Chng IV.

in t trong vt rn
Phn 2. Vt liu t

69

Principles of Materials Science and Engineering
(Cc nguyn l ca khoa hc cc vt liu v cng ngh)
William F. Smith
Professor of Engineering University of Central Florida
McGraw-Hill, Inc. 1996
1.1. M u
Vt liu l cc cht liu lm ra hoc to nn mt vt. T khi nn vn minh ca loi ngi xut
hin, con ngi s dng cc vt liu theo cng vi nng lng nng cao cht lng cuc sng
ca mnh. Vt liu khp ni bao quanh chng ta bi cc sn phm u c lm t cc vt liu.
Mt vi vt liu thng dng nh: g xy dng, b tng, gch, thp, cht do, thu tinh, cao su,
nhm, ng v giy. Ngoi ra cn rt nhiu loi vt liu khc, ch cn chng ta nhn xung quanh
chng ta l thy. Do vy cc vt liu mi c nghin cu v pht trin khng ngng.
Sn xut v gia cng vt liu thnh nhng sn phm s dng l nhng thnh phn khng nh ca
nn kinh t hin nay.
Thit k, ch to phn ln cc sn phm v cc h gia cng c ch tao do nhu cu ca sn xut.
Do thnh phm i hi vt liu, cc k s cn bit r cu trc bn trong v cc tnh cht ca vt
liu c th chn lc vt liu thch ng cho tng ng dng v c th pht trin phng php gia
cng tt nht.
Cng vic ca k s nghin cu v pht trin cc vt liu mi hoc bin i cc tnh cht ca cc
vt liu c sn. K s thit k s dng nhng vt liu c, bin i hoc loi mi thit
k v to ra cc sn phm v cc h mi. Thnh thong c nhng trng hp ngc li, k s
thit k c vn trong vic thit k ca h, i hi cc nh khoa hc v cc k s to ra vt liu
mi.
S tm kim vt liu mi l khng ngng. Th d nh, k s c kh tm vt liu chu nhit cao
cho ng c vi phun c th hot ng hiu qu hn. K s in tm vt liu mi cho cc thit b
in c th hot ng nhanh hn v chu nhit cao hn. K s thit k my bay li tm kin
cc loi vt liu vi t s chu lc trn trng lng cho v my bay hoc v tinh. K s ho hc
tm loi vt liu chng c s r st cao hn na. y mi ch l mt vi v d cho vic tm
kim ca cc k s v cc loi vt liu mi v hon thin hn cho vic ng dng. Trong nhiu
trng hp khng th ngy hm qua, nhng c th vo ngy hm nay.
K s tt c cc chuyn mn cn c nhng tri thc c bn v vt liu cng ngh, sao cho h c
th lm vic hiu qu hn khi s dng cc loi vt liu: Mc ch ca cun sch ny l phc v
cho vic lm quen vi cu trc bn trong, cc tnh cht, gia cng v ng dng cc loi vt liu
cng ngh. Do lng thng tin v vt liu cng ngh rt ln v do s gii hn ca cun sch nn
cun sch ny ch gii thiu mt s vt liu nht nh.


Vt liu t

Vt liu t l loi vt liu cng nghip quan trng cn thit cho nhiu dng thit k k thut, c
bit trong lnh vc k thut in. Ni chung, c hai loi chnh: vt liu t mm v cng. Vt liu
t mm c s dng trong nhng ng dng m vt liu cn phi d dng t ho v kh t ho
v d nh li bin th phn b cng sut (hnh 4.21a), bin th in nh, v cc vt liu stator v
rotor trong cc m t v my pht. Mt khc, vt liu t cng c s dng cho nhng ng dng
Chng IV. in t trong vt rn
Phn 2. Vt liu t

70
i hi cc nam chm vnh cu, nh trong loa, b nhn tn hiu telephon, cc m t ng b v
khng chi qut, v cc m t khi ng ca my t.
Trong phn ny chng ta u tin s xem xt ngun gc t tnh trong cc vt liu st t (t ferro)
v sau kim tra kim tra k cng mt vi phn c bn v lin quan ti t tnh v vt liu t.
Sau ta s nghin cu mt vi tnh cht quan trng ca t trng v xem xt s hnh thnh v
chuyn ng ca cc vng (domain) trong cc vt liu st t. Tip theo , chng ta s bn lun
v mt vi kha cnh ca cu trc v tnh cht ca mt vi vt liu st t mm v cng cng
nghip. Cui cng chng ta s xem xt rt k v t ferrite, cu trc v cc tnh cht ca cc
ferrite, l cc vt liu s t.

1. T trng v nh tnh
a. T trng
Trc khi nghin cu v vt liu t, chng ta nhc li mt vi cc tnh cht c bn ca t tnh v
ca t trng. Ch c ba nguyn t kim loi l: st, cobalt v nikel khi b t ho ti nhit
phng c th to nn t trng mnh xung quanh mnh, chng c gi l cc cht t ferro (st
t). S tn ti t trng quanh thanh st nhim t c th pht hin c nh phn tn cc ht st
nh trn tm giy nm trn thanh st (hnh 4.2.1). Nh ta thy trn hnh 4.2.1 thanh nam chm c
hai cc t, v cc ng t sc i t cc ny vo cc kia.
Hnh 4.2.1. T trng bao quanh
thanh nam chm c th hin
bng phn b cc ht st trn mt
t giy dt trn thanh nam chm.
Lu rng thanh nam chm l
hai cc v cc ng sc xut
hin i t cc ny sang cc kia.


Ni chung, t tnh v bn cht l lng cc, v cha h c n cc t c pht hin. Lun c
hai cc t hoc tm ca t trng cch nhau mt khong nht nh, v chnh hnh vi lng cc
m rng xung n cc lng cc t nh trong mt vi loi nguyn t.
T trng cng c to ra bi dng in. Hnh 4.2.2 minh ho s to ra t trng xung quanh
mt cun dy ng di, c gi l slnoid, c di di hn bn knh ca n. i vi slnoid
c n vng v di l , cng t trng H bng:
l
ni
H
4 . 0
= (4.2.1)
trong i l dng in. n v ca cng t trng trong n v SI l ampe trn met (A/m),
cn trong h cgs l oesteds (Oe). H s chuyn i gia hai h l: 1 A/m = 4 x 10
-3
Oe.
Chng IV. in t trong vt rn
Phn 2. Vt liu t

71
b. Cm ng t

By gi chng ta t thanh st kh t vo trong slnoid v bt dng in t ho ca n nh
trn hnh 4.2.2b. T trng slnoid by gi tr nn mnh hn vi thanh st b t ho trong lng
ca thanh st c gi l cng


slnoid. T trng tng cao pha ngoi slnoid l do trng bn thn slnoid v t trng
ngoi ca thanh st t cng li. T trng thm vo c gi l cm ng t, hoc mt
thng lng, hoc n gin l cm ng v c k hiu l B.
Cm ng t B l tng ca trng p vo H cng vi trng xut hin khi t ho thanh st vo
trong slnoid. Moment t cm ng trn mt n v th tch
t ho, hoc n gin gi l t ho v c k hiu l M. Trong h SI c vit nh sau:
( ) M H M H B + = + =
0 0 0
(4.2.2)
Trong
0
- t thm ca chn khng = 4 . 10
-7
tesla.met/amper [T.m/A].
0
khng c
ngha vt l bi hin chng ta trong h n v SI. Cn trn met
ng S
o ca t trng trong hai h n v SI v cgs
i lng t H n v SI H n v cgs

bnh ph [Wb/m
n v ca B trong h SI l weber
2
] hoc tesla [T]. Tng kt cc n v ca t trng trong h I v h cgs
c a ra trong Bng 4.2.1

Bng 4.2.1. Tng kt cc n v
B (cm ng t)
H (t

m e
rng p vo)
M ( t ho)
Cc h s chuyn i
1 A/ = 4 . 10
-3
O
1 Wb/m
2
= 1,0 . 10
4
G
H s t thm
0
= 4 . 10
-7
T.m/A
amper/met
Gauss [G] weber/met
2
[Wb/m
2
] hoc tesla [T]
[A/m]
amper/met [A/m]
Oersted [Oe]

Hnh 4
(a) Gin minh ho t trng
c to nn xung quanh
cun dy ng slnoid khi
cho dng in i qua.
(b) Gin minh ho s tng
ca t trng xung quanh
slnoid khi t mt thanh
st vo trong v cho dng
in i qua.


.2.2.
Chng IV. in t trong vt rn
Phn 2. Vt liu t

72
t im ng lu l i vi vt liu t ferro, trong rt nhiu trng hp t ho M
0
M
thng ln hn trng p vo
0
H, v chng ta thng s dng mi tng quan M B
0
. Nh
vy, i vi vt liu t ferro, th h thong cc gi tr B (cm ng t) v M (t ho dng
thay i ln nhau.

n ) c s
c. t thm
Nh ph a, khi vt liu t ferro c p vo trong t trng, cng t trng n trn ch r
tng ln. iu ny th hin trong t ho v c o bng i lng gi l t thm , c
xc nh bng h s ca cm ng t B chia cho cng t trng H.
H
B
= (4.2.3)
Nu nh l trong chn khng th
H
B
=
0
(4.2.4)
m
0
= 4 . 10
-7
[T.m/A]- t thm ca chn khng, nh
n n
pha trn chng ta bit.
Ph g php t g i xc nh t thm l i lng t thm tng i
r
, c xc
nh bng:
0
/ =
r
. Nh vy
0

=
r
(4.2.5)
v
H B
r

0
= (4.2.6)
t thm tng i
r
l i lng khng kch
ng. Bng cch no t thm ca
thc.
t thm tng i l php o cng t trng cm
cc vt liu t tng t nh hng s in mi ca
vt liu in mi. Tuy nhin, t thm ca cc vt
liu t ferro khng phi l hng s m thay i khi
vt liu t ho, nh th hin trn hnh 4.2.3. t
thm ca cc vt liu t thng c o hoc bng
t thm khi u
i
hoc t thm cc i
max

. Hnh 4.2.3 ch ra cch tnh

i
v
max

t
ca ng t ho ban u B-H i v c vt
liu t. Cc vt liu t d b t ho c t thm
cao.


dc i c
d. t cm
Bi t liu t t l vi trng p vo, s t ho ca v
h s t l c gi l t cm
m
c xc nh
bng

H
M
m
= (4.2.7)
i lng
yu ca vt liu t thng c o di dng t
cm.
nh 4.2.3. ng cong t ho ban u H-B
cng l d khng kch thc. S p ng t



















H
ca vt liu t ferro. dc
i
l t thm
khi u, v dc
max
l t cm cc
i.
Chng IV. in t trong vt rn
Phn 2. Vt liu t

73
. Cc dng t



2
T trng v cc lc xut hin t chuyn ng ca ht mang in c bn, in t. Khi in t
dy dn, t trng c to ra xung quanh dy dn, nh c minh ho trn
u
lm h in t qu o ca chng
chuyn ng trong
hnh 4.2.2 ca slnoid. T tnh trong vt liu cng thuc v chuyn ng ca in t, nhng
trong trng hp ny t trng v lc gy ra bi ni
spin ca in t v chuyn ng theo qu o ca
chng xung quanh ht nhn ca chng (hnh 4.2.4).
a. Tnh nghch t
T trng bn ngoi tc ng ln nguyn t ca vt li


cho mt cn bng n
v to nn nhng lng cc t nh ni trong ht nhn,
m ngc li vi trng p vo. S tc ng ny to nn
hiu ng nghch t c bin n nh l tnh nghch t.
Hiu ng nghch t to nn t cm m rt nh vo c

m
- 10
-6
(Bng 4.2.2). Tnh nghch t c trong nhng
tt c cc vt liu, nhng trong phn ln hiu ng
h t b loi tr bi hiu ng t dng. Hnh vi
nghch t khng c quan trng trong cng ngh mt
cch ng k.
b. Tnh thun t
Cc vt liu th
nghc
hin t cm dng nh khi tn ti
tron i l thun t, cn hiu ng t
g o
ong khong t 10 n 10 v to nn
i bn trong ny, do chng khng cn bng
ng 4.2.2. t cm ca mt vi nguyn t nghch v thun t
nh 4.2.4. Gin v nguyn t ca
ohr ch ra rng in t xoay xung quanh
g t trng c g
nh vy c gi l tnh thun t. Hiu ng thun t tron
b b ra. Tnh thun t to nn t cm trong vt liu tr
trong rt nhiu vt liu. Bng 4.2.2 a ra t cm ca mt s vt liu thun t ti 20C. Tnh
thun t c to ra bi s sp thng hng ca cc moment lng cc t ring l ca cc nguyn
t v phn t trong t trng p t. Do s rung ng nhit ngu nhin ho hng ca cc lng
cc t, s tng nhit lm gim hiu ng thun t.
Nguyn t ca mt s nguyn t chuyn tip v t him chon cc lp bn trong khng y
bng cc in t khng i. Nhng in t khng
vt liu bin mt khi t trng p v
-6 -2
trc ca n v xoay vng xung quanh ht
nhn. Spin ca in t trn trc ca n v
chuyn ng qu o xung quanh ht nhn
l ngun gc ca t tnh trong vt liu.












H
B
thun bi cc in t lin kt khc trong cht rn, gy ra hiu ng thun t mnh v trong mt
vi tng hp to nn hiu ng t ferro v ferri ln hn rt nhiu, m chng ta s xem xt sau
ny.









B
Chng IV. in t trong vt rn
Phn 2. Vt liu t

74
Nguyn t nghch t t cm
m
.10
-6
Nguyn t thun t t cm
m
.10
-6
Cadmi
ng
Bc
Thic
Km
- 0,18
- 0,086
- 0.20
- 0,25
- 0,157
Nhm
Calci
Oxy
Platin
Titan
+ 0,65
+ 1,10
+ 106,2
+ 1,10
+ 1,25


c. T tnh ferro
Tn t c cm ng bi t trng p vo, v s t ho tn ti ch khi t
i c c l do cch spin ca cc
h nghch v thun
trng ngoi cn tn ti. Loi t tnh th ba c gi l t tnh ferro, c gi tr ln trong cng
ngh. T trng ln c th c gi li hoc loi tr theo mun trong cc vt liu t ferro.
Nhng nguyn t c t tnh ferro quan trng nht theo quan im cng nghip l st (Fe), Coban
(Co), v Nikel (Ni), Gadolinium (Gd), v cc nguyn t t him, cng c nhng nguyn t t
ferro di 16C nhng chng c t gi tr s dng cng nghip.
Cc tnh cht t ferro ca cc nguyn t chuyn tip Fe, Co v N
in t khng i pha trong sp xp trong mng tinh th ca chng. Phn b in t cc lp
ca st vi Z = 26 nh sau: 1s
2
2s
2
2p
6
3s
2
3p
6
3d
6
4s
2
, ch rng lp 3d khng c lp y. Cc
lp pha trong ca cc nguyn t c bit c lp y bng cc i in t c moment spin
khng c moment lng cc t.
Trong cht rn cc in t ho tr
vng ngoi ca cc nguyn t lin
kt ln nhau v to thnh cc mi
lin kt ho hc, v nh vy
moment t i vi nhng in t
l khng ng k. Trong Fe, Co, v
ngc nhau, v kt qu l chng
Ni do nhng in t khng i lp pha trong 3d (orbital

Hnh 4.2.5. Moment t ca n yn t trung tnh ca cc nguyn t chuyn tip 3d.

nh 4.2.6. Nng lng tng tc trao i t l hm s ca t s



















gu












H
ca khong cch gia cc nguyn t v ng knh ca qu o 3d
cho cc nguyn t kim loi chuyn tip 3d. Cc nguyn t c
nng lng trao i dng l t ferro, cn nng lng trao i m
l i t ferro.
Chng IV. in t trong vt rn
Phn 2. Vt liu t


phng, spin ca cc in t ca cc nguyn t
n t v ng knh ca lp
d. Moment t ca in t khng i n ca nguyn t.
Tn t ng nh lng cc t v c
3,2) l nguyn nhn gy ra t tnh ferro. Nguyn t st c 4 in t khng i lp 3d, nguyn t
coban c 3 v nguyn t Ni c 2 (hnh 4.2.5).
Trong cc mu cht rn Fe, Co v Ni nhit
k nhau sp xp hng song song vi nhau bi hiu ng c gi l t ho ngu nhin. S sp
xp song song ny ca cc lng cc t nguyn t ny tn ti ch trong nhng vng nh c micro
c gi l nhng khong t (domain). Nu cc khong ny nh hng ngu nhin, th s khng
c t tnh trong cc mu ln. S sp xp song song ca cc lng cc t ca cc nguyn t Fe,
Co v Ni l do s to thnh nng lng trao i dng gia chng.
s sp xp song song tn ti th t s khong cch gia cc nguy
3d phi trong khong 1,4 v 2,7 (hnh 4.2.6). Nh vy Fe, Co, v Ni c t tnh ferro, cn mangan
(Mn) v chrom (Cr) khng c.

g in t t quay xung quanh trc ca mnh (hnh 4.2.4) ho
moment lng cc c gi l magnton Bohr
B
(ta hc chng III). Moment lng cc
ny c gi tr bng:
m
eh
B

4
= (4.2.8)
Trong h SI
B
= 9,27 . 10
-24
A.m
2
. Trong phn l u
Bi ton mu 1
n cc trng hp in t trong nguyn t
c i, cho nn moment t dng v m trit tiu ln nhau. Tuy nhin, cc in t khng i
trong cc lp in t pha trong c th c moment lng cc dng nh, th d nh trong
trng hp ca cc in t lp 3d ca Fe, Co, v Ni.


S dn n
m
eh
B

4
= g mi tng qua , chng minh gi tr s ca magnton Bohr = 9.27.10
-24
A.
i:
m
2
Li gi
( )( )
( )
kg
s J C
kg
s J C
B
. .
10 . 27 . 9
10 . 11 . 9 4
. 10 . 63 . 6 10 . 60 . 1
24
31
34 19

=
=

( )( )( )
2
2
.
).
. .
( .
. . . .
m A
kg
s
s
m m kg
s A
kg
s m N s A
kg
s J C
=
= =

75

. i t tnh Ferro: mt loi khc

nh 4.2.7. S sp xp ca lng cc t cho cc loi t tnh khc
e









H
nhau: (a) t ferro; (b) i t ferro v (c) t ferri.
ca t tnh c trong mt s vt liu l
i t tnh Ferro. Khi c mt t
trng, cc lng cc t ca phn t
vt liu i t tnh Ferro t sp xp
theo hng ngc li (hnh 4.2.7b).
Cc nguyn t Mangan v Crom
trong trng thi rn ti nhit
Chng IV. in t trong vt rn
Phn 2. Vt liu t


rri: Trong mt s vt liu gm, cc ion khc nhau c ln khc nhau i vi
. Tc ng ca nhit i vi t
phng th hin tnh i t tnh Ferro v c s chuyn i nng lng m bi v t s khong cch
gia cc phn t trn ng knh ca orbital 3d nh hn 1.4 (hnh 4.2.6).
f. T tnh Fe
moment t ca chng, v khi cc moment t ny sp xp theo li ngc nhau th s c moment
t trong mt hng (hnh 4.2.7c). Nhm cc vt liu t ferri c gi l cc ferrit. C rt nhiu
loi ferrit. Mt nhm da trn c s magnetite Fe
3
O
4
, l mt loi t c t xa. Ferrit c dn
thp cho nn chng hu ch trong nhiu ng dng in t.


3
76
tnh Ferro
Ti nhit hu hn bt k ln hn 0 K, nhit
. Cc domain (khong) t ferro
nng lm cho cc lng cc t ca cc vt liu
t ferro lch khi hng song song l tng.
Nh vy, nng lng trao i to ra hng
song song ca lng cc t c cn bng li
do cc hiu ng ngu nhin ca nhit nng
(hnh 4.2.8). Cui cng, khi nhit tng, ti
mt im m ti t tnh ferro trong vt liu
t ferro bin mt hon ton, v vt liu tr nn
cht thun t. Nhit ny c gi l nhit
Curie. Khi mu vt liu t ferro c lm lnh
t nhit cao hn nhit Curie ca vt liu,
khong t ferro ti to v vt liu li tr nn c
t tnh ferro. nhit Curie ca Fe, Co v Ni
tng ng l 770, 1123 v 358
o
C.

4
di nhit Curie, cc moment lng cc t ca nguyn t vt liu ferro c xu hng t sp

nh 4.2.8. nh hng ca nhit ln t ho bo

nh 4.2.9. Gin minh ho cc khong t trong kim loi t
xp hng song song vi nhau trong mt vng th tch nh c gi l cc domain t. Khi vt
liu t ferro, th d nh st hoc niken b kh t bng cch lm lnh t t t nhit cao hn
nhit Curie xung, cc domain t sp xp theo nh hng ngu nhin, do th moment t thc
t ca vt liu khi to l khng c (hnh 4.2.9).


















H
ho M
S
ca vt liu t ferro di nhit Curie. Khi
nhit tng, moment t b ngu nhin ho.









H
ferro. Tt c cc lng cc t trong tng khong t u sp song
song, nhng cc khong li nh hng ngu nhin vi nhau, do
vy vt liu khi khng mang t tnh.