A Brief Summary of Classical Rhetoric I.

Types of Persuasive Discourse Deliberative: That which seeks to persuade someone to do something he otherwise would not do or to accept a point of view he otherwise would not hold. It is concerned with the future. Forensic: That which seeks to defend or condemn ones actions. It is concerned with the past. Ceremonial: That which celebrates or denounces. It is usually associated with the present.

II. The Five Canons of Rhetoric The study of rhetoric was traditionally divided into five parts: Invention (inventio) Arrangement (dispositio) tyle (elocutio) !emory (memoria) "elivery (pronuntiatio)

III. Invention A. T o types of ar!ument: ". #on$artistic: arguments that do not re#uire invention$ such as laws$ witnesses$ contracts$ tortures$ oaths. %. Artistic: arguments that the speaker must invent. They include rational appeal (logos)$ emotional appeal (pathos)$ and ethical appeal (ethos). Rational appeal &lo!os'

%ational appeals can be in(uctive or (e(uctive: $$In(uctive reasonin! generali&es a conclusion from analogous facts (e.g. 'very dog I see has four legs. Therefore all dogs have four legs). The rhetorical e#uivalent of inductive reasoning is the e)ample. $$De(uctive reasonin! establishes a conclusion from positive or negative statements (e.g. If all human beings are mortal$ and I am a human being$ then I must be mortal). The rhetorical e#uivalent of deductive reasoning is the enthymeme (an imperfect syllo!ism). Fallacies: There are several fallacies in inductive and deductive reasoning that$ if understood$ can be identified and disposed of properly. This list is not e(haustive: ". Faulty *enerali+ations: drawing a conclusion from inade#uate e(amples %. Post hoc, er!o propter hoc: )After this$ therefore because of this. '.g. *'very time I wear red it rains.+ -. Faulty analo!y: using unlike terms in an analogy .. Be!!in! the /uestion: using circular reasoning. 0. A( 1ominem: making a personal attack in order to distract one from the substantive issue. ,ote that at times$ though$ the character of a person may in fact be the substantive issue. 2. A( Populum: appealing to irrational fears and pre-udices$ also in order to distract one from the substantive issue. the common tool of demagogues. 3. Re( 1errin!: /ike the previous two fallacies$ also intended to distract. '.g. * o what if I my client stole the car0 1e pays ta(es and donates blood.+ The fact he does so does not relate to whether or not he is guilty of auto theft. 4. The Comple) /uestion5Poisonin! the 6ell: Asking two #uestions as one$ and thereby assuming the answer to the first. '.g. *"o you still cheat on tests0+ should be$ *1ave you ever cheat on a test0+ and *"o you still do so0+

7thical Appeal &ethos'

A second type of artistic argument is the speakers character$ not only as established by his reputation$ but also as conveyed in the speech itself. !ost orators agree that ones character is the most potent weapon in ones rhetorical arsenal. 7motional Appeal &pathos'

The final type of artistic argument is an appeal to the emotion of the audience. 3athos should never be substituted for proper rational argument$ but rather should buttress it. B. The Topics &topoi'

4lassical rhetoricians invented the topics as an aid to discovering argument. Though the topics are helpful$ they cannot substitute for broad knowledge of the world ac#uired through dedicated study and e(perience. 55Definition 2. 6enus 7. "ivision $$Comparison 2. imilarity 7. "ifference 8. "egree $$Relationship 2. 4ause and 'ffect 7. Antecedent and 4onse#uence 8. 4ontraries 9. 4ontradictories $$Circumstance 2. 3ossible and Impossible 7. 3ast fact and future fact $$Testimony (non5artistic arguments) 2. Authority 7. Testimonial 8. tatistics 9. !a(ims :. /aws ;. 3recedents

In addition to these common topics$ which apply to all three forms of persuasive discourse$ there are special topics that are specific to each form. $$Deliberative 2. Inherent worth 7. <tility $$Forensic 2. =hether something happened (evidence) 7. =hat the nature of that thing is (definition) I8: Arran!ement &(ispositio' @nce arguments are discovered$ they must be organi&ed. Audicious arrangement of arguments is as important to persuasion as are the arguments themselves. !ost rhetoricians recogni&e five parts of discourse: introduction$ statement of fact$ confirmation$ refutation$ and conclusion. ". Intro(uction &e)or(ium' The introduction serves two purposes: to inform the audience of the sub-ect of the discourse$ and to ren(er the audience amenable to the speakers argument. 4onse#uently$ the speakers ethos is particularly important here. There are various types of introductions$ such as: 8. =hat its #ualities>circumstances are (motives>causes of action) $$Ceremonial 2. ?irtues and vices 7. 3ersonal assets and achievements

Intro(uction in9uisitive: *"oes history repeat itself0+ (Arnold Toynbee) Intro(uction para(o)ical: *As I type this$ highly civili&ed men are flying above$ trying to kill me.+ (George Orwell) Intro(uction corrective: *The peanut is in fact a fruit.+ Intro(uction preparatory: :Beginnings are apt to be shadowy$ and so it is with the beginnings of that great mother of life$ the sea.+ (%achel 4arson). he e(plains an unusual mode of developing her sub-ect. Intro(uction narrative: %eciting an anecdote

%. Statement of Fact &narratio' This section informs the audience of the circumstances that must be known before the formal argument is presented. Cuintilian advises that this portion of the discourse be lucid$ brief$ and plausible. -. Confirmation &confirmation' The core of discourse$ in which the argument is presented and proven. 6enerally$ it is not advisable to present arguments in descending order of strength$ as it has a debilitating$ anticlimactic effect. The proper se#uencing of arguments depends on the particular disposition of the audience$ the sub-ect$ the occasion$ and the sub-ective tastes of the speaker. -. Refutation &refutatio'

%efutation can be achieved in a variety of ways$ including logical appeal$ emotional appeal$ ethical appeal$ wit (-oke$ humor$ sarcasm$ puns)$ etc. It should be noted that at times it will be appropriate to present a refutation before ones confirmation. Dor e(ample$ if an opposing speaker is well received$ it will be valuable to refute his arguments before offering ones own. 0. Conclusion &peroratio' Aristotle teaches that the conclusion ought to do four things: 55%estate the facts and arguments 55Amplify the force of ones points and diminish that of ones opponents 55Inspire through ones character (ethos) 55%ouse appropriate emotions (pathos) 'motional appeals tend to be strongest in conclusions. Cuintilian writes that *it is in its power over the emotions that the life and soul of oratory is to be found.+ 8: Style &7locutio' @nce ideas are discovered and organi&ed they must be translated into words for written or oral discourse. 4ardinal ,ewman accordingly defines style as *a thinking out into language.+ 4lassical rhetoricians believed that style was not merely ornamental. rather$ an appropriate use of language was as important to persuasion as was the #uality of the thought that the language e(pressed. <nfortunately$ there are few$ if any$ concrete rules about what is a rhetorically effective style. ,evertheless$ a familiarity with the various figures of speech e(pands ones set of rhetorical tools$ thereby making accessible a fluidity of e(pression otherwise out of reach. The following definitions are taken from 'dward 4orbettts and %obert 4onnors 4lassical %hetoric for the !odern tudent. The list is hardly e(haustive:

5Parallelism: imilarity of structure in a pair or series of related words. '.g. *And through all this welter of change and development your mission remains fi(ed$ determined$ inviolable.+ (6eneral "ouglas !acArthur$ addressing =est 3oint cadets) 5Antithesis: The -u(taposition of contrasting ideas often in parallel structure. '.g. *I am in =ashington to help broadcasting$ not to harm it. to strengthen it$ not to weaken it. to reward it$ not to punish it. to encourage it$ not threaten it. to stimulate it$ not censor it.+ (D44 4hairman ,ewton !inow$ before calling the state of television *a vast wasteland+) 5Anastrophe: Inversion of the natural or usual word order. '.g. *Dar better it is to dare mighty things$ t win glorious triumphs$ even though checkered by failure$ than to take rank with those poor spirits who neither en-oy much nor suffer much$ because the live in the gray twilight that knows not victory nor defeat.+ (Theodore %oosevelt$ advocating the strenuous life) 5Parenthesis: Insertion of verbal unit in a position that interrupts the normal flow of the sentence. '.g. *The more we compress luckEluck has its place in games. it is in the in the 'nglish language. it is in the dictionary$ and we ought to keep it thereEand put it in a small area$ -ust to that e(tent do you enlarge the area for the e(ercise of a mans own functions in controlling his workings$ his destinies$ and his game.+ (Branch %ickey$ on what makes a ballplayer great) 5Apposition: Au(taposing two co5ordinate elements$ the second of which e(plains or modifies the first. '.g. *3eople prefer short takes$ C. and A.. the attention span of most Americans on serious matters is about twenty seconds$ the length of a television clip.+ (=illiam afire$ in his commencement speech to yracuse <niversity) 57llipsis: "eliberate omission of a word or of words which are readily implied by the conte(t. *And he to 'ngland shall along with you.+ (=illiam hakespeare$ in Hamlet) 5Asyn(eton: "eliberate omission of con-unctions between a series of related clauses. '.g. I came$ I saw$ I con#uered 5Alliteration: %epetition of initial or medial consonants in two or more ad-acent words. '.g. *Already American vessels had been searched$ sei&ed$ and sunk.+ (Aohn D. Fennedy$ Profiles in 4ourage) 5Assonance: %epetition of similar vowel sounds$ preceded and followed by different consonants$ in the stressed syllables of ad-acent words. '.g. *=hales in the wake like capes and Alps>Cuaked the sick sea and snouted deep.+ ("ylan Thomas$ *Ballad of the /ong5/egged Bait+) 5Anaphora: %epetition of the same word or group of words at the beginnings of successive clauses. '.g. *=e shall fight on the beaches$ we shall fight on the landing5grounds$ we shall fight in the fields and in the streets$ we shall fight in the hills.+ (=inston 4hurchill$ reaffirming 'nglands dedication to victory) 57pistrophe: %epetition of the same word or group of words at the ends of successive clauses. '.g. *G H=Ie will be as strong as we need to be for as long as we need to be.+ (%ichard ,i(on$ Inaugural Address) 57panalepsis: %epetition at the end of the clause of the word that occurred at the beginning of the clause. '.g. *Blood hath bought blood$ and blows have answerd blows.+ ( hakespeare$ King John) 5Ana(iplosis: %epetition of the last word of one clause at the beginning of the following clause. '.g. *The crime was common$ common be the pain.+ (Ale(ander 3ope$ *'loisa to Abelard+) 5Clima): Arrangement of words or clauses in an order of increasing importance. '.g.*Is life so dear$ or peace so sweet$ as to be purchased at the price of chains and slavery0 Dorbid it$ Almighty 6odJ I know not what course others may take$ but as for me$ give me liberty$ or give me deathJ+ (3atrick 1enry$ advocating colonial separation from 'ngland)

5Antimetabole: %epetition of words$ in successive clauses$ in reverse grammatical order. '.g. *Ask not what your country can do for you. ask what you can do for your country.+ (Aohn D. Fennedy$ Inaugural Address) 5Chiasmus: %eversal of grammatical structures in successive phrases or clauses. '.g. *1is time a moment$ and a point his space.+ (Ale(ander 3ope$ Essay on Man) 5Polyptoton: %epetition of words derived from the same root. '.g. */et me assert my firm belief that the only thing we have to fear is fear itself.+ (Dranklin %oosevelt$ Dirst Inaugural Address) 5;etaphor: Implied comparison between two things of unlike nature. '.g. *"uring this course of administration$ and in order to disturb it$ the artillery of the press has been leveled against us$ charged with whatsoever its licentiousness could devise or dare.+ (Thomas Aefferson$ econd Inaugural Address) $Simile: '(plicit comparison between two things of unlike nature. '.g. *If my accuser had written out his indictment$ I would not keep silence and remain indoors. ,oJ I would flaunt it on my shoulder and wear it like a crown on my head. I would plead the whole record of my life and present that in court as my defense.+ (Aob$ pleading his case before 6od) 5Synech(oche: A part stands for the whole. '.g. All hands on deck. 5Puns: 3lay on words. '.g. *If we dont hang together$ well hang separately.+ (Ben-amin Dranklin$ on the importance of unity in the revolutionary cause) 5Anthimeria: The substitution of one part of speech for another. '.g. *Ill unhair thy head.+ (=illiam hakespeare$ Antony and Celopatra II) 5Periphrasis: ubstitution of a descriptive word or phrase for a proper name. '.g. Investigator Fen tarr is a modern day Javert. 5Personification: Investing human #ualities in abstractions or inanimate ob-ects. '.g. *In my dreams I hear again the crash of guns$ the rattle of musketry$ the strange$ mournful mutter of the battlefield.+ (6eneral "ouglas !acArthur$ addressing =est 3oint cadets) 51yperbole: The use of e(aggerated terms for emphasis or heightened effect. '.g. * ure$ Im lucky. =hen the ,ew Kork 6iants$ a team you would give your right arm to beat$ and vice versa$ sends you a gift$ thats somethingJ+ (/ou 6ehrig$ thanking his fans and bidding baseball farewell) 5<itotes: <se of understatement. '.g. *%eports of my death have been e(aggerated.+ (!ark Twain) 5Rhetorical /uestion: Asking a #uestion not for an answer but for the purpose of asserting or denying something indirectly. '.g. *=hatJ 6entlemen$ was I not to foresee$ or foreseeing was I not to endeavor to save you from all these multiplied mischiefs and disgraces0+ ('dmund Burke$ Speech in the Electors of Bristol) 5Irony: <se of a word to convey a meaning opposite to the literal meaning of the word. '.g. *Dor Brutus is an honourable man. so are they all$ honourable men.+ (=illiam hakespeare$ J li s Ceasar) 5=nomatopoeia: <se of words whose sound echoes the sense. '.g. ThwackJ BoomJ (Batman) 5=)ymoron: Au(taposing two ordinarily contradictory terms. '.g. Aumbo shrimp 8I. ;emory &memoria' 8II. Delivery &pronuntiatio'