emplo:ed. '. !deall:? the de>ice; ;hould include i;olation from recei>ing eDce;; #he de>ice; ;hould be ;uitable for the en>ironment in which it i; to be

;ignal; or electrical noi;e that could gi>e ri;e to the po;;ibilit: of mi;; operation or damage of the ;en;or;. ,. *l;o important are the ph:;ical ;i=e? co;t and ea;e of operation.

!n our pro@ect !$ tran;mitter and !$ recei>er are u;ed to detect the ob;tacle. #he;e ;en;or; are fitted at the front ;ide of the >ehicle.

IR TRANSMITTER& #he !$ tran;mitting circuit i; u;ed in man: pro@ect;. #he !$ tran;mitter ;end; ,8 <9= Bfrequenc: can be ad@u;tedC carrier under computer control Bcomputer can turn the !$ tran;mi;;ion on and offC. !$ carrier; at around ,8 <9= carrier frequencie; are widel: u;ed in #+ remote controlling and !&; for recei>ing the;e ;ignal; are quite ea;il: a>ailable.

IR RECEI'ER& #he tran;mitted ;ignal reflected b: the ob;tacle and the !$ recei>er circuit recei>e; the ;ignal and gi>ing control ;ignal to the control unit. #he control unit acti>ate; the pneumatic brea<ing ;:;tem? ;o that brea< wa; applied.

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6NEUMATIC BRAKING COM6ONENTS

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PNE"MATIC BRA#ING COMPONENTS

SELECTION OF PNE"MATICS& 3echani=ation i; broadl: defined a; the replacement of manual effort b: mechanical power. neumatic; i; an attracti>e medium for low co;t mechani=ation

particularl: for ;equential or repetiti>e operation;. 3an: factorie; and plant; alread: ha>e a compre;;ed air ;:;tem? which i; capable of pro>iding both the power or energ: requirement; and the control ;:;tem Balthough equall: pneumatic control ;:;tem; ma: be economic and can be ad>antageou;l: applied to other form; of powerC.

#he main ad>antage; of an all-pneumatic ;:;tem are u;uall: econom: and ;implicit:? the latter reducing maintenance to a low le>el. !t can al;o ha>e out ;tanding ad>antage; in term; of ;afet:.

PNE"MATIC COMPONENTS AND ITS DESCRIPTION

#he pneumatic bearing pre;; con;i;t; of the following component; to fulfill the requirement; of complete operation of the machine.

i. ii. iii. i>.

%ouble acting neumatic c:linder Solenoid >al>e -low control >alue &onnector;

23 DO"BLE ACTING PNE"MATIC CYLINDER&

#he c:linder i; a double acting c:linder one? which mean; that the air pre;;ure operate; alternati>el: Bforward and bac<wardC. #he air from the compre;;or i; pa;;ed through the regulator which control; the pre;;ure to required amount b: ad@u;ting it; <nob. * pre;;ure gauge i; attached to the regulator for ;howing the line pre;;ure.

#hen the compre;;ed air i; pa;;ed through the directional control >al>e for ;uppl:ing the air alternati>el: to either ;ide; of the c:linder. #wo ho;e; ta<e the output of the directional control >al>e and the: are attached to two end; of the c:linder b: mean; of connector;. One of the output; from the directional control >al>e i; ta<en to the flow control >al>e from ta<en to the c:linder.

*n air c:linder i; an operati>e de>ice in which the ;tate input energ: of compre;;ed air i.e. pneumatic power i; con>erted in to mechanical output power? b: reducing the pre;;ure of the air to that of the atmo;phere.

* double acting c:linder i; emplo:ed in control ;:;tem; with the full pneumatic cu;hioning and it i; e;;ential when the c:linder it;elf i; required to retard hea>: me;;e;. #hi; can onl: be done at the end po;ition; of the pi;ton ;toc<. !n all intermediate po;ition a ;eparate eDternall: mounted cu;hioning deri>e mo;t be pro>ided with the damping feature.

#he normal e;cape of air i; out off b: a cu;hioning pi;ton before the end of the ;toc< i; required. *; a re;ult the ;it in the cu;hioning chamber i; again compre;;ed ;ince it cannot e;cape but ;lowl: according to the ;etting made on re>er;e;. #he air freel: enter; the c:linder and the pi;ton ;to<e; in the other direction at full force and >elocit:.

CYLINDER TECHNICAL DATA&

Barrel&

!t i; made of cold drawn aluminimum honed to "1mm.

Pist*n R*.& 3.S. hard &hrome plated

Seals&

Nitrile B.una NC )la;tomer

En. C*)ers& &a;t iron graded fine grained from "1mm to '88mm

Pist*n& *luminium.

Me.ia& *ir.

Te!/erat5re Range& 8Lc to 51Lc

C5s-i*ns& *d@u;table ;tandard ,88mm bore and abo>e.

63 SOLINOID CONTROL 'AL'E&

Te+-ni+al Data&

Si=e #:pe re;;ure 3edia

K M K 1N"

K 8 to 18 <g N cm" K *ir

S*len*i. 'al)e

#he directional >al>e i; one of the important part; of a pneumatic ;:;tem. &ommonl: <nown a; %&+? thi; >al>e i; u;ed to control the direction of air flow in the pneumatic ;:;tem. #he directional >al>e doe; thi; b: changing the po;ition of it; internal mo>able part;.

#hi; >al>e wa; ;elected for ;peed: operation and to reduce the manual effort and al;o for the modification of the machine into automatic machine b: mean; of u;ing a

;olenoid >al>e. * ;olenoid i; an electrical de>ice that con>ert; electrical energ: into ;traight line motion and force.

#he;e are al;o u;ed to operate a mechanical operation which in turn operate; the >al>e mechani;m. Solenoid; ma: be pu;h t:pe or pull t:pe. #he pu;h t:pe ;olenoid i; one in which the plunger i; pu;hed when the ;olenoid i; energi=ed electricall:. #he pull t:pe ;olenoid i; one i; which the plunger i; pulled when the ;olenoid i; energi=ed.

#he name of the part; of the ;olenoid ;hould be learned ;o that the: can be recogni=ed when called upon to ma<e repair;? to do ;er>ice wor< or to in;tall them.

Parts *7 a S*len*i. 'al)e

23 C*il

#he ;olenoid coil i; made of copper wire. #he la:er; of wire are ;eparated b: in;ulating la:er. #he entire ;olenoid coil i; co>ered with an >arni;h that i; not affected b: ;ol>ent;? moi;ture? cutting oil or often fluid;. &oil; are rated in >ariou; >oltage; ;uch a; 111 >olt; *&? "'8 >olt; *&? ,28 >olt; *&? 141 +olt; *&? 2 +olt; %&? 1" +olt; %&? ", +olt; %&? 111 +olt; %& O "'8 +olt; %&. #he: are de;igned for ;uch frequencie; a; 18 9= to 28 9=.

63 Fra!e

#he ;olenoid frame ;er>e; ;e>eral purpo;e;. Since it i; made of laminated ;heet;? it i; magneti=ed when the current pa;;e; through the coil. #he magneti=ed coil attract the metal plunger to mo>e. #he frame ha; pro>i;ion; for attaching the mounting. #he: are u;uall: bolted or welded to the frame. #he frame ha; pro>i;ion; for recei>er;? the plunger. #he wear ;trip; are mounted to the ;olenoid frame? and are made of material; ;uch a; metal or impregnated le;; fiber cloth.

83 S*len*i. Pl5nger

#he Solenoid plunger i; the mo>er mechani;m of the ;olenoid. #he plunger i; made of ;teel lamination; which are ri>eted together under high pre;;ure? ;o that there will be no mo>ement of the lamination with re;pect to one another. *t the top of the plunger a pin hole i; placed for ma<ing a connection to ;ome de>ice. #he ;olenoid plunger i; mo>ed b: a magnetic force in one direction and i; u;uall: returned b: ;pring action. Solenoid operated >al>e; are u;uall: pro>ided with co>er o>er either the ;olenoid or the entire >al>e. #hi; protect; the ;olenoid from dirt and other foreign matter? and protect; the actuator. ;olenoid;. !n man: application; it i; nece;;ar: to u;e eDplo;ion proof

?*rking *7 S*len*i. 'al)e

#he ;olenoid >al>e ha; 1 opening;. #hi; en;ure ea;: eDhau;ting of 1N" >al>e. #he ;pool of the 1N" >al>e ;lide in;ide the main bore according to ;pool po;itionJ the port; get connected and di;connected. #he wor<ing principle i; a; follow;.

P*siti*n,2

6hen the ;pool i; actuated toward; outer direction port E F get; connected to E.F and ESF remain; clo;ed while E*F get; connected to E$F

P*isiti*n,6

6hen the ;pool i; pu;hed in the inner direction port E F and E*F get; connected to each other and E.F to ESF while port E$F remain; clo;ed.

83 FLO? CONTROL 'AL'E&

@aA Te+-ni+al Data& Si=e re;;ure 3edia K M K 8 to 18 <g N cm" K *ir

@0A P5r/*se&

#hi; >al>e i; u;ed to ;peed up the pi;ton mo>ement and al;o it act; a; a one wa: re;triction >al>e which mean; that the air can pa;; through onl: one wa: and it canFt return bac<.

.: u;ing thi; >al>e the time con;umption i; reduced becau;e of the fa;ter mo>ement of the pi;ton.

93 CONNECTIORS&

!n our pneumatic ;:;tem there are two t:pe; of connector; u;edJ one i; the ho;e connector and the other i; the reducer.

9o;e connector; normall: compri;e an adapter BconnectorC ho;e nipple and cap nut. #he;e t:pe; of connector; are made up of bra;; or *liminium or hardened ;teel.

$educer; are u;ed to pro>ide inter connection between two pipe; or ho;e; of different ;i=e;. #he: ma: be fitted ;traight? tee? + or other configuration;. #he;e reducer; are made up of gunmetal or other material; li<e hardened ;teel etc.

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BLOCK DIAGRAM
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BLOC# DIAGRAM

IR TRANSMITTER PO?ER S"PPLY CONTROL "NIT IR RECEI'ER

FLO? CONTROL 'AN'E

SOLINOID 'AL'E

PNE"MATIC CYLINDER AIR TAN# @COMPRESSORA

BREA# ARRANGEME NT

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4ORKING O6ERATION
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?OR#ING OPERATION

#he impartant component; of our pro@ect are?

!$ tran;mitter !$ recei>er &ontrol Unit with ower ;uppl: Solenoid +al>e -low control +al>e *ir #an< B&ompre;;orC

#he IR TRANSMITTER circuit i; to tran;mite the !nfra-$ed ra:;. !f an: ob;tacle i; there in a path? the !nfra-$ed ra:; reflected. #hi; reflected !nfra-$ed ra:; are recei>ed b: the recei>er circuit i; called IR RECEI'ER$3

#he !$ recei>er circuir recei>e; the reflected !$ ra:; and gi>ing the control ;ignal to the control circuit. #he control circuit i; u;ed to acti>ate the ;olenoid >al>e. #he operating principle of ;olenoid >al>e i; alread: eDplained in the abo>e chapter.

!f the ;olenoid >al>e i; acti>ated? the compre;;ed air pa;;e; to the %ouble *cting neumatic &:linder. #he compre;;ed air acti>ate the pneumatic c:linder and mo>e; the pi;ton rod.

!f the pi;ton mo>e; forward? then the brea<ing arrangement acti>ated. #he brea<ing arrangement i; u;ed to brea< the wheel graduall: or ;uddenl: due to the pi;tion mo>ement. #he brea<ing ;peed i; >aried b: ad@e;ting the >al>e i; called BFLO? CONTROL 'AL'E$3

!n our pro@ect? we ha>e to appl: thi; brea<ing arrangement in one wheel a; a model. #he compre;;ed air drawn from the compre;;or in our pro@ect. #he compre;;ed air floe through the ol:urethene tube to the flow control >al>e. #he flow control >al>e i; connected to the ;olenoid >al>e a; mentioned in the bloc< diagram.

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A66LICATIONS AND AD7ANTAGES

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APPLICATIONS AND AD'ANTAGES

APPLICATION&
-or automobile application !ndu;trial application

AD'ANTAGES

.ra<e co;t will be le;;. -ree from wear ad@u;tment. (e;; power con;umption (e;; ;<ill technician; i; ;ufficient to operate. !t gi>e; ;implified >er: operation. !n;tallation i; ;implified >er: much. #o a>oid other burnable interaction; >i=.P B%iaphragmC i; not u;ed. (e;; time and more profit.

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------

LIST OF MATERIALS
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LIST OF MATERIALS

Sl3 N*3 i. ii. iii. i>. >. >i. >ii. >iii. iD. D

PARTS

%ouble *cting neumatic &:linder -low &ontrol +al>e 6heel Solenoid +al>e )lectronic &ontrol Unit !$ tran;mitter !$ recei>er ol:eth:lene #ube 9o;e &ollar and $educer Stand B-rameC

<t 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------

COST ESTIMATION
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COST ESTIMATION
23 MATERIAL COST&

Sl3 N*3 i. ii. iii. i>. >. >i. >ii. >iii. iD. D

PARTS

<t 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

AMO"NT @RSA

%ouble *cting neumatic &:linder -low &ontrol +al>e 6heel Solenoid +al>e )lectronic &ontrol Unit !$ tran;mitter !$ recei>er ol:eth:lene #ube 9o;e &ollar and $educer Stand B-rameC

63 LABO"R COST (*#9)? %$!((!N0? 6)(%!N0? 0$!N%!N0? O6)$ 9*&/S*6? 0*S &U##!N0K &o;t G

83 O'ERHEAD CHARGES

#he o>erhead charge; are arri>ed b: 3anufacturing co;t

3anufacturing &o;t G G G

3aterial &o;t Q (abour co;t

O>erhead &harge; G G

"8R of the manufacturing co;t

TOTAL COST #otal co;t G G G #otal co;t for thi; pro@ect G 3aterial &o;t Q (abour co;t Q O>erhead &harge;

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CONCLUSION
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CONCL"SION

#hi; pro@ect wor< ha; pro>ided u; an eDcellent opportunit: and eDperience? to u;e our limited <nowledge. 6e gained a lot of practical <nowledge regarding? planning? purcha;ing? a;;embling and machining while doing thi; pro@ect wor<. 6e feel that the pro@ect wor< i; a good ;olution to bridge the gate; between in;titution and indu;trie;.

6e are proud that we ha>e completed the wor< with the limited time ;ucce;;full:. #he INTELLIGENT BRA#ING SYSTEM i; wor<ing with ;ati;factor: condition;. 6e are able to under;tand the difficultie; in maintaining the tolerance; and al;o qualit:. 6e ha>e done to our abilit: and ;<ill ma<ing maDimum u;e of a>ailable facilitie;.

!n conclu;ion remar<; of our pro@ect wor<? let u; add a few more line; about our impre;;ion pro@ect wor<.

#hu; we ha>e de>eloped an INTELLLIGENT BRAKING SYSTEM which help; to <now how to achie>e low co;t automation. #he application of pneumatic; produce; ;mooth operation.

.: u;ing more technique;? the: can be modified and de>eloped according to the application;.

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BIBLIOGRA6HY
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BIBLIOGRAPHY

1.

0...S. Narang? A5t*!*0ile Engineering? /hanna ubli;her;? %elhi? 1771? pp 241.

". '. ,.

6illiam 9. &row;e? A5t*!*0ile Engineering. %onald. (. *nglin? A5t*!*0ile Engineering. Pne5!ati+ C*ntr*l S ste!----Stroll O .ernaud? #ata 3c 0raw 9ill ublication;? 1777.

1.

Pne5!ati+ S ste!----3a@umdhar? ubli;her;? 1774.

New *ge !ndia !nternational B C (td

6eb ;ite;K www. rofc.udec.clNSgabrielNtutorial;.com www.car;direct.comNfeature;N;afet:flature; www.hw:;afet:.org

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DRA4INGS
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6HOTOGRA6HY
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