UNIT I D.C.

MACHINES

Principles of d.c. machines

D.C. machines are the electro mechanical energy converters which work from a d.c. source and generate mechanical power or convert mechanical power into a d.c. power. Construction of d.c. machines A D.C. machine consists mainly of two part the stationary part called stator and the rotating part called rotor. The stator consists of main poles used to produce magnetic flux ,commutating poles or interpoles in between the main poles to avoid sparking at the commutator but in the case of small machines sometimes the interpoles are avoided and finally the frame or yoke which forms the supporting structure of the machine. The rotor consist of an armature a cylindrical metallic body or core with slots in it to place armature windings or bars,a commutator and brush gears The magnetic flux path in a motor or generator is show below and it is called the magnetic structure of generator or motor. The major parts can be identified as, 1. Frame 2. Yoke 3. Poles Institute of Tenology Madras 4. Armature 5. Commutator and brush gear 6. Commutating poles 7. Compensating winding 8. Other mechanical parts

Frame Frame is the stationary part of a machine on which the main poles and commutator poles are bolted and it forms the supporting structure by connecting the frame to the bed plate. The ring shaped body portion of the frame which makes the magnetic path for the magnetic fluxes from the main poles and interpoles is called Yoke.
Why we use cast steel instead of cast iron for the construction of Yoke?

In early days Yoke was made up of cast iron but now it is replaced by cast steel.This is because cast iron is saturated by a flux density of 0.8 Wb/sq.m where as saturation with cast iron steel is about 1.5 Wb/sq.m.So for the same magnetic flux density the cross section area needed for cast steel is less than cast iron hence the weight of the machine too.If we use cast iron there may be chances of blow holes in it while casting.so now rolled steels are developed and these have consistent magnetic and mechanical properties.

End Shields or Bearings If the armature diameter does not exceed 35 to 45 cm then in addition to poles end shields or frame head with bearing are attached to the frame.If the armature diameter is greater than 1m pedestral

type bearings are mounted on the machine bed plate outside the frame.These bearings could be ball or roller type but generally plain pedestral bearings are employed.If the diameter of the armature is large a brush holder yoke is generally fixed to the frame. Main poles: Solid poles of fabricated steel with separate/integral pole shoes are fastened to the frame by means of bolts. Pole shoes are generally laminated. Sometimes pole body and pole shoe are formed from the same laminations. The pole shoes are shaped so as to have a slightly increased air gap at the tips. Inter-poles are small additional poles located in between the main poles. These can be solid, or laminated just as the main poles. These are also fastened to the yoke by bolts. Sometimes the yoke may be slotted to receive these poles. The inter poles could be of tapered section or of uniform cross section. These are also called as commutating poles or com poles. The width of the tip of the com pole can be about a rotor slot pitch. Armature The armature is where the moving conductors are located. The armature is constructed by stacking laminated sheets of silicon steel. Thickness of these lamination is kept low to reduce eddy current losses. As the laminations carry alternating flux the choice of suitable material, insulation coating on the laminations, stacking it etc are to be done more carefully. The core is divided into packets to facilitate ventilation. The winding cannot be placed on the surface of the rotor due to the mechanical forces coming on the same. Open parallel sided equally spaced slots are normally punched in the rotor laminations. These slots house the armature winding. Large sized machines employ a spider on which the laminations are stacked in segments. End plates are suitably shaped so as to serve as Winding supporters. Armature construction process must ensure provision of sufficient axial and radial ducts to facilitate easy removal of heat from the armature winding. Field windings: In the case of wound field machines (as against permanent magnet excited machines) the field winding takes the form of a concentric coil wound around the main poles. These carry the excitation current and produce the main field in the machine. Thus the poles are created electromagnetically. Two types of windings are generally employed. In shunt winding large number of turns of small section copper conductor isof Technology Madras used. The resistance of such winding would be an order of magnitude larger than the armature winding resistance. In the case of series winding a few turns of heavy cross section conductor is used. The resistance of such windings is low and is comparable to armature resistance. Some machines may have both the windings on the poles. The total ampere turns required to establish the necessary flux under the poles is calculated from the magnetic circuit calculations. The total mmf required is divided equally between north and south poles as the poles are produced in pairs. The mmf required to be shared between shunt and series windings are apportioned as per the design requirements. As these work on the same magnetic system they are in the form of concentric coils. Mmf per pole is normally used in these calculations. Armature winding As mentioned earlier, if the armature coils are wound on the surface of

the armature, such construction becomes mechanically weak. The conductors may fly away when the armature starts rotating. Hence the armature windings are in general pre-formed, taped and lowered into the open slots on the armature. In the case of small machines, they can be hand wound. The coils are prevented from flying out due to the centrifugal forces by means of bands of steel wire on the surface of the rotor in small groves cut into it. In the case of large machines slot wedges are additionally used to restrain the coils from flying away. The end portion of the windings are taped at the free end and bound to the winding carrier ring of the armature at the commutator end. The armature must be dynamically balanced to reduce the centrifugal forces at the operating speeds. Compensating winding One may find a bar winding housed in the slots on the pole shoes. This is mostly found in d.c. machines of very large rating. Such winding is called compensating winding. In smaller machines, they may be absent. Commutator: Commutator is the key element which made the d.c. machine of the present day possible. It consists of copper segments tightly fastened together with mica/micanite insulating separators on an insulated base. The whole commutator forms a rigid and solid assembly of insulated copper strips and can rotate at high speeds. Each commutator segment is provided with a riser where the ends of the armature coils get connected. The surface of the commutator is machined and surface is made concentric with the shaft and the current collecting brushes rest on the same. Under-cutting the mica insulators that are between these commutator segments has to be done periodically to avoid fouling of the surface of the commutator by mica when the commutator gets worn out. Some details of the construction of the commutator are seen in Fig. 8. Brush and brush holders: Brushes rest on the surface of the commutator. Normally electro-graphite is used as brush material. The actual composition of the brush depends on the peripheral speed of the commutator and the working voltage. The hardness of the graphite brush is selected to be lower than that of the commutator. When the brush wears out the graphite works as a solid lubricant reducing frictional coefficient. More number of relatively smaller width brushes are preferred in place of large broad brushes. The brush holders provide slots for the brushes to be placed. The connection Brush holder with a Brush and Positioning of the brush on the commutator from the brush is taken out by means of flexible pigtail. The brushes are kept pressed on the commutator with the help of springs. This is to ensure proper contact between the brushes and the commutator even under high speeds of operation. Jumping of brushes must be avoided to ensure arc free current collection and to keep the brushcontact drop low. Other mechanical parts End covers, fan and shaft bearings form other important mechanical parts. End covers are completely solid or have opening for ventilation. They support the bearings which are on the shaft. Proper machining is to be ensured for easy assembly. Fans can be external or internal. In most machines the fan is on the non-commutator end sucking the air from the commutator end and throwing the same out. Adequate quantity of hot air removal has to be ensured.

Bearings Small machines employ ball bearings at both ends. For larger machines roller bearings are used especially at the driving end. The bearings are mounted press-fit on the shaft. They are housed inside the end shield in such a manner that it is not necessary to remove the bearings from the shaft for dismantling.

Generator E.M.F Equation

Let = flux/pole in weber Z = total number of armture conductors = No.of slots x No.of conductors/slot P = No.of generator poles A = No.of parallel paths in armature N = armature rotation in revolutions per minute (r.p.m) E = e.m.f induced in any parallel path in armature Generated e.m.f Eg = e.m.f generated in any one of the parallel paths i.e E. Average e.m.f geneated /conductor = d/dt volt (n=1) Now, flux cut/conductor in one revolution d = P Wb No.of revolutions/second = N/60 Time for one revolution, dt = 60/N second Hence, according to Faraday's Laws of Electroagnetic Induction, E.M.F generated/conductor is

For a simplex wave-wound generator No.of parallel paths = 2 No.of conductors (in series) in one path = Z/2 E.M.F. generated/path is

For a simplex lap-wound generator

No.of parallel paths = P No.of conductors (in series) in one path = Z/P E.M.F.generated/path

In general generated e.m.f

where A = 2 - for simplex wave-winding A = P - for simplex lap-winding METHODS OF EXCITATION:

Various methods of excitation of the field windings are shown in Fig.

Figure shows Field-circuit connections of dc machines: (a) separate excitation, (b) series, (c) shunt, (d) compound.

Consider first dc generators.

Separately-excited generators. Self-excited generators: series generators, shunt generators, compound generators. o With self-excited generators, residual magnetism must be present in the machine iron to get the self-excitation process started. o N.B.: long- and short-shunt, cumulatively and differentially compound. Typical steady-state volt-ampere characteristics are shown in Fig.7.5, constant-speed operation being assumed. The relation between the steady-state generated emf Ea and the armature terminal voltage Va is Va=EaIaRa (7.10)

Figure Volt-ampere characteristics of dc generators. Any of the methods of excitation used for generators can also be used for motors.

Typical steady-state dc-motor speed-torque characteristics are shown in Fig.7.6, in which it is assumed that the motor terminals are supplied from a constant-voltage source. In a motor the relation between the emf Ea generated in the armature and and the armature terminal voltage Va is Va=Ea+IaRa (7.11)

The application advantages of dc machines lie in the variety of performance characteristics offered by the possibilities of shunt, series, and compound excitation.

Figure Figure Speed-torque characteristics of dc motors.

Torque and power: The electromagnetic torque Tmech Tmech=KadIa The generated voltage Ea Ea=Kadm Ka= poles.Ca 2m EaIa : electromagnetic power

Tmech= EaIa m =KadIa Note that the electromagnetic power differs from the mechanical power at the machine shaft by the rotational losses and differs from the electric power at the machine terminals by the shunt-field and armature I2R losse

Voltage and current: Va: the terminal voltage of the armature winding Vt: the terminal voltage of the dc machine, including the voltage drop across the series connected field winding Va=Vt if there is no series field winding Ra: the resistance of armature, Rs: the resistance of the series field Va=EaIaRa Vt=EaIa( Ra+Rs ) IL=IaIf

Generator Characteristics:
The three most important characteristics or curves of a d.c generator are

1.OpenCircuitCharacteristic(O.C.C.) This curve shows the relation between the generated e.m.f. at no-load (E0) and the field current (If) at constant speed. It is also known as magnetic characteristic or no-load saturation curve. Its shape is practically the same for all generators whether separately or self-excited. The data for O.C.C. curve are obtained experimentally by operating the generator at no load and constant speed and recording the change in terminal voltage as the field current is varied.

2. Internal or Total characteristic (E/Ia) This curve shows the relation between the generated e.m.f. on load (E) and the armature current (Ia). The e.m.f. E is less than E0 due to the demagnetizing effect of armature reaction. Therefore, this curve will lie below the open circuit characteristic (O.C.C.). The internal characteristic is of interest chiefly to the designer. It cannot be obtained directly by experiment. It is because a voltmeter cannot read the e.m.f. generated on load due to the voltage drop in armature resistance. The internal characteristic can be obtained from external characteristic if winding resistances are known because armature reaction effect is included in both characteristics 3. External characteristic (V/IL) This curve shows the relation between the terminal voltage (V) and load current (IL). The terminal voltage V will be less than E due to voltage drop in the armature circuit. Therefore, this curve will lie below the internal characteristic. This characteristic is very important in determining the suitability of a generator for a given purpose. It can be obtained by making simultaneous

1. No-load saturation characteristic (E0/If) It is also know as Magnetic characteristic or Open circuit Characteristic ( O.C.C). It shows the reation between the no-load generated e.m.f in armature, E0 and the field or exciting current If at a given fixed speed. It is just te magnetisation curve for the material of the electromagnets.Its shape is practically the same for all generators whether separately-excited or self-excited.

A typical no load saturation curve is shown in Figure.It has generator output voltage plotted against field current.The lower straight line portion of the curve represents the air gap because the magnetic parts are not saturated. When the magnetic parts start to saturate, the curve bends over until complete saturation is reached. Then the curve becomes a straight line again. 2.Separately-excited Generator The No-load saturation curve of a separately excited generator will be as shown in the above figure.It is obvous that when If is increased from its initial small value, the flux and hence generated e.m.f Eg increase irectly as curent so long as the poles are unsaturated.This is represented by straight portion in figure.But as the flux denity increases,the poles become saturated, so a greater increase If is required to produce a given increase in voltage than on the lower part of the curve.That is why the upper portion of the curve bends.

The O.C.C curve for self-excited generators whether shunt or series wound is shown in above figure.Due to the residal magnetism in the poles, some e.m.f (=OA) is gnerated even when If =0.Hence, the curve starts a little way up.The slight curvature at the lower end is due to magnetic inertia.It is seen that the first part of the curve is practically straight.This is due to fact that at low flux densities reluctance of iron path being negligible,total reluctance is given by the air gap reluctance which is constant.Hence,the flux and consequently,the generated e.m.f is directly proportional to the exciting current.However, at high flux densities, where is small,iron path reluctance becomes appreciable and straight relation between E and If no longer holds good.In other words,after point B, saturation of pole starts.However, the initial slope of the curve is determined by air-gap width.O.C.C for higher speed would lie above this curve and for lower speed,would lie below it.

Separately-excited Generator Let us consider a separately-excited generator giving its rated no-load voltage of E0 for a certain constant field current.If there were no armature reaction and armature voltage drop,then this voltage would have remained constant as shown in figure by the horizontal line 1. But when the generator is loaded, the voltage falls due to these two causes, thereby gving slightly dropping characteristics.If we subtract from E0 the values of voltage drops due to armature reaction for different loads, then we get the value of E-the e.m.f actually induced in the armature under load

conditions.Curve 2 is plotted in this way and is known as the internal characteristic.

Series Generator In this genarator, because field windings are in series with the armature, they carry full armature current Ia. As Ia is increased, flux and hence generated e.m.f. is also increased as shown by the curve. Curve Oa is the O.C.C. The extra exciting current necessary to neutralize the weakening effect of armature reaction at full load is given by the horizontal distance ab. Hence, point b is on the internal characteristic. 3. External characteristic (V/I) It is also referred to as performance characteristic or sometimes voltage-regulating curve. It gives relation between the terminal voltage V and the load current I.This curve lies below the internal characteristic because it takes in to account the voltage drop over the armature circuit resistance.The values of V are obtained by subtracting IaRa from corresponding values of E.This characteristic is of great importnce in judging the suitability of a generator for a particular purpose.It may be obtained in two ways (i) by making simultaneous measurements with a suitable voltmeter and an ammeter on a loaded generator or (ii) graphically from the O.C.C provided the armature and field resistances are known and also if the demagnetising effect or the armature reaction is known.

Figure above shows the external characteristic curves for generators with various types of excitation. If a generator, which is separately excited, is driven at constant speed and has a fixed field current, the output voltage will decrease with increased load current as shown. This decrease is due to the armature resistance and armature reaction effects. If the field flux remained constant, the generated voltage would tend to remain constant and the output voltage would be equal to the generated voltage minus the IR drop of the armature circuit. However, the demagnetizing component of armature reactions tends to decrease the flux, thus adding an additional factor, which decreases the output voltage. In a shunt excited generator, it can be seen that the output voltage decreases faster than with separate excitation. This is due to the fact that, since the output voltage is reduced because of the armature reaction effect and armature IR drop, the field voltage is also reduced which further reduces the flux. It can also be seen that beyond a certain critical value, the shunt generator shows a reversal in trend of current values with decreasing voltages. This point of maximum current output is known as the breakdown point. At the short circuit condition, the only flux available to produce current is the residual magnetism of the armature. To build up the voltage on a series generator, the external circuit must be connected and its resistance reduced to a comparatively low value. Since the armature is in series with the field, load current must be flowing to obtain flux in the field. As the voltage and current rise the load resistance may be increased to its normal value. As the external characteristic curve shows, the voltage output starts at zero, reaches a peak, and then falls back to zero. The combination of a shunt field and a series field gives the best external characteristic as illustrated in Figure. The voltage drop, which occurs in the shunt machine, is compensated for by the voltage rise, which occurs in the series machine. The addition of a sufficient number of series

turns offsets the armature IR drop and armature reaction effect, resulting in a flat-compound generator, which has a nearly constant voltage. If more series turns are added, the voltage may rise with load and the machine is known as an over-compound generator.

The speed of a d.c. machine operated as a generator is fixed by the prime mover. For generalpurpose operation, the prime mover is equipped with a speed governor so that the speed of the generator is practically constant. Under such condition, the generator performance deals primarily with the relation between excitation, terminal voltage and load. These relations can be best exhibited graphically by means of curves known as generator characteristics. These characteristics show at a glance the behaviour of the generator under different load conditions.

characteristics Series of DC generator:

Fig. shows the connections of a series wound generator. Since there is only one current (that which flows through the whole machine), the load currentis the same as the exciting current.

(i)O.C.C. Curve 1 shows the open circuit characteristic (O.C.C.) of a series generator. It can be obtained experimentally by disconnecting the field winding from the machine and exciting it from a separate d.c. source as discussed in Sec. (3.2). (ii) Internal characteristic Curve 2 shows the total or internal characteristic of a series generator. It gives the relation between the generated e.m.f. E. on load and armature current. Due to armature reaction, the flux in the machine will be less than the flux at no load. Hence, e.m.f. E generated under load conditions will be less than the e.m.f. EO generated under no load conditions. Consequently, internal characteristic curve generated under no load conditions. Consequently, internal characteristic curve lies below the O.C.C. curve; the difference between them representing the effect of armature reaction [See Fig. 3.7 (ii)]. (iii)Externalcharacteristic Curve 3 shows the external characteristic of a series generator. It gives the relation between terminal voltage and load current IL.

V= E-Ia(Ra+Rse)

Therefore, external characteristic curve will lie below internal curve by an amount equal to ohmic drop[i.e., I a(Ra+Rse)] in the shown in Fig. (3.7) (ii).

characteristic machine as

The internal and external characteristics of a d.c. series generator can be plotted from one another as shown in Fig. (3.8). Suppose we are given the internal characteristic of the generator. Let the line OC represent the resistance of the whole machine i.e. Ra+Rse.If the load current is OB, drop in the machine is AB i.e. AB = Ohmic drop in the machine = OB(Ra+Rse) Now raise a perpendicular from point B and mark a point b on this line such that ab = AB. Then point b will lie on the external characteristic of the generator. Following similar procedure, other points of external characteristic can be located. It is easy to see that we can also plot internal characteristic from the external characteristic.

Characteristics Shunt DC generator:

Fig (3.9) (i) shows the connections of a shunt wound generator. The armature current I a splits up into two parts; a small fraction I sh flowing through shunt field winding while the major part IL goes to the external load.

(i) O.C.C. The O.C.C. of a shunt generator is similar in shape to that of a series generator as shown in Fig. (3.9) (ii). The line OA represents the shunt field circuit resistance. When the generator is run at normal speed, it will build up a voltage OM. At no-load, the terminal voltage of the generator will be constant (= OM) represented by the horizontal dotted line MC. (ii)Internal characteristic When the generator is loaded, flux per pole is reduced due to armature reaction. Therefore, e.m.f. E generated on load is less than the e.m.f. generated at no load.As a result, the internal characteristic (E/Ia) drops down slightly as shown in Fig.(3.9) (ii). (iii)External characteristic Curve 2 shows the external characteristic of relation between terminal voltage V and load current I L.

shunt

generator.

It

gives

the

V = E IaRa = E -(IL +Ish)Ra Therefore, external characteristic curve will lie below the internal characteristic curve by an amount equal to drop in the armature circuit [i.e., (I L +Ish)Ra ] as shown in Fig. (3.9) (ii). Note. It may be seen from the external characteristic that change in terminal voltage from no-load to full load is small. The terminal voltage can always be maintained constant by adjusting the field rheostat R automatically Critical External Resistance for Shunt Generator If the load resistance across the terminals of a shunt generator is decreased, then load current increase? However, there is a limit to the increase in load current with the decrease of load resistance. Any decrease of load resistance beyond this point, instead of increasing the current, ultimately results in reduced current. Consequently, the external characteristic turns back (dotted curve) as shown in Fig. (3.10). The tangent OA to the curve represents the minimum external resistance required to excite the shunt generator on load and is called critical external resistance. If the resistance of the external circuit is less than the critical external resistance (represented by tangent OA in Fig. 3.10), the machine will refuse to excite or will de-excite if already running This means that external resistance is so low as virtually to short circuit the machine and so doing away with its excitation.

Note. There are two critical resistances for a shunt generator viz., (i) critical field resistance (ii) critical external resistance. For the shunt generator to build up voltage, the former should not be exceeded and the latter must not be gone below

Characteristics compound generator:

In a compound generator, both series and shunt excitation are combined as shown in Fig. (3.13). The shunt winding can be connected either across the armature only (short-shunt connection S) or across armature plus series field (long-shunt connection G). The compound generator can be cumulatively compounded or differentially compounded generator. The latter is rarely used in practice. Therefore, we shall discuss the characteristics of cumulatively compounded generator. It may be noted that external characteristics of long and short shunt compound generators are almost identical.

External characteristic Fig. (3.14) shows the external characteristics of a cumulatively compounded generator. The series excitation aids the shunt excitation. The degree of compounding depends upon the increase in series excitation with the increase in load current.

(i) If series winding turns are so adjusted that with the increase in load current the terminal voltage increases, it is called over-compounded generator. In such a case, as the load current increases, the series field m.m.f. increases and tends to increase the flux and hence the generated voltage. The increase in generated voltage is greater than the IaRa drop so that instead of decreasing, the terminal voltage increases as shown by curve A in Fig. (3.14).

(ii) If series winding turns are so adjusted that with the increase in load current, the terminal voltage substantially remains constant, it is called flat-compounded generator. The series winding of such a machine has lesser number of turns than the one in over-compounded machine and, therefore, does not increase the flux as much for a given load current. Consequently, the full-load voltage is nearly equal to the no-load voltage as indicated by curve B in Fig (3.14). (iii) If series field winding has lesser number of turns than for a flat compounded machine, the terminal voltage falls with increase in load current as indicated by curve C m Fig. (3.14). Such a machine is called under-compounded generator. Voltage Regulation The change in terminal voltage of a generator between full and no load (at constant speed) is called the voltage regulation, usually expressed as a percentage of the voltage at full-load. % Voltage regulation= [ (VNL-VFL)/VFL ] 100 where VNL = Terminal voltage of generator at no load VFL Terminal voltage of generator at full load = Note that voltage regulation of a generator is determined with field circuit and speed held constant. If the voltage regulation of a generator is 10%, it means that terminal voltage increases 10% as the load is changed from full load to no load

2. Motor Characteristics

Section 3.1: TORQUE/SPEED CURVES In order to effectively design with D.C. motors, it is necessary to understand their characteristic curves. For every motor, there is a specific Torque/Speed curve and Power curve.

The graph above shows a torque/speed curve of a typical D.C. motor. Note that torque is inversely proportioal to the speed of the output shaft. In other words, there is a tradeoff between how much torque a motor delivers, and how fast the output shaft spins. Motor characteristics are frequently given as two points on this graph:

The stall torque, , represents the point on the graph at which the torque is a maximum, but the shaft is not rotating. The no load speed, , is the maximum output speed of the motor (when no torque is applied to the output shaft).

The curve is then approximated by connecting these two points with a line, whose equation can be written in terms of torque or angular velocity as equations 3) and 4):

The linear model of a D.C. motor torque/speed curve is a very good approximation. The torque/speed curves shown below are actual curves for the green maxon motor (pictured at right) used by students in 2.007. One is a plot of empirical data, and the other was plotted mechanically using a device developed at MIT. Note that the characteristic torque/speed curve for this motor is quite linear. This is generally true as long as the curve represents the direct output of the motor, or a simple gear reduced output. If the specifications are given as two points, it is safe to assume a linear curve.

Recall that earlier we defined power as the product of torque and angular velocity. This corresponds to the area of a rectangle under the torque/speed curve with one cornerat the origin and another corner at a point on the curve (see figures below). Due to the linear inverse relationship between torque and speed, the maximum power occurs at the point where = , and = .

Up to Contents

Section 3.2: POWER/TORQUE and POWER/SPEED CURVES By substituting equations 3. and 4. (torque and speed, section 2.1) into equation 2. (power, section 1.3), we see that the power curves for a D.C. motor with respect to both speed and torque are quadratics, as shown in equations 5. and 6.

From these equations, we again find that maximum output power occurs at and = repectively.

Direct on line starter

In electrical engineering, a direct on line (DOL) or across the line starter starts electric motors by applying the full line voltage to the motor terminals. This is the simplest type of motor starter. A DOL motor starter also contain protection devices, and in some cases, condition monitoring. Smaller sizes of direct on-line starters are manually operated; larger sizes use an electromechanical contactor (relay) to switch the motor circuit. Solid-state direct on line starters also exist. A direct on line starter can be used if the high inrush current of the motor does not cause excessive voltage drop in the supply circuit. The maximum size of a motor allowed on a direct on line starter may be limited by the supply utility for this reason. For example, a utility may require rural customers to use reduced-voltage starters for motors larger than 10 kW.[1] DOL starting is sometimes used to start small water pumps, compressors, fans and conveyor belts. In the case of an asynchronous motor, such as the 3-phase squirrel-cage motor, the motor will draw a high starting current until it has run up to full speed. This starting current is commonly around six times the full load current, but may as high as 12 times the full load current. To reduce

UNIT : II TRANSFORMER Transformer introduction: A transformer is a device that transfers electrical energy from one circuit to another through inductively coupled conductorsthe transformer's coils. A varying current in the first or primary winding creates a varying magnetic flux in the transformer's core, and thus a varying magnetic field through the secondary winding. This varying magnetic field induces a varying electromotive force (EMF) or "voltage" in the secondary winding. This effect is called mutual induction. If a load is connected to the secondary, an electric current will flow in the secondary winding and electrical energy will be transferred from the primary circuit through the transformer to the load. In an ideal transformer, the induced voltage in the secondary winding (VS) is in proportion to the primary voltage (VP), and is given by the ratio of the number of turns in the secondary (NS) to the number of turns in the primary (NP) as follows: By appropriate selection of the ratio of turns, a transformer thus allows an alternating current (AC) voltage to be "stepped up" by making NS greater than NP, or "stepped down" by making NS less than NP. In the vast majority of transformers, the windings are coils wound around a ferromagnetic core, air-core transformers being a notable exception.

Basic principles
The transformer is based on two principles: firstly, that an electric current can produce a magnetic field (electromagnetism) and secondly that a changing magnetic field within a coil of wire induces a voltage across the ends of the coil (electromagnetic induction). Changing the current in the primary coil changes the magnetic flux that is developed. The changing magnetic flux induces a voltage in the secondary coil. An ideal transformer An ideal transformer is shown in the adjacent figure. Current passing through the primary coil creates a magnetic field. The primary and secondary coils are wrapped around a core of very high magnetic permeability, such as iron, so that most of the magnetic flux passes through both the primary and secondary coils.

Induction law The voltage induced across the secondary coil may be calculated from Faraday's law of induction, which states that: where VS is the instantaneous voltage, NS is the number of turns in the secondary coil and equals the magnetic flux through one turn of the coil. If the turns of the coil are oriented perpendicular to the magnetic field lines, the flux is the product of the magnetic flux density B and the area A through which it cuts. The area is constant, being equal to the crosssectional area of the transformer core, whereas the magnetic field varies with time according to the excitation of the primary. Since the same magnetic flux passes through both the primary and secondary coils in an ideal transformer, the instantaneous voltage across the primary winding equals Taking the ratio of the two equations for VS and VP gives the basic equation for stepping up or stepping down the voltage Ideal power equation The ideal transformer as a circuit element If the secondary coil is attached to a load that allows current to flow, electrical power is transmitted from the primary circuit to the secondary circuit. Ideally, the transformer is perfectly efficient; all the incoming energy is transformed from the primary circuit to the magnetic field and into the secondary circuit. If this condition is met, the incoming electric power must equal the outgoing power. Pincoming = IPVP = Poutgoing = ISVS giving the ideal transformer equation Transformers normally have high efficiency, so this formula is a reasonable approximation. If the voltage is increased, then the current is decreased by the same factor. The impedance in one circuit is transformed by the square of the turns ratio.[26] For example, if an impedance ZS is attached across the terminals of the secondary coil, it appears to the primary circuit to have an impedance of. This relationship is reciprocal, so that the impedance ZP of the primary circuit appears to the secondary to be. Basic Construction and Working Principle of Transformer An elementary transformer consists of a soft iron or silicon steel core and two windings, placed on it. The windings are insulated from both the core and each other. The core is built up of thin soft iron or low reluctance to the magnetic flux. The winding connected to the magnetic flux. The winding connected to the supply main is called the primary and the winding connected to the load circuit is called the secondary. Although in the actual construction the two windings are usually wound one over the other, for the sake of simplicity, the figures for analyzing transformer theory show the windings on opposite sides of the core, as shown below

Simple Transformer When the primary winding is connected to an ac supply mains, current flows through it. Since this winding links with an iron core, so current flowing through this winding produces an alternating flux in the core. Since this flux is alternating and links with the secondary winding also, so induces an emf in the secondary winding. The frequency of induced emf in secondary winding is the same as that of the flux or that of the s supply voltage. The induced emf in the secondary winding enables it to deliver current to an external load connected across it. Thus the energy is transformed from primary winding to the secondary winding by means of electro-magnetic induction without any change in frequency. The flux of the iron core links not only with the secondary winding but also with the primary winding, so produces self-induced emf in the primary winding: This induced in the primary winding opposes the applied voltage and therefore sometimes it is known as back emf of the primary. In fact the induced emf in the primary winding limits the primary current in much the same way that the back emf in a dc motor limits the armature current. Construction Cores

Laminated core transformer showing edge of laminations at top of photo

Laminated steel cores

Transformers for use at power or audio frequencies typically have cores made of high permeability silicon steel.[53] The steel has a permeability many times that of free space, and the core thus serves to greatly reduce the magnetizing current, and confine the flux to a path which closely couples the windings.[54] Early transformer developers soon realized that cores constructed from solid iron resulted in prohibitive eddy-current losses, and their designs mitigated this effect with cores consisting of bundles of insulated iron wires. [9] Later designs constructed the core by stacking layers of thin steel laminations, a principle that has remained in use. Each lamination is insulated from its neighbors by a thin non-conducting layer of insulation.[46] The universal transformer equation indicates a minimum cross-sectional area for the core to avoid saturation. The effect of laminations is to confine eddy currents to highly elliptical paths that enclose little flux, and so reduce their magnitude. Thinner laminations reduce losses, [53] but are more laborious and expensive to construct. [55] Thin laminations are generally used on high frequency transformers, with some types of very thin steel laminations able to operate up to 10 kHz. Laminating the core greatly reduces eddy-current losses One common design of laminated core is made from interleaved stacks of E-shaped steel sheets capped with I-shaped pieces, leading to its name of "E-I transformer".[55] Such a design tends to exhibit more losses, but is very economical to manufacture. The cut-core or C-core type is made by winding a steel strip around a rectangular form and then bonding the layers together. It is then cut in two, forming two C shapes, and the core assembled by binding the two C halves together with a steel strap.[55] They have the advantage that the flux is always oriented parallel to the metal grains, reducing reluctance. A steel core's remanence means that it retains a static magnetic field when power is removed. When power is then reapplied, the residual field will cause a high inrush current until the effect of the remaining magnetism is reduced, usually after a few cycles of the applied alternating current.[56] Overcurrent protection devices such as fuses must be selected to allow this harmless inrush to pass. On transformers connected to long, overhead power transmission lines, induced currents due to geomagnetic disturbances during solar storms can cause saturation of the core and operation of transformer protection devices. [57] Distribution transformers can achieve low no-load losses by using cores made with lowloss high-permeability silicon steel or amorphous (non-crystalline) metal alloy. The higher initial cost of the core material is offset over the life of the transformer by its lower losses at light load.[58] Solid cores Powdered iron cores are used in circuits (such as switch-mode power supplies) that operate above main frequencies and up to a few tens of kilohertz. These materials combine high magnetic permeability with high bulk electrical resistivity. For frequencies extending beyond the VHF band, cores made from non-conductive magnetic ceramic materials called ferrites are common.[55] Some radio-frequency transformers also have movable cores (sometimes called 'slugs') which allow adjustment of the coupling coefficient (and bandwidth) of tuned radio-frequency circuits.

Toroidal cores

Small toroidal core transformer Toroidal transformers are built around a ring-shaped core, which, depending on operating frequency, is made from a long strip of silicon steel or permalloy wound into a coil, powdered iron, or ferrite.[59] A strip construction ensures that the grain boundaries are optimally aligned, improving the transformer's efficiency by reducing the core's reluctance. The closed ring shape eliminates air gaps inherent in the construction of an E-I core.[32] The cross-section of the ring is usually square or rectangular, but more expensive cores with circular cross-sections are also available. The primary and secondary coils are often wound concentrically to cover the entire surface of the core. This minimizes the length of wire needed, and also provides screening to minimize the core's magnetic field from generating electromagnetic interference. Toroidal transformers are more efficient than the cheaper laminated E-I types for a similar power level. Other advantages compared to E-I types, include smaller size (about half), lower weight (about half), less mechanical hum (making them superior in audio amplifiers), lower exterior magnetic field (about one tenth), low off-load losses (making them more efficient in standby circuits), single-bolt mounting, and greater choice of shapes. The main disadvantages are higher cost and limited power capacity (see "Classification" above). Because of the lack of a residual gap in the magnetic path, toroidal transformers also tend to exhibit higher inrush current, compared to laminated E-I types. Ferrite toroidal cores are used at higher frequencies, typically between a few tens of kilohertz to hundreds of megahertz, to reduce losses, physical size, and weight of switch-mode power supplies. A drawback of toroidal transformer construction is the higher labor cost of winding. This is because it is necessary to pass the entire length of a coil winding through the core aperture each time a single turn is added to the coil. As a consequence, toroidal transformers are uncommon above ratings of a few kVA. Small distribution transformers may achieve some of the benefits of a toroidal core by splitting it and forcing it open, then inserting a bobbin containing primary and secondary windings. Air cores

A physical core is not an absolute requisite and a functioning transformer can be produced simply by placing the windings in close proximity to each other, an arrangement termed an "aircore" transformer. The air which comprises the magnetic circuit is essentially lossless, and so an air-core transformer eliminates loss due to hysteresis in the core material.[30] The leakage inductance is inevitably high, resulting in very poor regulation, and so such designs are unsuitable for use in power distribution.[30] They have however very high bandwidth, and are frequently employed in radio-frequency applications,[60] for which a satisfactory coupling coefficient is maintained by carefully overlapping the primary and secondary windings. They're also used for resonant transformers such as Tesla coils where they can achieve reasonably low loss in spite of the high leakage inductance. Windings

Windings are usually arranged concentrically to minimize flux leakage.

Cut view through transformer windings. White: insulator. Green spiral: Grain oriented silicon steel. Black: Primary winding made of oxygen-free copper. Red: Secondary winding. Top left: Toroidal transformer. Right: C-core, but E-core would be similar. The black windings are made of film. Top: Equally low capacitance between all ends of both windings. Since most cores are at least moderately conductive they also need insulation. Bottom: Lowest capacitance for one end of the secondary winding needed for low-power high-voltage transformers. Bottom left: Reduction of leakage inductance would lead to increase of capacitance. The conducting material used for the windings depends upon the application, but in all cases the individual turns must be electrically insulated from each other to ensure that the current travels throughout every turn.[33] For small power and signal transformers, in which currents are low and the potential difference between adjacent turns is small, the coils are often wound from enamelled magnet wire, such as Formvar wire. Larger power transformers operating at high voltages may be wound with copper rectangular strip conductors insulated by oil-impregnated paper and blocks of pressboard.[61]

High-frequency transformers operating in the tens to hundreds of kilohertz often have windings made of braided Litz wire to minimize the skin-effect and proximity effect losses.[33] Large power transformers use multiple-stranded conductors as well, since even at low power frequencies non-uniform distribution of current would otherwise exist in high-current windings.[61] Each strand is individually insulated, and the strands are arranged so that at certain points in the winding, or throughout the whole winding, each portion occupies different relative positions in the complete conductor. The transposition equalizes the current flowing in each strand of the conductor, and reduces eddy current losses in the winding itself. The stranded conductor is also more flexible than a solid conductor of similar size, aiding manufacture. [61] For signal transformers, the windings may be arranged in a way to minimize leakage inductance and stray capacitance to improve high-frequency response. This can be done by splitting up each coil into sections, and those sections placed in layers between the sections of the other winding. This is known as a stacked type or interleaved winding. Both the primary and secondary windings on power transformers may have external connections, called taps, to intermediate points on the winding to allow selection of the voltage ratio. The taps may be connected to an automatic on-load tap changer for voltage regulation of distribution circuits. Audio-frequency transformers, used for the distribution of audio to public address loudspeakers, have taps to allow adjustment of impedance to each speaker. A centertapped transformer is often used in the output stage of an audio power amplifier in a push-pull circuit. Modulation transformers in AM transmitters are very similar. Certain transformers have the windings protected by epoxy resin. By impregnating the transformer with epoxy under a vacuum, one can replace air spaces within the windings with epoxy, thus sealing the windings and helping to prevent the possible formation of corona and absorption of dirt or water. This produces transformers more suited to damp or dirty environments, but at increased manufacturing cost.[62] Coolant

Cut-away view of three-phase oil-cooled transformer. The oil reservoir is visible at the top. Radiative fins aid the dissipation of heat.

High temperatures will damage the winding insulation. [63] Small transformers do not generate significant heat and are cooled by air circulation and radiation of heat. Power transformers rated up to several hundred kVA can be adequately cooled by natural convective aircooling, sometimes assisted by fans.[64] In larger transformers, part of the design problem is removal of heat. Some power transformers are immersed in transformer oil that both cools and insulates the windings.[65] The oil is a highly refined mineral oil that remains stable at transformer operating temperature. Indoor liquid-filled transformers must use a non-flammable liquid, or must be located in fire resistant rooms. [66] Air-cooled dry transformers are preferred for indoor applications even at capacity ratings where oil-cooled construction would be more economical, because their cost is offset by the reduced building construction cost. The oil-filled tank often has radiators through which the oil circulates by natural convection; some large transformers employ forced circulation of the oil by electric pumps, aided by external fans or water-cooled heat exchangers.[65] Oil-filled transformers undergo prolonged drying processes to ensure that the transformer is completely free of water vapor before the cooling oil is introduced. This helps prevent electrical breakdown under load. Oil-filled transformers may be equipped with Buchholz relays, which detect gas evolved during internal arcing and rapidly deenergize the transformer to avert catastrophic failure. [56] Oil-filed transformers may fail, rupture, and burn, causing power outages and losses. Installations of oil-filled transformers usually includes fire protection measures such as walls, oil containment, and fire-suppression sprinkler systems. Polychlorinated biphenyls have properties that once favored their use as a coolant, though concerns over their environmental persistence led to a widespread ban on their use.[67] Today, nontoxic, stable silicone-based oils, or fluorinated hydrocarbons may be used where the expense of a fire-resistant liquid offsets additional building cost for a transformer vault. [63][66] Before 1977, even transformers that were nominally filled only with mineral oils may also have been contaminated with polychlorinated biphenyls at 10-20 ppm. Since mineral oil and PCB fluid mix, maintenance equipment used for both PCB and oil-filled transformers could carry over small amounts of PCB, contaminating oil-filled transformers.[68] Some "dry" transforers (containing no liquid) are enclosed in sealed, pressurized tanks and cooled by nitrogen or sulfur hexafluoride gas.[63] Experimental power transformers in the 2 MVA range have been built with superconducting windings which eliminates the copper losses, but not the core steel loss. These are cooled by liquid nitrogen or helium. Terminals Very small transformers will have wire leads connected directly to the ends of the coils, and brought out to the base of the unit for circuit connections. Larger transformers may have heavy bolted terminals, bus bars or high-voltage insulated bushings made of polymers or porcelain. A large bushing can be a complex structure since it must provide careful control of the electric field gradient without letting the transformer leak oil. Applications

Image of an electrical substation in Melbourne, Australia showing 3 of 5 220kV/66kV transformers, each with a capacity of 185MVA A major application of transformers is to increase voltage before transmitting electrical energy over long distances through wires. Wires have resistance and so dissipate electrical energy at a rate proportional to the square of the current through the wire. By transforming electrical power to a high-voltage (and therefore low-current) form for transmission and back again afterward, transformers enable economic transmission of power over long distances. Consequently, transformers have shaped the electricity supply industry, permitting generation to be located remotely from points of demand.[71] All but a tiny fraction of the world's electrical power has passed through a series of transformers by the time it reaches the consumer. Transformers are also used extensively in electronic products to step down the supply voltage to a level suitable for the low voltage circuits they contain. The transformer also electrically isolates the end user from contact with the supply voltage. Signal and audio transformers are used to couple stages of amplifiers and to match devices such as microphones and record players to the input of amplifiers. Audio transformers allowed telephone circuits to carry on a two-way conversation over a single pair of wires. A balun transformer converts a signal that is referenced to ground to a signal that has balanced voltages to ground, such as between external cables and internal circuits. Practical considerations Leakage flux

Leakage flux of a transformer Main article: Leakage inductance The ideal transformer model assumes that all flux generated by the primary winding links all the turns of every winding, including itself. In practice, some flux traverses paths that take it outside the windings.[31] Such flux is termed leakage flux, and results in leakage inductance in series with the mutually coupled transformer windings. [30] Leakage results in energy being

alternately stored in and discharged from the magnetic fields with each cycle of the power supply. It is not directly a power loss (see "Stray losses" below), but results in inferior voltage regulation, causing the secondary voltage to fail to be directly proportional to the primary, particularly under heavy load.[31] Transformers are therefore normally designed to have very low leakage inductance. However, in some applications, leakage can be a desirable property, and long magnetic paths, air gaps, or magnetic bypass shunts may be deliberately introduced to a transformer's design to limit the short-circuit current it will supply.[30] Leaky transformers may be used to supply loads that exhibit negative resistance, such as electric arcs, mercury vapor lamps, and neon signs; or for safely handling loads that become periodically short-circuited such as electric arc welders.[32] Air gaps are also used to keep a transformer from saturating, especially audio-frequency transformers in circuits that have a direct current flowing through the windings. Leakage inductance is also helpful when transformers are operated in parallel. It can be shown that if the "per-unit" inductance of two transformers is the same (a typical value is 5%), they will automatically split power "correctly" (e.g. 500 kVA unit in parallel with 1,000 kVA unit, the larger one will carry twice the current). [citation needed]

Effect of frequency Transformer universal EMF equation If the flux in the core is purely sinusoidal, the relationship for either winding between its rms voltage Erms of the winding , and the supply frequency f, number of turns N, core cross-sectional area a and peak magnetic flux density B is given by the universal EMF equation: If the flux does not contain even harmonics the following equation can be used for half-cycle average voltage Eavg of any waveshape: The time-derivative term in Faraday's Law shows that the flux in the core is the integral with respect to time of the applied voltage. [33] Hypothetically an ideal transformer would work with direct-current excitation, with the core flux increasing linearly with time. [34] In practice, the flux would rise to the point where magnetic saturation of the core occurs, causing a huge increase in the magnetizing current and overheating the transformer. All practical transformers must therefore operate with alternating (or pulsed) current.[34] The EMF of a transformer at a given flux density increases with frequency. [28] By operating at higher frequencies, transformers can be physically more compact because a given core is able to transfer more power without reaching saturation and fewer turns are needed to achieve the same impedance. However, properties such as core loss and conductor skin effect also increase with frequency. Aircraft and military equipment employ 400 Hz power supplies which reduce core and winding weight.[35] Conversely, frequencies used for some railway electrification systems were much lower (e.g. 16.7 Hz and 25 Hz) than normal utility frequencies (50 - 60 Hz) for historical reasons concerned mainly with the limitations of early electric traction motors. As such, the

transformers used to step down the high over-head line voltages (e.g. 15 kV) are much heavier for the same power rating than those designed only for the higher frequencies. Operation of a transformer at its designed voltage but at a higher frequency than intended will lead to reduced magnetizing current; at lower frequency, the magnetizing current will increase. Operation of a transformer at other than its design frequency may require assessment of voltages, losses, and cooling to establish if safe operation is practical. For example, transformers may need to be equipped with "volts per hertz" over-excitation relays to protect the transformer from overvoltage at higher than rated frequency. One example of state-of-the-art design is those transformers used for electric multiple unit high speed trains, particularly those required to operate across the borders of countries using different standards of electrification. The position of such transformers is restricted to being hung below the passenger compartment. They have to function at different frequencies (down to 16.7 Hz) and voltages (up to 25 kV) whilst handling the enhanced power requirements needed for operating the trains at high speed. Knowledge of natural frequencies of transformer windings is of importance for the determination of the transient response of the windings to impulse and switching surge voltages. Energy losses An ideal transformer would have no energy losses, and would be 100% efficient. In practical transformers energy is dissipated in the windings, core, and surrounding structures. Larger transformers are generally more efficient, and those rated for electricity distribution usually perform better than 98%.[36] Experimental transformers using superconducting windings achieve efficiencies of 99.85%.[37] While the increase in efficiency is small, when applied to large heavily loaded transformers the annual savings in energy losses are significant. A small transformer, such as a plug-in "wall wart" power adapter commonly used for lowpower consumer electronics devices, may be as low as 20% efficient, with considerable energy loss even when not supplying any power to the device. Though individual losses may be only a few watts, it has been estimated that the cumulative loss from such transformers in the United States alone exceeded 32 billion kilowatt-hours (kWh) in 2002.[38] The losses vary with load current, and may be expressed as "no-load" or "full-load" loss. Winding resistance dominates load losses, whereas hysteresis and eddy currents losses contribute to over 99% of the no-load loss. The no-load loss can be significant, meaning that even an idle transformer constitutes a drain on an electrical supply, which encourages development of low-loss transformers (also see energy efficient transformer).[39] Transformer losses are divided into losses in the windings, termed copper loss, and those in the magnetic circuit, termed iron loss. Losses in the transformer arise from:

Winding resistance Current flowing through the windings causes resistive heating of the conductors. At higher frequencies, skin effect and proximity effect create additional winding resistance and losses. Hysteresis losses Each time the magnetic field is reversed, a small amount of energy is lost due to hysteresis within the core. For a given core material, the loss is proportional to the frequency, and is a function of the peak flux density to which it is subjected. Eddy currents Ferromagnetic materials are also good conductors, and a solid core made from such a material also constitutes a single short-circuited turn throughout its entire length. Eddy currents therefore circulate within the core in a plane normal to the flux, and are responsible for resistive heating of the core material. The eddy current loss is a complex function of the square of supply frequency and inverse square of the material thickness. Magnetostriction Magnetic flux in a ferromagnetic material, such as the core, causes it to physically expand and contract slightly with each cycle of the magnetic field, an effect known as magnetostriction. This produces the buzzing sound commonly associated with transformers,[27] and in turn causes losses due to frictional heating in susceptible cores. Mechanical losses In addition to magnetostriction, the alternating magnetic field causes fluctuating electromagnetic forces between the primary and secondary windings. These incite vibrations within nearby metalwork, adding to the buzzing noise, and consuming a small amount of power.[40] Stray losses Leakage inductance is by itself largely lossless, since energy supplied to its magnetic fields is returned to the supply with the next half-cycle. However, any leakage flux that intercepts nearby conductive materials such as the transformer's support structure will give rise to eddy currents and be converted to heat.[41] There are also radiative losses due to the oscillating magnetic field, but these are usually small. Dot convention It is common in transformer schematic symbols for there to be a dot at the end of each coil within a transformer, particularly for transformers with multiple windings on either or both of the primary and secondary sides. The purpose of the dots is to indicate the direction of each winding relative to the other windings in the transformer. Voltages at the dot end of each winding are in phase, while current flowing into the dot end of a primary coil will result in current flowing out of the dot end of a secondary coil. EMF Equation of Transformer: Let the applied voltage V1 applied to the primary of a transformer, with secondary open-circuited, be sinusoidal (or sine wave). Then the current I1, due to applied voltage V1, will also be a sine

wave. The mmf N1 I1 and core flux will follow the variations of I1 closely. That is the flux is in time phase with the current I1 and varies sinusoidally. Let the sinusoidal variation of flux be expressed as = max sin wt Where max is the maximum value of the magnetic flux in webers and w is the angular frequency in rad/sec The emf e1 induced in the primary N1 turns by the alternating flux is given by The emfs induced in primary and secondary windings of a transformer are given as follows E1 = 4.44 f N1 max volts E2 = 4.44 f N2 max volts Where max is the maximum value of flux is webers, f is the supply frequency in Hz, N 1 is the number of turns on primary winding and N2 is the number of turns on secondary winding. In an ideal transformer, the voltage drops in primary and secondary windings are negligible and, therefore E1 will be approximately equal and opposite to voltage impressed across primary, V1 and terminal voltage V2 will be approximately equal to E2. So voltage ratio, v2/v1 = E2/E1 = 4.44fN2 max / 4.44fN1 max = N2/N1 Voltage Transformation Ratio. The ratio of secondary voltage to primary voltage is known as the voltage transformation ratio and is designated by letter K. i.e. Voltage transformation ratio, K = V2/V1 = E2/E1 = N2/N1 Current Ratio. The ratio of secondary current to primary current is known as current ratio and is reciprocal of voltage transformation ratio in an ideal transformer. Transformer on No Load. When the primary of a transformer is connected to the source of an ac supply and the secondary is open circuited, the transformer is said to be on no load. The

Transformer on No Load alternating applied voltage will cause flow of an alternating current I 0 in the primary winding, which will create alternating flux . No-load current I0, also known as excitation or exciting current, has two components the magnetizing component I m and the energy component Ie. Im is used to create the flux in the core and I e is used to overcome the hysteresis and eddy current losses occurring in the core in addition to small amount of copper losses occurring in the primary only (no copper loss occurs in the secondary, because it carries no current, being open circuited.) From vector diagram shown in above it is obvious that 1. Induced emfs in primary and secondary windings, E 1 and E2 lag the main flux by and are in phase with each other. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Applied voltage to primary V1 and leads the main flux by and is in phase opposition to E1. Secondary voltage V2 is in phase and equal to E2 since there is no voltage drop in secondary. Im is in phase with and so lags V1 by Ie is in phase with the applied voltage V1. Input power on no load = V1Ie = V1I0 cos 0 where 0 = tan-1

Transformer on Load: The transformer is said to be loaded, when its secondary circuit is completed through an impedance or load. The magnitude and phase of secondary current (i.e. current flowing through secondary) I2 with respect to secondary terminals depends upon the characteristic of the load i.e. current I2 will be in phase, lag behind and lead the terminal voltage V+2+ respectively when the load is non-inductive, inductive and capacitive. The net flux passing through the core remains almost constant from no-load to full load irrespective of load conditions and so core losses remain

almost constant from no-load to full load. Vector diagram for an ideal transformer supplying inductive load is shown

Resistance and Leakage Reactance In actual practice, both of the primary and secondary windings have got some ohmic resistance causing voltage drops and copper losses in the windings. In actual practice, the total flux created does not link both of the primary and secondary windings but is divided into three components namely the main or mutual flux linking both of the primary and secondary windings, primary leakage flux L1 linking with primary winding only and secondary leakage flux L2 linking with secondary winding only. The primary leakage flux L1 is produced by primary ampere-turns and is proportional to primary current, number of primary turns being fixed. The primary leakage flux L1 is in phase with I1 and produces self induced emf L1 is in phase with I1 and produces self induced emf EL1 given as 2f L1 I1 in the primary winding. The self induced emf divided by the primary current gives the reactance of primary and is denoted by X1. i.e. X1 = EL1/I1 = 2fL1I1/I1 = 2FL1, Similarly leakage reactance of secondary X2 = EL2/E2 = 2fL2I2/I2 = 2fL2 Equivalent Resistance and Reactance. The equivalentresistances and reactances of transformer windings referred to primary and secondary sides are given as below Referred to primary side Equivalent resistance, Equivalent resistance, = X'1 = Referred to secondary side

Equivalent resistance, Equivalent resistance, = X2 + K2X1 Where K is the transformation ratio.

Equivalent circuit
The physical limitations of the practical transformer may be brought together as an equivalent circuit model (shown below) built around an ideal lossless transformer. [42] Power loss in the windings is current-dependent and is represented as in-series resistances RP and RS. Flux leakage results in a fraction of the applied voltage dropped without contributing to the mutual coupling, and thus can be modeled as reactances of each leakage inductance XP and XS in series with the perfectly coupled region. Iron losses are caused mostly by hysteresis and eddy current effects in the core, and are proportional to the square of the core flux for operation at a given frequency. [43] Since the core flux is proportional to the applied voltage, the iron loss can be represented by a resistance RC in parallel with the ideal transformer. A core with finite permeability requires a magnetizing current IM to maintain the mutual flux in the core. The magnetizing current is in phase with the flux; saturation effects cause the relationship between the two to be non-linear, but for simplicity this effect tends to be ignored in most circuit equivalents.[43] With a sinusoidal supply, the core flux lags the induced EMF by 90 and this effect can be modeled as a magnetizing reactance (reactance of an effective inductance) XM in parallel with the core loss component. RC and XM are sometimes together termed the magnetizing branch of the model. If the secondary winding is made open-circuit, the current I0 taken by the magnetizing branch represents the transformer's no-load current.[42] The secondary impedance RS and XS is frequently moved (or "referred") to the primary side after multiplying the components by the impedance scaling factor (NP/NS)2. Transformer equivalent circuit, with secondary impedances referred to the primary side the resulting model is sometimes termed the "exact equivalent circuit", though it retains a number of approximations, such as an assumption of linearity. analysis may be simplified by moving the magnetizing branch to the left of the primary impedance, an implicit assumption that the magnetizing current is low, and then summing primary and referred secondary impedances, resulting in so-called equivalent impedance. The parameters of equivalent circuit of a transformer can be calculated from the results of two transformer tests: open-circuit test and short-circuit test

Equivalent Circuit. The equivalent circuit of a transformer having transformation ratio K = E 2/E1 is shown

Regulation. The change in secondary terminal voltage from no-load to full load is known as regulation of the transformer is expressed as a percentage of the secondary no-load terminal voltage. Regulation will be zero when power factor angle = tan-1 - R'2/X'2 Regulation will be maximum when pf angle = tan -1 X'2/R2 Transformer Losses. Since the transformer is a static mechine, so there are no friction and windage losses. Hence the losses occurring in a transformer are (i) iron loss and (ii) copper loss. Iron loss is caused by the alternating flux in the core and consists of hysteresis and eddy currents. The copper loss occurs due to ohmic resistance of the transformer windings. The iron or core loss remains almost constant, as already explained where as copper loss varies as the square of the load current. For example if copper loss at full load is Pc then at one-half of the full load the copper loss will be (1/2)2 TRANSFORMER TESTS 1. Open-circuit or No-load Test. This test is performed to determine core or iron loss, P i and noload current I0. This test is helpful in determination of magnetizing component I m energy component Ie and so no-load resistance R0 being given as V1/Ie and no-load reactance given as V1/Im. In this test secondary (usually high voltage) winding is left open, all metering instruments (ammeter, voltmeter and wattmeter) are connected on primary side and normal rated voltage is applied to the primary (low voltage) winding, as illustrated below

Iron loss P1 = Input power on no-load W0 watts (wattmeter reading) No-load current = 0 amperes (ammeter reading) Angle of lag, 0 = cos-1 Wo/V1Io Ie = I0 cos 0 and Im = I2o - I2e

Caution: Since no load current I0 is very small, therefore, pressure coils of watt meter and the volt meter should be connected such that the current taken by them should not flow through the current taken by them should not flow through the current coil of the watt meter. 2. Short-circuit or Impedance Test. This test is performed to determine the full-load copper loss and equivalent resistance and reactance referred to secondary side. In this test, the terminals of the secondary (usually the low voltage) winding are short circuited, all meters (ammeter, voltmeter and wattmeter) are connected on primary side and a low voltage, usually 5 to 10 % of normal rated primary voltage at normal frequency is applied to the primary, as shown in fig below. The applied voltage to the primary, say V s is gradually increased till the ammeter A indicates the full load current of the side in which it is connected. The reading Ws of the wattmeter gives total copper loss (iron losses being negligible due to very low applied voltage resulting in very small flux linking with the core) at full load. Le the ammeter reading be Is.

Full load copper loss, Pc= I2s R1 = Ws Equivalent resistance referred to primary, R'1 = Ws/I2s Equivalent impedance referred to primary, = Z'1 = Vs/Is

Equivalent impedence referred to primary, X'1 = (Z'1)2 - (R'1)2' Commercial Efficiency and All-day Efficiency (a) Commercial Efficiency. Commercial efficiency is defined as the ratio of power output to power input in kilowatts. (b) All-day Efficiency. The all day efficiency is defined as the ratio of output in kwh to the input in kwh during the whole day. Transformers used for distribution are connected for the whole day to the line but loaded intermittently. Thus the core losses occur for the whole day but copper losses occur only when the transformer is delivering the load current. Hence if the transformer is not used to supply the load current for the whole day all day efficiency will be less than commercial efficiency. The efficiency (commercial efficiency) will be maximum when variable losses (copper losses) are equal to constant losses (iron or core losses). Determination of Voltage Regulation and Efficiency. The percentage voltage regulation is given as % age regulation = I2R'2 cos + I2 X'2 sin/ E2 X100 Note : + sign is for inductive load and sign is for capacitive load Transformer efficiency, = V2I2 cos / V2 I2 cos + P1 + x2P2 Where x is the ratio of secondary current I2 and rated full load secondary current. .(4.12) .(4.11)

Unit III

Induction motor

An induction motor or asynchronous motor is a type of alternating current motor where power is supplied to the rotor by means of electromagnetic induction. An electric motor converts electrical power to mechanical power in its rotor (rotating part). There are several ways to supply power to the rotor. In a DC motor this power is supplied to the armature directly from a DC source, while in an induction motor this power is induced in the rotating device. An induction motor is sometimes called a rotating transformer because the stator (stationary part) is essentially the primary side of the transformer and the rotor (rotating part) is the secondary side. Unlike the normal transformer which changes the current by using time varying flux, induction motors use rotating magnetic fields to transform the voltage. The primary side's current creates an electromagnetic field which interacts with the secondary side's electromagnetic field to produce a resultant torque, thereby transforming the electrical energy into mechanical energy. Induction motors are widely used, especially polyphase induction motors, which are frequently used in industrial drives. Induction motors are now the preferred choice for industrial motors due to their rugged construction, absence of brushes (which are required in most DC motors) andthanks to modern power electronicsthe ability to control the speed of the motor.

Principle of operation and comparison to synchronous motors

3-phase power supply provides a rotating magnetic field in an induction motor. The basic difference between an induction motor and a synchronous AC motor is that in the latter a current is supplied into the rotor (usually DC) which in turn creates a (circular uniform) magnetic field around the rotor. The rotating magnetic field of the stator will impose an electromagnetic torque on the still magnetic field of the rotor causing it to move (about a shaft) and rotation of the rotor is

produced. It is called synchronous because at steady state the speed of the rotor is the same as the speed of the rotating magnetic field in the stator. By way of contrast, the induction motor does not have any direct supply onto the rotor; instead, a secondary current is induced in the rotor. To achieve this, stator windings are arranged around the rotor so that when energised with a polyphase supply they create a rotating magnetic field pattern which sweeps past the rotor. This changing magnetic field pattern induces current in the rotor conductors. These currents interact with the rotating magnetic field created by the stator and in effect causes a rotational motion on the rotor. However, for these currents to be induced, the speed of the physical rotor must be less than the speed of the rotating magnetic field in the stator, or else the magnetic field will not be moving relative to the rotor conductors and no currents will be induced. If by some chance this happens, the rotor typically slows slightly until a current is re-induced and then the rotor continues as before. This difference between the speed of the rotor and speed of the rotating magnetic field in the stator is called slip. It is unitless and is the ratio between the relative speed of the magnetic field as seen by the rotor (the slip speed) to the speed of the rotating stator field. Due to this an induction motor is sometimes referred to as an asynchronous machine.

Construction
The stator consists of wound 'poles' that carry the supply current to induce a magnetic field that penetrates the rotor. In a very simple motor, there would be a single projecting piece of the stator (a salient pole) for each pole, with windings around it; in fact, to optimize the distribution of the magnetic field, the windings are distributed in many slots located around the stator, but the magnetic field still has the same number of north-south alternations. The number of 'poles' can vary between motor types but the poles are always in pairs (i.e. 2, 4, 6, etc.). Induction motors are most commonly built to run on single-phase or three-phase power, but twophase motors also exist. In theory, two-phase and more than three phase induction motors are possible; many single-phase motors having two windings and requiring a capacitor can actually be viewed as two-phase motors, since the capacitor generates a second power phase 90 degrees from the single-phase supply and feeds it to a separate motor winding. Single-phase power is more widely available in residential buildings, but cannot produce a rotating field in the motor (the field merely oscillates back and forth), so single-phase induction motors must incorporate some kind of starting mechanism to produce a rotating field. They would, using the simplified analogy of salient poles, have one salient pole per pole number; a four-pole motor would have four salient poles. Three-phase motors have three salient poles per pole number, so a four-pole motor would have twelve salient poles. This allows the motor to produce a rotating field, allowing the motor to start with no extra equipment and run more efficiently than a similar single-phase motor. There are three types of rotor:

Squirrel-cage rotor

The most common rotor is a squirrel-cage rotor. It is made up of bars of either solid copper (most common) or aluminum that span the length of the rotor, and those solid copper or aluminium strips can be shorted or connected by a ring or some times not, i.e. the rotor can be closed or semiclosed type. The rotor bars in squirrel-cage induction motors are not straight, but have some skew to reduce noise and harmonics.

Slip ring rotor

A slip ring rotor replaces the bars of the squirrel-cage rotor with windings that are connected to slip rings. When these slip rings are shorted, the rotor behaves similarly to a squirrel-cage rotor; they can also be connected to resistors to produce a high-resistance rotor circuit, which can be beneficial in starting

Solid core rotor

A rotor can be made from a solid mild steel. The induced current causes the rotation.

Speed control
The synchronous rotational speed of the rotor (i.e. the theoretical unloaded speed with no slip) is controlled by the number of pole pairs (number of windings in the stator) and by the frequency of the supply voltage. Under load, the induction motor's speed varies according to size of the load. As the load is increased the speed of the motor decreases, increasing the slip, which increases the rotor's field strength to bear the extra load. Before the development of economical semiconductor power electronics, it was difficult to vary the frequency to the motor and induction motors were mainly used in fixed speed applications. As an induction motor has no brushes and is easy to control, many older DC motors are now being replaced with induction motors and accompanying inverters in industrial applications.

Starting of induction motors Direct-on-line starting

The simplest way to start a three-phase induction motor is to connect its terminals to the line. This method is often called "direct on line" and abbreviated DOL. In an induction motor, the magnitude of the induced emf in the rotor circuit is proportional to the stator field and the slip speed (the difference between synchronous and rotor speeds) of the motor, and the rotor current depends on this emf. When the motor is started, the rotor speed is zero. The synchronous speed is constant, based on the frequency of the supplied AC voltage. So the slip speed is equal to the synchronous speed, the slip ratio is 1, and the induced emf in the rotor is large. As a result, a very high current flows through the rotor. This is similar to a transformer with the secondary coil short circuited, which causes the primary coil to draw a high current from the mains.

When an induction motor starts DOL, a very high current is drawn by the stator, in the order of 5 to 9 times the full load current. This high current can, in some motors, damage the windings; in addition, because it causes heavy line voltage drop, other appliances connected to the same line may be affected by the voltage fluctuation. To avoid such effects, several other strategies are employed for starting motors. Wye-Delta starters An induction motor's windings can be connected to a 3-phase AC line in two different ways:

wye in U.S, star in Europe, where the windings are connected from phases of the supply to the neutral; delta (sometimes mesh in Europe), where the windings are connected between phases of the supply.

A delta connection of the machine winding results in a higher voltage at each winding compared to a wye connection (the factor is ). A wye-delta starter initially connects the motor in wye, which produces a lower starting current than delta, then switches to delta when the motor has reached a set speed. Disadvantages of this method over DOL starting are:

Lower starting torque, which may be a serious issue with pumps or any devices with significant breakaway torque Increased complexity, as more contactors and some sort of speed switch or timers are needed Two shocks to the motor (one for the initial start and another when the motor switches from wye to delta)

Variable-frequency drives Variable-frequency drives (VFD) can be of considerable use in starting as well as running motors. A VFD can easily start a motor at a lower frequency than the AC line, as well as a lower voltage, so that the motor starts with full rated torque and with no inrush of current. The rotor circuit's impedance increases with slip frequency, which is equal to supply frequency for a stationary rotor, so running at a lower frequency actually increases torque. Resistance starters

A resistance starter and its 4MW / 11kV induction motor, driving a ball mill.

This method is used with slip ring motors where the rotor poles can be accessed by way of the slip rings. Using brushes, variable power resistors are connected in series with the poles. During startup the resistance is large and then reduced to zero at full speed. At start-up the resistance directly reduces the rotor current and so rotor heating is reduced. Another important advantage is the start-up torque can be controlled. As well, the resistors generate a phase shift in the field resulting in the magnetic force acting on the rotor having a favorable angle . Series Reactor starters In series reactor starter technology, an impedance in the form of a reactor is introduced in series with the motor terminals, which as a result reduces the motor terminal voltage resulting in a reduction of the starting current; the impedance of the reactor, a function of the current passing through it, gradually reduces as the motor accelerates, and at 95 % speed the reactors are bypassed by a suitable bypass method which enables the motor to run at full voltage and full speed. Air core series reactor starters or a series reactor soft starter is the most common and recommended method for fixed speed motor starting. The applicable standards are [IEC 289] AND [IS 5553 (PART 3) ]

Single Phase induction motor

In a single phase induction motor, it is necessary to provide a starting circuit to start rotation of the rotor. If this is not done, rotation may be commenced by manually giving a slight turn to the rotor. The single phase induction motor may rotate in either direction and it is only the starting circuit which determines rotational direction. For small motors of a few watts the start rotation is done by means of a single turn of heavy copper wire around one corner of the pole. The current induced in the single turn is out of phase with the supply current and so causes an out-of-phase component in the magnetic field, which imparts to the field sufficient rotational character to start the motor. Starting torque is very low and efficiency is also reduced. Such shaded-pole motors are typically used in low-power applications with low or zero starting torque requirements, such as desk fans and record players. Larger motors are provided with a second stator winding which is fed with an out-of-phase current to create a rotating magnetic field. The out-of-phase current may be derived by feeding the winding through a capacitor, or it may derive from the winding having different values of inductance and resistance from the main winding. In some designs the second winding is disconnected once the motor is up to speed, usually either by means of a switch operated by centrifugal force acting on weights on the motor shaft, or by a positive temperature coefficient thermistor which after a few seconds of operation heats up and increases its resistance to a high value, reducing the current through the second winding to an insignificant level. Other designs keep the second winding continuously energised during running, which improves torque. Control of speed in induction motor can be obtained in 3 ways:

1.scalar control 2.vector control 3.direct torque control

Rotating magnetic field

Description
A symmetric rotating magnetic field can be produced with as few as three coils. The three coils will have to be driven by a symmetric 3-phase AC sine current system, thus each phase will be shifted 120 degrees in phase from the others. For the purpose of this example, the magnetic field is taken to be the linear function of the coil's current.

Sine wave current in each of the coils produces sine varying magnetic field on the rotation axis. Magnetic fields add as vectors.

Vector sum of the magnetic field vectors of the stator coils produces a single rotating vector of resulting rotating magnetic field.

The result of adding three 120-degrees phased sine waves on the axis of the motor is a single rotating vector. The rotor has a constant magnetic field. The N pole of the rotor will move toward the S pole of the magnetic field of the stator, and vice versa. This magneto-mechanical attraction creates a force which will drive rotor to follow the rotating magnetic field in a synchronous manner.

A permanent magnet in such a field will rotate so as to maintain its alignment with the external field. This effect was utilized in early alternating current electric motors. A rotating magnetic field can be constructed using two orthogonal coils with a 90 degree phase difference in their AC currents. However, in practice such a system would be supplied through a three-wire arrangement with unequal currents. This inequality would cause serious problems in the standardization of the conductor size. In order to overcome this, three-phase systems are used where the three currents are equal in magnitude and have a 120 degree phase difference. Three similar coils having mutual geometrical angles of 120 degrees will create the rotating magnetic field in this case. The ability of the three phase system to create the rotating field utilized in electric motors is one of the main reasons why three phase systems dominate in the world electric power supply systems. Rotating magnetic fields are also used in induction motors. Because magnets degrade with time, induction motors use short-circuited rotors (instead of a magnet) which follow the rotating magnetic field of a multicoiled stator. In these motors, the short circuited turns of the rotor develop eddy currents in the rotating field of stator which in turn move the rotor by Lorentz force. These types of motors are not usually synchronous, but instead necessarily involve a degree of 'slip' in order that the current may be produced due to the relative movement of the field and the rotor.

3-motor runs from 1- power, but does not start.

The single coil of a single phase induction motor does not produce a rotating magnetic field, but a pulsating field reaching maximum intensity at 0o and 180o electrical. (Figure below)

Single phase stator produces a nonrotating, pulsating magnetic field. Another view is that the single coil excited by a single phase current produces two counter rotating magnetic field phasors, coinciding twice per revolution at 0 o (Figure above-a) and 180o (figure e). When the phasors rotate to 90o and -90o they cancel in figure b. At 45o and -45o (figure c) they are partially additive along the +x axis and cancel along the y axis. An analogous situation exists in figure d. The sum of these two phasors is a phasor stationary in space, but alternating polarity in time. Thus, no starting torque is developed. However, if the rotor is rotated forward at a bit less than the synchronous speed, It will develop maximum torque at 10% slip with respect to the forward rotating phasor. Less torque will be developed above or below 10% slip. The rotor will see 200% - 10% slip with respect to the counter rotating magnetic field phasor. Little torque (see torque vs slip curve) other than a double freqency ripple is developed from the counter rotating phasor. Thus, the single phase coil will develop torque, once the rotor is started. If the rotor is started in the reverse direction, it will develop a similar large torque as it nears the speed of the backward rotating phasor. Single phase induction motors have a copper or aluminum squirrel cage embedded in a cylinder of steel laminations, typical of poly-phase induction motors. Permanent-split capacitor motor One way to solve the single phase problem is to build a 2-phase motor, deriving 2-phase power from single phase. This requires a motor with two windings spaced apart 90o electrical, fed with two phases of current displaced 90o in time. This is called a permanent-split capacitor motor in Figure below.

Permanent-split capacitor induction motor. This type of motor suffers increased current magnitude and backward time shift as the motor comes up to speed, with torque pulsations at full speed. The solution is to keep the capacitor (impedance) small to minimize losses. The losses are less than for a shaded pole motor. This motor configuration works well up to 1/4 horsepower (200watt), though, usually applied to smaller motors. The direction of the motor is easily reversed by switching the capacitor in series with the other winding. This type of motor can be adapted for use as a servo motor, described elsewhere is this chapter.

Single phase induction motor with embedded stator coils. Single phase induction motors may have coils embedded into the stator as shown in Figure above for larger size motors. Though, the smaller sizes use less complex to build concentrated windings with salient poles. Capacitor-start induction motor

In Figure below a larger capacitor may be used to start a single phase induction motor via the auxiliary winding if it is switched out by a centrifugal switch once the motor is up to speed. Moreover, the auxiliary winding may be many more turns of heavier wire than used in a resistance split-phase motor to mitigate excessive temperature rise. The result is that more starting torque is available for heavy loads like air conditioning compressors. This motor configuration works so well that it is available in multi-horsepower (multi-kilowatt) sizes.

Capacitor-start induction motor. Capacitor-run motor induction motor A variation of the capacitor-start motor (Figure below) is to start the motor with a relatively large capacitor for high starting torque, but leave a smaller value capacitor in place after starting to improve running characteristics while not drawing excessive current. The additional complexity of the capacitor-run motor is justified for larger size motors.

Capacitor-run motor induction motor. A motor starting capacitor may be a double-anode non-polar electrolytic capacitor which could be two + to + (or - to -) series connected polarized electrolytic capacitors. Such AC rated electrolytic capacitors have such high losses that they can only be used for intermittent duty (1 second on, 60 seconds off) like motor starting. A capacitor for motor running must not be of electrolytic construction, but a lower loss polymer type.

Resistance split-phase motor induction motor If an auxiliary winding of much fewer turns of smaller wire is placed at 90 o electrical to the main winding, it can start a single phase induction motor. (Figure below) With lower inductance and higher resistance, the current will experience less phase shift than the main winding. About 30 o of phase difference may be obtained. This coil produces a moderate starting torque, which is disconnected by a centrifugal switch at 3/4 of synchronous speed. This simple (no capacitor) arrangement serves well for motors up to 1/3 horsepower (250 watts) driving easily started loads.

Resistance split-phase motor induction motor. This motor has more starting torque than a shaded pole motor (next section), but not as much as a two phase motor built from the same parts. The current density in the auxiliary winding is so high during starting that the consequent rapid temperature rise precludes frequent restarting or slow starting loads.

UNIT IV SYNCHRONOUS AND SPECIAL MACHINES Construction of synchronous machines-types Induced emf Voltage regulation; emf and mmf methods Brushless alternators Reluctance motor Hysteresis motor Stepper motor. Principle of Operation
CONSTRUCTION OF SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES:

two types of alternators (a) stationary armature - rotating field (b) stationary field rotating armature advantages of stationary armature - rotating field: i) the hv ac winding and its insulation not subjected to centrifugal forces. ii) easier to collect large currents from a stationary member. iii) the lv dc excitation easily supplied through slip rings and brushes to the rotor field winding.

stationary armature - rotating field stator: laminated core with slots to hold the armature conductors. rotor: i) salient pole type projecting poles dove tailed on the shaft - used in low speed alternators driven by water turbines or ic engines ii) non salient pole type smooth cylindrical rotor - slots cut to house the field winding - used in high speed alternators driven by steam turbines - smaller diameter and larger axial length compared to salient pole type machines, of the same rating. induced emf:

E ph 4.44Kc K d f Tph
short pitching and distribution of the winding: time harmonics of induced voltage reduced the waveform made more sinusoidal. short pitching also reduces the length of the coil end connections armature reaction effect of the armature flux on the main flux.

three phase current in a three - phase winding - a rotating magnetic field produced (mmf = 1.5 im tph). upf - cross magnetizing. lag pf - demagnetizing. lead pf - magnetizing. armature leakage reactance(xl) three major components -slot leakage reactance, end winding leakage reactance and tooth tip leakage reactance. synchronous reactance/phase xs = xl + xar, where xar is the fictitious armature reaction reactance. synchronous impedance/phase zs = (ra + jxs ). voltage regulation of alternators

E ph V ph I a Z s
E ph V ph V ph

100
2 2

E ph Vph cos Ia Ra Vph sin Ia X s

Methods Of Predetermination Of Regulation Synchronous impedance method (EMF method) Magneto Motive Force method (MMF method) Zero Power Factor method (ZPF method) American Standards Association method (ASA method) Synchronous Impedance Method (EMF Method) OC and SC tests conducted. Zs is calculated. Ra measured and Xs obtained. For a given armature current and power factor, Eph determined - regulation is

calculated. Magneto Motive Force Method (MMF Method) OC & SC tests conducted. field currents If1 (field current required to produce a voltage of(Vph + IaphRacos ) on OC) and If2 (field current required to produce the given armature current on SC) are added at an angle of (90 ). For this total field current, Eph found from OCC and regulation calculated.

Zero Power Factor Method (ZPF Method) OC test and ZPF test is conducted characteristics are drawn . This is Potier triangle method From this triangle the potier reactance (leakage reactance of the alternator), XLph is obtained. The terminal voltage and the leakage reactance drop added vectorially - load induced EMF found. For this load induced emf, the corresponding field current If1 obtained from OCC. The field current If2 required to balance armature reaction obtained from potier triangle.

If1 and If2 are added at an angle of (90 ). For this total field current, Eph found from OCC - regulation calculated. Synchronizing Power and Torque Power developed by an alternator

Where is the internal angle of the machine and is the power angle. Synchronizing power On no load . Synchronizing torque = PSY / ( 2Ns/60).

Stepper motor
Fundamentals of operation Stepper motors operate differently from DC brush motors, which rotate when voltage is applied to their terminals. Stepper motors, on the other hand, effectively have multiple "toothed" electromagnets arranged around a central gear-shaped piece of iron. The electromagnets are energized by an external control circuit, such as a microcontroller. To make the motor shaft turn,

first one electromagnet is given power, which makes the gear's teeth magnetically attracted to the electromagnet's teeth. When the gear's teeth are thus aligned to the first electromagnet, they are slightly offset from the next electromagnet. So when the next electromagnet is turned on and the first is turned off, the gear rotates slightly to align with the next one, and from there the process is repeated. Each of those slight rotations is called a "step", with an integer number of steps making a full rotation. In that way, the motor can be turned by a precise angle. Stepper motor characteristics 1. Stepper motors are constant power devices. 2. As motor speed increases, torque decreases. (most motors exhibit maximum torque when stationary, however the torque of a motor when stationary 'holding torque' defines the ability of the motor to maintain a desired position while under external load). 3. The torque curve may be extended by using current limiting drivers and increasing the driving voltage (sometimes referred to as a 'chopper' circuit, there are several off the shelf driver chips capable of doing this in a simple manner). 4. Steppers exhibit more vibration than other motor types, as the discrete step tends to snap the rotor from one position to another (called a detent). The vibration makes stepper motors noisier than DC motors. 5. This vibration can become very bad at some speeds and can cause the motor to lose torque or lose direction. This is because the rotor is being held in a magnetic field which behaves like a spring. On each step the rotor overshoots and bounces back and forth, "ringing" at its resonant frequency. If the stepping frequency matches the resonant frequency then the ringing increases and the motor comes out of synchronism, resulting in positional error or a change in direction. At worst there is a total loss of control and holding torque so the motor is easily overcome by the load and spins almost freely. 6. The effect can be mitigated by accelerating quickly through the problem speeds range, physically damping (frictional damping) the system, or using a micro-stepping driver. 7. Motors with a greater number of phases also exhibit smoother operation than those with fewer phases (this can also be achieved through the use of a micro stepping drive) Open-loop versus closed-loop commutation Steppers are generally commutated open loop, i.e. the driver has no feedback on where the rotor actually is. Stepper motor systems must thus generally be over engineered, especially if the load inertia is high, or there is widely varying load, so that there is no possibility that the motor will lose steps. This has often caused the system designer to consider the trade-offs between a closely sized but expensive servomechanism system and an oversized but relatively cheap stepper. A new development in stepper control is to incorporate a rotor position feedback (e.g. an encoder or resolver), so that the commutation can be made optimal for torque generation according to actual rotor position. This turns the stepper motor into a high pole count brushless servo motor, with exceptional low speed torque and position resolution. An advance on this technique is to normally run the motor in open loop mode, and only enter closed loop mode if the rotor position error becomes too large this will allow the system to avoid hunting or oscillating, a common servo problem.

Types There are three main types of stepper motors:[1] 1. Permanent Magnet Stepper (can be subdivided in to 'tin-can' and 'hybrid', tin-can being a cheaper product, and hybrid with higher quality bearings, smaller step angle, higher power density) 2. Hybrid Synchronous Stepper 3. Variable Reluctance Stepper 4. Lavet type stepping motor Permanent magnet motors use a permanent magnet (PM) in the rotor and operate on the attraction or repulsion between the rotor PM and the stator electromagnets. Variable reluctance (VR) motors have a plain iron rotor and operate based on the principle that minimum reluctance occurs with minimum gap, hence the rotor points are attracted toward the stator magnet poles. Hybrid stepper motors are named because they use a combination of PM and VR techniques to achieve maximum power in a small package size. Two-phase stepper motors There are two basic winding arrangements for the electromagnetic coils in a two phase stepper motor: bipolar and unipolar. Unipolar motors A unipolar stepper motor has two windings per phase, one for each direction of magnetic field. Since in this arrangement a magnetic pole can be reversed without switching the direction of current, the commutation circuit can be made very simple (eg. a single transistor) for each winding. Typically, given a phase, one end of each winding is made common: giving three leads per phase and six leads for a typical two phase motor. Often, these two phase commons are internally joined, so the motor has only five leads. A microcontroller or stepper motor controller can be used to activate the drive transistors in the right order, and this ease of operation makes unipolar motors popular with hobbyists; they are probably the cheapest way to get precise angular movements.

Unipolar stepper motor coils (For the experimenter, one way to distinguish common wire from a coil-end wire is by measuring the resistance. Resistance between common wire and coil-end wire is always half of what it is

between coil-end and coil-end wires. This is because there is twice the length of coil between the ends and only half from center (common wire) to the end.) A quick way to determine if the stepper motor is working is to short circuit every two pairs and try turning the shaft, whenever a higher than normal resistance is felt, it indicates that the circuit to the particular winding is closed and that the phase is working. Bipolar motor Bipolar motors have a single winding per phase. The current in a winding needs to be reversed in order to reverse a magnetic pole, so the driving circuit must be more complicated, typically with an H-bridge arrangement (however there are several off the shelf driver chips available to make this a simple affair). There are two leads per phase, none are common. Static friction effects using an H-bridge have been observed with certain drive topologies Because windings are better utilized, they are more powerful than a unipolar motor of the same weight. This is due to the physical space occupied by the windings. A unipolar motor has twice the amount of wire in the same space, but only half used at any point in time, hence is 50% efficient (or approximately 70% of the torque output available). Though bipolar is more complicated to drive, the abundance of driver chip means this is much less difficult to achieve. An 8-lead stepper is wound like a unipolar stepper, but the leads are not joined to common internally to the motor. This kind of motor can be wired in several configurations:

Unipolar. Bipolar with series windings. This gives higher inductance but lower current per winding. Bipolar with parallel windings. This requires higher current but can perform better as the winding inductance is reduced. Bipolar with a single winding per phase. This method will run the motor on only half the available windings, which will reduce the available low speed torque but require less current.

Higher-phase count stepper motors Multi-phase stepper motors with many phases tend to have much lower levels of vibration, although the cost of manufacture is higher. These motors tend to be called 'hybrid' and have more expensive machined parts, but also higher quality bearings. Though they are more expensive, they do have a higher power density and with the appropriate drive electronics are actually better suited to the application[citation needed], however price is always an important factor. Computer printers may use hybrid designs. Stepper motor drive circuits Stepper motor performance is strongly dependent on the drive circuit. Torque curves may be extended to greater speeds if the stator poles can be reversed more quickly, the limiting factor being the winding inductance. To overcome the inductance and switch the windings quickly, one

must increase the drive voltage. This leads further to the necessity of limiting the current that these high voltages may otherwise induce. L/R drive circuits L/R drive circuits are also referred to as constant voltage drives because a constant positive or negative voltage is applied to each winding to set the step positions. However, it is winding current, not voltage that applies torque to the stepper motor shaft. The current I in each winding is related to the applied voltage V by the winding inductance L and the winding resistance R. The resistance R determines the maximum current according to Ohm's law I=V/R. The inductance L determines the maximum rate of change of the current in the winding according to the formula for an Inductor dI/dt = V/L. Thus when controlled by an L/R drive, the maximum speed of a stepper motor is limited by its inductance since at some speed, the voltage U will be changing faster than the current I can keep up. In simple terms the rate of change of current is L X R (e.g. a 10mH inductance with 2 ohms resistance will take 20 ms to reach approx 2/3rds of maximum torque or around 0.1 sec to reach 99% of max torque). To obtain high torque at high speeds requires a large drive voltage with a low resistance and low inductance. With an L/R drive it is possible to control a low voltage resistive motor with a higher voltage drive simply by adding an external resistor in series with each winding. This will waste power in the resistors, and generate heat. It is therefore considered a low performing option, albeit simple and cheap. Chopper drive circuits Chopper drive circuits are also referred to as constant current drives because they generate a somewhat constant current in each winding rather than applying a constant voltage. On each new step, a very high voltage is applied to the winding initially. This causes the current in the winding to rise quickly since dI/dt = V/L where V is very large. The current in each winding is monitored by the controller, usually by measuring the voltage across a small sense resistor in series with each winding. When the current exceeds a specified current limit, the voltage is turned off or "chopped", typically using power transistors. When the winding current drops below the specified limit, the voltage is turned on again. In this way, the current is held relatively constant for a particular step position. This requires additional electronics to sense winding currents, and control the switching, but it allows stepper motors to be driven with higher torque at higher speeds than L/R drives. Integrated electronics for this purpose are widely available. Phase current waveforms A stepper motor is a polyphase AC synchronous motor , and it is ideally driven by sinusoidal current. A full step waveform is a gross approximation of a sinusoid, and is the reason why the motor exhibits so much vibration. Various drive techniques have been developed to better approximate a sinusoidal drive waveform: these are half stepping and microstepping.

Different drive modes showing coil current on a 4-phase unipolar stepper motor Full step drive (two phases on) This is the usual method for full step driving the motor. Both phases are always on. The motor will have full rated torque. Wave drive In this drive method only a single phase is activated at a time. It has the same number of steps as the full step drive, but the motor will have significantly less than rated torque. It is rarely used. Half stepping When half stepping, the drive alternates between two phases on and a single phase on. This increases the angular resolution, but the motor also has less torque (approx 70%) at the half step position (where only a single phase is on). This may be mitigated by increasing the current in the active winding to compensate. The advantage of half stepping is that the drive electronics need not change to support it. Microstepping What is commonly referred to as microstepping is actually "sine cosine microstepping" in which the winding current approximates a sinusoidal AC waveform. Sine cosine microstepping is the most common form, but other waveforms are used [1]. Regardless of the waveform used, as the microsteps become smaller, motor operation becomes more smooth, thereby greatly reducing resonance in any parts the motor may be connected to, as well as the motor itself. Resolution will be limited by the mechanical stiction, backlash, and other sources of error between the motor and the end device. Gear reducers may be used to increase resolution of positioning.

Step size repeatability is an important step motor feature and a fundamental reason for their use in positioning. Example: many modern hybrid step motors are rated such that the travel of every full step (example 1.8 Degrees per full step or 200 full steps per revolution) will be within 3% or 5% of the travel of every other full step; as long as the motor is operated within its specified operating ranges. Several manufacturers show that their motors can easily maintain the 3% or 5% equality of step travel size as step size is reduced from full stepping down to 1/10th stepping. Then, as the microstepping divisor number grows, step size repeatability degrades. At large step size reductions it is possible to issue many microstep commands before any motion occurs at all and then the motion can be a "jump" to a new position. Theory A step motor can be viewed as a synchronous AC motor with the number of poles (on both rotor and stator) increased, taking care that they have no common denominator. Additionally, soft magnetic material with many teeth on the rotor and stator cheaply multiplies the number of poles (reluctance motor). Modern steppers are of hybrid design, having both permanent magnets and soft iron cores. To achieve full rated torque, the coils in a stepper motor must reach their full rated current during each step. Winding inductance and reverse EMF generated by a moving rotor tend to resist changes in drive current, so that as the motor speeds up, less and less time is spent at full current thus reducing motor torque. As speeds further increase, the current will not reach the rated value, and eventually the motor will cease to produce torque. Pull-in torque This is the measure of the torque produced by a stepper motor when it is operated without an acceleration state. At low speeds the stepper motor can synchronise itself with an applied step frequency, and this pull-in torque must overcome friction and inertia. It is important to make sure that the load on the motor is frictional rather than inertial as the friction reduces any unwanted oscillations. Pull-out torque The stepper motor pull-out torque is measured by accelerating the motor to the desired speed and then increasing the torque loading until the motor stalls or misses steps. This measurement is taken across a wide range of speeds and the results are used to generate the stepper motor's dynamic performance curve. As noted below this curve is affected by drive voltage, drive current and current switching techniques. A designer may include a safety factor between the rated torque and the estimated full load torque required for the application. Detent torque

Synchronous electric motors using permanent magnets have a remnant position holding torque (called detent torque or cogging, and sometimes included in the specifications) when not driven electrically. Soft iron reluctance cores do not exhibit this behavior. Stepper motor ratings and specifications Stepper motors nameplates typically give only the winding current and occasionally the voltage and winding resistance. The rated voltage will produce the rated winding current at DC: but this is mostly a meaningless rating, as all modern drivers are current limiting and the drive voltages greatly exceed the motor rated voltage. A stepper's low speed torque will vary directly with current. How quickly the torque falls off at faster speeds depends on the winding inductance and the drive circuitry it is attached to, especially the driving voltage. Steppers should be sized according to published torque curve, which is specified by the manufacturer at particular drive voltages or using their own drive circuitry. Applications Computer-controlled stepper motors are one of the most versatile forms of positioning systems. They are typically digitally controlled as part of an open loop system, and are simpler and more rugged than closed loop servo systems. Industrial applications are in high speed pick and place equipment and multi-axis machine CNC machines often directly driving lead screws or ballscrews. In the field of lasers and optics they are frequently used in precision positioning equipment such as linear actuators, linear stages, rotation stages, goniometers, and mirror mounts. Other uses are in packaging machinery, and positioning of valve pilot stages for fluid control systems. Commercially, stepper motors are used in floppy disk drives, flatbed scanners, computer printers, plotters, slot machines, and many more devices.

THE HYSTERESIS MOTOR The hysteresis synchronous motor is so named because it utilizes the phenomenon of hysteresis to produce mechanical torque. In its simplest form, the rotor of a hysteresis motor is a smooth cylindrical tube of high hysteresis loss permanent magnet material without windings or slots. It is placed within a slotted stator carrying distributed windings designed to produce, as nearly as possible, a sinusoidal space distribution of flux. In single phase motors, the stator windings usually are the permanent-split-capacitor type. The capacitor value is selected to result in approximately balanced 2 phase conditions within the motor windings: The stator then produces a rotating field, approximately constant in space wave form and rotating at synchronous speed.

Instantaneous magnetic conditions in the air gap are indicated in Figure 1 for a 2 pole stator. The axis SS' of the stator m.m.f. wave revolves at synchronous speed, because of hysteresis the magnetization of the rotor lags behind the inducing m.m.f. wave, and therefore the axis RR' of the rotor flux wave lags behind the axis of the stator m.m.f. wave by the hysteresis lag angle "a". If the rotor is stationary, starting torque is produced proportional to the product of the fundamental components of the stator m.m.f. and rotor flux and the sine of the torque angle "a". The rotor :hen accelerates if the counter torque of the load is less than the developed torque of the motor. When the rotor is turning at less than synchronous speed, each particle of the rotor is subjected to a repetitive hysteresis cycle at slip frequency. While the rotor is accelerating, the lag angle "a" remains constant if the flux is constant, since the angle "a" depends merely on the hysteresis loop of the rotor and is independent of the rate at which the loop is traversed. The motor therefore develops constant torque right up to synchronous speed, as shown in the ideal speed torque, Figure 2. This feature is one of the advantages of the hysteresis motor in contrast to a reluctance motor which must snap its load into synchronism from the induction motor torque speed characteristic. Hysteresis motors can synchronize any load they can accelerate, regardless of the inertia. After reaching synchronism the motors continue to run at synchronous speed and adjust their torque angle to develop torques required by the loads. There are deviations from the ideal speed torque curves for several reasons. In a single phase capacitor motor, a true two phase condition occurs only at one load point. It is not always possible to obtain a true sinusoidal winding distribution tooth pulsation loss in the rotor etc., so that speed torque curves A and B can be obtained. Therefore there is some flexibility in design possible to obtain curves A or B; curve A, when starting torque is not required; curve B, when a high starting torque is required.

Reluctance motors
Reluctance motor is a type of synchronous electric motor that induces non-permanent magnetic poles on the ferromagnetic rotor. Torque is generated through the phenomenon of magnetic reluctance. A reluctance motor, in its various incarnations, may be known as a:

Synchronous reluctance motor Variable reluctance motor Switched Reluctance Motor

Variable reluctance stepping motor Reluctance motors can have very high power density at low-cost, making them ideal for many applications. Disadvantages are high torque ripple when operated at low speed, and noise caused by torque ripple. Until recently, their use has been limited by the complexity inherent in both designing the motors and controlling them. These challenges are being overcome by advances in the theory, by the use of sophisticated computer design tools, and by the use of low-cost embedded systems for motor control. These control systems are typically based on microcontrollers using control algorithms and real-time computing to tailor drive waveforms according to rotor position and current or voltage feedback. Design and operating fundamentals The stator consists of multiple salient (i.e., projecting) electromagnet poles, similar to a wound field brushed DC motor. The rotor consists of soft magnetic material, such as laminated silicon steel, which has multiple projections acting as salient magnetic poles through magnetic reluctance. The number of rotor poles is typically less than the number of stator poles, which minimizes torque ripple and prevents the poles from all aligning simultaneouslya position which can not generate torque. When a rotor pole is equidistant from the two adjacent stator poles, the rotor pole is said to be in the "fully unaligned position". This is the position of maximum magnetic reluctance for the rotor pole. In the "aligned position", two (or more) rotor poles are fully aligned with two (or more) stator poles, (which means the rotor poles completely face the stator poles) and is a position of minimum reluctance. When a stator pole is energized, the rotor torque is in the direction that will reduce reluctance. Thus the nearest rotor pole is pulled from the unaligned position into alignment with the stator field (a position of less reluctance). (This is the same effect used by a solenoid, or when picking up ferromagnetic metal with a magnet.) In order to sustain rotation, the stator field must rotate in advance of the rotor poles, thus constantly "pulling" the rotor along. Some motor variants will run on 3-phase AC power (see the synchronous reluctance variant below). Most modern designs are of the switched reluctance type, because electronic commutation gives significant control advantages for motor starting, speed control, and smooth operation (low torque ripple). Dual-rotor layouts provide more torque at lower price per volume or per mass.[citation needed] The inductance of each phase winding in the motor will vary with position, because the reluctance also varies with position. This presents a control systems challenge.

Types of Reluctance motors Synchronous reluctance Synchronous reluctance motors do have an equal number of stator and rotor poles. The rotor saliency is arranged by introducing internal flux barriers i.e. holes which direct the magnetic flux along the so called direct axis. Typical pole numbers are 4 and 6. As the rotor is operating at synchronous speed and there are no current conducting parts in the rotor, the rotor losses are minimal compared to those of induction motor. Once started at synchronous speed, the SynRM motor can operate with sinusoidal voltage, but the speed control requires an electronic frequency converter. Applications

SRM's are used in some washing machine designs.

Switched reluctance If an iron rotor with poles, but without any conductors, is fitted to a multi-phase stator, a switched reluctance motor, capable of synchronizing with the stator field results. When a stator coil pole pair is energized, the rotor will move to the lowest magnetic reluctance path. (Figure below) A switched reluctance motor is also known as a variable reluctance motor. The reluctance of the rotor to stator flux path varies with the position of the rotor.

Reluctance is a function of rotor position in a variable reluctance motor.

Sequential switching (Figure below) of the stator phases moves the rotor from one position to the next. The mangetic flux seeks the path of least reluctance, the magnetic analog of electric resistance. This is an over simplified rotor and waveforms to illustrate operation.

Variable reluctance motor, over-simplified operation. If one end of each 3-phase winding of the switched reluctance motor is brought out via a common lead wire, we can explain operation as if it were a stepper motor. (Figure above) The other coil connections are successively pulled to ground, one at a time, in a wave drive pattern. This attracts the rotor to the clockwise rotating magnetic field in 60o increments. Various waveforms may drive variable reluctance motors. (Figure below) Wave drive (a) is simple, requiring only a single ended unipolar switch. That is, one which only switches in one direction. More torque is provided by the bipolar drive (b), but requires a bipolar switch. The power driver must pull alternately high and low. Waveforms (a & b) are applicable to the stepper motor version of the variable reluctance motor. For smooth vibration free operation the 6-step approximation of a sine wave (c) is desirable and easy to generate. Sine wave drive (d) may be generated by a pulse width modulator (PWM), or drawn from the power line.

Variable reluctance motor drive waveforms: (a) unipolar wave drive, (b) bipolar full step (c) sinewave (d) bipolar 6-step.

Doubling the number of stator poles decreases the rotating speed and increases torque. This might eliminate a gear reduction drive. A variable reluctance motor intended to move in discrete steps, stop, and start is a variable reluctance stepper motor, covered in another section. If smooth rotation is the goal, there is an electronic driven version of the switched reluctance motor. Variable reluctance motors or steppers actually use rotors like those in Figure below.

Advantages

Simple construction- no brushes, commutator, or permanent magnets, no Cu or Al in the rotor. High efficiency and reliability compared to conventional AC or DC motors. High starting torque. Cost effective compared to bushless DC motor in high volumes. Adaptable to very high ambient temperature. Low cost accurate speed control possible if volume is high enough.

Disadvantages

Current versus torque is highly nonlinear Phase switching must be precise to minimize ripple torque Phase current must be controlled to minimize ripple torque Acoustic and electrical noise Not applicable to low volumes due to complex control issues

UNIT-V TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTIOIN

Electric transmission" redirects here. For vehicle transmissions, see diesel-electric transmission.

400 kV high-tension transmission lines near Madrid Electric power transmission or "high voltage electric transmission" is the bulk transfer of electrical energy, from generating power plants to substations located near to population centers. This is distinct from the local wiring between high voltage substations and customers, which is typically referred to as electricity distribution. Transmission lines, when interconnected with each other, become high voltage transmission networks. In the US, these are typically referred to as "power grids" or sometimes simply as "the grid", while in the UK the network is known as the "national grid." North America has three major grids: The Western Interconnection; The Eastern Interconnection and the Electric Reliability Council of Texas (or ERCOT) grid. Historically, transmission and distribution lines were owned by the same company, but over the last decade or so many countries have introduced market reforms that have led to the separation of the electricity transmission business from the distribution business. [1] Transmission lines mostly use three phase alternating current (AC), although single phase AC is sometimes used in railway electrification systems. High-voltage direct current (HVDC) technology is used only for very long distances (typically greater than 400 miles, or 600 km); submarine power cables (typically longer than 30 miles, or 50 km); or for connecting two AC networks that are not synchronized.

Electricity is transmitted at high voltages (110 kV or above) to reduce the energy lost in long distance transmission. Power is usually transmitted through overhead power lines. Underground power transmission has a significantly higher cost and greater operational limitations but is sometimes used in urban areas or sensitive locations. A key limitation in the distribution of electricity is that, with minor exceptions, electrical energy cannot be stored, and therefore it must be generated as it is needed. A sophisticated system of control is therefore required to ensure electric generation very closely matches the demand. If supply and demand are not in balance, generation plants and transmission equipment can shut down which, in the worst cases, can lead to a major regional blackout, such as occurred in California and the US Northwest in 1996 and in the US Northeast in 1965, 1977 and 2003. To reduce the risk of such failures, electric transmission networks are interconnected into regional, national or continental wide networks thereby providing multiple redundant alternate routes for power to flow should (weather or equipment) failures occur. Much analysis is done by transmission companies to determine the maximum reliable capacity of each line which is mostly less than its physical or thermal limit, to ensure spare capacity is available should there be any such failure in another part of the network.

Generation
Grand Total Installed Capacity (as on 30-09-2010) is 164,835.80 MW.[23]

Thermal Power
Current installed capacity of Thermal Power (as of 30-09-2010) is 106,517.98 MW which is 64.6% of total installed capacity.

Current installed base of Coal Based Thermal Power is 87,943.38 MW which comes to 53.3% of total installed base. Current installed base of Gas Based Thermal Power is 17,374.85 MW which is 10.5% of total installed capacity. Current installed base of Oil Based Thermal Power is 1,199.75 MW which is 0.9% of total installed capacity.

The state of Maharashtra is the largest producer of thermal power in the country.

Hydro Power

India was one of the pioneering countries in establishing hydro-electric power plants. The power plant at Darjeeling and Shimsha (Shivanasamudra) was established in 1898 and 1902 respectively and is one of the first in Asia. The installed capacity as of 30-9-2010 was approximately 37,328.40 MW.[24] The public sector has a predominant share of 97% in this sector.[25]

Nuclear Power
Currently, twenty nuclear power reactors produce 4,560 MW (2.9% of total installed base).

Renewable Power
Current installed base of Renewable energy is 16,492.42 MW which is 7.7% of total installed base with the southern state of Tamil Nadu contributing nearly a third of it (5008.26 MW) largely through wind power.[23]

Transmission
Transmission of electricity is defined as bulk transfer of power over a long distance at high voltage, generally of 132kV and above. In India bulk transmission has increased from 3,708ckm in 1950 to more than 165,000ckm today(as stated by Power Grid Corporation of India). The entire country has been divided into five regions for transmission systems, namely, Northern Region, North Eastern Region, Eastern Region, Southern Region and Western Region. The Interconnected transmission system within each region is also called the regional grid. The transmission system planning in the country, in the past, had traditionally been linked to generation projects as part of the evacuation system. Ability of the power system to safely withstand a contingency without generation rescheduling or load-shedding was the main criteria for planning the transmission system. However, due to various reasons such as spatial development of load in the network, non-commissioning of load center generating units originally planned and deficit in reactive compensation, certain pockets in the power system could not safely operate even under normal conditions. This had necessitated backing down of generation and operating at a lower load generation balance in the past. Transmission planning has therefore moved away from the earlier generation evacuation system planning to integrate system planning. While the predominant technology for electricity transmission and distribution has been Alternating Current (AC) technology, High Voltage Direct Current (HVDC) technology has also been used for interconnection of all regional grids across the country and for bulk transmission of power over long distances. Certain provisions in the Electricity Act 2003 such as open access to the transmission and distribution network, recognition of power trading as a distinct activity, the liberal definition of a captive generating plant and provision for supply in rural areas are expected to introduce and encourage competition in the electricity sector. It is expected that all the above measures on the

generation, transmission and distribution front would result in formation of a robust electricity grid in the country.[23]

Distribution
The total installed generating capacity in the country is over 164,700 MW and the total number of consumers is over 144 million. Apart from an extensive transmission system network at 500kV HVDC, 400kV, 220kV, 132kV and 66kV which has developed to transmit the power from generating station to the grid substations, a vast network of sub transmission in distribution system has also come up for utilisation of the power by the ultimate consumers. However, due to lack of adequate investment on transmission and distribution (T&D) works, the T&D losses have been consistently on higher side, and reached to the level of 32.86% in the year 2000-01.The reduction of these losses was essential to bring economic viability to the State Utilities. As the T&D loss was not able to capture all the losses in the net work, concept of Aggregate Technical and Commercial (AT&C) loss was introduced. AT&C loss captures technical as well as commercial losses in the network and is a true indicator of total losses in the system. High technical losses in the system are primarily due to inadequate investments over the years for system improvement works, which has resulted in unplanned extensions of the distribution lines, overloading of the system elements like transformers and conductors, and lack of adequate reactive power support. The commercial losses are mainly due to low metering efficiency, theft & pilferages. This may be eliminated by improving metering efficiency, proper energy accounting & auditing and improved billing & collection efficiency. Fixing of accountability of the personnel / feeder managers may help considerably in reduction of AT&C loss. With the initiative of the Government of India and of the States, the Accelerated Power Development & Reform Programme (APDRP) was launched in 2001, for the strengthening of Sub Transmission and Distribution network and reduction in AT&C losses. The main objective of the programme was to bring Aggregate Technical & Commercial (AT&C) losses below 15% in five years in urban and in high-density areas. The programme, along with other initiatives of the Government of India and of the States, has led to reduction in the overall AT&C loss from 38.86% in 2001-02 to 34.54% in 2005-06. The commercial loss of the State Power Utilities reduced significantly during this period from 29,331 Crore to 19,546 Crore. The loss as percentage of turnover was reduced from 33% in 2000-01 to 16.60% in 2005-06. The APDRP programme is being restructured by the Government of India, so that the desired level of 15% AT&C loss could be achieved by the end of 11th plan.[23]

SUBSTATION TRANSFORMERS
A substation is a high-voltage electric facility. It is used to switch generators, equipment and circuits or lines in and out of system. A Substation is also used to change AC voltages from one level to another, or change alternating current to direct current or direct current to alternating current. There are small substations and large one. The small substation are little more than a transformer and relate switches, while the large one has several transformers an dozens of switches and equipment. There are generally four types of substation, but some substations there are a combination of two or more types. Substation Transformer Types

Step-Up Transmission Substations Step-Down Transmission Substation Distribution Substation Underground Distribution Substation Substation Functions

Step-Up Transmission Substation: A step-up transmission substation receives electric power from a nearby generating facility and uses a large power transformer to increase the voltage for transmission to distant locations. A transmission bus is used to distribute electric power to one or more transmission lines. There can also be a tap on the incoming power feed from the generation plant to provide electric power to operate equipment in the generation plant. A substation can have circuit breaker switch that are used to switch transmission circuits in and out of service as needed, or emergencies that require the shut-down of power to a circuit or to redirect the power. A step-up transmission substation voltages specification is determined by the customer needs of the utility supplying power and to the requirements of any connections to regional grids. The typical voltage are:

High voltage (HV) ac: Extra-high voltage (EHV) ac: Ulta-high voltage (UHV) ac: Direct-current high voltage (dc HV):

69kV, 115kV, 138kV, 161kV, 230kv 345kV, 500 kV, 765 kV 1100 kV, 1500 kV +250kV, +400kV, +500 kV

Direct current voltage is either positive or negative polarity. A DC line has two conductors, so one would be positive and the other negative.

Step-Down Transmission Substation: Step-down transmission substations are located at switching points in an electrical grid. They connect different parts of a grid and are a source for subtransmission lines or distribution lines. The step-down substation can change the transmission voltage to a subtransmission voltage, usually 69 kV. The subtransmission voltage lines can then serve as a source to distribution substations. Sometimes, power is tapped from the subtransmission line for use in an industrial facility along the way. Otherwise, the power goes to a distribution substation. Distribution Substations: Distribution substations are located near to the end users. Distribution substation transformers changes voltage to lower levels for use by the end users. Typical distribution voltages vary from 34,500Y/19,920 volts to 4,160Y/2400 volts. 34,500Y/19,920 volts is interpreted as a three-phase circuit with a grounded neutral source. This would have three high-voltage conductors or wires and one grounded neutral conductor, a total of four wires. The voltage between the three phase conductors or wires would be 34,500 volts and the voltage between one phase conductor and the neutral ground would be 19,920 volts. From here the power is distributed to industrial commercial, and residential customers. Underground Distribution Substation: Underground distribution substations are also located near to the end-users. Distribution substation change the subtransmission voltage to lower levels for use by end-users. Typical distribution voltages vary from 34,500Y/19,920 volts to 4,160Y/2400 volts. An underground system may consist of these parts:

Conduits Duct Runs Manholes High-Voltage Underground Cables Transformer Vault Riser Transformers

The following is a list of a Substation functions, but remember not all substations have all theses functions:

Change voltage from one level to another Regulate voltage to compensate for system voltage changes Switch transmission and distribution circuits into and out of the grid system. Measure electric power qualities flowing in the circuits.

Connect communication signals to the circuits Eliminate lightning and other electrical surges from the system. Connect electric generation plants to the system. Make interconnections between the electric systems of more than one utility. Control reactive kilovolt-amperes supplied to and the flow of reactive kilovolt-amperes in the circuits.

INSULATOR
An insulator, also called a dielectric, is a material that resists the flow of electric charge. In insulating materials valence electrons are tightly bonded to their atoms. These materials are used in electrical equipment as insulators or insulation. Their function is to support or separate electrical conductors without allowing current through themselves. The term also refers to insulating supports that attach electric power transmission wires to utility poles or pylons. Some materials such as glass, paper or Teflon are very good electrical insulators. Even though they may have lower bulk resistivity, a much larger class of materials are still "good enough" to insulate electrical wiring and cables. Examples include rubber-like polymers and most plastics. Such materials can serve as practical and safe insulators for low to moderate voltages (hundreds, or even thousands, of volts).

Breakdown
Insulators suffer from the phenomenon of electrical breakdown. When the electric field applied across an insulating substance exceeds in any location the threshold breakdown field for that substance, which is proportional to the band gap energy, the insulator suddenly turns into a resistor, sometimes with catastrophic results. During electrical breakdown, any free charge carrier being accelerated by the strong e-field will have enough velocity to knock electrons from (ionize) any atom it strikes. These freed electrons and ions are in turn accelerated and strike other atoms, creating more charge carriers, in a chain reaction. Rapidly the insulator becomes filled with mobile carriers, and its resistance drops to a low level. In air, "corona discharge" is normal current near a high-voltage conductor; an "arc" is an unusual and undesired current. Similar breakdown can occur within any insulator, even within the bulk solid of a material. Even a vacuum can suffer a sort of breakdown, but in this case the breakdown or vacuum arc involves charges ejected from the surface of metal electrodes rather than produced by the vacuum itself.

Uses
Insulators are commonly used as a flexible coating on electric wire and cable. Since air is an insulator, no other substance is needed to keep power where it should be. High-voltage power lines commonly use just air, since a solid (e.g., plastic) coating would be impractical. However, wires which touch each other will produce cross connections, short circuits, and fire hazards. In coaxial cable the center conductor must be supported exactly in the middle of the hollow shield in order to

prevent EM wave reflections. And any wires which present voltages higher than 60V can cause human shock and electrocution hazards. Insulating coatings helps to prevent all of these problems. Some wires have a mechanical covering which has no voltage rating; e.g: service-drop, welding, doorbell, thermostat. An insulated wire or cable has a voltage rating and a maximum conductor temperature rating. It does not have an ampacity rating, since such is dependent upon the wire or cables environment where installed. In electronic systems, printed circuit boards are made from epoxy plastic and fibreglass. The nonconductive boards support layers of copper foil conductors. In electronic devices, the tiny and delicate active components are embedded within nonconductive epoxy or phenolic plastics, or within baked glass or ceramic coatings. In microelectronic components such as transistors and ICs, the silicon material is normally a conductor because of doping, but it can easily be selectively transformed into a good insulator by the application of heat and oxygen. Oxidized silicon is quartz, i.e. silicon dioxide. In high voltage systems containing transformers and capacitors, liquid insulator oil is the typical method used for preventing arcs. The oil replaces the air in any spaces which must support significant voltage without electrical breakdown. Other methods of insulating high voltage systems are ceramic or glass wire holders, gas, vacuum, and simply placing the wires with a large separation, using the air as insulation.

Material
Insulators used for high-voltage power transmission are made from glass, porcelain, or composite polymer materials. Porcelain insulators are made from clay, quartz or alumina and feldspar, and are covered with a smooth glaze to shed water. Insulators made from porcelain rich in alumina are used where high mechanical strength is a criterion. Porcelain has a dielectric strength of about 4 10 kV/mm.[1] Glass has a higher dielectric strength, but it attracts condensation and the thick irregular shapes needed for insulators are difficult to cast without internal strains.[2] Some insulator manufacturers stopped making glass insulators in the late 1960s, switching to ceramic materials. Recently, some electric utilities have begun converting to polymer composite materials for some types of insulators. These are typically composed of a central rod made of fibre reinforced plastic and an outer weathershed made of silicone rubber or EPDM. Composite insulators are less costly, lighter in weight, and have excellent hydrophobic capability. This combination makes them ideal for service in polluted areas. However, these materials do not yet have the long-term proven service life of glass and porcelain. The electrical breakdown of an insulator due to excessive voltage can occur in one of two ways:

Puncture voltage is the voltage across the insulator (when installed in its normal manner) which causes a breakdown and conduction through the interior of the insulator. The heat resulting from the puncture arc usually damages the insulator irreparably. Flashover voltage is the voltage which causes the air around or along the surface of the insulator to break down and conduct, causing a 'flashover' arc along the outside of the insulator. They are usually designed to withstand this without damage.

Cap and pin insulators

Higher voltage transmission lines use modular cap and pin insulator designs (see picture above). The wires are suspended from a 'string' of identical disk-shaped insulators which attach to each other with metal clevis pin or ball and socket links. The advantage of this design is that insulator strings with different breakdown voltages, for use with different line voltages, can be constructed by using different numbers of the basic units. Also, if one of the insulator units in the string breaks, it can be replaced without discarding the entire string. Each unit is constructed of a ceramic or glass disk with a metal cap and pin cemented to opposite sides. In order to make defective units obvious, glass units are designed with Class B construction, so that an overvoltage causes a puncture arc through the glass instead of a flashover. The glass is heat-treated so it will shatter, making the damaged unit visible. However the mechanical strength of the unit is unchanged, so the insulator string will stay together. Standard disk insulator units are 10 inches (25 cm) in diameter and 534 in (15 cm) long, can support a load of 80-120 kN (18-27 klbf), have a dry flashover voltage of about 72 kV, and are rated at an operating voltage of 10-12 kV.[4] However, the flashover voltage of a string is less than the sum of its component disks, because the electric field is not distributed evenly across the string but is strongest at the disk nearest to the conductor, which will flashover first. Metal grading rings are sometimes added around the lowest disk, to reduce the electric field across that disk and improve flashover voltage.

Cable
A cable is two or more wires running side by side and bonded, twisted or braided together to form a single assembly. In mechanics cables, otherwise known as wire ropes, are used for lifting, hauling and towing or conveying force through tension. In electrical engineering cables used to carry electric currents. An optical cable contains one or more optical fibers in a protective jacket that supports the fibers.

Electric cables discussed here are mainly meant for installation in buildings and industrial sites. For power transmission at distances greater than a few kilometres see high voltage cable, power cables and HVDC.

Electrical cables
Electrical cables may be made more flexible by stranding the wires. In this process, smaller individual wires are twisted or braided together to produce larger wires that are more flexible than solid wires of similar size. Bunching small wires before concentric stranding adds the most flexibility. Copper wires in a cable may be bare, or they may be plated with a thin layer of another metal, most often tin but sometimes gold, silver or some other material. Tin, gold, and silver are much less prone to oxidation than copper, which may lengthen wire life, and makes soldering easier. Tinning is also used to provide lubrication between strands. Tinning was used to help removal of rubber insulation. Tight lays during stranding makes the cable extensible (CBA - as in telephone handset cords). Cables can be securely fastened and organized, such as by using trunking, cable trays, cable ties or cable lacing. Continuous-flex or flexible cables used in moving applications within cable carriers can be secured using strain relief devices or cable ties. At high frequencies, current tends to run along the surface of the conductor. This is known as the skin effect.

Cables and electromagnetic fields

Coaxial cable.

Twisted pair. Any current-carrying conductor, including a cable, radiates an electromagnetic field. Likewise, any conductor or cable will pick up energy from any existing electromagnetic field around it. These effects are often undesirable, in the first case amounting to unwanted transmission of energy which may adversely affect nearby equipment or other parts of the same piece of equipment; and in the second case, unwanted pickup of noise which may mask the desired signal being carried by the cable, or, if the cable is carrying power supply or control voltages, pollute them to such an extent as to cause equipment malfunction.

The first solution to these problems is to keep cable lengths in buildings short, since pick up and transmission are essentially proportional to the length of the cable. The second solution is to route cables away from trouble. Beyond this, there are particular cable designs that minimize electromagnetic pickup and transmission. Three of the principal design techniques are shielding, coaxial geometry, and twisted-pair geometry. Shielding makes use of the electrical principle of the Faraday cage. The cable is encased for its entire length in foil or wire mesh. All wires running inside this shielding layer will be to a large extent decoupled from external electric fields, particularly if the shield is connected to a point of constant voltage, such as earth. Simple shielding of this type is not greatly effective against lowfrequency magnetic fields, however - such as magnetic "hum" from a nearby power transformer. And, shielding of cables operating at 2+ Kv, gathers leakage currents, mainly due to capacitance, safely to earth grounding to reduce the hazard of shocking, provided this shielding is bonded to earth at all terminations and splices. Coaxial design helps to further reduce low-frequency magnetic transmission and pickup. In this design the foil or mesh shield is perfectly tubular - i.e. with a circular cross section - and the inner conductor (there can only be one) is situated exactly at its center. This causes the voltages induced by a magnetic field between the shield and the core conductor to consist of two nearly equal magnitudes which cancel each other. The twisted pair is a simple expedient where two wires of a cable, rather than running parallel to each other, are twisted around each other, forming a pair of intertwined helices. This can be achieved by putting one end of the pair in a hand drill and turning while maintaining moderate tension on the line. Field cancellation between successive twists of the pair considerably reduces electromagnetic pickup and transmission. Power-supply cables feeding sensitive electronic devices are sometimes fitted with a series-wired inductor called a choke which blocks high frequencies that may have been picked up by the cable, preventing them from passing into the device.

Fire protection
In building construction, electrical cable jacket material is a potential source of fuel for fires. To limit the spread of fire along cable jacketing, one may use cable coating materials or one may use cables with jacketing that is inherently fire retardant. The plastic covering on some metal clad cables may be stripped off at installation to reduce the fuel source for accidental fires. In Europe in particular, it is often customary to place inorganic wraps and boxes around cables in order to safeguard the adjacent areas from the potential fire threat associated with unprotected cable jacketing. However, this fire protection also traps heat generated from conductor losses, so the protection must be thin. There are two methods of providing fire protection to a cable: 1. Insulation material is deliberately added up with fire retardant materials 2. The copper conductor itself is covered with mineral insulation (MICC cables)