MANUFACTURING PROCESS

7.0 COMPOSITES

INTRODUCTION
A composite material is a material system composed two or more physically dinstinct phases whose combination produces aggregate properties that are different from those of its constituents. The tecnological and commercial interest in composite materials derive from the fact that their properties are not just different from their components but are often far superior.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
At the end of this course the student will be able to: Explain three categories of composites Describe the composites production techniques

LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of this course the student has the ability to: Explain the technologies for the production of components from composite

7.1

INTRODUCTION
Composites are produced when two are more materials or phases are used together to give a combination of properties that cannot be attained otherwise. Composites materials may be selected to give unusual combination of stiffness, strength, weight, high temperature performance, corrosion resistance, hardness and or conductivity. Composites can be metal-metal, metal-ceramic, metal-polymer, ceramic-polymer, ceramic-ceramic or polymer-polymer. Metal-ceramic composites, for example include cemented carbide cutting tools, silicon carbide fiber-reinforced titanium, and enameled steel.Composites can be placed into three broad categories: particulate, fiber and laminar, based on the shape of the materials. Concrete, a mixture of cement and gravel, is a particulate composite. Plywood having alternating layers of wood veneer is laminar composite.

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Comparison of the three types of composite materials. a) Particulate composite, b) Fiber - reinforced composite, c) Laminar composite. Classification of composites: three main categories;

particle-reinforced (large-particle and dispersion-strengthened) fiber-reinforced (continuous (aligned) and short fibers (aligned or random) structural (laminates and sandwich panels)

Figure below shows a simple idea for the classification of composite materials which consists of three main divisions.

Composites

Particle Reinforced

Fiber Reinforced

Structural

Large Particle

Continuous (aligned) Dispersion strengthened Discontinuous (short)

Laminates

Sandwich panels

Aligned

Randomly oriented

A classification scheme for the various composite types

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Properties of composites depend on;

properties of phases geometry of dispersed phase (particle size, distribution, orientation) amount of phase

Abalone shell, wood, bone and teeth are among the examples of naturally occurring composites. Composite materials may be divided into two categories, (i) composite materials at macro scale and (ii) composite materials at micro scale. Example of composite materials at macro scale is steel reinforced concrete while composite materials at micro scale are carbon or glass-fiber reinforced plastics (CFRP or GFRP). These composites offer significant gain in specific strengths are among materials use in airplanes, electronic components, automotive and sporting equipment.

7.2

PARTICLE-REINFORCED COMPOSITES
Large particles and dispersion-strengthened are the two sub-classifications of particlesreinforced composites. The distinction between these is based upon reinforcement or strengthening mechanism.

7.2.1 LARGE PARTICLES

The term large is used to indicate that particle-matrix interactions cannot be treated on the atomic or molecular level rather continuum mechanic is used. For most of these composites, the particulate phase is harder and stiffer than the matrix. These reinforcing particles tend to restrain movement of the matrix phase in the vicinity of each particle. In essence, the matrix transfers some of the applied stress to the particles, which bear a fraction of the load. The degree of reinforcement or improvement of mechanical behavior on strong bonding at the matrix-particle interface. Some familiar large-particles composites are concrete, being composed of cement (the matrix) and sand and gravel (particulates). Particles can have quite a variety of geometries, but they should be of approximately the same dimension in all directions.

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For effective reinforcement, the particles should be small and evenly distributed throughout the matrix. The volume fraction of the two phases influences the behavior; mechanical properties are enhanced with increasing particulate content. Particles used for reinforcing include ceramics and glasses such as small mineral particles, metal particles such as aluminum, and amorphous materials, including polymers and carbon black.

Particles are also used to produce inexpensive composites. Reinforcers and matrices can be common, inexpensive materials and are easily processed. An example of particle reinforced composites is an automobile tire which has carbon black particles in a matrix of polyisobutylene elastomeric polymer

7.2.2 CONCRETE
Concrete is a common large-particle composite in which both matrix and dispersed phases are ceramics materials Concrete and cements are always incorrectly interchanged. Concrete is cement strengthened by adding particulates. The use of different size (stone and sand) allows better packing factor than when using particles of similar size. Concrete is a composite material consisting of an aggregate of particles that bound together in a solid body by some type of binding medium known as cement.

7.2.3 DISPERSION-STRENGTHENED COMPOSITES

Metals and metal alloys may be strengthened and hardened by uniform dispersion of several percent of fine particles of a very hard and inert material. The dispersion phase may be metallic and non-metallic such as oxide materials.

7.3

FIBRE-REINFORCED COMPOSITES
Technologically, the most important composites are those in which the dispersed phase is in the form of a fiber. Most fiber-reinforced composites provide improved strength, fatigue resistance, Youngs Modulus, and strength-to-weight ratio by incorporating strong, stiff but brittle fibers into a softer and more ductile matrix.

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The matrix material transmits the force into fibers, which carries most of the applied forces. The matrix also provides protection for the fiber surface and minimizes diffusion of species such as oxygen, or moisture that can degrade the mechanical properties of fibers. The strength of the composite may be high at room temperature and elevated temperature. Glass fiber in polymer matrix produce fiberglass for transportation and aerospace applications. Fibers made of boron, carbon, polymers and ceramics provide exceptional reinforcement in advanced composites based on matrices of polymers, metals, ceramics

7.3.1 FIBER ORIENTATION AND CONCENTRATION

The arrangement or orientation of the fibers relative to one another, the fiber concentration and the distribution all have a significant influence on the strength and other properties of fiber-reinforced composites. With respect to orientation, two extremes are possible; i. ii. A parallel alignment of the longitudinal axis of the fibers in a single direction. Totally random alignment.

Continuous fibers are normally aligned as in figure 8.7 or partially oriented. The composite is stronger along the direction of orientation of the fibers and weakest in a direction perpendicular to the fiber. For discontinuous, random fibers, the properties are isotropic.

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Figure 8.7: a) Continuous and aligned fiber, b) discontinuous and aligned fiber, c) discontinuously and randomly oriented fiber-reinforced composites.

7.3.2 THE FIBER PHASE

An important characteristic of most materials, especially brittle ones, is that a small-diameter fiber is much stronger than the bulk material. The probability of the presence of a critical surface flaw that can lead to fracture diminishes with decreasing specimen volume and this feature is used to advantage in the fiber reinforced composites.

Materials used for reinforcing fibers have high tensile strengths. On the basis of diameter and character, fibers are grouped into three classifications; Whiskers -Very this single crystals that have extremely large length- todiameter ratios.

Fibers -Materials classified are either polycrystalline or amorphous and have small diameters.

Wires- Fine wires have relatively large diameters which utilized as a radial reinforcement in automobile tires for example.

Fibers classifications

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7.3.3 THE MATRIX PHASE

The matrix phase of fiber composites serves several functions. i. Binds fiber together and acts as the medium by which an externally applied stress is transmitted and distributed to the fibers.

ii.

Protect the individual fibers from surface damage as a result of mechanical abrasion or chemical reactions with environment. Such interactions may introduce surface flaws capable of forming cracks at low tensile stress levels.

iii.

Due to matrix softness and plasticity, it prevents the propagation of brittle cracks from fiber to fiber, which could result in catastrophic failure (matrix phase act as barrier to crack propagation) whereby matrix separates the fibers.

It is essential that adhesive bonding force between fiber and matrix be high to minimize fiber pull-out. Bonding strength is an important consideration in the choice of the matrix-fiber combination. The ultimate strength of the composite depends to a large degree on the magnitude of this bond. Adequate bonding is to maximize the stress transmittance from the weak matrix to the strong fibers.

7.3.4 POLYMER MATRIX COMPOSITE

Polymer impregnated with other fiber materials, carbon being the most common also form composites. Carbon in fiber form has a much higher specific modulus than glass. It also has a better resistance to temperature and corrosive chemicals but more expensive and has only limited short fiber utilization. The aircraft industry is currently implementing carbon reinforced composites as structural components of their new aircraft as a weight savings measure.

Various polymer impregnated with boron fibers have been utilized. E.g. helicopter rotor blades are constructed using boron fibers in an epoxy resin.A new generation of high strength polymeric aramid fibers is beginning to be selected for composites used in lightweight structural components, such as aerospace, aircraft, marine and sporting equipments.

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Other fiber materials such as silicon carbide, silicon nitride in polymer matrix are in research. Also included, carbon-carbon composites, which are composed of carbon fibers embedded within carbonized resin matrix which are designed principally for high-temperature aerospace applicant.

7.3.5 METAL MATRIX COMPOSITE

Metal-matrix composites are either in use or prototyping for the Space Shuttle, commercial airliners, electronic substrates, bicycles, automobiles, golf clubs,

and a variety of other applications. While the vast majority is aluminum matrix composites, a growing number of applications require the matrix properties of super-alloys, titanium, copper, magnesium, or iron. Like all composites, aluminum-matrix composites are not a single material but a family of materials whose stiffness, strength, density, and thermal and electrical properties can be tailored. The matrix alloy, the reinforcement material, the volume and shape of the reinforcement, the location of the reinforcement, and the fabrication method can all be varied to achieve required properties. Regardless of the variations, however, aluminum composites offer the advantage of low cost over most other MMCs. In addition, they offer excellent thermal conductivity, high shear strength, excellent abrasion resistance, high-temperature operation, non-flammability, minimal attack by fuels and solvents, and the ability to be formed and treated on conventional equipment. Aluminum MMCs are produced by casting, powder metallurgy, in situ development of reinforcements, and foil-and-fiber pressing techniques. They are applied in brake rotors, pistons, and other automotive components, as well as golf clubs, bicycles, machinery components, electronic substrates, extruded angles and channels, and a wide variety of other structural and electronic applications. Super-alloy composites reinforced with tungsten alloy fibers are being developed for components in jet turbine engines that operate temperatures above 1,830

F.Graphite/copper composites have tailor-able properties, are useful to high temperatures in air, and provide excellent mechanical characteristics, as well as high electrical and thermal conductivity.

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They offer easier processing as compared with titanium, and lower density compared with steel. Ductile superconductors have been fabricated with a matrix of copper and superconducting filaments of niobium-titanium. Copper reinforced with tungsten particles or aluminum oxide particles is used in heat sinks and electronic packaging Titanium reinforced with silicon carbide fibers is under development as skin material for the National Aerospace Plane. Stainless steels, tool steels, and Inconel are among the matrix materials reinforced with titanium carbide particles and fabricated into draw-rings and other high-temperature, corrosion-resistant components.

7.3.6 CERAMIC MATRIX COMPOSITE

As with metal-matrix composites, the three main types of reinforcement are continuous fiber, discontinuous fiber, and particulate reinforced. Advantages: Very high operating temperatures, chemical inertness (lack of action) low thermal expansion (0.5 to 8.5 x 10-6 oC-1) and wear and erosion resistances. Disadvantages: Density (2.2 - 3.95.g / cm3), low toughness, low ductility, high fabrication temperatures and expensive. Common Matrices are: Glasses (boron silicate glass, lithium aluminum silicate (LAS) glass, aluminum silicate (AS) glass. Engineering ceramics (alumina (Al2O3), silicon nitride (Si3N4) zirconia (ZrO2), SIALON (Al2O3+Si3N4) - improved strength. Common Reinforcement are: Carbon, Boron Nitride (BN), Silicon Carbide (SiC) Alumina (Al2O3)

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Example of multilayered self-healing matrix ceramic matrix composite produced.

7.3.7 CARBON-CARBON COMPOSITE

Carbon-carbon composites consist of highly-ordered graphite fibers embedded in a carbon matrix. C-C composites are made by gradually building up a carbon matrix on a fiber pre-form through a series of impregnation steps or chemical vapor deposition. C-C composites tend to be stiffer, stronger and lighter than steel or other metals.

Carbon Carbon Composites Processing carbon-carbon composites consists of building up of the carbon matrix around the graphite fibers. There are two common ways to create the matrix: through chemical vapor deposition and through the application of a resin.

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7.4

STRUCTURAL COMPOSITES
A structural composite is normally composed of both homogeneous and composite materials the properties of which depend,
-

properties of the constituent materials. geometrical design of the various structural elements.

Laminar composites and sandwich panels are two of the most common structural composites.

7.4.1 LAMINAR COMPOSITES

Is composed of dimensional sheets or panels that have a preferred high strength direction such as is found in wood and continuous and aligned fiber reinforced plastics. The layers are stacked and cemented together such that the orientation of the high-strength direction varies with each successive layer. One example of a relatively complex structure is modern ski and another example is plywood.

7.4.2 SANDWICH PANELS

Consist of two strong outer sheets which are called face sheets and may be made of aluminum alloys, fiber reinforced plastics, titanium alloys, steel. Face sheets carry most of the loading and stresses. Core may be a honeycomb structure which has less density than the face sheets and resists perpendicular stresses and provides shear rigidity. Sandwich panels can be used in variety of applications which include roofs, floors, walls of buildings and in aircraft, for wings, fuselage and tail-plane skins.

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a) Laminar composites

b) Sandwich panels

Structural composites for a) laminar composites and b) sandwich panels.

7.5

PRODUCING THE COMPOSITES

Composite is produced dependent on the application and the materials.

7.5.1 CONTINUOUS FIBER COMPOSITES

Continuous fiber composites are produced with more specialized techniques: a. Hand lay up: Tapes, mats or fabrics are placed against a form,

saturated with polymer resin, rolled to assure good contact and then cured. Fiberglass car and truck bodies can be produced this way, but is slow an expensive.

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b.

Bag molding: Tapes and fabrics are placed in a die. High pressure

gases or a vacuum are introduced to force them together to get bonding. Military aircraft skins have been produced this way.

c.

Matched die molding: Short fibers or mats are placed into a two part die,

when the die is closed, the composite shape is formed.

d.

Filament winding: This method is used to produce pressure tanks and

rocket motor casting. One or more continuous fibers are wrapped around a form or mandrel to gradually build up a solid shape. The filament can be dipped in the polymer matrix resin prior to winding, or the resin can be impregnate around the fiber during or winding.

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Metal matrix composites with continuous fibers are more difficult to produce. Other methods include using PM and using closed dies to compress layers together.

7.5.2 LAMINATES
Laminar composites include very thin coatings, thicker protective surfaces, claddings, bimetallic laminates and a host of others. In addition, the fiber reinforced composites produced from tapes of fabrics can also be considered as partially laminar. Many laminar composites are designed to improve corrosion resistance while retaining low cost, high strength or light weight. Other important applications include superior wear or abrasion resistance, improved appearance and unusual thermal expansion characteristics.

7.5.2.1 Production Methods a. Rolling

Most of the metallic laminar composites, such as claddings and bimetallic are produced by hot or cold roll bonding.

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b.

Explosive bonding

An explosive charge can provide the pressure required to join metals. The pressure produced during explosive bonding strips away surface impurities and forces the surface together at high pressures. This process is well suited for joining very large plates that will not fit into a rolling mill.

c.

Co-extrusion

Very simple laminar composites, such as coaxial cable, are produced by coextruding two metals through a die in such a way that the soft material surrounds the harder material. Similarly, the thermoplastic polymer could be extruded around a metal conductor.

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d. Brazing Brazing can join composite plates. The metallic sheets are separated by a very small clearance, preferably about 0.075mm, and heated above the melting temperature of the brazing alloy. The molten brazing alloy is driven into the thin joint.

e. Pressing For small components, high pressures at elevated temperatures provide welding. Hot pressing is frequently used to cure the adhesive in laminates.

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7.5.2.2 Examples and Applications There are a huge number of laminar composites, extremely varied in their properties and characteristics. Description of some common types as follows: Laminates

a. Plywood, in which an odd number of wood veneer piles are stacked so that the grain is at right angles in each alternating ply. An adhesive such as phenolic or amine resin glues the piles. Plywood permits wood products to be available in large sizes yet be inexpensive and resistant to splitting and warping. b. Safety glass is a laminate in which a plastic adhesive, such as Polyvinyl Butyral, joins two pieces of glass; the adhesive prevents fragments of glass from flying about when the glass is broken. Laminate are used for insulation in motors, for gears and for decorative items such as Formica counter tops and furniture. c. A recently developed laminate, Arral (Aramid Aluminum laminate) has been developed as a possible skin material for aircraft. An Aramid fiber, such as Kevlar, is woven into a fabric impregnated with an adhesive, and laminated between layers of aluminum. The composite Iaminate has a usual combination of strength, stiffness, corrosion resistance and light weight. In addition, fatigue resistance is improve, cracks that begin in the outer aluminum layers are stopped on reaching the Aramid layer. The adhesives laminates combine unusual characteristics including light weight, flame retardance, impact strength, corrosion resistance, easy forming and machining and good insulation characteristics.

Schematic diagram of an Aramid Aluminum laminate, Arall

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Hard Surfacing

Hard, wear resistance surfaces can be deposited on softer, more ductile materials by fusion welding techniques known as hard-surfacing. Hard surfacing alloys include hardenable grades of steel, irons and steels that produce hard carbides, cobalt base alloys, and certain non-ferrous alloys. Composite tungsten carbide welding rods can also be used to provide tungsten carbide at the wear surface. Similar welding procedures can improve corrosion resistance or heat resistance at surfaces. Clad Metals.

Clad materials provide a combination of good corrosion resistance with high strength. Alcad is a clad composite in which commercially pure aluminum is bonded to higher strength aluminum alloys. The pure aluminum protects the higher strength alloy from corrosion. The thickness of the pure aluminum layer is about 1 % to 15% of the total thickness. Alcad is used in aircraft construction, heat exchangers, building construction, and storage tanks, where combinations of corrosion resistance, strength, and light weight are desired. Bimetallic

Temperature indicators and controllers take advantage of the different coefficients of thermal expansion of the two metals in the laminar composite. If two pieces of metal are heated, the metal with the higher coefficient of thermal expansion becomes longer (see Fig. below ). If the two pieces of metal are rigidly bonded together, the difference in their coefficients causes the strip to bend and produce a curved surface. If one end of the strip is fixed, the free end moves. The amount of movement depends on the temperature; by measuring the curvature or deflection of the strip, we can determine the temperature.

The effect of thermal expansion coefficient on the behavior of bimetallics a) Two metals are apart, b) Two metals are joined together

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Metals selected for bimetallics must have: a. Very different coefficients of thermal expansion b. Expansion characteristics that are reversible and repeatable c. High modulus of Elasticity Often the low expansion strip is made from Invar, an iron-nickel alloy while the high expansion strip may be brass, Monel, manganese-nickel-copper, nickel-chromium-iron, or pure nickel. Bimetallics can act as circuit breakers as well as thermostats; if a current passing through the strip becomes too high, heating causes the bimetallic to deflect and break the circuit. Concrete

Concrete is a common construction material. It is a particulate composite in which an aggregate, usually gravel and sand, is bonded in a matrix of cement. A cementation reaction between water and the minerals in the cement provides the required strength.

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