DBMS Introductory

Data Base Management
System

By
Prof. Dr. O.P.Vyas
M.Tech. ( Computer Sc. ) from IIT Kharagpur
Ph.D. (from TU Kaiserslautern-Germany & IIT Kharagpur)
DAAD Fellow (Germany), AOTS Fellow(Japan)
Indian Institute of Information Technology,
Allahabad
Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan 3.2 Database System Concepts
2
We are pouring in
data but starving in
Knowledge
Jiawei Han

3
Database Management System
Data Information Knowledge
Chronology: Data & Knowledge Engineering
DBMS Definition & Application
Why DBMS ?
Developing Information Systems
Transaction Management
DBMS Types & users
DBMS languages
DDL Vs. DML
DBMS Architecture
Client-server based
Web-based architecture
DBMS Implementation
Data Modeling
E-R Diagram
From diagram to Tables
Data Base design
Data Querying: Concepts & Constructs
Query / Report format design, development.
Recent trends in DBMS
Our Approach.
Conceptual understanding & then Implementation...
Case Study & Modeling discussions
Assignments, Group presentations
Practical on SQL, PL/SQL on Oracle
Database Designing: Concepts & Tests
Mini-project using DBMS & GUI
Recent Trends in DBMS
Reference Material:
Database system concepts by Abraham Silberschatz ; Henry F.
Korth ; S. Sudarshan
Fundamentals of Database Systems by Elmasri, Ramez; Navathe,
Shamkant B.
Book on SQL / Oracle : Complete Reference
4
Before Mid-Sem
After Mid-Sem
DBMS : Data, Information, Knowledge
Computer processing requires data, which is a collection of raw facts,
figures and symbols, such as numbers, words, images, video and sound,
given to the computer during the input phase.
Computer processes the data to create Information which is data that is
organized, meaningful, and useful.
During the output Phase, the information that has been created is put
into some form, such as a printed report.
A DBMS processes the data & provide
information.
Knowledge is not simply the information presented, but is information
further processed with intelligent mechanism incorporating experience,
domain knowledge and specialized techniques.
To generate (business) insight / strategy based on the Knowledge
acquired from IT based systems. KDD ( Knowledge Discovery in
Database) is an significant concept related to data mining and business
intelligence.
6
Data Engineering-Chronological Development
Evolutionary steps Business query Enabling
technologies
Product vendors Characteristics
Data
Collection
(1960s)
What was my
total revenue in
the last five
years
Computers,
tapes, disks
IBM Retrospective,
static data
delivery
Data access

(1980s)
What were A.C
unit sales in New
England last
March?
Relational
Databases, SQL,
ODBC
Oracle, Sybase,
Informix,
IBM,Microsoft
Retrospective
dynamic data
delivery at
record level.
Data
Warehousing
& Decision
support
systems1990s)
What were
A.C.unit sales in
New England
last March? Drill
down to
Boston.
OLAP, Multi -
dimensional
databases, DW
Pilot, Comshare,
Arbor,Cognos,
Microstrategy.
Retrospective,
dynamic data
delivery at
multiple levels.
Data Mining

(Emerging )
Whats likely to
happen to
Bostons
A.C.unit sales
next month?
Why ?
Advanced
algorithms,
multiprocessor
computers,
massive
databases.
Pilot, Lockheed,
IBM, SGI, Mineset
etc.
Prospective,
proactive
information
delivery.
Data Engineering Systems
8
Database Management System (DBMS)
Data Base - Collection of interrelated data
DBMS is designed to manage large bodies of data, contains
information about a particular enterprise.
DBMS - Set of programs to access the data.
DBMS provides an environment that is both convenient and
efficient to use.
Database Applications:
Banking: all transactions uses DBMS
Railways: reservations, train-schedules (first database in a
geographical distributed)
Universities: registration, grades
Sales: customers, products, purchases
Manufacturing: production, inventory, orders, supply chain
Human resources: employee records, salaries, tax deductions
Accessing Data through Mobile phones via Internet
Databases touch all aspects of our lives.
9
Database Management system
Purpose of Database Systems: Developing
Information system
Data Models
DBMS Languages : Procedural Language Vs Non-procedural
Language
SQL & PL SQL
Transaction Management & Storage Management
Database Administrator
Database Users
Overall System Structure
The purpose of implementing a
database system in any organization is
to develop an efficient and user-
friendly Information System in the
organization.

11
Developing Information systems
The purpose of a implementing a database system in any
organization is to develop an effective Information System in
the organization.
What is information system?
Information system is an computerization of some existing
manual /system which after automation provides useful
information to the targeted user.
One of the most popular example of an information system is
computerization of Railway Reservation Systems
Developed by CRIS [Centre for Railways Information
Systems] Is providing very valuable information like
1.Availability of trains between two stations .
2. Availability of Tickets in a particular Train, on particular date etc.
3. Booking a Ticket online.
Being used as Web based system it is sound implementation
of DBMS !

12

DBMS & Information systems
Did we ever bother to see how this computerization of
railways reservation system would have first conceived,
designed, developed and implemented.
Database designing is important step for developing such
a system ,
Same is true for developing a business information
system for a big corporate house like Hindustan Lever ,
Godrej, Reliance group of companies etc.
Database system has evolved a systematic mechanism
for this aspect of developing information system and
the very initial step is called Modeling

Purpose of Database Systems
In the early days, database applications were built
directly on top of file systems using any programming
language..
Using C / C++ and its files for storing data
Transaction Management is typical example which
highlights the significance of a DBMS.
In case of transferring funds from one bank A/C to other if
System failure occurs !
This failure may occur at any stage & the system failures
(e.g., power failures, operating system crashes) will result
not only as a transaction failure but may be in serious
inconsistencies in database.
Money withdrawn from one Account ( and network fails) so
not received in the Other A/C. !
Also in concurrent transactions how to ensure the
consistency of the database.
And many other problems.
Purpose of Database Systems
Drawbacks of using file systems to store data:
Data redundancy and inconsistency
Multiple file formats, duplication of information in
different files
Difficulty in accessing data
Need to write a new program to carry out each new task
Data isolation multiple files and formats
Integrity problems
Integrity constraints (e.g. account balance >0 ) become
buried in program code rather than being stated
explicitly
Hard to add new constraints or change existing ones
Purpose of Database Systems (Cont.)
Drawbacks of using file systems (cont.)
Atomicity of updates
Failures may leave database in an inconsistent state with
partial updates carried out
Example: Transfer of funds from one account to another
should either complete or not happen at all
Concurrent access by multiple users
Concurrent accessed needed for performance
Uncontrolled concurrent accesses can lead to inconsistencies
Example: Two people reading a balance and updating it at
the same time
Security problems
Hard to provide user access to some, but not all, data

Database Management systems offer solutions to all the above
problems
16
DBMS Team
Data Specialists
--> Modeler
--> Architect
Developers
FRONT END
(VB, VC++, JAVA)
DBAs
BACK END
( Oracle,
SQL-Server, DB-2)
Project Leader
18
Data Base Management System

Ordinary Users interact
with DBMS via Menu in Front-End
Application like Visual Basic.

Whereas Sophisticated Users
& Database administrator
interacts with DBMS
via SQL interface or directly
with Oracle / MS SQL Server / IBM DB-2
Users
Front-end
Database
Application
DBMS
Database
Database Architecture
The architecture of a database systems is greatly
influenced by the underlying computer system
on which the database is running:
Centralized
Client-server
Parallel (multiple processors and disks)
Distributed
Data Base Application Architecture can be categorized as

Two-Tier and Three Tier Architecture
Database Application Architectures
(web browser)
Old
Modern
Two-tier architecture: E.g. client programs
using ODBC/JDBC to
communicate with a database
Three-tier architecture: E.g. web-based
applications, and applications built using
middleware
Web Interfaces to Databases
Web has become an important Front End to databases for large
number of application categories.
Most database users do not use a query language like SQL. But
following are used for interacting with Database;
Forms - for submitting user input and
Graphical user interfaces - for submitting user input
Report generators for receiving output
Web interfaces involves use of Web technology ( HTML,
Scripting languages etc) for interacting with databases.
Many interfaces are Web-based and large number of them uses
Java based technologies
HTML Form
In the following Web Page the user input can not be given through SQL
but is being provided through Simple HTML form.

An appropriate option can be chosen in the form and after submitting
this option a mechanism to connect this input to Database can be
implemented
A formatted report
Access via Web Server
2/27/2014 24
Three-Tier Web Architecture
Two-Tier Web Architecture

Multiple levels of indirection have overheads
Alternative: two-tier architecture
27
DBMS Team
Data Specialists
--> Modeler
--> Architect
Developers
FRONT END
(VB, VC++, JAVA)
DBAs
BACK END
( Oracle,
SQL-Server, DB-2)
Project Leader
28
Database Users
Users are differentiated by the way they expect to
interact with the system
Application programmers interact with system
through DML calls
Sophisticated users give requests in a database
query language
Specialized users write specialized database
applications that do not fit into the traditional data
processing framework
Naive users invoke one of the permanent application
programs that have been written previously
E.g. people accessing database over the web, bank
tellers, clerical staff
29
Database Administrator
Coordinates all the activities of the database
system;
The database administrator has a good
understanding of the enterprises information
resources and needs.
Database administrator's duties include:
Schema definition
Storage structure and access method definition
Schema and physical organization modification
Granting user authority to access the database
Specifying integrity constraints
Monitoring performance and responding to changes in
requirements
30
Data base User categories & Architecture
Modeling in DBMS
31
With the variety of real life scenario to be computerized for
Information System, modeling has become the de-facto first and
significant step in the early phases of a software development
process..
The most single important ability in modeling is;
to skilfully identify major components of the given scenario and
convert them in to model for onward conversion into software
systems.
Data Models
A collection of tools for describing
data
data relationships
data semantics
data constraints
Entity-Relationship model
Relational model
Other models:
Object-Oriented model
Semi-structured data models
Older models: network model and
hierarchical model
Relational Database Management
System

RDBMS is one of the most successful model of Data Base
Management.
RDBMS uses the concepts introduced first by Researcher Boyce
F. Codd.
In RDBMS is a DBMS in which data is stored in tables and the
relationships among the data are also stored in tables.
The data can be accessed or reassembled in many different
ways without having to change the table forms.
In RDBMS large body of data can be modeled and described as
group of tables which are connected to each other through
Relations.

34
Relational Model
Example of Tabular data in the Relational model
customer-
name
Customer-
id
customer-
street
customer-
city
account-
number
Johnson

Smith

Johnson

Jones

Smith
192-83-7465

019-28-3746

192-83-7465

321-12-3123

019-28-3746
Alma

North

Alma

Main

North
Palo Alto

Rye

Palo Alto

Harrison

Rye
A-101

A-215

A-201

A-217

A-201
Attributes
35
Relational Database Management System
There are a large number of commercial database
systems in use today, which are based on the
concepts discussed. The major ones are ;
Oracle

Microsoft Access

SQL server.

IBM DB2 .

Sybase

Informix.
Some are free / public domain database systems MySQL,
PostgresSQL

Database Design
The process of designing the general structure of the database:

Logical Design Deciding on the database schema. Database design
requires that we find a good collection of relation schemas.
Business decision What attributes should we record in the
database?
Computer Science decision What relation schemas should we
have and how should the attributes be distributed among the various
relation schemas?

Physical Design Deciding on the physical layout of the database

The Entity-Relationship Model
Models an enterprise as a collection of entities and relationships
Entity: a thing or object in the enterprise that is distinguishable
from other objects
Described by a set of attributes
Relationship: an association among several entities
Represented diagrammatically by an entity-relationship diagram:
Other Data Models
Object-oriented data model
Object-relational data model
39
Entity-Relationship Model
Diagrams
40
41
Database Management System
Data Information Knowledge
Chronology: Data & Knowledge Engineering
DBMS Definition & Application
Why DBMS ?
Transaction Management
DBMS Types & users
DBMS Architecture
Client-server based
Web-based architecture
DBMS Implementation
Data Modeling
E-R Diagram
From diagram to Tables
Data Base design
Data Querying: Concepts & Constructs
DBMS languages
DDL Vs. DML
Query / Report format design, development.
Recent trends in DBMS
42
Data Base - Collection of interrelated data
DBMS is designed to manage large bodies of data, contains
information about a particular enterprise
The purpose of a implementing a database system in any
organization is to develop an effective Information System in
the organization.
What is information system?
Information system is Computerization of some existing
manual /system which after automation provides useful
information to the targeted user.
One of the most popular example of an information system is
computerization of Railway Reservation Systems
Developed by CRIS [Centre for Railways Information
Systems] Is providing very valuable information like
1.Availability of trains between two stations .
2. Availability of Tickets in a particular Train, on particular date etc.

43
Data Base Management System

Ordinary Users interact
with DBMS via Menu in Front-End
Application like Visual Basic.

Whereas Sophisticated Users
& Database administrator
interacts with DBMS
via SQL interface or directly
with Oracle / MS SQL Server / IBM DB-2
Users
Front-end
Database
Application
DBMS
Database
Database Design
Data Models
A collection of tools for describing
data
data relationships
data semantics
data constraints
Entity-Relationship model
Relational model
Other models:
Object-Oriented model
Semi-structured data models
Older models: network model and
hierarchical model
ER Model
47
Entity Sets
Entity = thing or object.
Eg .book
Entity set = collection of similar entities.
Similar to a class in object-oriented languages.
Attribute = property of an entity set.
Eg book has title, author,publisher,price,year
publication.
Generally, all entities in a set have the same
properties.
Attributes are simple values, e.g. integers or
character strings.
48
Cont..
There are three basic elements in ER models:
Entities are the "things" about which we seek
information.
Attributes are the data we collect about the
entities.
Relationships provide the structure needed to
draw information from multiple entities
or
Relationship is an Association among several
entities.

49
E/R Diagrams
In an entity-relationship diagram, each entity set is represented
by a rectangle.

Each attribute of an entity set is represented by an oval, with a
line to the rectangle representing its entity set.

50
Relationships
A relationship connects two or more entity sets.
It is represented by a diamond, with lines to each of the entity
sets involved.
51
Specialization
An entity set may include subgroupings of entities that are
distinct in some way from other entities in the set.
For e.g A subset of entities within an entity set may have
attributes that are not shared by all entites in the entity set.
It is represented by
ISA
52
Example with specialization
Person
name
street
city
ISA
employee customer
53
ER Models
Example of a Bank: Customer having Depositor A/C

In a bank each customer is Entity
and bank account can be considered to be Entity, which are described by
attributes.
Here Attributes are account -number and balance, describing one particular
Account in a bank.
A relationship is an association among several entities. For Ex. a Depositor
relationship associates a customer with each account that she has .

54
A Sample Relational Database
55
E.R Model
Construct an E.R diagram for a Carinsurance
company whose Customers own one or more cars
each.Each car has associated number of accidents
with it, ranging from zero to any number of recorded
accidents.
List of Entities in this scenario:
Person
Car
and ..?

Accident

56
person
Driver-id
address
name
owns
car
license model
year
participated
Damage-amount
accident
Report-no
location
date
driver
E.R.Model for car Insurance company
car
Driver-id
Pitfalls of DBMS design
Data Base modeling is entirely different job compared to
programming.
Requires capability to think at different level of
abstraction !
Even good programmers have not always proved
to be good modelers !!
Requires capability to develop understanding of
different systems while identifying main
components of the system (e.g. Entity)
An omission and error at Modeling level can not
be easily identified at higher levels.

58
ER Model to Table
Example of a Bank.
Each entity is converted into Table with various
attributes becoming Column headers
The relationship is created by taking key
attributes of the two Entities.
SQL is used with CREATE Table command

59
How to convert E.R in relational table
5
D
D
A
A
T
T
A
A
B
B
A
A
S
S
E
E
Notation
Table name
Primary key is underlined
Table columns
Customer(CustomerID, Phone, Name, Address, City, State, ZipCode)
CustomerID Phone LastName FirstName Address City State Zipcode
1 502-666-7777 Johnson Martha 125 Main Street Alvaton KY 42122
2 502-888-6464 Smith Jack 873 Elm Street Bowling Green KY 42101
3 502-777-7575 Washington Elroy 95 Easy Street Smiths Grove KY 42171
4 502-333-9494 Adams Samuel 746 Brown Drive Alvaton KY 42122
5 502-474-4746 Rabitz Victor 645 White Avenue Bowling Green KY 42102
6 616-373-4746 Steinmetz Susan 15 Speedway Drive Portland TN 37148
7 615-888-4474 Lasater Les 67 S. Ray Drive Portland TN 37148
8 615-452-1162 Jones Charlie 867 Lakeside Drive Castalian Springs TN 37031
9 502-222-4351 Chavez Juan 673 Industry Blvd. Caneyville KY 42721
10 502-444-2512 Rojo Maria 88 Main Street Cave City KY 42127
Hospital Information System
Patients are treated in a single ward by the doctors
assigned to them. Usually each patient will be assigned a
single doctor, but in rare cases they will have two.
Heathcare assistants also attend to the patients, a number
of these are associated with each ward.
Initially the system will be concerned solely with drug
treatment. Each patient is required to take a variety of drugs
a certain number of times per day and for varying lengths of
time.
The system must record details concerning patient
treatment and staff payment. Some staff are paid part time
and doctors and care assistants work varying amounts of
overtime at varying rates (subject to grade).
The system will also need to track what treatments are
required for which patients and when and it should be
capable of calculating the cost of treatment per week for
each patient (though it is currently unclear to what use this
information will be put).

How do we start an ERD?
1. Define Entities: these are usually nouns used in
descriptions of the system, in the discussion of business
rules, or in documentation; identified in the narrative .

2. Define Relationships: these are usually verbs used in
descriptions of the system or in discussion of the business
rules .

3. Add attributes to the relations; these are determined by
the queries, and may also suggest new entities, e.g. grade;
or they may suggest the need for keys or identifiers.
ER Diagram..
What questions can we ask?
a. Which doctors work in which wards?
b. How much will be spent in a ward in a given week?
c. How much will a patient cost to treat?
d. How much does a doctor cost per week?
e. Which assistants can a patient expect to see?
f. Which drugs are being used?
This allows us to consider a variety of questions such as:
a. Which beds are free? b. Which assistants work for Dr. X? c.
What is the least expensive prescription? d. How many
doctors are there in the hospital? e. Which patients are
family related?

E-R Diagram
64
ER Model to Table
Example of a Bank.
Each entity is converted into Table with various
attributes becoming Column headers
The relationship is created by taking key
attributes of the two Entities.
SQL is used with CREATE Table command

65
66
create table
create table account (
account-number char(10),
balance integer)

The above instruction creates a table named
account, having two columns, namely account
number and balance.
The account number column will accept the input
data as character with maximum length of 10
characters.
Whereas the balance is defined as Integer We will
discuss all possible domain types in coming slides.
Create Table Construct
An SQL relation is defined using the create table
command:
create table r (A
1
D
1
, A
2
D
2
, ..., A
n
D
n
,
(integrity-constraint
1
),
...,
k
))
r is the name of the relation
each A
i
is an attribute name in the schema of
relation r
D
i
is the data type of attribute A
i

Example:
create table branch
(branch_name char(15),
branch_city char(30),
assets integer)
Week # 2
69
Database implementation
Database Design

E-R Modeling.

Database Implementation:
Conversion of ER model into Table.
Querying and Table creation.
Mini- project development

70
Date Base Design: 03 Phases
Modeling:
E-R Modeling : Purpose.
E-R model for Banking Enterprise, Car Insurance
Company
Conversion of ER model into Table
Table Creation
Data Base Languages & Querying
Relation Algebra
Query Language : Procedural & Non-procedural
DDL, DML
Database Design
Database Design
The Normalization Theory in Database also relates to Logical Database Design
Hospital Information System
Patients are treated in a single ward by the doctors
assigned to them. Usually each patient will be assigned a
single doctor, but in rare cases they will have two.
Heathcare assistants also attend to the patients, a number
of these are associated with each ward.
Initially the system will be concerned solely with drug
treatment. Each patient is required to take a variety of drugs
a certain number of times per day and for varying lengths of
time.
The system must record details concerning patient
treatment and staff payment. Some staff are paid part time
and doctors and care assistants work varying amounts of
overtime at varying rates (subject to grade).
The system will also need to track what treatments are
required for which patients and when and it should be
capable of calculating the cost of treatment per week for
each patient (though it is currently unclear to what use this
information will be put).

How do we start an ERD?
1. Define Entities: these are usually nouns used in
descriptions of the system, in the discussion of business
rules, or in documentation; identified in the narrative .

2. Define Relationships: these are usually verbs used in
descriptions of the system or in discussion of the business
rules .

3. Add attributes to the relations; these are determined by
the queries, and may also suggest new entities, e.g. grade;
or they may suggest the need for keys or identifiers.
ER Diagram..
What questions can we ask?
a. Which doctors work in which wards?
b. How much will be spent in a ward in a given week?
c. How much will a patient cost to treat?
d. How much does a doctor cost per week?
e. Which assistants can a patient expect to see?
f. Which drugs are being used?
This allows us to consider a variety of questions such as:
a. Which beds are free? b. Which assistants work for Dr. X? c.
What is the least expensive prescription? d. How many
doctors are there in the hospital? e. Which patients are
family related?

E-R Diagram
Continuous Evaluation

As a part of continuous evaluation policy of
semester system, Quiz can be organized in any of
the Lecture schedule, without prior information.

Quiz marks will be part of your final evaluation.

Best of three Quizzes will be considered for final
award
78
Database

A database consists of multiple relations, which means
multiple tables.
Information about an enterprise is broken up
into parts, with each relation ( table) storing
one part of the information
Ex: Table account : stores information about accounts
Table customer : stores information about customers
Table depositor : stores information about which customer
owns which account

But Why to Break into Smaller parts .?
Database

Storing all information as a single relation such as
bank(account-number, balance, customer-name, ..)
results in
repetition of information (e.g. two customers own an
account)
the need for null values (e.g. represent a customer
without an account) and null values may pose problems..

Normalization theory deals with how to design relational
schemas- comes under Logical Design.
Let us have look at detail ER Diagram for Banking
Enterprise

79
Banking Enterprise : ER Diagram
The Banking Enterprise will involve many
more components and in real life scenario
there will be many Branches of the Bank with
Branch name, Branch city and assets having
customers with Account for depositing
whereas Customers may have Loan Account
for borrowing.
81
E-R Diagram for the Banking Enterprise
DBMS & RDBMS
DBMS Models
There were other Database models also in the beginning phase
of Database Models.
Hierarchical Model of Database
Network Model of Database
Relational Model.
Object-oriented data model
Object-relational data model

84
Data Modeling
There are different Database models among them
Hierarchical Model was there but there was no standards in it.
Although basic model was incorporated in all
Hierarchal database software there was no precise standards or
concepts, these models lacked a standard DDL (data definition
Language) component and this created many problems there was
also lacking in DML(Data manipulation Language)
This made database very difficult
In 1975 there was a meeting of database professionals
To establish a standard set of database.
This meeting was called by (CODASYL)Conference on DATA
Systems Languages committee created by DataBase Task Group
(DBTG)to create set for Database Task Group

85
Purpose of E/R Model
The E/R model allows us to sketch the design of a
database informally.
Designs are pictures called entity-relationship
diagrams.
Fairly mechanical ways to convert E/R diagrams to
real implementations like relational databases exist.
It is most Widely used for database design .
* Database design in E-R model is converted into design
in the relational model.
* Entity-Relationship is a high-level data model.
* Relational model is a lower level model.
.It uses a collection of tables to represent both data
and the relationships among those data.
RDBMS
Pitfalls in Database design
Weak Entity & Strong Entity
Attributes:Types of Attributes

Concept of Key & Non Key attributes

Foreign Key
87
Pitfalls in Relational Database Design
Relational database design requires that we find a
good collection of relation schemas.
A bad design may lead to
Repetition of Information.
Inability to represent certain information.
Design Goals:
Avoid redundant data
Ensure that relationships among attributes are
represented
Facilitate the checking of updates for violation of
database integrity constraints.
88
Date Base Design: 03 Phases
Modeling : E-R Modeling : Conceptual design
Conversion of ER model into Table: Concept of Keys
Table Creation & SQL commands
Data Base Languages & Querying
Relation Algebra
Query Language
DDL, DML: SQL Basics
Logical Design of Database: Normalization
Database Design
The process of designing the database is first step
in developing Information system:
Design Database design requires that we find a
good collection of tables (relation ) schemas.
What attributes should we record in the database so that
our expected queries are efficiently answered?
What relation schemas should we have and how should
the attributes be distributed among the various relation
schemas so that
All significant aspects of the system are included in the
Database design-Completeness !
No aspects of system are getting repeated- Redundancy
Measure of Design Appropriateness

Database Design
The Normalization Theory in Database also relates to Logical Database Design
Key Attributes
A Key Attribute is special attribute which can uniquely identify the
record for Entity

Attributes
An entity is represented by a set of attributes, that is descriptive
properties possessed by all members of an entity set.

Domain the set of permitted values for each attribute
Attribute types:
Simple and composite attributes.
Single-valued and multi-valued attributes
Example:
customer = (customer_id, customer_name,
customer_street, customer_city )
loan = (loan_number, amount )
Simple and composite key attributes
(a) Simple key attribute
Composite Attributes
A composite attribute

Single-Valued versus Multivalued
Attribute
It frequently happens that there is an attribute
that may have more than one value for a
given instance,
e.g. EMPLOYEE may have more than one Skill.
Example: multivalued attribute: phone_numbers
A multivalued attribute is one that may take
on more than one value it is represented by
an ellipse with double lines

Derived Attributes
Some attribute values can be calculated or
derived from othersattributes
Can be computed from other attributes
Example: age, given date_of_birth
if Years_Employed needs to be calculated for EMPLOYEE,
it can be calculated using Date_Employed and
Today's_Date.
A derived attribute is one whose value can be calculated from
related attribute values (plus possibly other data not in the
database)
A derived attribute is signified by an ellipse with a dashed
line.
Entity with a multivalued attribute (Skill) and derived
attribute (Years_Employed)
Entity with a multivalued attribute (Skill) and derived
attribute (Years_Employed)
E-R Diagram With Composite, Multivalued, and
Derived Attributes
101
Concept of Keys
A Key Attributes is special attribute which can
uniquely identify the record in a given table.
A super key of an entity set is a set of one or more
attributes whose values uniquely determine each
entity.
Ex. Super key : ( customer-id, Customer-name)
A candidate key of an entity set is a minimal super key
Customer-id is candidate key of customer
account-number is candidate key of account
Although several candidate keys may exist, one of the
candidate keys is selected to be the primary key.
The combination of primary keys of the participating
entity sets forms a super key of a relationship set.
(customer-id, account-number) is the super key of depositor

102
Weak Entity Sets
An entity set that does not have a primary key is
referred to as a weak entity set.

The existence of a weak entity set depends on the
existence of a identifying entity set

The primary key of a weak entity set is formed by
the primary key of the strong entity set on which
the weak entity set is existence dependent, plus
the weak entity sets discriminator.
Weak Entity
In real world there are many such cases where Weak Entity
exists and we are required to uniquely records as well !!
If an entity does not have a key by itself, but it is only unique in
the context of some other (master) entity.
Note: In such cases, keys are always composite.
Examples:
A classroom is identified by a building and a room number.
A section in a book is identified by a chapter and a section title.
There is also an existence dependency.
If the building is pulled down, the classrooms automatically
disappear.

Weak Entities.
Foreign Keys
A relation schema may have an attribute that corresponds to the
primary key of another relation. The attribute is called a foreign
key.
E.g. customer_name and account_number
attributes of depositor are foreign keys to
customer and account respectively.
Only values occurring in the primary key
attribute of the referenced relation may
occur in the foreign key attribute of the
referencing relation.

106
107
Surrogate Keys
Real world keys sometimes cause problems in a
database.
Example: Customer
Customer-ids are not easy to remember by account
holder !
Avoid phone numbers: people may not notify you when
numbers change.
Often best to let the DBMS generate unique values
Access: AutoNumber
SQL Server: Identity
Oracle: Sequences (but require additional programming)
Drawback: Numbers are not related to any business
data, so the application needs to hide them and
provide other look up mechanisms.
Assignment-I
A university registrars office maintains data about the
following entities:
Courses including number ,title, credits, syllabus and pre requisties ;
Courses ,including number ,year ,semester ,section number ,instructor(s)
timings and classroom;
students, including student- Id, name, and program:
Instructors, including identification number, name, department, and title.
Further, the enrollment of students in courses and grades awarded to
students in each course they are enrolled for must be appropriately
modeled.
Construct ER diagram for registrars office .

Assignment II
Design an E.R diagram for keeping track of the
exploits of your favorite sports team. You should
store the matches played, the scores in each match
,the players in each match, and individual player
statistics for each match. Summary statistics
should ,be modeled as derived attributes.
Querying the Database
&
DBMS Languages
Querying the Database
Users put Query to a Database and the
efficiency and accuracy of the database
depends upon the fast, accurate and
appropriate information provided by the
Database.
The reasons for longevity and success of
RDBMS is its underlying concepts/mechanism
to address the user queries.
It is required to understand the query and its
working mechanism in a RDBMS.
There were many Querying Languages
proposed for working with RDBMS, some of
which became popular & standard.
111
Query Languages
Categories of languages
Procedural
Non-procedural, or declarative
Pure languages:
Relational algebra
Tuple relational calculus
Domain relational calculus
Pure languages form underlying basis of query languages
that people use.
Relational Algebra as a basis
Relational algebras received little attention until the
publication of B.F. Codd s relational model of data in
1970. Codd proposed such an algebra as a basis for
database query languages.
It is proposed to treat the Tables of Data base as
Relations and consequently as Sets in
mathematical term.
Codd proposed six basic operators and some
derived ones forming the basis of querying
mechanism in a database.
Any valid database query can be expressed in
Relational Algebra expression

113
Although three of the six basic operators are taken from set
theory,
there are additional constraints that are present in their
relational algebra counterparts:
For set union and set difference, the two
relations involved must be union-compatible
that is, the two relations must have the same
set of attributes.
As set intersection can be defined in terms of
set difference, the two relations involved in set
intersection must also be union-compatible.
114
SQL: History
IBM Sequel language developed as part of System R project
at the IBM San Jose Research Laboratory
Renamed Structured Query Language (SQL)
ANSI and ISO standard SQL:
SQL-86
SQL-89
SQL-92
SQL:1999 (language name became Y2K compliant!)
SQL:2003
Commercial systems offer most, if not all, SQL-92 features,
plus varying feature sets from later standards and special
proprietary features.
Programming with DBMS
Despite designing and developing the data base , we are often
needed to program it for manipulating data.

Most of the real life projects involve tasks, which needs
writing program codes for desired results from DBMS .

Though large number of queries can be handled through SQL
Constructs but even then we are often required to write program
codes in RDBMS Environment for the desired work.
Using PL/SQL
Using Other Programming Languages (Java, Visual Basic)
Database Connectivity issues : JDBC
What is PL/SQL
SQL is the most widely used query language, and definitely
Non Procedural language.
PL-SQL is Procedural Language SQL
An extension to SQL with design features of programming
languages (procedural and object oriented)
PL/SQL is supported as internal host languages within Oracle
products.
All Oracle development tools use PL/SQL as its NATIVE
LANGUAGE.
Provides the ability to add middle tier business logic to
client/server applications.
PL-SQL is used for writing Stored procedures, Assertions and
Triggers.

118
Basic Structure
SQL is based on set and relational operations with
certain modifications and enhancements
A typical SQL query has the form:
select A
1
, A
2
, ..., A
n

from r
1
, r
2
, ..., r
m

where P
A
i
s represent attributes
r
i
s represent relations
P is a predicate.
This query is equivalent to the relational algebra
expression.
[
A1, A2, ..., An
(o
P
(r
1
x r
2
x ... x r
m
))
The result of an SQL query is a relation.
Relational algebras received little attention until
the publication of E.F. Codd s relational model
of data in 1970.

Codd proposed such an algebra as a basis for

As in any algebra, some operators are primitive
and the others, being definable in terms of the
primitive ones, are derived.
120
It is proposed to treat the tables of Data base as Relations
and consequently as Sets in mathematical term.
Codd proposed six basic operators and some derived ones
forming the basis of querying mechanism in a database.
theory,
set of attributes.
121
Relational Algebra
Procedural language
Six basic operators
select
project
union
set difference
Cartesian product
rename
The operators take two or more relations as inputs and give
a new relation as a result.
Select Operation Example
Relation r A B C D
o
o
|
|
o
|
|
|
1
5
12
23
7
7
3
10
o
A=B ^ D > 5
(r)
A B C D
o
|
o
|
1
23
7
10
Select Operation
Notation: o
p
(r)
p is called the selection predicate
Defined as:
o
p
(r) = {t | t e r and p(t)}
Where p is a formula in propositional
calculus consisting of terms connected by :
. (and), v (or), (not)
Each term is one of:
<attribute> op <attribute> or
<constant>
where op is one of: =, =, >, >. <. s
Example of selection:
o
branch-name=Perryridge
(account)
Project Operation Example
Relation r:
A B C
o
o
|
|
10
20
30
40
1
1
1
2
A C
o
o
|
|
1
1
1
2
=
A C
o
|
|
1
1
2
[
A,C
(r)
Project Operation
Notation:

[
A1, A2, , Ak
(r)
where A
1
, A
2
are attribute names and r is a relation name.

The result is defined as the relation of k columns
obtained by erasing the columns that are not
listed
Duplicate rows removed from result, since
relations are sets

E.g. To eliminate the branch-name attribute of account
[
account-number, balance
(account)

Union Operation Example
Relations r, s:
r s:
A
B
o
o
|
1
2
1
A B
o
|
2
3
r
s
A B
o
o
|
|
1
2
1
3
Union Operation
Notation: r s
Defined as:
r s = {t | t e r or t e s}

For r s to be valid.
1. r, s must have the same arity (same number of attributes)
2. The attribute domains must be compatible (e.g., 2nd
column
of r deals with the same type of values as does the 2nd
column of s)
E.g. to find all customers with either an account or a loan
[
customer-name
(depositor) [
customer-name
(borrower)
Set Difference Operation Example
Relations r, s:
r s:
A B
o
o
|
1
2
1
A B
o
|
2
3
r
s
A B
o
|
1
1
Set Difference Operation
Notation r s
Defined as:
r s = {t | t e r and t e s}
Set differences must be taken between compatible relations.
r and s must have the same arity
attribute domains of r and s must be
compatible

Cartesian-Product Operation-Example
Relations r, s:
r x s:
A B
o
|
1
2
A B
o
o
o
o
|
|
|
|
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
C D
o
|
|

o
|
|

10
10
20
10
10
10
20
10
E
a
a
b
b
a
a
b
b
C D
o
|
|

10
10
20
10
E
a
a
b
b
r
s
Cartesian-Product Operation
Notation r x s
Defined as:
r x s = {t q | t e r and q e s}
Assume that attributes of r(R) and s(S) are
disjoint. (That is, R S = C).
If attributes of r(R) and s(S) are not disjoint, then
renaming must be used.
Composition of Operations
Can build expressions using multiple operations
Example: o
A=C
(r x s)
r x s

o
A=C
(r x s)
A B
o
o
o
o
|
|
|
|
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
C D
o
|
|

o
|
|

10
19
20
10
10
10
20
10
E
a
a
b
b
a
a
b
b
A B C D E
o
|
|
1
2
2
o
|
|
10
20
20
a
a
b
Rename Operation
Allows us to name, and therefore to refer to, the
results of relational-algebra expressions.
Allows us to refer to a relation by more than one
name.
Example:

x
(E)
returns the expression E under the name X
If a relational-algebra expression E has arity n, then

x

(A1, A2, , An)
(E)
returns the result of expression E under the name X, and with
the attributes renamed to A1, A2, ., An.

135
Basic Structure
select A
1
, A
2
, ..., A
n

from r
1
, r
2
, ..., r
m

where P
A
i
r
i
P is a predicate.
expression.
[
A1, A2, ..., An
(o
P
(r
1
x r
2
x ... x r
m
))
The select Clause

The select clause list the attributes desired in the result of a query
corresponds to the projection operation of the relational algebra
Example: find the names of all branches in the loan relation:
select branch_name
from loan
In the relational algebra, the query would be:
[
branch_name
(loan)
NOTE: SQL names are case insensitive (i.e., you may use upper- or lower-
case letters.)
E.g. Branch_Name BRANCH_NAME branch_name
Some people use upper case wherever we use bold font.
Banking Example
branch (branch-name, branch-city, assets)
customer (customer-name, customer-street, customer-
city)

account (account-number, branch-name, balance)

loan (loan-number, branch-name, amount)

depositor (customer-name, account-number)

borrower (customer-name, loan-number)
Example Queries
Find all loans of over $1200

o
amount >1200
(loan)

Find the loan number for each loan of an amount greater
than $1200
[
loan-number
(o amount >1200 (loan))
Example Queries
Find all loans of over $1200

o
amount >1200
(loan)

Find the loan number for each loan of an amount greater
than $1200
[
loan-number
(o
amount >1200
(loan))
Example Queries
Find the names of all customers who have a loan,
an account, or both, from the bank

[customer-name (borrower) [customer-name (depositor)

Find the names of all customers who have a loan
and an account at bank.

[customer-name (borrower) [customer-name (depositor)
Example Queries
Find the names of all customers who have a loan,
an account, or both, from the bank

[
customer-name
(borrower) [
customer-name
(depositor)

Find the names of all customers who have a loan
and an account at bank.

[
customer-name
(borrower) [
customer-name
(depositor)
Example Queries
Find the names of all customers who have a loan at the
Perryridge branch.
[customer-name (obranch-name=Perryridge
(oborrower.loan-number = loan.loan-number(borrower x loan)))

Find the names of all customers who have a loan at the Perryridge
branch but do not have an account at any branch of the bank.
[customer-name (obranch-name = Perryridge
(oborrower.loan-number = loan.loan-number(borrower x loan)))

[customer-name(depositor)
Example Queries
Find the names of all customers who have a loan at the
Perryridge branch.
[
customer-name
(o
branch-name=Perryridge

(o
borrower.loan-number = loan.loan-number
(borrower x loan)))

branch but do not have an account at any branch of the bank.
[
customer-name
(o
branch-name = Perryridge

(o
borrower.loan-number =loan.loan-number
(borrower x loan)))

[
customer-name
(depositor)
Example Queries
branch.
Query 1
[
customer-name
(o

(o
borrower.loan-number = loan.loan-number
(borrower x
loan)))
Query 2

[
customer-name
(o
loan.loan-number = borrower.loan-number
(
(o
(loan)) x
borrower)
)
Example Queries
Find the largest account balance
Rename account relation as d
The query is:
[
balance
(account) - [
account.balance

(o
account.balance < d.balance
(account x
d
(account)))
Formal Definition
A basic expression in the relational algebra consists of either one
of the following:
A relation in the database
A constant relation
Let E
1
and E
2
be relational-algebra expressions; the following are
all relational-algebra expressions:
E
1
E
2

E
1
- E
2

E
1
x E
2

o
p
(E
1
), P is a predicate on attributes in E
1

[
s
(E
1
), S is a list consisting of some of the attributes in
E
1

x
(E
1
), x is the new name for the result of E
1
Additional Operations
We define additional operations that do not add any
power to the relational algebra, but that simplify
common queries.
Set intersection
Natural join
Division
Assignment
Set-Intersection Operation
Notation: r s
Defined as:
r s ={ t | t e r and t e s }
Assume:
r, s have the same arity
attributes of r and s are compatible
Note: r s = r - (r - s)
Set-Intersection Operation - Example
Relation r, s:

r s
A B
o
o
|
1
2
1
A B
o
|
2
3
r
s
A B
o 2
Natural-Join Operation
Notation: r s
Let r and s be relations on schemas R and S respectively. The result
is a relation on schema R S which is obtained by considering each
pair of tuples t
r
from r and t
s
from s.
If t
r
and t
s
have the same value on each of the attributes in R S, a
tuple t is added to the result, where
t has the same value as t
r
on r
t has the same value as t
s
on s
Example:
R = (A, B, C, D)
S = (E, B, D)
Result schema = (A, B, C, D, E)
r s is defined as:
[
r.A, r.B, r.C, r.D, s.E
(o
r.B =s.B r.D =s.D
(r x s))
Natural Join Operation Example
Relations r, s:
A B
o
|

o
o
1
2
4
1
2
C D
o

|

|
a
a
b
a
b
B
1
3
1
2
3
D
a
a
a
b
b
E
o
|

o
e
r
A B
o
o
o
o
o
1
1
1
1
2
C D
o
o

|
a
a
a
a
b
E
o

o

o
s
r s
Division Operation
Suited to queries that include the phrase for all.
Let r and s be relations on schemas R and S respectively
where
R = (A
1
, , A
m
, B
1
, , B
n
)
S = (B
1
, , B
n
)
The result of r s is a relation on
schema
R S = (A
1
, , A
m
)

r s = { t | t e [
R-S
(r) . u e s ( tu e r ) }
r s
Division Operation Example
Relations r, s:
r s:
A
B
o
|
1
2
A B
o
o
o
|

o
o
o
e
e
|
1
2
3
1
1
1
3
4
6
1
2
r
s
Another Division Example
A B
o
o
o
|
|

a
a
a
a
a
a
a
a
C D
o

|
a
a
b
a
b
a
b
b
E
1
1
1
1
3
1
1
1
Relations r, s:
r s:
D
a
b
E
1
1
A B
o

a
a
C

r
s
Division Operation (Cont.)
Property
Let q r s
Then q is the largest relation satisfying q x s _ r
Definition in terms of the basic algebra operation
Let r(R) and s(S) be relations, and let S _ R

r s = [
R-S
(r) [
R-S
( ([
R-S
(r) x s) [
R-S,S
(r))

To see why
[
R-S,S
(r) simply reorders attributes of r

[
R-S
([
R-S
(r) x s) [
R-S,S
(r)) gives those tuples t
in

[
R-S
(r) such that for some tuple u e s, tu e r.

Assignment Operation
The assignment operation () provides a convenient way to
express complex queries, write query as a sequential program
consisting of a series of assignments followed by an expression
whose value is displayed as a result of the query.
Assignment must always be made to a temporary relation
variable.
Example: Write r s as
temp1

[
R-S
(r)
temp2 [
R-S
((temp1 x s) [
R-S,S
(r))
result = temp1 temp2
The result to the right of the is assigned to the relation variable on
the left of the .
May use variable in subsequent expressions.
Example Queries
Find all customers who have an account from at least the
Downtown and the Uptown branches.
Query 1
[
CN
(o
BN=Downtown
(depositor account))
[
CN
(o
BN=Uptown
(depositor account))
where CN denotes customer-name and BN denotes
branch-name.
Query 2
[
customer-name, branch-name

(depositor account)

temp(branch-name
)
({(Downtown), (Uptown)})

Find all customers who have an account at all branches located
in Brooklyn city.

[
customer-name, branch-name

(depositor account)
[
branch-name

(o
branch-city = Brooklyn

(branch))

Example Queries
Extended Relational-Algebra-Operations
Generalized Projection
Outer Join
Aggregate Functions
Generalized Projection
Extends the projection operation by allowing arithmetic functions
to be used in the projection list.

[
F1, F2, , Fn
(E)
E is any relational-algebra expression
Each of F
1
, F
2
, , F
n
are are arithmetic expressions involving
constants and attributes in the schema of E.
Given relation credit-info(customer-name, limit, credit-balance),
find how much more each person can spend:
[
customer-name, limit credit-balance
(credit-info)
Aggregate Functions and Operations
Aggregation function takes a collection of values and returns a
single value as a result.
avg: average value
min: minimum value
max: maximum value
sum: sum of values
count: number of values
Aggregate operation in relational algebra

G1, G2, , Gn
g
F1( A1), F2( A2),, Fn( An)
(E)
E is any relational-algebra expression
G
1
, G
2
, G
n
is a list of attributes on which to group
(can be empty)
Each F
i
is an aggregate function
Each A
i
is an attribute name
Aggregate Operation Example
Relation r:
A B
o
o
|
|
o
|
|
|
C
7
7
3
10
g
sum(c)

(r)
sum-C
27
Aggregate Operation Example
Relation account grouped by branch-name:
branch-name
g
sum(balance)
(account)
branch-name account-number balance
Perryridge
Perryridge
Brighton
Brighton
Redwood
A-102
A-201
A-217
A-215
A-222
400
900
750
750
700
branch-name balance
Perryridge
Brighton
Redwood
1300
1500
700
Aggregate Functions (Cont.)
Result of aggregation does not have a name
Can use rename operation to give it a name
For convenience, we permit renaming as part of
aggregate operation

branch-name
g
sum(balance) as sum-balance
(account)
Outer Join
An extension of the join operation that avoids loss of
information.
Computes the join and then adds tuples form one relation
that does not match tuples in the other relation to the result
of the join.
Uses null values:
null signifies that the value is unknown or
does not exist
All comparisons involving null are (roughly
speaking) false by definition.
Will study precise meaning of comparisons with
nulls later
Outer Join Example
Relation loan
loan-number amount
L-170
L-230
L-260
3000
4000
1700
Relation borrower
customer-name loan-number
Jones
Smith
Hayes
L-170
L-230
L-155
branch-name
Downtown
Redwood
Perryridge
Outer Join Example
Inner Join

loan Borrower
loan borrower
Left Outer Join
loan-number amount
L-170
L-230
3000
4000
customer-name
Jones
Smith
branch-name
Downtown
Redwood
loan-number amount
L-170
L-230
L-260
3000
4000
1700
customer-name
Jones
Smith
null
branch-name
Downtown
Redwood
Perryridge
Outer Join Example
Right Outer Join
loan borrower
loan-number amount
L-170
L-230
L-155
3000
4000
null
customer-name
Jones
Smith
Hayes
loan-number amount
L-170
L-230
L-260
L-155
3000
4000
1700
null
customer-name
Jones
Smith
null
Hayes
loan borrower
Full Outer Join
branch-name
Downtown
Redwood
null
branch-name
Downtown
Redwood
Perryridge
null
Null Values
It is possible for tuples to have a null value, denoted by null, for
some of their attributes
null signifies an unknown value or that a value does not exist.
The result of any arithmetic expression involving null is null.
Aggregate functions simply ignore null values
Is an arbitrary decision. Could have returned null as result
instead.
We follow the semantics of SQL in its handling of null values
For duplicate elimination and grouping, null is treated like any
other value, and two nulls are assumed to be the same
Alternative: assume each null is different from each
other
Both are arbitrary decisions, so we simply follow SQL
Modification of the Database
The content of the database may be modified
using the following operations:
Deletion
Insertion
Updating
All these operations are expressed using the
assignment operator.
Deletion
A delete request is expressed similarly to a query, except
instead of displaying tuples to the user, the selected tuples
are removed from the database.
Can delete only whole tuples; cannot delete values on only
particular attributes
A deletion is expressed in relational algebra by:
r r E
where r is a relation and E is a relational algebra query.
Deletion Examples
Delete all account records in the Perryridge branch.
account account o
(account)
Delete all loan records with amount in the range of 0 to 50
loan loan o
amount > 0 and amount s 50
(loan)
Delete all accounts at branches located in Needham.
r
1
o

branch-city = Needham
(account branch)
r
2
[
branch-name, account-number, balance
(r
1
)
r
3
[
customer-name, account-number
(r
2
depositor)
account account r
2

depositor depositor r
3
Insertion
To insert data into a relation, we either:
specify a tuple to be inserted
write a query whose result is a set of tuples
to be inserted
in relational algebra, an insertion is expressed by:
r r E
where r is a relation and E is a relational algebra expression.
The insertion of a single tuple is expressed by letting E be a
constant relation containing one tuple.
Insertion Examples
Insert information in the database specifying that Smith has
$1200 in account A-973 at the Perryridge branch.
account account {(Perryridge, A-973, 1200)}
depositor depositor {(Smith, A-973)}

Provide as a gift for all loan customers in the Perryridge
branch, a $200 savings account. Let the loan number serve
as the account number for the new savings account.
r
1
(o
(borrower loan))
account account [
branch-name, account-number,200
(r
1
)
depositor depositor [
customer-name, loan-number
,(r
1
)

Updating
A mechanism to change a value in a tuple without charging
all values in the tuple

Use the generalized projection operator to do this task
r [
F1, F2, , FI,
(r)

Each F, is either the ith attribute of r, if the ith attribute is not
updated, or, if the attribute is to be updated

F
i
is an expression, involving only constants and the
attributes of r, which gives the new value for the attribute
Update Examples
Make interest payments by increasing all balances by 5
percent.
account [
AN, BN, BAL * 1.05

(account)
where AN, BN and BAL stand for account-number, branch-
name and balance, respectively.
Pay all accounts with balances over $10,000
6 percent interest and pay all others 5 percent

account [
AN, BN, BAL * 1.06

(o
BAL > 10000
(account))
[
AN, BN, BAL * 1.05
(o
BAL s 10000
(account))

Views
In some cases, it is not desirable for all users to
see the entire logical model (i.e., all the actual
relations stored in the database.)
Consider a person who needs to know a
customers loan number but has no need to see
the loan amount. This person should see a
relation described, in the relational algebra, by
[
(borrower loan)
Any relation that is not of the conceptual model
but is made visible to a user as a virtual relation
is called a view.
View Definition
A view is defined using the create view statement
which has the form

create view v as <query expression

where <query expression> is any legal relational
algebra query expression. The view name is
represented by v.
Once a view is defined, the view name can be
used to refer to the virtual relation that the view
generates.
View definition is not the same as creating a new
relation by evaluating the query expression
Rather, a view definition causes the saving of an
expression to be substituted into queries using
the view.
View Examples
Consider the view (named all-customer) consisting of
branches and their customers.
create view all-customer as

[
branch-name, customer-name
(depositor account)
[
branch-name, customer-name
(borrower loan)

We can find all customers of the Perryridge branch by writing:
[
branch-name

(o
(all-customer))
Updates Through View
Database modifications expressed as views must be translated
to modifications of the actual relations in the database.
Consider the person who needs to see all loan data in the loan
relation except amount. The view given to the person, branch-
loan, is defined as:
create view branch-loan as
[
branch-name, loan-number
(loan)
Since we allow a view name to appear wherever a relation name
is allowed, the person may write:

branch-loan branch-loan {(Perryridge, L-37)}

Updates Through Views (Cont.)
The previous insertion must be represented by an insertion into the
actual relation loan from which the view branch-loan is constructed.
An insertion into loan requires a value for amount. The insertion can
be dealt with by either.
rejecting the insertion and returning an error
message to the user.
inserting a tuple (L-37, Perryridge, null) into
the loan relation
Some updates through views are impossible to translate into
database relation updates
create view v as o
(account))
v v (L-99, Downtown, 23)
Others cannot be translated uniquely
all-customer all-customer (Perryridge,
John)
Have to choose loan or account, and
create a new loan/account number!

Views Defined Using Other Views
One view may be used in the expression defining another view
A view relation v
1
is said to depend directly on a view relation v
2

if v
2
is used in the expression defining v
1

A view relation v
1
is said to depend on view relation v
2
if either v
1
depends directly to v
2
or there is a path of dependencies from
v
1
to v
2

A view relation v is said to be recursive if it depends on itself.
View Expansion
A way to define the meaning of views defined in terms of other
views.
Let view v
1
be defined by an expression e
1
that may itself contain
uses of view relations.
View expansion of an expression repeats the following
replacement step:
repeat
Find any view relation v
i
in e
1

Replace the view relation v
i
by the expression defining v
i

until no more view relations are present in e
1

As long as the view definitions are not recursive, this loop will
terminate
Attribute Types
Each attribute of a relation has a name
The set of allowed values for each attribute is called the
domain of the attribute
Attribute values are (normally) required to be atomic; that is,
indivisible
E.g. the value of an attribute can be an
account number, but cannot be a set of
account numbers
Domain is said to be atomic if all its members are atomic
The special value null is a member of every domain
The null value causes complications in the definition of
many operations
We shall ignore the effect of null values in our main
presentation and consider their effect later
Relation Schema
Formally, given domains D
1
, D
2
, . D
n
a relation r is a subset
of D
1
x D
2
x x D
n
Thus, a relation is a set of n-tuples (a
1
, a
2
, , a
n
) where each
a
i
e D
i

Schema of a relation consists of
attribute definitions
name
type/domain
integrity constraints
Relation Instance
The current values (relation instance) of a relation are
specified by a table
An element t of r is a tuple, represented by a row in a
table
Order of tuples is irrelevant (tuples may be stored in an
arbitrary order)

Jones
Smith
Curry
Lindsay
customer_name
Main
North
North
Park
customer_street
Harrison
Rye
Rye
Pittsfield
customer_city
customer
attributes
(or columns)
tuples
(or rows)
Query Languages
Language in which user requests information
from the database.

Can also be viewed as either DDL or DML.
DDL ( Data Definition Language)
DML ( Data Manipulation Language)

Query Language has its own syntax and working
mechanism?
187
Data Definition Language (DDL)
The schema for each relation, including
attribute types.
Integrity constraints
Authorization information for each relation.
Non-standard SQL extensions also allow
specification of
The set of indices to be maintained for each
relations.
The physical storage structure of each relation
on disk.
Allows the specification of:
Data Manipulation Language (DML)
Language for accessing and manipulating the data
organized by the appropriate data model
DML also known as query language
Two classes of languages
Procedural user specifies what data is
required and how to get those data
Declarative (nonprocedural) user
specifies what data is required without
specifying how to get those data
SQL is the most widely used query language
Data Definition Language (DDL)
Specification notation for defining the database schema
Example: create table account (
account_number char(10),
branch_name char(10),
balance integer)
DDL compiler generates a set of tables stored in a data
dictionary
Data dictionary contains metadata (i.e., data about data)
Database schema
Data storage and definition language
Specifies the storage structure & access methods
used
Integrity constraints & Authorization
Domain constraints
Referential integrity (e.g. branch_name must correspond
to a valid branch in the branch table)
191
Data Manipulation Language (DML)

DML is part of DDL. It is Language for accessing and
manipulating the data organized by the appropriate
data model
DML also known as query language

SQL is the most widely used query language, and
definitely Nonprocedural language.

IBM developed the original version of SQL .

SQL being most popular commercial language is
being implemented in most RDBMS namely Oracle,
Access, SQL server etc.
Create Table Construct
An SQL relation is defined using the create table
command:
create table r (A
1
D
1
, A
2
D
2
, ..., A
n
D
n
,
1
),
...,
k
))
r is the name of the relation
each A
i
is an attribute name in the schema of
relation r
D
i
is the data type of attribute A
i

Example:
create table branch
assets integer)
Week # 4
DBMS

DBMS Concepts: Relational Model & Querying mechanism
Concepts of Keys
Integrity Constraints & Referential Integrity

SQL Constructs
SQL & PL-SQL
Querying the database

195
Relational model & Table
5
D
D
A
A
T
T
A
A
B
B
A
A
S
S
E
E
Notation
Table name
Primary key is underlined
Table columns
Customer(CustomerID, Phone, Name, Address, City, State, ZipCode)
CustomerID Phone LastName FirstName Address City State Zipcode
1 502-666-7777 Johnson Martha 125 Main Street Alvaton KY 42122
2 502-888-6464 Smith Jack 873 Elm Street Bowling Green KY 42101
3 502-777-7575 Washington Elroy 95 Easy Street Smiths Grove KY 42171
4 502-333-9494 Adams Samuel 746 Brown Drive Alvaton KY 42122
5 502-474-4746 Rabitz Victor 645 White Avenue Bowling Green KY 42102
6 616-373-4746 Steinmetz Susan 15 Speedway Drive Portland TN 37148
7 615-888-4474 Lasater Les 67 S. Ray Drive Portland TN 37148
8 615-452-1162 Jones Charlie 867 Lakeside Drive Castalian Springs TN 37031
9 502-222-4351 Chavez Juan 673 Industry Blvd. Caneyville KY 42721
10 502-444-2512 Rojo Maria 88 Main Street Cave City KY 42127
Tuples
Relational algebras received little attention until the
publication of B.F. Codd s relational model of data in
1970. Codd proposed such an algebra as a basis for
It is proposed to treat the Tables of Data base as
Relations and consequently as Sets in
mathematical term.
Codd proposed six basic operators and some
derived ones forming the basis of querying
mechanism in a database.
Any valid database query can be expressed in
Relational Algebra expression

196
theory,
set of attributes.
197
SQL: History
IBM Sequel language developed as part of System R project
at the IBM San Jose Research Laboratory
Renamed Structured Query Language (SQL)
ANSI and ISO standard SQL:
SQL-86
SQL-89
SQL-92
SQL:1999 (language name became Y2K compliant!)
SQL:2003
Commercial systems offer most, if not all, SQL-92 features,
plus varying feature sets from later standards and special
proprietary features.
Programming with DBMS
Despite designing and developing the data base , we are often
needed to program it for manipulating data.

Most of the real life projects involve tasks, which needs
writing program codes for desired results from DBMS .

Though large number of queries can be handled through SQL
Constructs but even then we are often required to write program
codes in RDBMS Environment for the desired work.
Using PL/SQL
Using Other Programming Languages (Java, Visual Basic)
Database Connectivity issues : JDBC
What is PL/SQL
SQL is the most widely used query language, and definitely
Non Procedural language.
PL-SQL is Procedural Language SQL
An extension to SQL with design features of programming
languages (procedural and object oriented)
PL/SQL is supported as internal host languages within Oracle
products.
All Oracle development tools use PL/SQL as its NATIVE
LANGUAGE.
Provides the ability to add middle tier business logic to
client/server applications.
PL-SQL is used for writing Stored procedures, Assertions and
Triggers.

201
Basic Structure
select A
1
, A
2
, ..., A
n

from r
1
, r
2
, ..., r
m

where P
A
i
r
i
P is a predicate.
expression.
[
A1, A2, ..., An
(o
P
(r
1
x r
2
x ... x r
m
))
Banking Example
branch (branch-name, branch-city, assets)
customer (customer-name, customer-street, customer-city)
account (account-number, branch-name, balance)
loan (loan-number, branch-name, amount)
depositor (customer-name, account-number)
borrower (customer-name, loan-number)
Basic Query Structure

select A
1
, A
2
, ..., A
n

from r
1
, r
2
, ..., r
m

where P

A
i
represents an attribute
R
i
represents a relation
P is a predicate.
expression.

)) ( (
2 1 , , ,
2 1
m P A A A
r r r
n
[
o
Foreign Keys
A relation schema may have an attribute that corresponds to the
primary key of another relation. The attribute is called a foreign
key.
E.g. customer_name and account_number
attributes of depositor are foreign keys to
customer and account respectively.
Only values occurring in the primary key
attribute of the referenced relation may
occur in the foreign key attribute of the
referencing relation.

205
Integrity Constraints & Referential Integrity

Integrity constraints are used to ensure accuracy and
consistency of data in a relational database.

Data integrity is handled in a relational database through the
concept of referential integrity.
There are many types of integrity constraints that play a role in
referential integrity.
The referential integrity constraint is specified between two
relations and is used to maintain the consistency among tuples in
the two relations.
Referential integrity is a property of data which, when satisfied,
requires every value of one attribute (column) of a relation (table)
to exist as a value of another attribute in a different (or the same)
relation (table).

Referential integrity
An example of a database that has not enforced referential integrity.

In this example, there is a foreign key (artist_id) value in the album table that
references a non-existent artist
in other words there is a foreign key value with no corresponding
primary key value in the referenced table.

What happened here was that there was an artist called "Aerosmith", with
an artist_id of 4, which was deleted from the artist table.
However, the album "Eat the Rich" referred to this artist.
With referential integrity enforced, this would not have been possible.
Referential Integrity

For referential integrity to hold in a relational database, any field
in a table that is declared a foreign key can contain only values
from a parent table's primary key or a candidate key.

For instance, deleting a record that contains a value referred to
by a foreign key in another table would break referential integrity.

Some relational database management systems (RDBMS) can
enforce referential integrity, normally either by deleting the
foreign key rows as well to maintain integrity, or by returning an
error and not performing the delete.

Integrity Constraints on Tables
not null
primary key (A
1
, ..., A
n
)
Example: Declare branch_name as the primary key for branch
.
create table branch
branch_city char(30) not null,
assets integer,
primary key (branch_name))
primary key declaration on an attribute automatically ensures
not null in SQL-92 onwards, needs to be explicitly stated in
SQL-89
Integrity Constraints
Integrity constraints guard against accidental damage
to the database, by ensuring that authorized
changes to the database do not result in a loss of
data consistency.
A checking account must have a
balance greater than $10,000.00
A salary of a bank employee must
be at least $4.00 an hour
A customer must have a (non-null)
phone number

Constraints on a Single Relation
not null
primary key
unique
check (P ), where P is a predicate
Not Null Constraint
Declare branch_name for branch is not null
branch_name char(15) not null

Declare the domain Dollars to be not null

create domain Dollars numeric(12,2) not null

The Unique Constraint
unique ( A
1
, A
2
, , A
m
)
The unique specification states that the attributes
A1, A2, Am
form a candidate key.
Candidate keys are permitted to be null (in contrast to primary
keys).

The check clause
check (P ), where P is a predicate
Example: Declare branch_name as the primary key for
branch and ensure that the values of assets are non-
negative.
create table branch
assets integer,
primary key (branch_name),
check (assets >= 0))
The check clause (Cont.)
The check clause in SQL-92 permits domains to be restricted:
Use check clause to ensure that an hourly_wage
domain allows only values greater than a specified
value.
create domain hourly_wage numeric(5,2)
constraint value_test check(value > =
4.00)
The domain has a constraint that ensures that the
hourly_wage is greater than 4.00
The clause constraint value_test is optional;
useful to indicate which constraint an update
violated.
Integrity Constraints in Create Table
not null
primary key (A
1
, ..., A
n
)
check (P), where P is a predicate
Example: Declare branch-name as the primary key for
branch and ensure that the values of assets are non-
negative.
create table branch
(branch-name char(15),
branch-city char(30)
assets integer,
primary key (branch-name),
check (assets >= 0))
primary key declaration on an attribute automatically
ensures not null in SQL-92 onwards, needs to be
explicitly stated in SQL-89
Referential Integrity
Ensures that a value that appears in one relation for a given set
of attributes also appears for a certain set of attributes in another
relation.
Example: If Perryridge is a branch name appearing in one
of the tuples in the account relation, then there exists a tuple
in the branch relation for branch Perryridge.
Primary and candidate keys and foreign keys can be specified as
part of the SQL create table statement:
The primary key clause lists attributes that comprise the
primary key.
The unique key clause lists attributes that comprise a
candidate key.
The foreign key clause lists the attributes that comprise the
foreign key and the name of the relation referenced by the
foreign key. By default, a foreign key references the primary
key attributes of the referenced table.
Referential Integrity in SQL Example
create table customer
(customer_name char(20),
customer_street char(30),
customer_city char(30),
primary key (customer_name ))
create table branch
assets numeric(12,2),
primary key (branch_name ))
Referential Integrity in SQL Example (Cont.)
create table account
(account_number char(10),
branch_name char(15),
balance integer,
primary key (account_number),
foreign key (branch_name) references branch )
create table depositor
(customer_name char(20),
account_number char(10),
primary key (customer_name, account_number),
foreign key (account_number ) references account,
foreign key (customer_name ) references customer
)
220
The select Clause
The select clause corresponds to the projection
operation of the relational algebra. It is used to
list the attributes desired in the result of a query.

Find the names of all branches in the loan relation
select branch-name
from loan

In the pure relational algebra syntax, the query
would be:
[
branch-name
(loan)
SQL
An asterisk in the select clause denotes all
attributes
select *
from loan
NOTE: SQL does not permit the - character in
names, so you would use, for example,
branch_name instead of branch-name in a real
implementation. We use - since it looks nicer!
NOTE: SQL names are case insensitive, meaning
you can use upper case or lower case.
You may wish to use upper case in places where we use
bold font.

221
222
The select Clause (Cont.)
SQL allows duplicates in relations as well as in query
results.
To force the elimination of duplicates, insert the
keyword distinct after select.
Find the names of all branches in the loan relations,
and remove duplicates
select distinct branch-name
from loan
The keyword all specifies that duplicates not be removed.
select all branch-name
from loan
223
The select Clause (Cont.)
The select clause can contain arithmetic expressions
involving the operation, +, , -, and /, and operating
on constants or attributes of tuples.
The query:
select loan-number, branch-name, amount - 100
from loan

would return a relation which is the same as the loan
relations, except that the attribute amount is multiplied
by 100.
224
The where Clause
The where clause corresponds to the selection predicate
of the relational algebra. If consists of a predicate
involving attributes of the relations that appear in the from
clause.
The find all loan number for loans made a the Perryridge
branch with loan amounts greater than $1200.

select loan-number
from loan
where branch-name = Perryridge and amount > 1200

Comparison results can be combined using the logical
connectives and, or, and not.
Comparisons can be applied to results of arithmetic
expressions.
225
The where Clause (Cont.)
SQL Includes a between comparison operator in
order to simplify where clauses that specify that a
value be less than or equal to some value and greater
than or equal to some other value.
Find the loan number of those loans with loan
amounts between $90,000 and $100,000 (that is,
>$90,000 and s$100,000)
select loan-number
from loan
where amount between 90000 and 100000
226
SQL
SQL: widely used non-procedural language
E.g. find the name of the customer with customer-id 192-83-7465
select customer.customer-name
from customer
where customer.customer-id = 192-83-7465
E.g. find the balances of all accounts held by the customer with
customer-id 192-83-7465
select account.balance
from depositor, account
where depositor.customer-id = 192-83-7465 and
depositor.account-number =account.account-number
Application programs generally access databases through one of
Language extensions to allow embedded SQL
Application program interface (e.g. ODBC/JDBC) which allow SQL
queries to be sent to a database

The Rename Operation
SQL allows renaming relations and attributes using the as clause:
old-name as new-name
E.g. Find the name, loan number and loan amount of all customers;
rename the column name loan_number as loan_id.
select customer_name, borrower.loan_number as loan_id, amount
from borrower, loan
where borrower.loan_number = loan.loan_number
Tuple Variables
Tuple variables are defined in the from clause via the use
of the as clause.
Find the customer names and their loan numbers and
amount for all customers having a loan at some branch.
Find the names of all branches that have greater assets than
some branch located in Brooklyn.
select distinct T.branch_name
from branch as T, branch as S
where T.assets > S.assets and S.branch_city = 'Brooklyn'
Keyword as is optional and may be omitted
borrower as T borrower T
Some database such as Oracle require as to be omitted

select customer_name, T.loan_number, S.amount
from borrower as T, loan as S
where T.loan_number = S.loan_number
String Operations
SQL includes a string-matching operator for comparisons
on character strings. The operator like uses patterns that
are described using two special characters:
percent (%). The % character matches any substring.
underscore (_). The _ character matches any character.
Find the names of all customers whose street includes the
substring Main.
select customer_name
from customer
where customer_street like '% Main%'
Match the name Main%
like 'Main\%' escape '\'
SQL supports a variety of string operations such as
concatenation (using ||)
converting from upper to lower case (and vice versa)
finding string length, extracting substrings, etc.
Ordering the Display of Tuples
List in alphabetic order the names of all customers having a
loan in Perryridge branch
select distinct customer_name
from borrower, loan
where borrower loan_number = loan.loan_number and
branch_name = 'Perryridge'
order by customer_name
We may specify desc for descending order or asc for
ascending order, for each attribute; ascending order is the
default.
Example: order by customer_name desc
Duplicates
In relations with duplicates, SQL can define how many copies
of tuples appear in the result.
Multiset versions of some of the relational algebra operators
given multiset relations r
1
and r
2
:
1. o
u
(r
1
): If there are c
1
copies of tuple t
1
in r
1
, and t
1

satisfies selections o
u,
, then there are c
1
copies of t
1
in
o
u
(r
1
).
2. H
A
(r ): For each copy of tuple t
1
in r
1
, there is a copy
of tuple H
A
(t
1
) in H
A
(r
1
) where H
A
(t
1
) denotes the
projection of the single tuple t
1
.
3. r
1
x r
2
: If there are c
1
copies of tuple t
1
in r
1
and c
2

copies of tuple t
2
in r
2
, there are c
1
x c
2
copies of the
tuple t
1
. t
2
in r
1
x r
2
Duplicates (Cont.)
Example: Suppose multiset relations r
1
(A, B) and r
2
(C)
are as follows:
r
1
= {(1, a) (2,a)} r
2
= {(2), (3), (3)}
Then H
B
(r
1
) would be {(a), (a)}, while H
B
(r
1
) x r
2
would be
{(a,2), (a,2), (a,3), (a,3), (a,3), (a,3)}
SQL duplicate semantics:
select A
1
,
,
A
2
, ..., A
n

from r
1
, r
2
, ..., r
m

where P
is equivalent to the multiset version of the expression:

)) ( (
2 1 , , ,
2 1
m P A A A
r r r
n
[
o
Set Operations
The set operations union, intersect, and except operate on
relations and correspond to the relational algebra operations
, , .
Each of the above operations automatically eliminates
duplicates; to retain all duplicates use the corresponding
multiset versions union all, intersect all and except all.

Suppose a tuple occurs m times in r and n times in s, then, it
occurs:
m

+ n times in r union all s
min(m,n) times in r intersect all s
max(0, m n) times in r except all s
Set Operations
Find all customers who have a loan, an account, or
both:
(select customer_name from depositor)
except
(select customer_name from borrower)

intersect
Find all customers who have an account but no loan.
union
Find all customers who have both a loan and an account.
Aggregate Functions
These functions operate on the multiset
of values of a column of a relation, and
return a value
avg: average value
min: minimum value
max: maximum value
sum: sum of values
count: number of values
Aggregate Functions (Cont.)
Find the average account balance at the Perryridge branch.
Find the number of depositors in the bank.
Find the number of tuples in the customer relation.
select avg (balance)
from account
where branch_name = 'Perryridge'
select count (*)
from customer
select count (distinct customer_name)
from depositor
Aggregate Functions Group By
Find the number of depositors for each branch.
Note: Attributes in select clause outside of aggregate functions must
appear in group by list
select branch_name, count (distinct customer_name)
where depositor.account_number = account.account_number
group by branch_name
Aggregate Functions Having Clause
Find the names of all branches where the average account
balance is more than $1,200.
Note: predicates in the having clause are applied after the
formation of groups whereas predicates in the where
clause are applied before forming groups

select branch_name, avg (balance)
from account
group by branch_name
having avg (balance) > 1200

Nested Subqueries
SQL provides a mechanism for the nesting of subqueries.
A subquery is a select-from-where expression that is nested
within another query.
A common use of subqueries is to perform tests for set
membership, set comparisons, and set cardinality.
Example Query
Find all customers who have both an account and a loan at the
bank.
select distinct customer-name
from borrower
where customer-name in (select customer-name
from depositor)
Find all customers who have a loan at the bank but do not have
an account at the bank
from borrower
where customer-name not in (select customer-name
from depositor)
Example Query
Find all customers who have both an account and a loan at the
Perryridge branch
from borrower, loan
where borrower.loan-number = loan.loan-number and
branch-name = Perryridge and
(branch-name, customer-name) in
(select branch-name, customer-name
where depositor.account-number =
account.account-number)
Note: Above query can be written in a much simpler manner.
The formulation above is simply to illustrate SQL features.
(Schema used in this example)
Set Comparison
Find all branches that have greater assets than some branch
located in Brooklyn.
select distinct T.branch-name
from branch as T, branch as S
where T.assets > S.assets and
S.branch-city = Brooklyn
Same query using > some clause
select branch-name
from branch
where assets > some
(select assets
from branch
where branch-city = Brooklyn)

Views
[
(borrower loan)
is called a view.
View Definition
which has the form


represented by v.
generates.
the view.
View Definition
A relation that is not of the conceptual model but is
made visible to a user as a virtual relation is called a
view.
A view is defined using the create view statement which
has the form

create view v as < query expression >

where <query expression> is any legal SQL expression.
The view name is represented by v.

Once a view is defined, the view name can be used to
refer to the virtual relation that the view generates.
Example Queries
A view consisting of branches and their customers
Find all customers of the Perryridge branch
create view all_customer as
(select branch_name, customer_name
where depositor.account_number =
account.account_number )
union
from borrower, loan
where borrower.loan_number = loan.loan_number )
from all_customer
Uses of Views
Hiding some information from some users
Consider a user who needs to know a customers name, loan
number and branch name, but has no need to see the loan
amount.
Define a view
(create view cust_loan_data as
select customer_name, borrower.loan_number,
branch_name
from borrower, loan
Grant the user permission to read cust_loan_data, but not
borrower or loan
Predefined queries to make writing of other queries easier
Common example: Aggregate queries used for statistical
analysis of data

Processing of Views
When a view is created
the query expression is stored in the database along with the
view name
the expression is substituted into any query using the view
Views definitions containing views
One view may be used in the expression defining another
view
A view relation v
1
is said to depend directly on a view relation
v
2
if v
2
1

A view relation v
1
2
if
either v
1
2
or there is a path of
dependencies from v
1
to v
2


View Expansion
views.
Let view v
1
1
replacement step:
repeat
i
in e
1

i
i

1

terminate
Derived Relations
Find the average account balance of those branches where the
average account balance is greater than $1200.
select branch-name, avg-balance
from (select branch-name, avg (balance)
from account
group by branch-name)
as result (branch-name, avg-balance)
where avg-balance > 1200
Note that we do not need to use the having clause, since we
compute the temporary (view) relation result in the from clause,
and the attributes of result can be used directly in the where
clause.

With Clause
With clause allows views to be defined locally to a query, rather
than globally. Analogous to procedures in a programming
language.
Find all accounts with the maximum balance

with max-balance(value) as
select max (balance)
from account
select account-number
from account, max-balance
where account.balance = max-balance.value
Complex Query using With Clause
Find all branches where the total account deposit is greater than
the average of the total account deposits at all branches

with branch-total (branch-name, value) as
select branch-name, sum (balance)
from account
group by branch-name
with branch-total-avg(value) as
select avg (value)
from branch-total
select branch-name
from branch-total, branch-total-avg
where branch-total.value >= branch-total-avg.value
Modification of the Database Deletion
Delete all account records at the Perryridge branch
delete from account
where branch-name = Perryridge
Delete all accounts at every branch located in Needham city.
delete from account
where branch-name in (select branch-name
from branch
where branch-city = Needham)
delete from depositor
where account-number in
(select account-number
from branch, account
where branch-city = Needham
and branch.branch-name = account.branch-name)

Example Query
Delete the record of all accounts with balances below the
average at the bank.
delete from account
where balance < (select avg (balance)
from account)
Problem: as we delete tuples from deposit,
the average balance changes
Solution used in SQL:
1. First, compute avg balance and find all
tuples to delete
2. Next, delete all tuples found above
(without recomputing avg or retesting the
tuples)
Modification of the Database Insertion
Add a new tuple to account
insert into account
values (A-9732, Perryridge,1200)
or equivalently

insert into account (branch-name, balance, account-number)
values (Perryridge, 1200, A-9732)
Add a new tuple to account with balance set to null
insert into account
values (A-777,Perryridge, null)

Modification of the Database Insertion
Provide as a gift for all loan customers of the Perryridge branch, a
$200 savings account. Let the loan number serve as the account
number for the new savings account
insert into account
select loan-number, branch-name, 200
from loan
insert into depositor
select customer-name, loan-number
from loan, borrower
and loan.account-number = borrower.account-number
The select from where statement is fully evaluated before any of
its results are inserted into the relation (otherwise queries like
insert into table1 select * from table1
would cause problems
Modification of the Database Updates
Increase all accounts with balances over $10,000 by 6%, all
other accounts receive 5%.
Write two update statements:
update account
set balance = balance - 1.06
where balance > 10000

update account
set balance = balance - 1.05
where balance s 10000
The order is important
Can be done better using the case statement
Case Statement for Conditional Updates
Same query as before: Increase all accounts with balances over
$10,000 by 6%, all other accounts receive 5%.

update account
set balance = case
when balance <= 10000 then balance *1.05
else balance * 1.06
end

Update of a View
Create a view of all loan data in loan relation, hiding the amount
attribute
create view branch-loan as
select branch-name, loan-number
from loan
Add a new tuple to branch-loan
insert into branch-loan
values (Perryridge, L-307)
This insertion must be represented by the insertion of the tuple
(L-307, Perryridge, null)
into the loan relation
Updates on more complex views are difficult or impossible to
translate, and hence are disallowed.
Most SQL implementations allow updates only on simple views
(without aggregates) defined on a single relation
Transactions
A transaction is a sequence of queries and update statements executed
as a single unit
Transactions are started implicitly and terminated by one of
commit work: makes all updates of the transaction permanent in the
database
rollback work: undoes all updates performed by the transaction.
Motivating example
Transfer of money from one account to another involves two steps:
deduct from one account and credit to another
If one steps succeeds and the other fails, database is in an inconsistent state
Therefore, either both steps should succeed or neither should
If any step of a transaction fails, all work done by the transaction can be
undone by rollback work.
Rollback of incomplete transactions is done automatically, in case of
system failures
Transactions (Cont.)
In most database systems, each SQL statement that executes
successfully is automatically committed.
Each transaction would then consist of only
a single statement
Automatic commit can usually be turned off,
allowing multi-statement transactions, but
how to do so depends on the database
system
Another option in SQL:1999: enclose
statements within
begin atomic

end

Definition of Some Clause
F <comp> some r - t e r s.t. (F <comp> t)
Where <comp> can be: <, s, >, =, =
0
5
6
(5< some ) = true
0
5
0
) = false
5
0
5
(5 = some ) = true (since 0 = 5)
(read: 5 < some tuple in the relation)
(5< some
) = true (5 = some
(= some) in
However, (= some) not in
Definition of all Clause
F <comp> all r t e r (F <comp> t)
0
5
6
(5< all ) = false
6
10
4
) = true
5
4
6
(5 = all ) = true (since 5 = 4 and 5 = 6)
(5< all
) = false (5 = all
(= all) not in
However, (= all) in
Example Query
Find the names of all branches that have greater assets than all
branches located in Brooklyn.
select branch-name
from branch
where assets > all
(select assets
from branch
Test for Empty Relations
The exists construct returns the value true if the argument
subquery is nonempty.
exists r r =
not exists r r =
Example Query
Find all customers who have an account at all branches located in
Brooklyn.
select distinct S.customer-name
from depositor as S
where not exists (
(select branch-name
from branch
except
(select R.branch-name
from depositor as T, account as R
where T.account-number = R.account-number and
S.customer-name = T.customer-name))
Note that X Y = X _ Y
Note: Cannot write this query using = all and its variants
Test for Absence of Duplicate Tuples
The unique construct tests whether a subquery has any
duplicate tuples in its result.
Find all customers who have at most one account at the
Perryridge branch.
select T.customer-name
from depositor as T
where unique (
select R.customer-name
from account, depositor as R
where T.customer-name = R.customer-name and
R.account-number = account.account-number and
account.branch-name = Perryridge)

Example Query
Find all customers who have at least two accounts at the
Perryridge branch.

select distinct T.customer-name
from depositor T
where not unique (
select R.customer-name
from account, depositor as R
where T.customer-name = R.customer-name and
R.account-number = account.account-number and
account.branch-name = Perryridge)


Views
[
(borrower loan)
is called a view.
View Definition
which has the form


represented by v.
generates.
the view.
View Definition
A relation that is not of the conceptual model but is
made visible to a user as a virtual relation is called a
view.
A view is defined using the create view statement which
has the form

create view v as < query expression >

where <query expression> is any legal SQL expression.
The view name is represented by v.

Once a view is defined, the view name can be used to
refer to the virtual relation that the view generates.
Example Queries
A view consisting of branches and their customers
Find all customers of the Perryridge branch
create view all_customer as
where depositor.account_number =
account.account_number )
union
from borrower, loan
from all_customer
Uses of Views
Hiding some information from some users
Consider a user who needs to know a customers name, loan
number and branch name, but has no need to see the loan
amount.
Define a view
(create view cust_loan_data as
select customer_name, borrower.loan_number,
branch_name
from borrower, loan
Grant the user permission to read cust_loan_data, but not
borrower or loan
Predefined queries to make writing of other queries easier
Common example: Aggregate queries used for statistical
analysis of data

Processing of Views
When a view is created
the query expression is stored in the database along with the
view name
the expression is substituted into any query using the view
Views definitions containing views
One view may be used in the expression defining another
view
A view relation v
1
is said to depend directly on a view relation
v
2
if v
2
1

A view relation v
1
2
if
either v
1
2
or there is a path of
dependencies from v
1
to v
2


View Expansion
views.
Let view v
1
1
replacement step:
repeat
i
in e
1

i
i

1

terminate

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