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14
C
14
N
+
+
-
+antinuetrino + energy
Energy = mass
14
C mass
14
N
Positron decay
Masses
For a general reaction
Terms
Binding energy
Difference between mass of nucleus and constituent nucleons
Energy released if nucleons formed nucleus
average binding energy per nucleon
Measures relative stability
Mass excess (in energy units)
M(A,Z)-A
Useful when A remains constant
Binding Energies
http://www.lbl.gov/abc/wallchart/chapters/02/3.html
Binding energy
Binding Energy of an even-A nucleus is generally higher than the
average of the values for the adjacent odd-A nuclei
this even-odd effect is more pronounced in graphing A vs.
the binding energy from the addition of one more nucleon
The very exothermic nature of the fusion of H atoms to form He--the
process that gives rise to the suns radiant energy--follows from the
very large binding energy of
4
He
Energy released from fission of the heaviest nuclei is large because
nuclei near the middle of the periodic table have higher binding
energies per nucleon
The maximum in the nuclear stability curve in the iron-nickel region
(A~56 through 59) is thought to be responsible for the abnormally
high natural abundances of these elements
Mass excess=A=M-A
Stable Nuclei
N even odd even odd
Z even even odd odd
Number 160 53 49 4
As Z increases the line of stability moves from N=Z to N/Z ~
1.5
influence of the Coulomb force. For odd A nuclei
only one stable isobar is found while for even A nuclei
no stable odd-odd nuclei
Terms
Binding can be used to determine energetics for reaction using mass
excess
Energy need to separate neutron from
236
U and
239
U
Binding-Energy
Volume of nuclei are nearly proportional to the number of
nucleons present
nuclear matter is quite incompressible
Total binding energies of nuclei are nearly proportional to the
numbers of nucleons present
saturation character
a nucleon in a nucleus can apparently interact with only a
small number of other nucleons
liquid-drop model of nucleus
Liquid-Drop Binding Energy:
c
1
=15.677 MeV, c
2
=18.56 MeV, c
3
=0.717 MeV, c
4
=1.211 MeV,
k=1.79 and o=11/A
1/2
1st Term: Volume Energy
dominant term
in first approximation, binding energy is
proportional to the number of nucleons
(N-Z)
2
/A represents symmetry energy
binding E due to nuclear forces is greatest for the
nucleus with equal numbers of neutrons and
protons
o + +
(
(
|
.
|
\
|
(
(
|
.
|
\
|
=
1 2
4
3 / 1 2
3
2
3 / 2
2
2
1
1 1 A Z c A Z c
A
Z N
k A c
A
Z N
k A c E
B
2nd Term: Surface Energy
Nucleons at surface of nucleus have unsaturated forces
decreasing importance with increasing nuclear size
3rd and 4thTerms: Coulomb Energy
3rd term represents the electrostatic energy that arises from the Coulomb
repulsion between the protons
lowers binding energy
4th term represents correction term for charge distribution with diffuse
boundary
o term: Pairing Energy
binding energies for a given A depend on whether N and Z are even or odd
even-even nuclei, where o=11/A
1/2
, are the stablest
two like particles tend to complete an energy level by pairing opposite spins
Mass Parabolas
For odd A there is only one |-stable nuclide
nearest the minimum of the parabola
For even A there are usually two or three possible |-stable
isobars
all of the even-even type
Friedlander & Kennedy, p.47
Magic Numbers
Certain values of N and Z--2, 8, 20, 28, 50, 82, and 126 --exhibit
unusual stability
evidence from masses, binding energies, elemental and
isotopic abundances, numbers of species with given N or
Z, and o-particle energies
accounted for by concept of closed shells in nuclei
Friedlander & Kennedy, p.49
Single-Particle Shell Model
Collisions between nucleons in a nucleus are suppressed by the
Pauli exclusion principle
only accounts for magic numbers 2-20
Strong effect of spin-orbit interactions
if orbital angular momentum (l) and spin of nucleon
interact in such a way that total angular
momentum=l+1/2 lies at a lower energy level than that
with l-1/2, large energy gaps occur above magic
numbers 28-126
Ground states of closed-shell nuclei have spin=0 and even parity
R=r
o
A
1/3
Nuclear Shapes: Radii
Nuclear volumes are about proportional to nuclear
masses, thus all nuclei have approximately the same
density
Although nuclear densities are high compared to ordinary
matter, nuclei are not densely packed with nucleons
r
o
~1.1 to 1.6 fm
Nuclear radii can mean different things, whether they are
defined by nuclear force field, distribution of charges, or
nuclear mass distribution
Nuclear-Force Radii
The radius of the nuclear force field must be less than the
distance of closest approach (d
o
)
T=T-2Ze
2
/d
d = distance from center of nucleus
T = o particles kinetic energy
T = o particles initial kinetic energy
d
o
= distance of closest approach--reached in a head
on collision when T=0
T
Ze
d
o
2
2
=
d
o
~10-20 fm for Cu and 30-60 fm for U
Any positively charged particle subject to nuclear
forces can be used to probe the distance from the center
of a nucleus within which the nuclear (attractive) forces
become significant relative to the Coulombic (repulsive
force).
Since neutrons are not subject to Coulomb forces, one
might expect neutron scattering and absorption
experiments to be easier to interpret, however the
neutrons must be of sufficiently high energy to have de
Broglie wavelengths small compared to nuclear
dimensions, but at high energies, nuclei become quite
transparent to neutrons.
Square-Well and Woods-Saxon
Potentials
Friedlander & Kennedy, p.32
A R r
o
e
V
V
/ ) (
1
+
=
V
o
=potential at center of nucleus
a=constant~0.5 fm
R=distance from center at which V=0.5V
o
(for half-potential radii) or V=0.9V
o
and V=0.1V
o
for a drop-off from 90
to 10% of the full potential
r
o
~1.35 to 1.6 fm for Square-Well, r
o
~1.25 fm for Woods-Saxon
with half-potential radii, r
o
~2.2 fm for Woods-Saxon with drop-
off from 90 to 10%--the skin thickness--of the full potential
Scattering experiments lead to only approximate
agreement with the Square-Well potential; the Woods-
Saxon equation fits the data better.
Electron Scattering
Using moderate energies of electrons, data is compatible with
nuclei being spheres of uniformly distributed charges
High energy electrons yield more detailed information about
the charge distribution (no longer uniformly charged spheres)
Radii distinctly smaller than indicated by the methods that
determine nuclear force radii
R
e
(half-density radius)~1.07 fm
d
e
(skin thickness)~2.4 fm
Fermi Shape
] / ) [(
1
) (
e e e
a R r
o
e
r
+
=