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C++ Cn bn v nng cao

Mc lc: I. C bn v C++ (2) I. Cu trc ca mt trng trnh C++ (2) II. Cc bin kiu v hng s (5) III. Cc ton t (13) IV. Giao tip vi Console (19) II. Cc cu trc iu khin v Hm (22) I. Cu trc d liu iu khin (22) II. Hm I (29) III. Hm II (34) III. D liu nng cao (41) I. Mng (41) II. Su k t (48) III. Con tr (54) IV. B nh ng (65) V. Cc cu trc (69) VI. Cc kiu d liu do ngi dng nh ngha. (typedef, union, enum) (75)

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Cu trc ca mt chng trnh C++

C l mt trong nhng cch tt nht bt u hc mt ngn ng lp trnh l bng mt chng trnh. Vy y l chng trnh u tin ca chng ta :
// my first program in C++ #include <iostream.h> int main () { cout << "Hello World!"; return 0; } Hello World!

Chng trnh trn y l chng trnh u tin m hu ht nhng ngi hc ngh lp trnh vit u tin v kt qu ca n l vit cu "Hello, World" ln mn hnh. y l mt trong nhng chng trnh n gin nht c th vit bng C++ nhng n bao gm nhng phn c bn m mi chng trnh C++ c. Hy cng xem xt tng dng mt :
// my first program in C++

y l dng ch thch. Tt c cc dng bt u bng hai du s (//) c coi l cht thch m chng khng c bt k mt nh hng no n hot ng ca chng trnh. Chng c th c cc lp trnh vin dng gii thch hay bnh phm bn trong m ngun ca chng trnh. Trong trng hp ny, dng ch thch l mt gii thch ngn gn nhng g m chng trnh chng ta lm.
#include <iostream.h>

Cc cu bt u bng du (#) c dng cho preprocessor (ai dch h ti t ny vi). Chng khng phi l nhng dng m thc hin nhng c dng bo hiu cho trnh dch. y cu lnh #include <iostream.h> bo cho trnh dch bit cn phi "include" th vin iostream. y l mt th vin vo ra c bn trong C++ v n phi c "include" v n s c dng trong chng trnh. y l cch c in s dng th vin iostream
int main ()

Dng ny tng ng vi phn bt u khai bo hm main. Hm main l im m tt c cc chng trnh C++ bt u thc hin. N khng ph thuc vo v tr ca hm ny ( u, cui hay gia ca m ngun) m ni dung ca n lun c thc hin u tin khi chng trnh bt u. Thm vo , do nguyn nhn ni trn, mi chng trnh C++ u phi tn ti mt hm main. Theo sau main l mt cp ngoc n bi v n l mt hm. Trong C++, tt c cc hm m sau l mt cp ngoc n () th c ngha l n c th c hoc khng c tham s
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(khng bt buc). Ni dung ca hm main tip ngay sau phn khai bo chnh thc c bao trong cc ngoc nhn ( { } ) nh trong v d ca chng ta
cout << "Hello World";

Dng lnh ny lm vic quan trng nht ca chng trnh. cout l mt dng (stream) output chun trong C++ c nh ngha trong th vin iostream v nhng g m dng lnh ny lm l gi chui k t "Hello World" ra mn hnh. Ch rng dng ny kt thc bng du chm phy ( ; ). K t ny c dng kt thc mt lnh v bt buc phi c sau mi lnh trong chng trnh C++ ca bn (mt trong nhng li ph bin nht ca nhng lp trnh vin C++ l qun mt du chm phy).
return 0;

Lnh return kt thc hm main v tr v m i sau n, trong trng hp ny l 0. y l mt kt thc bnh thng ca mt chng trnh khng c mt li no trong qu trnh thc hin. Nh bn s thy trong cc v d tip theo, y l mt cch ph bin nht kt thc mt chng trnh C++. Chng trnh c cu trc thnh nhng dng khc nhau n tr nn d c hn nhng hon ton khng phi bt buc phi lm vy. V d, thay v vit
int main () { cout << " Hello World "; return 0; }

ta c th vit
int main () { cout << " Hello World "; return 0; }

cng cho mt kt qu chnh xc nh nhau. Trong C++, cc dng lnh c phn cch bng du chm phy ( ;). Vic chia chng trnh thnh cc dng ch nhm cho n d c hn m thi.

Cc ch thch.
Cc ch thch c cc lp trnh vin s dng ghi ch hay m t trong cc phn ca chng trnh. Trong C++ c hai cch ch thch
// Ch thch theo dng /* Ch thch theo khi */

Ch thch theo dng bt u t cp du x (//) cho n cui dng. Ch thch theo khi bt u bng /* v kt thc bng */ v c th bao gm nhiu dng. Chng ta s thm cc ch thch cho chng trnh :
/* my second program in C++ Hello World! I'm a C++ program

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with more comments */ #include <iostream.h> int main () { cout << "Hello World! "; // says Hello World! cout << "I'm a C++ program"; // says I'm a C++ program return 0; }

Nu bn vit cc ch thch trong chng trnh m khng s dng cc du //, /* hay */, trnh dch s coi chng nh l cc lnh C++ v s hin th cc li.

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Cc bin, kiu v hng s

Identifiers
Mt tn (indentifiers) hp l l mt chui gm cc ch ci, ch s hoc k t gch di. Chiu di ca mt tn l khng gii hn. K t trng, cc k t nh du u khng th c mt trong mt tn. Ch c ch ci, ch s v k t gch di l c cho php. Thm vo , mt tn bin lun phi bt u bng mt ch ci. Chng cng c th bt u bng k t gch di ( _ ) nhng k t ny thng c dnh cho cc lin kt bn ngoi (external link). Khng bao gi chng bt u bng mt ch s. Mt lut na m bn phi quan tm n khi to ra cc tn ca ring mnh l chng khng c trng vi bt k t kho no ca ngn ng hay ca trnh dch, v d cc tn sau y lun lun c coi l t kho theo chun ANSI-C++ v do vy chng khng th c dng t tn
asm, car, bool, break, marry, catch, to char, class, const, const_cast, continue, default, delete, do, double, dynamic_cast, else, enum, explicit, extern, false, float, for, friend, goto, if, inline, int, long, mutable, namespace, new, operator, private, protected, public, to register, reinterpret_cast, return, short, signed, sizeof, static, static_cast, struct, switch, template, this, throw, true, try, typedef, typeid, typename, union, unsigned, using, virtual, void, volatile, wchar_t

Thm vo , mt s biu din khc ca cc ton t (operator) cng khng c dng lm tn v chng l nhng t c dnh ring trong mt s trng hp.
and, and_eq, bitand, bitor, compl, not, not_eq, or, or_eq, xor, xor_eq

Trnh dch ca bn c th thm mt t dnh ring c trng khc. V d, rt nhiu trnh dch 16 bit (nh cc trnh dch cho DOS) cn c th cc t kho far, huge v near. Ch : Ngn ng C++ l "case sensitive" c ngha l phn bit ch hoa ch thng. Do vy bin RESULT khc vi result cng nh Result.

Cc kiu d liu
Khi lp trnh, chng ta lu tr cc bin trong b nh ca my tnh nhng my tnh phi bit chng ta mun lu tr g trong chng v cc kiu d liu khc nhau s cn lng b nh khc nhau.

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B nh ca my tnh chng ta c t chc thnh cc byte. Mt byte l lng b nh nh nht m chng ta c th qun l. Mt byte c th dng lu tr mt loi d liu nh nh l kiu s nguyn t 0 n 255 hay mt k t. Nhng my tnh c th x l cc kiu d liu phc tp hn bng cch gp nhiu byte li vi nhau, nh s nguyn di hay s thp phn. Tip theo bn s c mt danh sch cc kiu d liu c bn trong C++ cng nh min gi tr m chng c th biu din Tn char short long S byte 1 2 4 M t K t hay kiu s nguyn 8-bit kiu s nguyn 16-bit kiu s nguyn 32-bit S nguyn. di ca n ph thuc vo h thng, nh trong MS-DOS n l 16-bit, trn Windows 9x/2000/NT l 32 bit... Dng du phy ng Dng du phy ng vi chnh xc gp i Dng du phy ng vi chnh xc hn n a Gi tr logic. N mi c thm vo chun ANSI-C++. Bi vy khng phi tt c cc trnh dch u h tr n. Min gi tr c du: -128 to 127 khng du: 0 to 255 c du: -32763 to 32762 khng du: 0 to 65535 c du:-2147483648 to 2147483647 khng du: 0 to 4294967295 Xem short, long 3.4e + / - 38 (7 digits) 1.7e + / - 308 (15 digits) 1.2e + / - 4932 (19 digits)
true

int float

* 4

double 8 long 10 double bool 1

hoc false

Ngoi cc kiu d liu c bn ni trn cn tn ti cc con tr v cc tham s khng kiu (void) m chng ta s xem xt sau.

Khai bo mt bin
c th s dng mt bin trong C++, u tin chng ta phi khai bo n, ghi r n l kiu d liu no. Chng ta ch cn vit tn kiu (nh int, short, float...) tip theo sau l mt tn bin hp l. V d
int a; float mynumber;

Dng u tin khai bo mt bin kiu int vi tn l a. Dng th hai khai bo mt bin kiu float vi tn mynumber. Sau khi c khai bo, cc bin trn c th c dng trong phm vi ca chng trong chng trnh.

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Nu bn mun khai bo mt vi bin c cng mt kiu v bn mun tit kim cng sc vit bn c th khai bo chng trn mt dng, ngn cch cc tn bng du phy. V d
int a, b, c;

khai bo ba bin kiu int (a,b v c) v hon ton tng ng vi :

int a; int b; int c;

Cc kiu s nguyn (char, short, long and int) c th l s c du hay khng du tu theo min gi tr m chng ta cn biu din. V vy khi xc nh mt kiu s nguyn chng ta t t kho signed hoc unsigned trc tn kiu d liu. V d:
unsigned short NumberOfSons; signed int MyAccountBalance;

Nu ta khng ch r signed or unsigned n s c coi l c du, v vy trong khai bo th hai chng ta c th vit :
int MyAccountBalance

cng hon ton tng ng vi dng khai bo trn. Trong thc t, rt t khi ngi ta dng n t kho signed. Ngoi l duy nht ca lut ny kiu char. Trong chun ANSIC++ n l kiu d liu khc vi signed char v unsigned char. c th thy r hn vic khai bo trong chng trnh, chng ta s xem xt mt on m C++ v d nh sau:
// operating with variables #include <iostream.h> int main () { // declaring variables: int a, b; int result; // process: a = 5; b = 2; a = a + 1; result = a - b; // print out the result: cout << result; // terminate the program: 4

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return 0; }

ng lo lng nu nh vic khai bo c v hi l lng vi bn. Bn s thy phn chi tit cn li trong phn tip theo

Khi to cc bin
Khi khai bo mt bin, gi tr ca n mc nhin l khng xc nh. Nhng c th bn s mun n mang mt gi tr xc nh khi c khai bo. lm iu , bn ch cn vit du bng v gi tr bn mun bin s mang:
type identifier = initial_value ;

V d, nu chng ta mun khai bo mt bin int l a cha gi tr 0 ngay t khi khi to, chng ta s vit :
int a = 0;

B xung vo cch khi to kiu C ny, C++ cn c thm mt cch mi khi to bin bng cch bc mt cp ngoc n sau gi tr khi to. V d :
int a (0);

C hai cch u hp l trong C++.

Phm vi hot ng ca cc bin

Tt c cc bin m chng ta s s dng u phi c khai bo trc. Mt im khc bit gia Cv C++ l trong C++ chng ta c th khai bo bin bt k ni no trong chng trnh, thm ch l ngay gia cc lnh thc hin ch khng ch l u khi lnh nh trong C. Mc d vy chng ta vn nn theo cch ca ngn ng C khi khai bo cc bin bi v n s rt hu dng khi cn sa cha mt chng trnh c tt c cc phn khai bo c gp li vi nhau. Bi vy, cch thng dng nht khai bo bin l t n trong phn bt u ca mi hm (bin cc b) hay trc tip trong thn chng trnh, ngoi tt c cc hm (bin ton cc). Global variables (bin ton cc) c th c s dng bt k u trong chng trnh, ngay sau khi n c khai bo. Tm hot ng ca local variables (bin cc b) b gii hn trong phn m m n c khai bo. Nu chng c khai bo u mt hm (nh hm main), tm hot ng s l ton b hm main. iu c ngha l trong v d trn, cc bin c khai bo trong

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hm main() ch c th c dng trong hm , khng c dng bt k u khc. Thm vo cc bin ton cc v cc b, cn c cc bin ngoi (external). Cc bin ny khng nhng c dng trong mt file m ngun m cn trong tt c cc file c lin kt trong chng trnh. Trong C++ tm hot ng ca mt bin chnh l khi lnh m n c khai bo (mt khi lnh l mt tp hp cc lnh c gp li trong mt bng cc ngoc nhn { } ). Nu n c khai bo trong mt hm tm hot ng s l hm , cn nu c khai bo trong vng lp th tm hot ng s ch l vng lp ....

Cc hng s
Mt hng s l bt k mt biu thc no mang mt gi tr c nh, nh: Cc s nguyn
1776 707 -273

chng l cc hng mang gi tr s. Ch rng khi biu din mt hng kiu s chng ta khng cn vit du ngoc kp hay bt k du hiu no khc. Thm vo nhng s h c s 10 ( ci m tt c chng ta u bit) C++ cn cho php s dng cc hng s c s 8 v 16. biu din mt s h c s 8 chng ta t trc n k t 0, biu din s h c s 16 chng ta t trc n hai k t 0x. V d:
75 0113 0x4b // C s 10 // c s 8 // c s 16

Cc s thp phn (dng du phy ng) Chng biu din cc s vi phn thp phn v/hoc s m. Chng c th bao gm phn thp phn, k t e (biu din 10 m...).
3.14159 // 3.14159 6.02e23 // 6.02 x 1023 1.6e-19 // 1.6 x 10-19 3.0 // 3.0

K t v xu k t Trong C++ cn tn ti cc hng khng phi kiu s nh:

'z' 'p' "Hello world" "How do you do?"

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Hai biu thc u tin biu din cc k t n, cc k t c t trong du nhy n ('), hai biu thc tip theo biu thc cc xu k t c t trong du nhy kp ("). Khi vit cc k t n hay cc xu k t cn phi chng trong cc du nhy phn bit vi cc tn bin hay cc t kho. Ch :
x 'x'

x tr n bin x trong khi 'x' l k t hng 'x'. Cc k t n v cc xu k t c mt tnh cht ring bit l cc m iu khin. Chng l nhng k t c bit m khng th c vit bt k u khc trong chng trnh nh l m xung dng (\n) hay tab (\t). Tt c u bt u bng du x ngc (\). Sau y l danh sch cc m iu khin :
\n \r \t \v \b \f \a \' \" \ \\

xung dng li v u dng k t tab cn thng theo chiu dc backspace sang trang Ku bp du nhy n du nhy kp du hi k t x ngc

V d:
'\n' '\t' "Left \t Right" "one\ntwo\nthree"

Thm vo , biu din mt m ASCII bn cn s dng k t x ngc (\) tip theo l m ASCII vit trong h c s 8 hay c s 16. Trong trng hp u m ASCII c vit ngay sau du s ngc, trong trng hp th hai, s dng s trong h c s 16 bn cn vit k t x trc s (v d \x20 hay \x4A). Cc hng chui k t c th c vit trn nhiu dng nu mi dng c kt thc bng mt du s ngc (\):

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"string expressed in \ two lines"

Bn c th ni mt vi hng xu k t ngn cch bng mt hay vi du trng, k t tab, xung dng hay bt k k t trng no khc.
"we form" "a unique" "string" "of characters"

nh ngha cc hng (#define)

Bn c th nh ngha cc hng vi tn m bn mun c th s dng thng xuyn m khng mt ti nguyn cho cc bin bng cch s dng ch th #define. y l dng ca n:
#define identifier value

V d:
#define PI 3.14159265 #define NEWLINE '\n' #define WIDTH 100

chng nh ngha ba hng s mi. Sau khi khai bo bn c th s dng chng nh bt k cc hng s no khc, v d
circle = 2 * PI * r; cout << NEWLINE;

Trong thc t vic duy nht m trnh dch lm khi n tm thy mt ch th #define l thay th cc tn hng ti bt k ch no chng xut hin (nh trong v d trc, PI, NEWLINE hay WIDTH) bng gi tr m chng c nh ngha. V vy cc hng s #define c coi l cc hng s macro Ch th #define khng phi l mt lnh thc thi, n l ch th tin x l (preprocessor), l l do trnh dch coi c dng l mt ch th v dng khng cn kt thc bng du chm phy. Nu bn thm du chm phy vo cui dng, n s c coi l mt phn ca gi tr nh ngha hng.

Khai bo cc hng (const)

Vi tin t const bn c th khai bo cc hng vi mt kiu xc nh nh l bn lm vi mt bin
const int width = 100; const to char tab = '\t'; const zip = 12440;

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Trong trng hp kiu khng c ch r (nh trong v d cui) trnh dch s coi n l kiu int

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Cc ton t
Qua bi trc chng ta bit n s tn ti ca cc bin v cc hng. Trong C++, thao tc vi chng ta s dng cc ton t, l cc t kho v cc du khng c trong bng ch ci nhng li c trn hu ht cc bn phm trn th gii. Hiu bit v chng l rt quan trng v y l mt trong nhng thnh phn c bn ca ngn ng C++.
Ton t gn (=). Ton t gn dng gn mt gi tr no cho mt bin a = 5; gn gi tr nguyn 5 cho bin a. V tri bt buc phi l mt bin cn v phi c th l bt k hng, bin hay kt qu ca mt biu thc.

Cn phi nhn mnh rng ton t gn lun c thc hin t tri sang phi v khng bao gi o ngc
a = b; gn gi tr ca bin a bng gi tr ang cha trong bin b. Ch rng chng ta ch gn gi tr ca b cho a v s thay i ca b sau s khng nh hng n gi tr ca a.

Mt thuc tnh ca ton t gn trong C++ gp phn gip n vt ln cc ngn ng lp trnh khc l vic cho php v phi c th cha cc php gn khc. V d:
a = 2 + (b = 5); tng ng vi b = 5; a = 2 + b;

V vy biu thc sau cng hp l trong C++

a = b = c = 5; gn gi tr 5 cho c ba bin a, b v c Cc ton t s hc ( +, -, *, /, % ) Nm ton t s hc c h tr bi ngn ng l: + cng - tr * nhn / chia

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% ly phn d (trong php chia)

Th t thc hin cc ton t ny cng ging nh chng c thc hin trong ton hc. iu duy nht c v hi l i vi bn l php ly phn d, k hiu bng du phn trm (%). y chnh l php ton ly phn d trong php chia hai s nguyn vi nhau. V d, nu a = 11 % 3;, bin a s mang gi tr 2 v 11 = 3*3 +2.
Cc ton t gn phc hp (+=, -=, *=, /=, %=, >>=, <<=, &=, ^=, |=) Mt c tnh ca ngn ng C++ lm cho n ni ting l mt ngn ng sc tch chnh l cc ton t gn phc hp cho php chnh sa gi tr ca mt bin vi mt trong nhng ton t c bn sau: value += increase; tng ng vi value = value + increase; a -= 5; tng ng vi a = a - 5; a /= b; tng ng vi a = a / b; price *= units + 1; tng ng vi price = price * (units + 1); v tng t cho tt c cc ton t khc. Tng v gim. Mt v d khc ca vic tit kim khi vit m lnh l ton t tng (++) v gim (--). Chng tng hoc gim gi tr cha trong mt bin i 1. Chng tng ng vi +=1 hoc -=1. V vy, cc dng sau l tng ng: a++; a+=1; a=a+1;

Mt tnh cht ca ton t ny l n c th l tin t hoc hu t, c ngha l c th vit trc tn bin (++a) hoc sau (a++) v mc d trong hai biu thc rt n gin n c cng ngha nhng trong cc thao tc khc khi m kt qu ca vic tng hay gim c s dng trong mt biu thc th chng c th c mt khc bit quan trng v ngha: Trong trng hp ton t c s dng nh l mt tin t (++a) gi tr c tng trc khi biu thc c tnh v gi tr tng c s dng trong biu thc; trong trng hp ngc li (a++) gi tr trong bin a c tng sau khi tnh ton. Hy ch s khc bit :
V d 1 V d 2

B=3; B=3; A=++B; A=B++; // A is 4, B is 4 // A is 3, B is 4 Cc ton t quan h ( ==, !=, >, <, >=, <= ) c th so snh hai biu thc vi nhau chng ta c th s dng cc ton t quan h. Theo chun ANSI-C++ th gi tr ca thao tc quan h ch c th l gi tr logic - chng ch c th c gi tr true hoc false, tu theo biu thc kt qu l ng hay sai.

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Sau y l cc ton t quan h bn c th s dng trong C++ == Bng != Khc > Ln hn Nh hn > = Ln hn hoc bng < = Nh hn hoc bng <

V d:
(7 == 5) s tr gi tr false (6 >= 6) s tr gi tr true tt nhin thay v s dng cc s, chng ta c th s dng bt c biu thc no. Cho a=2, b=3 v c=6 (a*b >= c) s tr gi tr true. (b+4 < a*c) s tr gi tr false Cn ch rng = (mt du bng) lf hon ton khc vi == (hai du bng). Du u tin l mt ton t gn ( gn gi tr ca biu thc bn phi cho bin bn tri) v du cn li (==) l mt ton t quan h nhm so snh xem hai biu thc c bng nhau hay khng. Trong nhiu trnh dch c trc chun ANSI-C++ cng nh trong ngn ng C, cc ton t quan h khng tr v gi tr logic true hoc false m tr v gi tr int vi 0 tng ng vi false cn gi tr khc 0 (thng l 1) th tng ng vi true. Cc ton t logic ( !, &&, || ). Ton t ! tng ng vi ton t logic NOT, n ch c mt i s pha bn phi v vic duy nht m n lm l i ngc gi tr ca i s t true sang false hoc ngc li. V d: !(5 == 5) tr v false v biu thc bn phi (5 == 5) c gi trtrue. !(6 <= 4) tr v true v (6 <= 4)c gi tr false. !true !false tr v false. tr v true.

Ton t logic && v || c s dng khi tnh ton hai biu thc ly ra mt kt qu duy nht. Chng tng ng vi cc ton t logic AND v OR. Kt qu ca chng ph thuc vo mi quan h ca hai i s: i s th nht i s th hai Kt qu Kt qu a && b a || b a b true true false false V d: true false true false true false false false true true true false

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( (5 == 5) && (3 > 6) ) tr v false ( true && false ). ( (5 == 5) || (3 > 6)) tr v true ( true || false ). Ton t iu kin ( ? ). Ton t iu kin tnh ton mt biu thc v tr v mt gi tr khc tu thuc vo biu thc l ng hay sai. Cu trc ca n nh sau: condition ? result1 : result2 Nu condition l true th gi tr tr v s l result1, nu khng gi tr tr v l result2. 7==5 ? 4 : 3 tr v 3 v 7 khng bng 5. 7==5+2 ? 4 : 3 tr v 4 v 7 bng 5+2. 5>3 ? a : b tr v a, v 5 ln hn 3. a>b ? a : b tr v gi tr ln hn, a hoc b.

Cc ton t thao tc bit ( &, |, ^, ~, <<, >> ). Cc ton t thao tc bit thay i cc bit biu din mt bin, c ngha l thay i biu din nh phn ca chng ton t asm M t & | ^ ~ << >> AND Logical AND OR Logical OR XOR Logical exclusive OR NOT o ngc bit SHL Dch bit sang tri SHR Dch bit sang phi

Cc ton t chuyn i kiu Cc ton t chuyn i kiu cho php bn chuyn i d liu t kiu ny sang kiu khc. C vi cch lm vic ny trong C++, cch c bn nht c tha k t ngn ng C l t trc biu thc cn chuyn i tn kiu d liu c bc trong cp ngoc n (), v d: int i; float f = 3.14; i = (int) f; on m trn chuyn s thp phn 3.14 sang mt s nguyn (3). y, ton t chuyn i kiu l (int). Mt cch khc lm iu ny trong C++ l s dng cc constructors ( mt s sch thut ng ny c dch l cu t nhng ti thy n c v khng xui tai lm) thay v dng cc ton t : t trc biu thc cn chuyn i kiu tn kiu mi v bao bc biu thc gia mt cp ngoc n. i = int ( f );

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C hai cch chuyn i kiu u hp l trong C++. Thm vo ANSI-C++ cn c nhng ton t chuyn i kiu mi c trng cho lp trnh hng i tng. sizeof() Ton t ny c mt tham s, c th l mt kiu d liu hay l mt bin v tr v kch c bng byte ca kiu hay i tng . a = sizeof (char); a s mang gi tr 1 v kiu char lun c kch c 1 byte trn mi h thng. Gi tr tr v ca sizeof l mt hng s v vy n lun lun c tnh trc khi chng trnh thc hin. Cc ton t khc Trong C++ cn c mt s cc ton t khc, nh cc ton t lin quan n con tr hay lp trnh hng i tng. Chng s c ni n c th trong cc phn tng ng.

Th t u tin ca cc ton t
Khi vit cc biu thc phc tp vi nhiu ton hng cc bn c th t hi ton hng no c tnh trc, ton hng no c tnh sau. V d nh trong biu thc sau: a = 5 + 7 % 2 c th c hai cch hiu sau: a = 5 + (7 % 2) a = (5 + 7) % 2

vi kt qu l 6, hoc vi kt qu l 0

Cu tr li ng l biu thc u tin. V nguyn nhn ni trn, ngn ng C++ thit lp mt th t u tin gia cc ton t, khng ch ring cc ton t s hc m tt c cc ton t c th xut hin trong C++. Th t u tin ca chng c lit k trong bng sau theo th t t cao xung thp. Th t 1 2 Ton t :: () [ ] -> . sizeof ++ -~ 3 ! &* (type) +4 */% tng/gim o ngc bit NOT Ton t con tr Chuyn i kiu Dng hoc m Ton t s hc Tri Phi M t scope Associativity Tri Tri

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5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13

+<< >> < <= > >= == != &^| && || ?: = += -= *= /= %= >>= <<= &= ^= |= ,

Ton t s hc Dch bit Ton t quan h Ton t quan h Ton t thao tc bit Ton t logic

Tri Tri Tri Tri Tri Tri

Ton t iu kin Phi Ton t gn Du phy Phi Tri

Associativity nh ngha trong trng hp c mt vi ton t c cng th t u tin th ci no s c tnh trc, ton t pha xa nht bn phi hay l xa nht bn tri. Nu bn mun vit mt biu thc phc tp m li khng chc lm v th t u tin ca cc ton t th nn s dng cc ngoc n. Cc bn nn thc hin iu ny v n s gip chng trnh d c hn.

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Giao tip vi console.

Console l giao din c bn ca my tnh. Bn phm l thit b vo c bn cn mn hnh l thit b ra c bn. Trong th vin iostream ca C++, cc thao tc vo ra c bn ca mt chng trnh c h tr bi hai dng d liu : cin nhp d liu v cout xut. Thm vo , cn c cerr v clog l hai dng d liu dng hin th cc thng bo li trn thit b ra chun (thng l mn hnh) hoc ra mt file. Thng thng cout c gn vi mn hnh cn cin c gn vi bn phm. S dng hai dng d liu ny bn s c th giao tip vi ngi s dng v bn c th hin th cc thng bo ln mn hnh cng nh nhn d liu t bn phm.

Xut d liu (cout)

Dng cout c s dng vi ton t qu ti << (overloaded - bn s hiu r hn v thut ng ny trong phn lp trnh hng i tng)
cout << "Output sentence"; // Hin th Output sentence ln mn hnh cout << 120; // Hin th s 120 ln mn hnh cout << x; // Hin th ni dung bin x ln mn hnh

Ton t << c gi l ton t chn v n chn d liu i sau n vo dng d liu ng trc. Trong v d trn n chn chui "Output sentence", hng s 120 v bin x vo dng d liu ra cout.Ch rng dng u tin chng ta s dng du ngoc kp v l mt chui k t. Khi chng ta mun s dng cc hng xu k t ta phi t chng trong cp du ngoc kp chng c th c phn bit vi cc bin. V d, hai lnh sau y l hon ton khc nhau:
cout << "Hello"; cout << Hello; // Hin th Hello ln mn hnh // Hin th ni dung ca bin Hello ln mn hnh

Ton t chn (<<) c th c s dng nhiu ln trong mt cu lnh: Cu ln mn hnh. S tin li ca vic s dng lp li ton t chn (<<) th hin r khi chng ta mun hin th nhiu bin v hng hn l ch mt bin: Cn cu lnh sau :
cout << "Hello, I am " << age << " years old and my email address is " << email_add; phi nhn mnh rng cout khng nhy xung dng sau khi xut d liu, v vy hai cout << "Hello, " << "I am " << "a C++ sentence"; lnh trn s in thng bo Hello, I am a C++ sentence

cout << "This is a sentence."; cout << "This is another sentence.";

s c hin th trn mn hnh:

This is a sentence.This is another sentence.

Bi vy khi mun xung dng chng ta phi s dng k t xung dng, trong C++ l \n:

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cout << "First sentence.\n "; cout << "Second sentence.\nThird sentence.";

s vit ra mn hnh nh sau:

First sentence. Second sentence. Third sentence.

Thm vo , xung dng bn c th s dng tham s endl. V d

cout << "First sentence." << endl; cout << "Second sentence." << endl;

s in ra mn hnh:
First sentence. Second sentence.

Tham s endl c mt tc dng c bit khi n c dng vi cc dng d liu s dng b m: cc b m s c flushed ( chuyn ton b thng tin t b m ra dng d liu). Tuy nhin, theo mc nh cout khng s dng b m.

Nhp d liu (cin).

Thao tc vo chun trong C++ c thc hin bng cch s dng ton t qu ti >> vi dng cin. Theo sau ton t ny l bin s lu tr d liu c c vo. V d:
int age; cin >> age;

khai bo bin age c kiu int v i nhp d liu t cin (bn phm) lu tr n trong bin kiu nguyn ny.
cin

ch bt u s l d liu nhp t bn phm sau khi phm Enter c g. V vy d bn ch nhp mt k t th cin vn s kin nhn ch cho n khi bn g phm Enter.
Please enter an integer value: 702 The value you entered is 702 and its double is 1404.

// i/o example #include <iostream.h> int main () { int i; cout << "Please enter an integer value: "; cin >> i; cout << "The value you entered is " << i; cout << " and its double is " <<

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i*2 << ".\n"; return 0; }

Ngi s dng chng trnh c th l mt trong nhng nguyn nhn gy ra li trong mt chng trnh n gin s dng cin (nh chng trnh trn). Trong khi bn mun nhn mt s nguyn th ngi s dng li nhp vo tn ca h (l mt xu k t). Kt qu l chng trnh s chy sai v khng phi l nhng g m chng trnh mong i t ngi dng. Bi vy khi bn s dng d liu nhp vo t cin bn phi tin chc rng ngi dng s hon ton hp tc v rng anh ta s khng nhp tn ca mnh khi chng trnh yu cu nhp s nguyn. Sau ny, khi nghin cu vic s dng cc xu k t chng ta s xem xt cc gii php kh thi gii quyt cc li loi ny. Bn c th dng cin nhp mt lc nhiu d liu t ngi dng:
cin >> a >> b;

tng ng vi
cin >> a; cin >> b;

Trong c hai trng hp ngi s dng phi cung cp hai d liu, mt cho bin a v mt cho bin b v c ngn cch bi mt du trng hp l: mt du cch, du tab hay k t xung dng. Trong trng hp kiu khng c ch r (nh trong v d cui) trnh dch s coi n l kiu int.

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Cc cu trc iu khin.
Mt chng trnh thng khng ch bao gm cc lnh tun t ni tip nhau. Trong qu trnh chy n c th r nhnh hay lp li mt on m no . lm iu ny chng ta s dng cc cu trc iu khin. Cng vi vic gii thiu cc cu trc iu khin chng ta cng s phi bit ti mt khi nim mi: khi lnh, l mt nhm cc lnh c ngn cch bi du chm phy (;) nhng c gp trong mt khi gii hn bi mt cp ngoc nhn: { v }. Hu ht cc cu trc iu khin m chng ta s xem xt trong chng ny cho php s dng mt lnh n hay mt khi lnh lm tham s, tu thuc vo chng ta c t n trong cp ngoc nhn hay khng.

Cu trc iu kin: if v else

Cu trc ny c dng khi mt lnh hay mt khi lnh ch c thc hin khi mt iu kin no tho mn. Dng ca n nh sau:
if (condition) statement

trong condition l biu thc s c tnh ton. Nu iu kin l true, statement c thc hin. Nu khng statement b b qua (khng thc hin) v chng trnh tip tc thc hin lnh tip sau cu trc iu kin. V d, on m sau y s vit x is 100 ch khi bin x cha gi tr 100:
if (x == 100) cout << "x is 100";

Nu chng ta mun c hn mt lnh c thc hin trong trng hp condition l true chng ta c th ch nh mt khi lnh bng cch s dng mt cp ngoc nhn { }:
if (x == 100) { cout << "x is "; cout << x; }

Chng ta cng c th ch nh iu g s xy ra nu iu kin khng c tho mn bng cch su dng t kho else. N c s dng cng vi if nh sau:
if (condition) statement1 else statement2

V d:

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if (x == 100) cout << "x is 100"; else cout << "x is not 100";

Cu trc if + else c th c mc ni kim tra nhiu gi tr. V d sau y s kim tra xem gi tr cha trong bin x l dng, m hay bng khng.
if (x > 0) cout << "x else if (x < cout << "x else cout << "x is positive"; 0) is negative"; is 0";

Cc cu trc lp
Mc ch ca cc vng lp l lp li mt thao tc vi mt s ln nht nh hoc trong khi mt iu kin no cn tho mn. Vng lp while . Dng ca n nh sau:
while (expression) statement

v chc nng ca n n gin ch l lp li statement khi iu kin expression cn tho mn. V d, chng ta s vit mt chng trnh m ngc s dng vo lp while:
// custom countdown using while #include <iostream.h> int main () { int n; cout << "Enter the starting number > "; cin >> n; while (n>0) { cout << n << ", "; --n; } cout << "FIRE!"; return 0; } Enter the starting number > 8 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, FIRE!

Khi chng trnh chy ngi s dng c yu cu nhp vo mt s m ngc. Sau , khi vng lp while bt u nu s m ngi dng nhp vo tho mn iu kin iu kin n>0 khi lnh s c thc hin mt s ln khng xc nh chng no iu kin (n>0) cn c tho mn.

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Chng ta cn phi nh rng vng lp phi kt thc mt im no , v vy bn trong vng lp chng ta phi cung cp mt phng thc no buc condition tr thnh sai nu khng th n s lp li mi mi. Trong v d trn vng lp phi c lnh --n; lm cho condition tr thnh sai sau mt s ln lp. Vng lp do-while Dng thc:
do statement while (condition);

Chc nng ca n l hon ton ging vng lp while ch tr c mt iu l iu kin iu khin vng lp c tnh ton sau khi statement c thc hin, v vy statement s c thc hin t nht mt ln ngay c khi condition khng bao gi c tho mn. V d, chng trnh di y s vit ra bt k s no m bn nhp vo cho n khi bn nhp s 0.
// number echoer #include <iostream.h> int main () { unsigned long n; do { cout << "Enter number (0 to end): "; cin >> n; cout << "You entered: " << n << "\n"; } while (n != 0); return 0; } Enter number You entered: Enter number You entered: Enter number You entered: (0 to end): 12345 12345 (0 to end): 160277 160277 (0 to end): 0 0

Vng lp do-while thng c dng khi iu kin kt thc vng lp nm trong vng lp, nh trong v d trn, s m ngi dng nhp vo l iu kin kim tra kt thc vng lp. Nu bn khng nhp s 0 trong v d trn th vng lp s khng bao gi chm dt. Vng lp for . Dng thc:
for (initialization; condition; increase) statement;

v chc nng chnh ca n l lp li statement chng no condition cn mang gi tr ng, nh trong vng lp while. Nhng thm vo , for cung cp ch dnh cho lnh khi to v lnh tng. V vy vng lp ny c thit k c bit lp li mt hnh ng vi mt s ln xc nh. Cch thc hot ng ca n nh sau:

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1, initialization c thc hin. Ni chung n t mt gi kh ban u cho bin iu khin. Lnh ny c thc hin ch mt ln. 2, condition c kim tra, nu n l ng vng lp tip tc cn nu khng vng lp kt thc v statement c b qua. 3, statement c thc hin. N c th l mt lnh n hoc l mt khi lnh c bao trong mt cp ngoc nhn. 4, Cui cng, increase c thc hin tng bin iu khin v vng lp quay tr li bc 2. Sau y l mt v d m ngc s dng vng for.
// countdown using a for loop #include <iostream.h> int main () { for (int n=10; n>0; n--) { cout << n << ", "; } cout << "FIRE!"; return 0; } 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, FIRE!

Phn khi to v lnh tng khng bt buc phi c. Chng c th c b qua nhng vn phi c du chm phy ngn cch gia cc phn. V vy, chng ta c th vit for (;n<10;) hoc for (;n<10;n++). Bng cch s dng du phy, chng ta c th dng nhiu lnh trong bt k trng no trong vng for, nh l trong phn khi to. V d chng ta c th khi to mt lc nhiu bin trong vng lp:
for ( n=0, i=100 ; n!=i ; n++, i-- ) { // ci g y cng c... }

Vng lp ny s thc hin 50 ln nu nh n v i khng b thay i trong thn vng lp:

Cc lnh r nhnh v lnh nhy

Lnh break. S dng break chng ta c th thot khi vng lp ngay c khi iu kin n kt thc cha c tho mn. Lnh ny c th c dng kt thc mt vng lp

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khng xc nh hay buc n phi kt thc gia chng thay v kt thc mt cch bnh thng. V d, chng ta s dng vic m ngc trc khi n kt thc:
// break loop example #include <iostream.h> int main () { int n; for (n=10; n>0; n--) { cout << n << ", "; if (n==3) { cout << "countdown aborted!"; break; } } return 0; } 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, countdown aborted!

Lnh continue. Lnh continue lm cho chng trnh b qua phn cn li ca vng lp v nhy sang ln lp tip theo. V d chng ta s b qua s 5 trong phn m ngc:
// break loop example #include <iostream.h> int main () { for (int n=10; n>0; n--) { if (n==5) continue; cout << n << ", "; } cout << "FIRE!"; return 0; } 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 4, 3, 2, 1, FIRE!

Lnh goto. Lnh ny cho php nhy v iu kin ti bt k im no trong chng trnh. Ni chung bn nn trnh dng n trong chng trnh C++. Tuy nhin chng ta vn c mt v d dng lnh goto m ngc:
// goto loop example #include <iostream.h> int main () { int n=10; loop: ; cout << n << ", "; n--; if (n>0) goto loop; cout << "FIRE!"; return 0; } 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, FIRE!

Hm exit.

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Mc ch ca exit l kt thc chng trnh v tr v mt m xc nh. Dng thc ca n nh sau

void exit (int exit code); exit code c dng bi mt s h iu hnh hoc c th c dng bi cc chng trnh gi. Theo quy c, m tr v 0 c ngha l chng trnh kt thc bnh thng cn cc gi tr khc 0 c ngha l c li.

Cu trc la chn: switch.

C php ca lnh switch hi c bit mt cht. Mc ch ca n l kim tra mt vi gi tr hng cho mt biu thc, tng t vi nhng g chng ta lm u bi ny khi lin kt mt vi lnh if v else if vi nhau. Dng thc ca n nh sau:
switch (expression) { case constant1: block of instructions 1 break; case constant2: block of instructions 2 break; . . . default: default block of instructions }

N hot ng theo cch sau: switch tnh biu thc v kim tra xem n c bng hay khng, nu ng th n thc hin block of instructions 1 cho n khi tm thy t kho break, sau nhy n phn cui ca cu trc la chn switch. Cn nu khng, switch s kim tra xem biu thc c bng constant2 hay khng. Nu ng n s thc hin block of instructions 2 cho n khi tm thy t kho break. Cui cng, nu gi tr biu thc khng bng bt k hng no c ch nh trn (bn c th ch nh bao nhiu cu lnh case tu thch), chng trnh s thc hin cc lnh trong phn default: nu n tn ti v phn ny khng bt buc phi c.
constant1

Hai on m sau l tng ng: v d switch

switch (x) { case 1: cout << "x is 1"; break; case 2: cout << "x is 2"; break;

if-else tng ng
if (x == 1) { cout << "x is 1"; } else if (x == 2) { cout << "x is 2"; } else {

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default: cout << "value of x unknown"; }

cout << "value of x unknown"; }

Ti ni trn rng cu trc ca lnh switch hi c bit. Ch s tn ti ca lnh break cui mi khi lnh. iu ny l cn thit v nu khng th sau khi thc hin block of instructions 1 chng trnh s khng nhy n cui ca lnh switch m s thc hin cc khi lnh tip theo cho n khi n tm thy lnh break u tin. iu ny khin cho vic t cp ngoc nhn { } trong mi trng hp l khng cn thit v c th c dng khi bn mun thc hin mt khi lnh cho nhiu trng hp khc nhau, v d:
switch (x) { case 1: case 2: case 3: cout << "x is 1, 2 or 3"; break; default: cout << "x is not 1, 2 nor 3"; }

Ch rng lnh switch ch c th c dng so snh mt biu thc vi cc hng. V vy chng ta khng th t cc bin (case (n*2):) hay cc khong (case (1..3):) v chng khng phi l cc hng hp l. Nu bn cn kim tra cc khong hay nhiu gi tr khng phi l hng s hy kt hp cc lnh if v else if.

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Hm (I)
Hm l mt khi lnh c thc hin khi n c gi t mt im khc ca chng trnh. Dng thc ca n nh sau:
type name ( argument1, argument2, ...) statement

trong :
type l kiu d liu c tr v ca hm name l tn gi ca hm. arguments l cc tham s (c nhiu bao nhiu

cng c tu theo nhu cu). Mt tham s bao gm tn kiu d liu sau l tn ca tham s ging nh khi khai bo bin (v d int x) v ng vai tr bn trong hm nh bt k bin no khc. Chng dng truyn tham s cho hm khi n c gi. Cc tham s khc nhau c ngn cch bi cc du phy. statement l thn ca hm. N c th l mt lnh n hay mt khi lnh. Di y l v d u tin v hm:
// function example #include <iostream.h> int addition (int a, int b) { int r; r=a+b; return (r); } int main () { int z; z = addition (5,3); cout << "The result is " << z; return 0; } The result is 8

c th hiu c on m ny, trc ht hy nh li nhng iu ni bi u tin: mt chng trnh C++ lun bt u thc hin t hm main. V vy chng ta bt u t y. Chng ta c th thy hm main bt u bng vic khai bo bin z kiu int. Ngay sau l mt li gi ti hm addition. Nu chng ta s thy s tng t gia cu trc ca li gi hm vi khai bo ca hm:

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Cc tham s c vai tr tht r rng. Bn trong hm main chng ta gi hm addition v truyn hai gi tr: 5 v 3 tng ng vi hai tham s int a v int b c khai bo cho hm addition. Vo thi im hm c gi t main, quyn iu khin c chuyn sang cho hm addition. Gi tr ca c hai tham s (5 v 3) c copy sang hai bin cc b int a v int b bn trong hm. Dng lnh sau:
return (r);

kt thc hm addition, v tr li quyn iu khin cho hm no gi n (main) v tip tc chng trnh ci im m n b ngt bi li gi n addition. Nhng thm vo , gi tr c dng vi lnh return (r) chnh l gi tr c tr v ca hm.\

Gi tr tr v bi mt hm chnh l gi tr ca hm khi n c tnh ton. V vy bin z s c c gi tr c tr v bi addition (5, 3), l 8. Phm vi hot ng ca cc bin [nhc li] Bn cn nh rng phm vi hot ng ca cc bin khai bo trong mt hm hay bt k mt khi lnh no khc ch l hm hay khi lnh v khng th s dng bn ngoi chng. V d, trong chng trnh v d trn, bn khng th s dng trc tip cc bin a, b hay r trong hm main v chng l cc bin cc b ca hm addition. Thm vo bn cng khng th s dng bin z trc tip bn trong hm addition v n lm bin cc b ca hm main. Tuy nhin bn c th khai bo cc bin ton cc c th s dng chng bt k u, bn trong hay bn ngoi bt k hm no. lm vic ny bn cn khai bo chng bn ngoi mi hm hay cc khi lnh, c ngha l ngay trong thn chng trnh. y l mt v d khc v hm:
// function example #include <iostream.h> The first result is 5 The second result is 5

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int subtraction (int a, int b) { int r; r=a-b; return (r); } int main () { int x=5, y=3, z; z = subtraction (7,2); cout << "The first result is " << z << '\n'; cout << "The second result is " << subtraction (7,2) << '\n'; cout << "The third result is " << subtraction (x,y) << '\n'; z= 4 + subtraction (x,y); cout << "The fourth result is " << z << '\n'; return 0; }

The third result is 2 The fourth result is 6

Trong trng hp ny chng ta to ra hm subtraction. Chc nng ca hm ny l ly hiu ca hai tham s ri tr v kt qu. Tuy nhin, nu phn tch hm main cc bn s thy chng trnh vi ln gi n hm subtraction. Ti s dng vi cch gi khc nhau cc bn thy cc cch khc nhau m mt hm c th c gi. c hiu cn k v d ny bn cn nh rng mt li gi n mt hm c th hon ton c thay th bi gi tr ca n. V d trong lnh gi hm u tin :
z = subtraction (7,2); cout << "The first result is " << z;

Nu chng ta thay li gi hm bng gi tr ca n ( l 5), chng ta s c:

z = 5; cout << "The first result is " << z;

Tng t nh vy
cout << "The second result is " << subtraction (7,2);

cng cho kt qu ging nh hai dng lnh trn nhng trong trng hp ny chng ta gi hm subtraction trc tip nh l mt tham s ca cout. Chng ta cng c th vit:
cout << "The second result is " << 5;

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v 5 l kt qu ca subtraction (7,2). Cn vi lnh

cout << "The third result is " << subtraction (x,y);

iu mi m duy nht y l cc tham s ca subtraction l cc bin thay v cc hng. iu ny l hon ton hp l. Trong trng hp ny gi tr c truyn cho hm subtraction l gi tr ca x and y. Trng hp th t cng hon ton tng t. Thay v vit
z = 4 + subtraction (x,y);

chng ta c th vit:
z = subtraction (x,y) + 4;

cng hon ton cho kt qu tng ng. Ch rng du chm phy c t cui biu thc ch khng cn thit phi t ngay sau li gi hm.

Cc hm khng kiu. Cch s dng void.

Nu bn cn nh c php ca mt li khai bo hm:
type name ( argument1, argument2 ...) statement

bn s thy r rng rng n bt u vi mt tn kiu, l kiu d liu s c hm tr v bi lnh return. Nhng nu chng ta khng mun tr v gi tr no th sao ? Hy tng tng rng chng ta mun to ra mt hm ch hin th mt thng bo ln mn hnh. N khng cn tr v mt gi tr no c, hn na cng khng cn nhn tham s no ht. V vy ngi ta ngh ra kiu d liu void trong ngn ng C. Hy xem xt chng trnh sau:
// void function example #include <iostream.h> void dummyfunction (void) { cout << "I'm a function!"; } int main () { dummyfunction (); return 0; } I'm a function!

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T kho void trong phn danh sch tham s c ngha l hm ny khng nhn mt tham s no. Tuy nhin trong C++ khng cn thit phi s dng void lm iu ny. Bn ch n gin s dng cp ngoc n ( ) l xong. Bi v hm ca chng ta khng c mt tham s no, v vy li gi hm dummyfunction s l :
dummyfunction ();

Hai du ngoc n l cn thit cho trnh dch hiu l mt li gi hm ch khng phi l mt tn bin hay bt k du hiu no khc.

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Hm (II). Truyn tham s theo tham s gi tr hay tham s bin.

Cho n nay, trong tt c cc hm chng ta bit, tt c cc tham s truyn cho hm u c truyn theo gi tr. iu ny c ngha l khi chng ta gi hm vi cc tham s, nhng g chng ta truyn cho hm l cc gi tr ch khng phi bn thn cc bin. V d, gi s chng ta gi hm addition nh sau:
int x=5, y=3, z; z = addition ( x , y );

Trong trng hp ny khi chng ta gi hm addition th cc gi tr 5 and 3 c truyn cho hm, khng phi l bn thn cc bin.

n y cc bn c th hi ti: Nh vy th sao, c nh hng g u ? iu ng ni y l khi cc bn thay i gi tr ca cc bin a hay b bn trong hm th cc bin x v y vn khng thay i v chng u c c truyn cho hm ch c gi tr ca chng c truyn m thi. Hy xt trng hp bn cn thao tc vi mt bin ngoi bn trong mt hm. V vy bn s phi truyn tham s di dng tham s bin nh trong hm duplicate trong v d di y:
// passing parameters by reference #include <iostream.h> void duplicate (int& a, int& b, int& c) { a*=2; b*=2; c*=2; } int main () { int x=1, y=3, z=7; duplicate (x, y, z); cout << "x=" << x << ", y=" << y << ", z=" << z; return 0; } x=2, y=6, z=14

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iu u tin lm bn ch l trong khai bo ca duplicate theo sau tn kiu ca mi tham s u l du v (&), bo hiu rng cc tham s ny c truyn theo tham s bin ch khng phi tham s gi tr. Khi truyn tham s di dng tham s bin chng ta ang truyn bn thn bin v bt k s thay i no m chng ta thc hin vi tham s bn trong hm s nh hng trc tip n bin .

Trong v d trn, chng ta lin kt a, b v c vi cc tham s khi gi hm (x, y v z) v mi s thay i vi a bn trong hm s nh hng n gi tr ca x v hon ton tng t vi b v y, c v z. Kiu khai bo tham s theo dng tham s bin s dng du v (&) ch c trong C++. Trong ngn ng C chng ta phi s dng con tr lm vic tng t nh th. Truyn tham s di dng tham s bin cho php mt hm tr v nhiu hn mt gi tr. V d, y l mt hm tr v s lin trc v lin sau ca tham s u tin.
// more than one returning value #include <iostream.h> void prevnext (int x, int& prev, int& next) { prev = x-1; next = x+1; } int main () { int x=100, y, z; prevnext (x, y, z); cout << "Previous=" << y << ", Next=" << z; return 0; } Previous=99, Next=101

Gi tr mc nh ca tham s.
Khi nh ngha mt hm chng ta c th ch nh nhng gi tr mc nh s c truyn cho cc i s trong trng hp chng b b qua khi hm c gi. lm vic ny n gin ch cn gn mt gi tr cho i s khi khai bo hm. Nu gi tr ca tham s vn c ch nh khi gi hm th gi tr mc nh s b b qua. V d:
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// default values in functions #include <iostream.h> int divide (int a, int b=2) { int r; r=a/b; return (r); } int main () { cout << divide (12); cout << endl; cout << divide (20,4); return 0; }

6 5

Nhng chng ta thy trong thn chng trnh, c hai li gi hm divide. Trong lnh u tin:
divide (12)

chng ta ch dng mt tham s nhng hm divide cho php n hai. Bi vy hm s t cho tham s th hai gi tr bng 2 v l gi tr mc nh ca n (ch phn khai bo hm c kt thc bi int b=2). V vy kt qu s l 6 (12/2).
divide

Trong lnh th hai:

divide (20,4)

c hai tham s, bi vy gi tr mc nh s c b qua. Kt qu ca hm s l 5 (20/4).

Qu ti cc hm.
Hai hm c th c cng tn nu khai bo tham s ca chng khc nhau, iu ny c ngha l bn c th t cng mt tn cho nhiu hm nu chng c s tham s khc nhau hay kiu d liu ca cc tham s khc nhau (hay thm ch l kiu d liu tr v khc nhau). V d:
// overloaded function #include <iostream.h> int divide (int a, int b) { return (a/b); } float divide (float a, float b) { 2 2.5

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return (a/b); } int main () { int x=5,y=2; float n=5.0,m=2.0; cout << divide (x,y); cout << "\n"; cout << divide (n,m); return 0; }

Trong v d ny chng ta nh ngha hai hm c cng tn nhng mt hm dng hai tham s kiu int v hm cn li dng kiu float. Trnh bin dch s bit cn phi gi hm no bng cch phn tch kiu tham s khi hm c gi. n gin ti vit c hai hm u c m lnh nh nhau nhng iu ny khng bt buc. Bn c th xy dng hai hm c cng tn nhng hot ng hon ton khc nhau.

Cc hm inline.
Ch th inline c th c t trc khao bo ca mt hm ch r rng li gi hm s c thay th bng m lnh ca hm khi chng trnh c dch. Vic ny tng ng vi vic khai bo mt macro, li ch ca n ch th hin vi cc hm rt ngn, tc chy chng trnh s c ci thin v n khng phi gi mt th tc con. Cu trc ca n nh sau:
inline type name ( arguments ... ) { instructions ... }

li gi hm cng nh bt k mt hm no khc. Khng cn thit phi t t kho inline trong lnh gi, ch cn trong li khai bo hm l .

qui.
Cc hm c th gi chnh n. iu ny c th c ch vi mt s tc v nh l mt s phng php sp xp hay tnh giai tha ca mt s. V d, tnh giai tha ca mt s (n), cng thc ton hc ca n nh sau:
n! = n * (n-1) * (n-2) * (n-3) ... * 1

v mt hm qui tnh ton s nh sau:

// factorial calculator #include <iostream.h> long factorial (long a) Type a number: 9 !9 = 362880

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{ if (a > 1) return (a * factorial (a-1)); else return (1); } int main () { long l; cout << "Type a number: "; cin >> l; cout << "!" << l << " = " << factorial (l); return 0; }

Ch trong hm factorial chng ta c th lnh gi chnh n nhng ch khi tham s ln hn 1, nu khng th hm s thc hin mt vng lp v hn v sau khi n 0 n s tip tc nhn c nhng s m. Hm ny c mt hn ch l kiu d liu m n dng (long) khng cho php tnh giai tha qu 12!.

Khai bo mu cho hm.

Cho n gi chng ta hon ton phi nh ngha hm trc lnh gi u tin n n, m thng l trong main, v vy hm main lun phi nm cui chng trnh. Nu bn th lp li mt vi v d v hm trc y nhng th t hm main trc bt k mt hm c gi t n, bn gn nh chc chn s nhn c thng bo li. Nguyn nhn l mt hm phi c khai bo trc khi n c gi nh nhnggx g chng ta lm trng tt c cc v d. Nhng c mt cch khc trnh phi vit tt c m chng trnh trc khi chng c th c dng trong main hay bt k mt hm no khc. chnh l khai bo mu cho hm. Cch ny bao gm vic khai bo hm mt cch ngn gn nhng cho trnh dch c th bit cc tham s v kiu d liu tr v ca hm. Dng ca n nh sau:
type name ( argument_type1, argument_type2, ...);

y chnh l phn u ca nh ngha hm, ngoi tr:

N khng c bt k lnh no cho hm. iu ny c ngha l n khng bao gm thn hm vi tt c cc lnh thng c bc trong cp ngoc nhn { }. N kt thc bng du chm phy (;).

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Trong phn lit k cc tham s ch cn vit kiu ca chng l . Vic vit tn ca cc tham s trong phn khai bo mu l khng bt buc.

V d:
// prototyping #include <iostream.h> void odd (int a); void even (int a); int main () { int i; do { cout << "Type a number: (0 to exit)"; cin >> i; odd (i); } while (i!=0); return 0; } void odd (int a) { if ((a%2)!=0) cout << "Number is odd.\n"; else even (a); } void even (int a) { if ((a%2)==0) cout << "Number is even.\n"; else odd (a); } Type a Number Type a Number Type a Number Type a Number number (0 is odd. number (0 is even. number (0 is even. number (0 is even. to exit): 9 to exit): 6 to exit): 1030 to exit): 0

V d ny r rng khng phi l mt v d v s hiu qu. Ti chc chn rng cc bn c th nhn c kt qu nh trn ch vi mt na s dng lnh. Tuy nhin n gip cho chng ta thy c vic khai bo mu cc hm l nh th no. Hn na, trong v d ny vic khai bo mu t nht mt hm l bt buc. u tin chng ta thy khai bo mu ca hai hm odd v even:
void odd (int a); void even (int a);

cho php hai hm ny c th c s dng trc khi chng c nh ngha hon chnh. Tuy nhin l do c bit gii thch ti sao chng trnh ny li cn t nht mt hm phi c khi bo mu l trong odd c mt li gi n even v trong even c mt li gi n odd. V vy nu khng c hm no c khai bo trc th li chc chn s xy ra.

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Rt nhiu lp trnh vin kinh nghim khuyn rng tt c cc hm nn c khai bo mu. cng l li khuyn ca ti, nht l trong trng hp c nhiu hm hoc chng rt di, khi vic khai bo tt c cc hm cng mt ch cho php chng ta bit phi gi cc hm nh th no, v vy tit kim c thi gian.

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Mng
Mng l mt dy cc phn t c cng kiu c t lin tip trong b nh v c th truy xut n tng phn t bng cch thm mt ch s vo sau tn ca mng. iu ny c ngha l, v d, chng ta c th lu 5 gi tr kiu int m khng cn phi khai bo 5 bin khc nhau.V d, mt mng cha 5 gi tr nguyn kiu int c tn l billy c th c biu din nh sau:

trong mi mt trng biu din mt phn t ca mng, trong trng hp ny l cc gi tr nguyn kiu int. Chng c nh s t 0 n 4 v phn t u tin ca mng lun l 0 bt k di ca n l bao nhiu. Nh bt k bin no khc, mt mng phi c khai bo trc khi c th s dng. Mt khai bo in hnh cho mt mng trong C++ nh sau:
type name [elements];

trong type l mt kiu d liu hp l (int, float...), name l mt tn bin hp l v trng elements ch nh mng s cha bao nhiu phn t V vy, khai bo billy nh trnh by trn chng ta ch cn mt dng n gin nh sau:
int billy [5];

Ch : Trng elements bn trong cp ngoc [] phi l mt gi tr hng khi khai bo mt mng, v mng l mt khi nh tnh c kch c xc nh v trnh bin dch phi c kh nng xc nh xem cn bao nhiu b nh cp pht cho mng trc khi cc lnh c th c thc hin.

Khi to mt mng.
Khi khai bo mt mng vi tm hot ng a phng (trong mt hm), theo mc nh n s khng c khi to, v vy ni dung ca n l khng xc nh cho n khi chng ra lu cc gi tr ln . Nu chng ta khai bo mt mng ton cc (bn ngoi tt c cc hm) n s c khi to v tt c cc phn t c t bng 0. V vy nu chng ta khai bo mng ton cc:

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int billy [5];

mi phn t ca billy s c khi to l 0:

Nhng thm vo , khi chng ta khai bo mt mng, chng ta c th gn cc gi tr khi to cho tng phn t ca n. V d:

int billy [5] = { 16, 2, 77, 40, 12071 };

lnh trn s khai bo mt mng nh sau:

S phn t trong mng m chng ta khi to vi cp ngoc nhn { } phi bng s phn t ca mng c khai bo vi cp ngoc vung [ ]. Bi v iu ny c th c coi l mt s lp li khng cn thit nn C++ cho php trng gia cp ngoc vung, kch thc ca mng c xc nh bng s gi tr gia cp ngoc nhn.

Truy xut n cc phn t ca mng.

bt k im no ca chng trnh trong tm hot ng ca mng, chng ta c th truy xut tng phn t ca mng c hay chnh sa nh l i vi mt bin bnh thng. Cu trc ca n nh sau:
name[index]

Nh trong v d trc ta c mng billy gm 5 phn t c kiu int, chng ta c th truy xut n tng phn t ca mng nh sau:

V d, lu gi tr 75 vo phn t th ba ca billy ta vit nh sau:

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billy[2] = 75;

v, v d, gn gi tr ca phn t th 3 ca billy cho bin a, chng ta vit:

a = billy[2];

V vy, xt v mi phng din, biu thc billy[2] ging nh bt k mt bin kiu int. Ch rng phn t th ba ca billy l billy[2], v mng bt u t ch s 0. V vy, phn t cui cng s l billy[4]. V vy nu chng ta vit billy[5], chng ta s truy xut n phn t th 6 ca mng v vt qu gii hn ca mng. Trong C++, vic vt qu gii hn ch s ca mng l hon ton hp l, tuy nhin n c th gy ra nhng vn thc s kh pht hin bi v chng khng to ra nhng li trong qu trnh dch nhng chng c th to ra nhng kt qu khng mong mun trong qu trnh thc hin. Nguyn nhn ca vic ny s c ni n k hn khi chng ta bt u s dng con tr. Cn phi nhn mnh rng chng ta s dng cp ngoc vung cho hai tc v: u tin l t kch thc cho mng khi khai bo chng v th hai, ch nh ch s cho mt phn t c th ca mng khi xem xt n n.
int billy[5]; billy[2] = 75; mng. // khai bo mt mng mi. // truy xut n mt phn t ca

Mt vi thao tc hp l khc vi mng:

billy[0] = a; billy[a] = 75; b = billy [a+2]; billy[billy[a]] = billy[2] + 5; // v d v mng #include <iostream.h> int billy [] = {16, 2, 77, 40, 12071}; int n, result=0; int main () { for ( n=0 ; n<5 ; n++ ) { result += billy[n]; } cout << result; return 0; } 12206

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Mng nhiu chiu.

Mng nhiu chiu c th c coi nh mng ca mng, v d, mt mng hai chiu c th c tng tc nh l mt bng hai chiu gm cc phn t c kiu d liu c th v ging nhau.

jimmy

biu din mt mng hai chiu kch thc 3x5 c kiu int. Cch khai bo mng ny nh sau:
int jimmy [3][5];

v, v d, cch truy xut n phn t th hai theo chiu dc v th t theo chiu ngang trong mt biu thc nh sau:
jimmy[1][3]

(hy nh rng ch s ca mng lun bt u t 0). Mng nhiu chiu khng b gii hn bi hai ch s (hai chiu), Chng c th cha bao nhiu ch s ty thch mc d t kh cn phi dng n mng ln hn 3 chiu. Hy th xem xt lng b nh m mt mng c nhiu ch s cn n. V d:
char century [100][365][24][60][60];

gn mt gi tr char cho mi giy trong mt th k, phi cn n hn 3 t gi tr chars! Chng ta s phi cn khong 3GB RAM khai bo n. Mng nhiu chiu thc ra l mt khi nim tru tng v chng ta c th c kt qu tng t vi mng mt chiu bng mt thao tc n gin gia cc ch s ca n:
int jimmy [3][5]; tng ng vi int jimmy [15]; (3 * 5 = 15)

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Di y l hai v d vi cng mt kt qu nh nhau, mt s dng mng hai chiu v mt s dng mng mt chiu:
// multidimensional array #include <iostream.h> #define WIDTH 5 #define HEIGHT 3 int jimmy [HEIGHT][WIDTH]; int n,m; int main () { for (n=0;n<HEIGHT;n++) for (m=0;m<WIDTH;m++) { jimmy[n][m]=(n+1)*(m+1); } return 0; } // pseudo-multidimensional array #include <iostream.h> #define WIDTH 5 #define HEIGHT 3 int jimmy [HEIGHT * WIDTH]; int n,m; int main () { for (n=0;n<HEIGHT;n++) for (m=0;m<WIDTH;m++) { jimmy[n * WIDTH + m]=(n+1)*(m+1); } return 0; }

khng mt chng trnh no vit g ra mn hnh nhng c hai u gn gi tr vo khi nh c tn jimmy theo cch sau:

Chng ta nh ngha hng (#define) n gin ha nhng chnh sa sau ny ca chng trnh, v d, trong trng hp chng ta quyt nh tng kch thc ca mng vi chiu cao l 4 thay v l 3, chng ta ch cn thay i dng:
#define HEIGHT 3

thnh
#define HEIGHT 4

v khng phi c thm s thay i no na i vi chng trnh.

Dng mng lm tham s.

Vo mt lc no c th chng ta cn phi truyn mt mng ti mt hm nh l mt tham s. Trong C++, vic truyn theo tham s gi tr mt khi nh l khng hp l, ngay c khi n c t chc thnh mt mng. Tuy nhin chng ta li c php truyn a ch

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ca n, vic ny cng to ra kt qu thc t ging thao tc trn nhng li nhanh hn nhiu v hiu qu hn. c th nhn mng l tham s th iu duy nht chng ta phi lm khi khai bo hm l ch nh trong phn tham s kiu d liu c bn ca mng, tn mng v cp ngoc vung trng. V d, hm sau:
void procedure (int arg[])

nhn vo mt tham s c kiu "mng ca char" v c tn arg. truyn tham s cho hm ny mt mng c khai bo:
int myarray [40];

ch cn gi hm nh sau:
procedure (myarray);

Di y l mt v d c th
// arrays as parameters #include <iostream.h> void printarray (int arg[], int length) { for (int n=0; n<length; n++) cout << arg[n] << " "; cout << "\n"; } int main () { int firstarray[] = {5, 10, 15}; int secondarray[] = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10}; printarray (firstarray,3); printarray (secondarray,5); return 0; } 5 10 15 2 4 6 8 10

Nh bn c th thy, tham s u tin (int arg[]) chp nhn mi mng c kiu c bn l int, bt k di ca n l bao nhiu, v vy cn thit phi c tham s th hai bo cho hm ny bit di ca mng m chng ta truyn cho n. Trong phn khai bo hm chng ta cng c th dng tham s l cc mng nhiu chiu. Cu trc ca mng 3 chiu nh sau:
base_type[][depth][depth]

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v d, mt hm vi tham s l mng nhiu chiu c th nh sau:

void procedure (int myarray[][3][4])

ch rng cp ngoc vung u tin trng nhng cc cp ngoc sau th khng. Bn lun lun phi lm vy v trnh bin dch C++ phi c kh nng xc nh ln ca cc chiu thm vo ca mng. Mng, c mt chiu v nhiu chiu, khi truyn cho hm nh l mt tham s thng l nguyn nhn gy li cho nhng lp trnh vin thiu kinh nghim. Cc bn nn c bi 3.3. Con tr c th hiu r hn mng hot ng nh th no.

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Xu k t
Trong tt c cc chng trnh chng ta thy cho n gi, chng ta ch s dng cc bin kiu s, ch dng biu din cc s. Nhng bn cnh cc bin kiu s cn c cc xu k t, chng cho php chng ta biu din cc chui k t nh l cc t, cu, on vn bn... Cho n gi chng ta mi ch dng chng di dng hng ch cha quan tm n cc bin c th cha chng. Trong C++ khng c kiu d liu c bn lu cc xu k t. c th tha mn nhu cu ny, ngi ta s dng mng c kiu char. Hy nh rng kiu d liu ny (char) ch c th lu tr mt k t n, bi vy n c dng to ra xu ca cc k t n. V d, mng sau (hay l xu k t):
char jenny [20];

c th lu mt xu k t vi di cc i l 20 k t. Bn c th tng tng n nh sau:

Kch thc cc i ny khng cn phi lun lun dng n. V d, jenny c th lu xu V cc mng k t c th lu cc xu k t ngn hn di ca n, trong C++ c mt quy c kt thc mt ni dung ca mt xu k t bng mt k t null, c th c vit l '\0'.
"Hello" hay "Merry christmas".

Chng ta c th biu din jenny (mt mng c 20 phn t kiu char) khi lu tr xu k t "Hello" v "Merry Christmas" theo cch sau:

Ch rng sau ni dung ca xu, mt k t null ('\0') c dng bo hiu kt thc xu. Nhng mu xm biu din nhng gi tr khng xc nh.

Khi to cc xu k t.
V nhng xu k t l nhng mng bnh thng nn chng cng nh cc mng khc. V d, nu chng ta mun khi to mt xu k t vi nhng gi tr xc nh chng ta c th lm iu tng t nh vi cc mng khc:

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char mystring[] = { 'H', 'e', 'l', 'l', 'o', '\0' };

Tuy nhin, chng ta c th khi to gi tr cho mt xu k t bng cch khc: s dng cc hng xu k t. Trong cc biu thc chng ta s dng trong cc v d trong cc chng trc cc hng xu k t xut hin vi ln. Chng c biu din trong cp ngoc kp ("), v d:
"the result is: "

l mt hng xu k t chng ta s dng mt s ch. Khng ging nh du nhy n (') cho php biu din hng k t, cp ngoc kp (") l hng biu din mt chui k t lin tip, v cui chui mt k t null ('\0') lun c t ng thm vo. V vy chng ta c th khi to xu mystring theo mt trong hai cch sau y:
char mystring [] = { 'H', 'e', 'l', 'l', 'o', '\0' }; char mystring [] = "Hello";

Trong c hai trng hp mng (hay xu k t) mystring c khai bo vi kch thc 6 k t: 5 k t biu din Hello cng vi mt k t null. Trc khi tip tc, ti cn phi nhc nh bn rng vic gn nhiu hng nh vic s dng du ngoc kp (") ch hp l khi khi to mng, tc l lc khai bo mng. Cc biu thc trong chng trnh nh:
mystring = "Hello"; mystring[] = "Hello";

l khng hp l, c cu lnh di y cng vy:

mystring = { 'H', 'e', 'l', 'l', 'o', '\0' };

Vy hy nh: Chng ta ch c th "gn" nhiu hng cho mt mng vo lc khi to n. Nguyn nhn l mt thao tc gn (=) khng th nhn v tri l c mt mng m ch c th nhn mt trong nhng phn t ca n. Vo thi im khi to mng l mt trng hp c bit, v n khng thc s l mt lnh gn mc d n s dng du bng (=).

Gn gi tr cho xu k t
V v tri ca mt lnh gn ch c th l mt phn t ca mng ch khng th l c mng, chng ta c th gn mt xu k t cho mt mng kiu char s dng mt phng php nh sau:
mystring[0] = 'H'; mystring[1] = 'e';

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mystring[2] mystring[3] mystring[4] mystring[5]

= = = =

'l'; 'l'; 'o'; '\0';

Nhng r rng y khng phi l mt phng php thc t. gn gi tr cho mt xu k t, chng ta c th s dng lot hm kiu strcpy (string copy), hm ny c nh ngha trong string.h v c th c gi nh sau:
strcpy (string1, string2);

Lnh ny copy ni dung ca string2 sang string1. string2 c th l mt mng, con tr hay mt hng xu k t, bi vy lnh sau y l mt cch ng gn xu hng "Hello" cho mystring:
strcpy (mystring, "Hello");

V d:
// setting value to string #include <iostream.h> #include <string.h> int main () { char szMyName [20]; strcpy (szMyName,"J. Soulie"); cout << szMyName; return 0; } J. Soulie

rng chng ta phi include file <string.h> c th s dng hm strcpy. Mc d chng ta lun c th vit mt hm n gin nh hm setstring di y thc hin mt thao tc ging nh strcpy:
// setting value to string #include <iostream.h> void setstring (char szOut [], char szIn []) { int n=0; do { szOut[n] = szIn[n]; n++; } while (szIn[n] != 0); } int main () J. Soulie

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{ char szMyName [20]; setstring (szMyName,"J. Soulie"); cout << szMyName; return 0; }

Mt phng thc thng dng khc gn gi tr cho mt mng l s dng trc tip dng nhp d liu (cin). Trong trng hp ny gi tr ca xu k t c gn bi ngi dng trong qu trnh chng trnh thc hin. Khi cin c s dng vi cc xu k t n thng c dng vi phng thc getline ca n, phng thc ny c th c gi nh sau:
cin.getline ( char buffer[], int length, char delimiter = ' \n');

trong buffer (b m) l a ch ni s lu tr d liu vo (nh l mt mng chng hn), length l di cc i ca b m (kch thc ca mng) v delimiter l k t c dng kt thc vic nhp, mc nh - nu chng ta khng dng tham s ny - s l k t xung dng ('\n'). V d sau y lp li tt c nhng g bn g trn bn phm. N rt n gin nhng l mt v d cho thy bn c th s dng cin.getline vi cc xu k t nh th no:
// cin with strings #include <iostream.h> int main () { char mybuffer [100]; cout << "What's your name? "; cin.getline (mybuffer,100); cout << "Hello " << mybuffer << ".\n"; cout << "Which is your favourite team? "; cin.getline (mybuffer,100); cout << "I like " << mybuffer << " too.\n"; return 0; } What's your name? Juan Hello Juan. Which is your favourite team? Inter Milan I like Inter Milan too.

Ch trong c hai li gi cin.getline chng ta s dng cng mt bin xu (mybuffer). Nhng g chng trnh lm trong li gi th hai n gin l thay th ni dung ca buffer trong li gi c bng ni dung mi. Nu bn cn nh phn ni v giao tip vi, bn s nh rng chng ta s dng ton t >> nhn d liu trc tip t u vo chun. Phng thc ny c th c dng vi cc

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xu k t thay cho cin.getline. V d, trong chn trnh ca chng ta, khi chng ta mun nhn d liu t ngi dng chng ta c th vit:
cin >> mybuffer;

lnh ny s lm vic nh n c nhng hn ch sau m cin.getline khng c:

N ch c th nhn nhng t n (khng nhn c c cu) v phng thc ny s dng k t trng(bao gm c du cch, du tab v du xung dng) lm du hiu kt thc.. N khng cho php ch nh kch thc cho b m. Chng trnh ca bn c th chy khng n nh nu d liu vo ln hn kch c ca mng cha n.

V nhng nguyn nhn trn, khi mun nhp vo cc xu k t bn nn s dng cin.getline thay v cin >>.

Chuyn i xu k t sang cc kiu khc.

V mt xu k t c th biu din nhiu kiu d liu khc nh dng s nn vic chuyn i ni dung nh vy sang dng s l rt hu ch. V d, mt xu c th mang gi tr "1977"nhng l mt chui gm 5 k t (k c k t null) v khng d g chuyn thnh mt s nguyn. V vy th vin cstdlib (stdlib.h) cung cp 3 macro/hm hu ch sau:

atoi: chuyn xu thnh kiu int. atol: chuyn xu thnh kiu long. atof: chuyn xu thnh kiu float.

Tt c cc hm ny nhn mt tham s v tr v gi tr s (int, long hoc float). Cc hm ny khi kt hp vi phng thc getline ca cin l mt cch ng tin cy hn phng thc cin>> c in khi yu cu ngi s dng nhp vo mt s:
// cin and ato* functions #include <iostream.h> #include <stdlib.h> int main () { char mybuffer [100]; float price; int quantity; cout << "Enter price: "; cin.getline (mybuffer,100); price = atof (mybuffer); cout << "Enter quantity: "; cin.getline (mybuffer,100); quantity = atoi (mybuffer); cout << "Total price: " << price*quantity; Enter price: 2.75 Enter quantity: 21 Total price: 57.75

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return 0; }

Cc hm thao tc trn chui

Th vin cstring (string.h) khng ch c hm strcpy m cn c nhiu hm khc thao tc trn chui. Di y l gii thiu lt qua ca cc hm thng dng nht: strcat: char* strcat (char* dest, const char* src); Gn thm chui src vo pha cui ca dest. Tr v dest. strcmp: int strcmp (const char* string1, const char* string2); So snh hai xu string1 v string2. Tr v 0 nu hai xu l bng nhau. strcpy: char* strcpy (char* dest, const char* src); Copy ni dung ca src cho dest. Tr v dest. strlen: size_t strlen (const char* string); Tr v di ca string. Ch : char* hon ton tng ng vi char[]

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Con tr

Chng ta bit cc bin chnh l cc nh m chng ta c th truy xut di cc tn. Cc bin ny c lu tr ti nhng ch c th trong b nh. i vi chng trnh ca chng ta, b nh my tnh ch l mt dy gm cc nh 1 byte, mi c mt a ch xc nh. Mt s m hnh tt i vi b nh my tnh chnh l mt ph trong mt thnh ph. Trn mt ph tt c cc ngi nh u c nh s tun t vi mt ci tn duy nht nn nu chng ta ni n s 27 ph Trn Hng o th chng ta c th tm c ni m khng lm ln v ch c mt ngi nh vi s nh vy. Cng vi cch t chc tng t nh vic nh s cc ngi nh, h iu hnh t chc b nh thnh nhng s n nht, tun t, nn nu chng ta ni n v tr 1776 trong b nh chng ta bit chnh xc nh v ch c mt v tr vi a ch nh vy.

Ton t ly a ch (&).
Vo thi im m chng ta khai bo mt bin th n phi c lu tr trong mt v tr c th trong b nh. Ni chung chng ta khng quyt nh ni no bin c t - tht may mn rng iu c lm t ng bi trnh bin dch v h iu hnh, nhng mt khi h iu hnh gn mt a ch cho bin th chng ta c th mun bit bin c lu tr u. iu ny c th c thc hin bng cch t trc tn bin mt du v (&), c ngha l "a ch ca". V d:
ted = &andy;

s gn cho bin ted a ch ca bin andy, v khi t trc tn bin andy du v (&) chng ta khng cn ni n ni dung ca bin m ch ni n a ch ca n trong b nh. Gi s rng bin andy c t nh c a ch 1776 v chng ta vit nh sau:
andy = 25; fred = andy; ted = &andy;

kt qu s ging nh trong s di y:

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Chng ta gn cho fred ni dung ca bin andy nh chng ta lm rt ln nhiu khc trong nhng phn trc nhng vi bin ted chng ta gn a ch m h iu hnh lu gi tr ca bin andy, chng ta va gi s n l 1776. Nhng bin lu tr a ch ca mt bin khc (nh ted trong v d trc) c gi l con tr. Trong C++ con tr c rt nhiu u im v chng c s dng rt thng xuyn, Tip theo chng ta s thy cc bin kiu ny c khai bo nh th no.

Ton t tham chiu (*)

Bng cch s dng con tr chng ta c th truy xut trc tip n gi tr c lu tr trong bin c tr bi n bng cch trc tn bin con tr mt du sao (*) - y c th c dch l "gi tr c tr bi". V vy, nu chng ta vit:
beth = *ted;

(chng ta c th c n l: "beth bng gi tr c tr bi ted" beth s mang gi tr 25, v ted bng 1776 v gi tr tr bi 1776 l 25.

Bn phi phn bit c rng ted c gi tr 1776, nhng *ted (vi mt du sao ng trc) tr ti gi tr c lu tr trong a ch 1776, l 25. Hy ch s khc bit gia vic c hay khng c du sao tham chiu.
beth = ted; beth = *ted; // beth bng ted ( 1776 ) // beth bng gi tr c tr bi( 25 )

Ton t ly a ch (&)

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N c dng nh l mt tin t ca bin v c th c dch l "a ch ca", v vy &variable1 c th c c l "a ch ca variable1". Ton t tham chiu (*) N ch ra rng ci cn c tnh ton l ni dung c tr bi biu thc c coi nh l mt a ch. N c th c dch l "gi tr c tr bi".. *mypointer c c l "gi tr c tr bi mypointer". Vo lc ny, vi nhng v d vit trn
andy = 25; ted = &andy;

bn c th d dng nhn ra tt c cc biu thc sau l ng:

andy == 25 &andy == 1776 ted == 1776 *ted == 25

Khai bo bin kiu con tr

V con tr c kh nng tham chiu trc tip n gi tr m chng tr ti nn cn thit phi ch r kiu d liu no m mt bin con tr tr ti khai bo n. V vy, khai bo ca mt bin con tr s c mu sau:
type * pointer_name;

trong type l kiu d liu c tr ti, khng phi l kiu ca bn thn con tr. V d:
int * number; char * character; float * greatnumber;

l ba khai bo ca con tr. Mi bin u tr ti mt kiu d liu khc nhau nhng c ba u l con tr v chng u chim mt lng b nh nh nhau (kch thc ca mt bin con tr ty thuc vo h iu hnh). nhng d liu m chng tr ti khng chim lng b nh nh nhau, mt kiu int, mt kiu char v ci cn li kiu float. Ti phi nhn mnh li rng du sao (*) m chng ta t khi khai bo mt con tr ch c ngha rng: l mt con tr v hon ton khng lin quan n ton t tham chiu m chng ta xem xt trc . n gin ch l hai tc v khc nhau c biu din bi cng mt du.
// my first pointer #include <iostream.h> value1==10 / value2==20

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int main () { int value1 = 5, value2 = 15; int * mypointer; mypointer = &value1; *mypointer = 10; mypointer = &value2; *mypointer = 20; cout << "value1==" << value1 << "/ value2==" << value2; return 0; }

Ch rng gi tr ca value1 v value2 c thay i mt cch gin tip. u tin chng ta gn cho mypointer a ch ca value1 dng ton t ly a ch (&) v sau chng ta gn 10 cho gi tr c tr bi mypointer, l gi tr c tr bi value1 v vy chng ta sa bin value1 mt cch gin tip bn c th thy rng mt con tr c th mang mt vi gi tr trong cng mt chng trnh chng ta s lp li qu trnh vi value2 v vi cng mt con tr. y l mt v d phc tp hn mt cht:
// more pointers #include <iostream.h> int main () { int value1 = 5, value2 = 15; int *p1, *p2; p1 = &value1; // p1 = a ch ca value1 p2 = &value2; // p2 = a ch ca value2 *p1 = 10; // gi tr tr bi p1 = 10 *p2 = *p1; // gi tr tr bi p2 = gi tr tr bi p1 p1 = p2; // p1 = p2 (php gn con tr) *p1 = 20; // gi tr tr bi p1 = 20 cout << "value1==" << value1 << "/ value2==" << value2; return 0; } value1==10 / value2==20

Mt dng c th gy s ch ca bn l:

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int *p1, *p2;

dng ny khai bo hai con tr bng cch t du sao (*) trc mi con tr. Nguyn nhn l kiu d liu khai bo cho c dng l int v v theo th t t phi sang tri, du sao c tnh trc tn kiu. Chng ta ni n iu ny trong bi 1.3: Cc ton t.

Con tr v mng.
Trong thc t, tn ca mt mng tng ng vi a ch phn t u tin ca n, ging nh mt con tr tng ng vi a ch ca phn t u tin m n tr ti, v vy thc t chng hon ton nh nhau. V d, cho hai khai bo sau:
int numbers [20]; int * p;

lnh sau s hp l:
p = numbers;

y p v numbers l tng ng v chng c cng thuc tnh, s khc bit duy nht l chng ta c th gn mt gi tr khc cho con tr p trong khi numbers lun tr n phn t u tin trong s 20 phn t kiu int m n c nh ngha vi. V vy, khng ging nh p - l mt bin con tr bnh thng, numbers l mt con tr hng. Lnh gn sau y l khng hp l:
numbers = p;

bi v numbers l mt mng (con tr hng) v khng c gi tr no c th c gn cho cc hng. V con tr cng c mi tnh cht ca mt bin nn tt c cc biu thc c con tr trong v d di y l hon ton hp l:
// more pointers #include <iostream.h> int main () { int numbers[5]; int * p; p = numbers; *p = 10; p++; *p = 20; p = &numbers[2]; *p = 30; p = numbers + 3; *p = 40; p = numbers; *(p+4) = 50; for (int n=0; n<5; n++) cout << numbers[n] << ", "; return 0; 10, 20, 30, 40, 50,

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Trong bi "mng" chng ta dng du ngoc vung ch ra phn t ca mng m chng ta mun tr n. Cp ngoc vung ny c coi nh l ton t offset v ngha ca chng khng i khi c dng vi bin con tr. V d, hai biu thc sau y:
a[5] = 0; *(a+5) = 0; // a [offset of 5] = 0 // pointed by (a+5) = 0 tng ng v hp l bt k a l mng hay l

l hon ton

mt con tr.

Khi to con tr
Khi khai bo con tr c th chng ta s mun ch nh r rng chng s tr ti bin no,
int number; int *tommy = &number;

l tng ng vi:
int number; int *tommy; tommy = &number;

Trong mt php gn con tr chng ta phi lun lun gn a ch m n tr ti ch khng phi l gi tr m n tr ti. Bn cn phi nh rng khi khai bo mt bin con tr, du sao (*) c dng ch ra n l mt con tr, v hon ton khc vi ton t tham chiu. l hai ton t khc nhau mc d chng c vit vi cng mt du. V vy, cc cu lnh sau l khng hp l:
int number; int *tommy; *tommy = &number;

Nh i vi mng, trnh bin dch cho php chng ta khi to gi tr m con tr tr ti bng gi tr hng vo thi im khai bo bin con tr:
char * terry = "hello";

trong trng hp ny mt khi nh tnh c dnh cha "hello" v mt con tr tr ti k t u tin ca khi nh ny ( l k t h') c gn cho terry. Nu "hello" c lu ti a ch 1702, lnh khai bo trn c th c hnh dung nh th ny:

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cn phi nhc li rng terry mang gi tr 1702 ch khng phi l 'h' hay "hello". Bin con tr terry tr ti mt xu k t v n c th c s dng nh l i vi mt mng (hy nh rng mt mng ch n thun l mt con tr hng). V d, nu chng ta mun thay k t 'o' bng mt du chm than, chng ta c th thc hin vic bng hai cch:
terry[4] = '!'; *(terry+4) = '!';

hy nh rng vit terry[4] l hon ton ging vi vit *(terry+4) mc d biu thc thng dng nht l ci u tin. Vi mt trong hai lnh trn xu do terry tr n s c gi tr nh sau:

Cc php tnh s hc vi pointer

Vic thc hin cc php tnh s hc vi con tr hi khc so vi cc kiu d liu s nguyn khc. Trc ht, ch php cng v tr l c php dng. Nhng c cng v tr u cho kt qu ph thuc vo kch thc ca kiu d liu m bin con tr tr ti. Chng ta thy c nhiu kiu d liu khc nhau tn ti v chng c th chim ch nhiu hn hoc t hn cc kiu d liu khc. V d, trong cc kiu s nguyn, char chim 1 byte, short chim 2 byte v long chim 4 byte. Gi s chng ta c 3 con tr sau:
char *mychar; short *myshort; long *mylong;

v chng ln lt tr ti nh 1000, 2000 and 3000.

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Nu chng ta vit
mychar++; myshort++; mylong++; mychar - nh bn mong i - s mang gi tr 1001. Tuy nhin myshort s mang gi tr 2002 v mylong mang gi tr 3004. Nguyn nhn l khi cng thm 1 vo mt con tr th

n s tr ti phn t tip theo c cng kiu m n c nh ngha, v vy kch thc tnh bng byte ca kiu d liu n tr ti s c cng thm vo bin con tr.

iu ny ng vi c hai php ton cng v tr i vi con tr. Chng ta cng hon ton thu c kt qu nh trn nu vit:
mychar = mychar + 1; myshort = myshort + 1; mylong = mylong + 1;

Cn phi cnh bo bn rng c hai ton t tng (++) v gim (--) u c quyn u tin ln hn ton t tham chiu (*), v vy biu thc sau y c th dn ti kt qu sai:
*p++; *p++ = *q++;

Lnh u tin tng ng vi *(p++) iu m n thc hin l tng p (a ch nh m n tr ti ch khng phi l gi tr tr ti). Lnh th hai, c hai ton t tng (++) u c thc hin sau khi gi tr ca *q c gn cho *p v sau c q v p u tng ln 1. Lnh ny tng ng vi:
*p = *q; p++; q++;

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Nh ni trong cc bi trc, ti khuyn cc bn nn dng cc cp ngoc n trnh nhng kt qu khng mong mun.

Con tr tr ti con tr
C++ cho php s dng cc con tr tr ti cc con tr khc ging nh l tr ti d liu. lm vic chng ta ch cn thm mt du sao (*) cho mi mc tham chiu.
char a; char * b; char ** c; a = 'z'; b = &a; c = &b;

gi s rng a,b,c c lu cc nh 7230, 8092 and 10502, ta c th m t on m trn nh sau:

im mi trong v d ny l bin c, chng ta c th ni v n theo 3 cch khc nhau, mi cch s tng ng vi mt gi tr khc nhau:
c l mt bin c kiu (char **) mang gi tr 8092 *c l mt bin c kiu (char*) mang gi tr 7230 **c l mt bin c kiu (char) mang gi tr 'z'

Con tr khng kiu

Con tr khng kiu l mt loi con tr c bit. N c th tr ti bt k loi d liu no, t gi tr nguyn hoc thc cho ti mt xu k t. Hn ch duy nht ca n l d liu c tr ti khng th c tham chiu ti mt cch trc tip (chng ta khng th dng ton t tham chiu * vi chng) v di ca n l khng xc nh v v vy chng ta phi dng n ton t chuyn kiu d liu hay php gn chuyn con tr khng kiu thnh mt con tr tr ti mt loi d liu c th. Mt trong nhng tin ch ca n l cho php truyn tham s cho hm m khng cn ch r kiu
// integer increaser #include <iostream.h> void increase (void* data, int 6, 10, 13

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type) { switch (type) { case sizeof(char) : (*((char*)data))++; break; case sizeof(short): (*((short*)data))++; break; case sizeof(long) : (*((long*)data))++; break; } } int main () { char a = 5; short b = 9; long c = 12; increase (&a,sizeof(a)); increase (&b,sizeof(b)); increase (&c,sizeof(c)); cout << (int) a << ", " << b << ", " << c; return 0; }

l mt ton t ca ngn ng C++, n tr v mt gi tr hng l kch thc tnh bng byte ca tham s truyn cho n, v d sizeof(char) bng 1 v kch thc ca char l 1 byte.
sizeof

Con tr hm
C++ cho php thao tc vi cc con tr hm. Tin ch tuyt vi ny cho php truyn mt hm nh l mt tham s n mt hm khc. c th khai bo mt con tr tr ti mt hm chng ta phi khai bo n nh l khai bo mu ca mt hm nhng phi bao trong mt cp ngoc n () tn ca hm v chn du sao (*) ng trc.
// pointer to functions #include <iostream.h> int addition (int a, int b) { return (a+b); } int subtraction (int a, int b) { return (a-b); } int (*minus)(int,int) = subtraction; int operation (int x, int y, int (*functocall)(int,int)) { int g; 8

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g = (*functocall)(x,y); return (g); } int main () { int m,n; m = operation (7, 5, &addition); n = operation (20, m, minus); cout <<n; return 0; }

Trong v d ny, minus l mt con tr ton cc tr ti mt hm c hai tham s kiu int, con tr ny c gm tr ti hm subtraction, tt c u trn mt dng:
int (* minus)(int,int) = subtraction;

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B nh ng

Cho n nay, trong cc chng trnh ca chng ta, tt c nhng phn b nh chng ta c th s dng l cc bin cc mng v cc i tng khc m chng ta khai bo. Kch c ca chng l c nh v khng th thay i trong thi gian chng trnh chy. Nhng nu chng ta cn mt lng b nh m kch c ca n ch c th c xc nh khi chng trnh chy, v d nh trong trng hp chng ta nhn thng tin t ngi dng xc nh lng b nh cn thit. Gii php y chnh l b nh ng, C++ tch hp hai ton t new v delete thc hin vic ny Hai ton t new v delete ch c trong C++. phn sau ca bi chng ta s bit nhng thao tc tng ng vi cc ton t ny trong C. Ton t new v new[ ] c th c c b nh ng chng ta c th dng ton t new. Theo sau ton t ny l tn kiu d liu v c th l s phn t cn thit c t trong cp ngoc vung. N tr v mt con tr tr ti u ca khi nh va c cp pht. Dng thc ca ton t ny nh sau:
pointer = new type

hoc
pointer = new type [elements]

Biu thc u tien c dng cp pht b nh cha mt phn t c kiu type. Lnh th hai c dng cp pht mt khi nh (mt mng) gm cc phn t kiu type. V d:
int * bobby; bobby = new int [5];

trong trng hp ny, h iu hnh dnh ch cho 5 phn t kiu int trong b nh v tr v mt con tr tr n u ca khi nh. V vy lc ny bobby tr n mt khi nh hp l gm 5 phn t int.

Bn c th hi ti l c g khc nhau gia vic khai bo mt mng vi vic cp pht b nh cho mt con tr nh chng ta va lm. iu quan trng nht l kch thc ca mt
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mng phi l mt hng, iu ny gii hn kch thc ca mng n kch thc m chng ta chn khi thit k chng trnh trong khi cp pht b nh ng cho php cp pht b nh trong qu trnh chy vi kch thc bt k. B nh ng ni chung c qun l bi h iu hnh v trong cc mi trng a nhim c th chy mt lc vi chng trnh c mt kh nng c th xy ra l ht b nh cp pht. Nu iu ny xy ra v h iu hnh khng th cp pht b nh nh chng ta yu cu vi ton t new, mt con tr null (zero) s c tr v. V vy cc bn nn kim tra xem con tr tr v bi ton t new c bng null hay khng:
int * bobby; bobby = new int [5]; if (bobby == NULL) { // error assigning memory. Take measures. };

Ton t delete. V b nh ng ch cn thit trong mt khong thi gian nht nh, khi n khng cn dng n na th n s c gii phng c th cp pht cho cc nhu cu khc trong tng lai. thc hin vic ny ta dng ton t delete, dng thc ca n nh sau:
delete pointer;

hoc
delete [] pointer;

Biu thc u tin nn c dng gii phng b nh c cp pht cho mt phn t v lnh th hai dng gii phng mt khi nh gm nhiu phn t (mng). Trong hu ht cc trnh dch c hai biu thc l tng ng mc d chng l r rng l hai ton t khc nhau.
// rememb-o-matic #include <iostream.h> #include <stdlib.h> int main () { char input [100]; int i,n; long * l, total = 0; cout << "How many numbers do you want to type in? "; cin.getline (input,100); i=atoi (input); l= new long[i]; if (l == NULL) exit (1); for (n=0; n<i; n++) { cout << "Enter number: "; cin.getline (input,100); l[n]=atol (input); } How many numbers do you want to type in? 5 Enter number : 75 Enter number : 436 Enter number : 1067 Enter number : 8 Enter number : 32 You have entered: 75, 436, 1067, 8, 32,

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cout << "You have entered: "; for (n=0; n<i; n++) cout << l[n] << ", "; delete[] l; return 0; }

NULL

l mt hng s c nh ngha trong th vin C++ dng biu th con tr null. Trong trng hp hng s ny cha nh ngha bn c th t nh ngha n:

#define NULL 0

Dng 0 hay NULL khi kim tra con tr l nh nhau nhng vic dng NULL vi con tr c s dng rt rng ri v iu ny c khuyn khch gip cho chng trnh d c hn.

B nh ng trong ANSI-C
Ton t new v delete l c quyn C++ v chng khng c trong ngn ng C. Trong ngn ng C, c th s dng b nh ng chng ta phi s dng th vin stdlib.h. Chng ta s xem xt cch ny v n cng hp l trong C++ v n vn cn c s dng trong mt s chng trnh. Hm malloc y l mt hm tng qut cp pht b nh ng cho con tr. Cu trc ca n nh sau:
void * malloc (size_t nbytes);

trong nbytes l s byte chng ta mun gn cho con tr. Hm ny tr v mt con tr kiu void*, v vy chng ta phi chuyn i kiu sang kiu ca con tr ch, v d:
char * ronny; ronny = (char *) malloc (10);

on m ny cp pht cho con tr ronny mt khi nh 10 byte. Khi chng ta mun cp pht mt khi d liu c kiu khc char (ln hn 1 byte) chng ta phi nhn s phn t mong mun vi kch thc ca chng. Tht may mn l chng ta c ton t sizeof, ton t ny tr v kch thc ca mt kiu d liu c th.
int * bobby; bobby = (int *) malloc (5 * sizeof(int));

on m ny cp pht cho bobby mt khi nh gm 5 s nguyn kiu int, kch c ca kiu d liu ny c th bng 2, 4 hay hn ty thuc vo h thng m chng trnh c dch.

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Hm calloc. calloc hot ng rt ging vi malloc, s khc nhau ch yu l khai bo mu ca n:

void * calloc (size_t nelements, size_t size);

n s dng hai tham s thay v mt. Hai tham s ny c nhn vi nhau c c kch thc tng cng ca khi nh cn cp pht. Thng thng tham s u tin (nelements) l s phn t v tham s thc hai (size) l kch thc ca mi phn t. V d, chng ta c th nh ngha bobby vi calloc nh sau:
int * bobby; bobby = (int *) calloc (5, sizeof(int));

Mt im khc nhau na gia malloc v calloc l calloc khi to tt c cc phn t ca n v 0. Hm realloc. N thay i kch thc ca khi nh c cp pht cho mt con tr.
void * realloc (void * pointer, size_t size);

tham s pointer nhn vo mt con tr c cp pht b nh hay mt con tr null, v size ch nh kch thc ca khi nh mi. Hm ny s cp pht size byte b nh cho con tr. N c th phi thay i v v tr ca khi nh c th ch cho kch thc mi ca khi nh, trong trng hp ny ni dung hin thi ca khi nh c copy ti v tr mi m bo d liu khng b mt. Con tr mi tr ti khi nh c hm tr v. Nu khng th thay i kch thc ca khi nh th hm s tr v mt con tr null nhng tham s pointer v ni dung ca n s khng b thay i. Hm free. Hm ny gii phng mt khi nh ng c cp pht bi malloc, calloc hoc realloc.
void free (void * pointer);

calloc

Hm ny ch c dng gii phng b nh c cp pht bi cc hm malloc, and realloc.

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Cc cu trc Cc cu trc d liu.

Mt cu trc d liu l mt tp hp ca nhng kiu d liu khc nhau c gp li vi mt ci tn duy nht. Dng thc ca n nh sau:
struct model_name { type1 element1; type2 element2; type3 element3; . . } object_name; trong model_name l tn

ca mu kiu d liu v tham s ty chn object_name mt tn hp l cho i tng. Bn trong cp ngoc nhn l tn cc phn t ca cu trc v kiu ca chng.

Nu nh ngha ca cu trc bao gm tham s model_name (tu chn), tham s ny tr thnh mt tn kiu hp l tng ng vi cu trc. V d:
struct products { char name [30]; float price; } ; products apple; products orange, melon;

Chng ta nh ngha cu trc products vi hai trng: name v price, mi trng c mt kiu khc nhau. Chng ta cng s dng tn ca kiu cu trc (products) khai bo ba i tng c kiu : apple, orange v melon. Sau khi c khai bo, products tr thnh mt tn kiu hp l ging cc kiu c bn nh int, char hay short. Trng tu chn object_name c th nm cui ca phn khai bo cu trc dng khai bo trc tip i tng c kiu cu trc. V d, khai bo cc i tng apple, orange v melon nh lm phn trc chng ta cng c th lm theo cch sau:
struct products { char name [30]; float price; } apple, orange, melon;

Hn na, trong trng hp ny tham s model_name tr thnh tu chn. Mc d nu model_name khng c s dng th chng ta s khng th khai bo thm cc i tng c kiu mu ny.

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Mt iu quan trng l cn phn bit r rng u l kiu mu cu trc, u l i tng cu trc. Nu dng cc thut ng chng ta s dng vi cc bin, kiu mu l tn kiu d liu cn i tng l cc bin. Sau khi khai bo ba i tng c kiu l mt mu cu trc xc nh (apple, orange and melon) chng ta c th thao tc vi cc trng to nn chng. lm vic ny chng ta s dng mt du chm (.) chn gia tn i tng v tn trng. V d, chng ta c th thao tc vi bt k phn t no ca cu trc nh l i vi cc bin chun :
apple.name apple.price orange.name orange.price melon.name melon.price

mi trng c kiu d liu tng ng: apple.name, orange.name v melon.name c kiu char[30], v apple.price, orange.price v melon.price c kiu float. Chng ta tm bit apples, oranges v melons n vi mt v d v cc b phim:
// example about structures #include <iostream.h> #include <string.h> #include <stdlib.h> struct movies_t { char title [50]; int year; } mine, yours; void printmovie (movies_t movie); int main () { char buffer [50]; strcpy (mine.title, "2001 A Space Odyssey"); mine.year = 1968; cout << "Enter title: "; cin.getline (yours.title,50); cout << "Enter year: "; cin.getline (buffer,50); yours.year = atoi (buffer); cout << "My favourite movie is:\n "; printmovie (mine); cout << "And yours:\n "; printmovie (yours); Enter title: Alien Enter year: 1979 My favourite movie is: 2001 A Space Odyssey (1968) And yours: Alien (1979)

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return 0; } void printmovie (movies_t movie) { cout << movie.title; cout << " (" << movie.year << ")\n"; }

V d ny cho chng ta thy cch s dng cc phn t ca mt cu trc v bn thn cu trc nh l cc bin thng thng. V d, yours.year l mt bin hp l c kiu int cng nh mine.title l mt mng hp l vi 50 phn t kiu chars. Ch rng c mine and yours u c coi l cc bin hp l kiu movie_t khi c truyn cho hm printmovie().Hn na mt li th quan trng ca cu trc l chng ta c th xt cc phn t ca chng mt cch ring bit hoc ton b cu trc nh l mt khi. Cc cu trc c s dng rt nhiu xy dng c s d liu c bit nu chng ta xt n kh nng xy dng cc mng ca chng.
// array of structures #include <iostream.h> #include <stdlib.h> #define N_MOVIES 5 struct movies_t { char title [50]; int year; } films [N_MOVIES]; void printmovie (movies_t movie); int main () { char buffer [50]; int n; for (n=0; n<N_MOVIES; n++) { cout << "Enter title: "; cin.getline (films[n].title,50); cout << "Enter year: "; cin.getline (buffer,50); films[n].year = atoi (buffer); } cout << "\nYou have entered these movies:\n"; Enter Enter Enter Enter Enter Enter Enter Enter Enter Enter title: Alien year: 1979 title: Blade Runner year: 1982 title: Matrix year: 1999 title: Rear Window year: 1954 title: Taxi Driver year: 1975

You have entered these movies: Alien (1979) Blade Runner (1982) Matrix (1999) Rear Window (1954) Taxi Driver (1975)

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for (n=0; n<N_MOVIES; n++) printmovie (films[n]); return 0; } void printmovie (movies_t movie) { cout << movie.title; cout << " (" << movie.year << ")\n"; }

Con tr tr n cu trc
Nh bt k cc kiu d liu no khc, cc cu trc c th c tr n bi con tr. Quy tc hon ton ging nh i vi bt k kiu d liu c bn no:
struct movies_t { char title [50]; int year; }; movies_t amovie; movies_t * pmovie; y amovie l mt i tng c kiu movies_t v pmovie l mt con tr tr ti i tng movies_t. OK, by gi chng ta s n vi mt v d khc, n s gii thiu mt

ton t mi:
// pointers to structures #include <iostream.h> #include <stdlib.h> struct movies_t { char title [50]; int year; }; Enter title: Matrix Enter year: 1999 You have entered: Matrix (1999)

int main () { char buffer[50]; movies_t amovie; movies_t * pmovie; pmovie = & amovie; cout << "Enter title: "; cin.getline (pmovie->title,50); cout << "Enter year: "; cin.getline (buffer,50); pmovie->year = atoi (buffer); cout << "\nYou have entered:\n";

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cout << pmovie->title; cout << " (" << pmovie->year << ")\n"; return 0; }

on m trn gii thiu mt iu quan trng: ton t ->. y l mt ton t tham chiu ch dng tr ti cc cu trc v cc lp (class). N cho php chng ta khng phi dng ngoc mi khi tham chiu n mt phn t ca cu trc. Trong v d ny chng ta s dng:
movies->title

n c th c dch thnh:
(*movies).title

c hai biu thc movies->title v (*movies).title u hp l v chng u dng tham chiu n phn t title ca cu trc c tr bi movies. Bn cn phn bit r rng vi:
*movies.title

n tng ng vi
*(movies.title)

lnh ny dng tnh ton gi tr c tr bi phn t title ca cu trc movies, trong trng hp ny (title khng phi l mt con tr) n chng c ngha g nhiu. Bn di y tng kt tt c cc kt hp c th c gia con tr v cu trc: Biu thc
movies.title movies->title *movies.title

M t Phn t title ca cu trc movies Phn t title ca cu trc c tr bi movies Gi tr c tr bi phn t title ca cu trc
movies

Tng ng vi

(*movies).title *(movies.title)

Cc cu trc lng nhau

Cc cu trc c th c t lng nhau v vy mt phn t hp l ca mt cu trc c th l mt cu trc khc.
struct movies_t { char title [50];

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int year; } struct friends_t { char name [50]; char email [50]; movies_t favourite_movie; } charlie, maria; friends_t * pfriends = &charlie;

V vy, sau phn khai bo trn chng ta c th s dng cc biu thc sau:
charlie.name maria.favourite_movie.title charlie.favourite_movie.year pfriends->favourite_movie.year

(trong hai biu thc cui cng l tng ng). Cc khi nim c bn v cu trc c cp n trong phn ny l hon ton ging vi ngn ng C, tuy nhin trong C++, cu trc c m rng thm cc chc nng ca mt lp vi tnh cht c trng l tt c cc phn t ca n u l cng cng (public). Bn s c thm cc thng tin chi tit trong phn

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Cc kiu d liu t nh ngha.

Trong bi trc chng ta xem xt mt loi d liu c nh ngha bi ngi dng (ngi lp trnh): cu trc. Nhng c cn nhiu kiu d liu t nh ngha khc:

T nh ngha cc kiu d liu (typedef).

C++ cho php chng ta nh ngha cc kiu d liu ca ring mnh da trn cc kiu d liu c. c th lm vic chng ta s s dng t kho typedef, dng thc nh sau:
typedef existing_type new_type_name ;

trong existing_type l mt kiu d liu c bn hay bt k mt kiu d liu nh ngha v new_type_name l tn ca kiu d liu mi. V d
typedef typedef typedef typedef char C; unsigned int WORD; char * string_t; char field [50];

Trong trng hp ny chng ta nh ngha bn kiu d liu mi: C, WORD, string_t v field kiu char, unsigned int, char* kiu char[50], chng ta hon ton c th s dng chng nh l cc kiu d liu hp l:
C achar, anotherchar, *ptchar1; WORD myword; string_t ptchar2; field name; typedef c th hu dng khi bn mun

nh ngha mt kiu d liu c dng lp i lp li trong chng trnh hoc kiu d liu bn mun dng c tn qu di v bn mun n c tn ngn hn.

Union
Union cho php mt phn b nh c th c truy xut di dng nhiu kiu d liu khc nhau mc d tt c chng u nm cng mt v tr trong b nh. Phn khai bo v s dng n tng t vi cu trc nhng chc nng th khc hon ton:
union model_name { type1 element1; type2 element2; type3 element3; . . } object_name;

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Tt c cc phn t ca union u chim cng mt ch trong b nh. Kch thc ca n l kch thc ca phn t ln nht. V d:
union mytypes_t { char c; int i; float f; } mytypes;

nh ngha ba phn t
mytypes.c mytypes.i mytypes.f

mi phn t c mt kiu d liu khc nhau. Nhng v tt c chng u nm cng mt ch trong b nh nn bt k s thay i no i vi mt phn t s nh hng ti tt c cc thnh phn cn li. Mt trong nhng cng dng ca union l dng kt hp mt kiu d liu c bn vi mt mng hay cc cu trc gm cc phn t nh hn. V d:
union mix_t{ long l; struct { short hi; short lo; } s; char c[4]; } mix;

nh ngha ba phn t cho php chng ta truy xut n cng mt nhm 4 byte: mix.l, mix.s v mix.c m chng ta c th s dng tu theo vic chng ta mun truy xut n nhm 4 byte ny nh th no. Ti dng nhiu kiu d liu khc nhau, mng v cu trc trong union bn c th thy cc cch khc nhau m chng ta c th truy xut d liu.

Cc unions v danh
Trong C++ chng ta c th s dng cc unions v danh. Nu chng ta t mt union trong mt cu trc m khng tn (phn i sau cp ngoc nhn { }) union s tr thnh v danh v chng ta c th truy xut trc tip n cc phn t ca n m khng cn n tn ca union (c cn cng khng c). V d, hy xem xt s khc bit gia hai phn khai bo sau y: union union v danh

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struct { char title[50]; char author[50]; union { float dollars; int yens; } price; } book;

struct { char title[50]; char author[50]; union { float dollars; int yens; }; } book;

S khc bit duy nht gia hai on m ny l trong on m u tin chng ta t tn cho union (price) cn trong ci th hai th khng. Khi truy nhp vo cc phn t dollars v yens, trong trng hp th nht chng ta vit:
book.price.dollars book.price.yens

cn trong trng hp th hai:

book.dollars book.yens

Mt ln na ti nhc li rng v n l mt union, hai trng dollars v yens u chim cng mt ch trong b nh nn chng khng th gi hai gi tr khc nhau.

Kiu lit k (enum)

Kiu d liu lit k dng to ra cc kiu d liu cha mt ci g hi c bit mt cht, khng phi kiu s hay kiu k t hoc cc hng true v false. Dng thc ca n nh sau:
enum model_name { value1, value2, value3, . . } object_name;

V d, chng ta c th to ra mt kiu d liu mi c tn color lu tr cc mu vi phn khai bo nh sau:

enum colors_t {black, blue, green, cyan, red, purple, yellow, white};

Ch rng chng ta khng s dng bt k mt kiu d liu c bn no trong phn khai bo. Chng ta to ra mt kiu d liu mi m khng da trn bt k kiu d liu no c sn: kiu color_t, nhng gi tr c th ca kiu color_t c vit trong cp ngoc nhn {}. V d, sau khi khai bo kiu lit k, biu thc sau s l hp l:
colors_t mycolor; mycolor = blue; if (mycolor == green) mycolor = red;

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Trn thc t kiu d liu lit k c dch l mt s nguyn v cc gi tr ca n l cc hng s nguyn c ch nh. Nu iu ny khng oc ch nh, gi tr nguyn tng ng vi phn t u tin l 0 v cc gi tr tip theo c th tng ln 1, V vy, trong kiu d liu colors_t m chng ta nh ngha trn, white tng ng vi 0, blue tng ng vi 1, green tng ng vi 2 v c tip tc nh th. Nu chng ta ch nh mt gi tr nguyn cho mt gi tr no ca kiu d liu lit k (trong v d ny l phn t u tin) cc gi tr tip theo s l cc gi tr nguyn tip theo, v d:
enum months_t { january=1, february, march, april, may, june, july, august, september, october, november, december} y2k; trong trng hp ny, bin y2k c kiu d liu lit k months_t c th cha mt trong 12 gi tr t january n december v tng ng vi cc gi tr nguyn t 1 n 12, khng phi 0 n 11 v chng ta t january bng 1.

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