Caffentzis and Federici - Notes On The Edu-Factory and Cognitive Capitalism

the commoner
a web journal for other values :: issue 12 :: summer 2007
Value Strata, Migration and Other Values
In the beginning there is the doing, the social flow of human interaction and creativity, and the doing is imprisoned by the deed, and the deed wants to dominate the doing and life, and the doing is turned into work, and people into things !hus the world is cra"y, and revolts are also practices of hope !his journal is about living in a world in which the doing is separated from the deed, in which this separation is e#tended in an increasing numbers of spheres of life, in which the revolt about this separation is ubi$uitous It is not easy to keep deed and doing separated %truggles are everywhere, because everywhere is the realm of the commoner, and the commoners have just a simple idea in mind: end the enclosures, end the separation between the deeds and the doers, the means of e#istence must be free for all&
The Commoner Issue 12 Summer 2007 Editor: Massimo e !ngelis "rint esign: #ames $indens%hmidt &e' esign: (ioa%%hino Toni )))*the%ommoner*org +isit the editor,s 'log: )))*the%ommoner*org-'log
Ta'le o. Contents
Introdu%tion: Value Strata, Migration and Other Values 'assimo (e )ngelis O..shore Outsour%ing and Migrations: The South0Eastern and Central Eastern Euro1ean Case (evi %acchetto i..erentials o. Sur1lus0Value in the Contem1orar3 4orms o. E51loitation 'assimiliano !omba ! Criti6ue o. 4ordism and the 7egulation S%hool *erruccio +ambino 9otes on the Edu04a%tor3 and Cogniti+e Ca1italism %ilvia *ederici and +eorge ,affent"is Measure, E5%ess, and Translation: Some 9otes on :Cogniti+e Ca1italism: 'assimo (e )ngelis 7ein+enting !n-Other !nti0Ca1italism in Me5i%o: The Si5th e%laration o. the E;$9 and the :Other Cam1aign: -atrick ,uninghame 7erurali<ing the &orld 'ariarosa (alla ,osta :T)o =as>ets 4or Change: 'ariarosa (alla ,osta 4ood !s Common and Communit3 'ariarosa (alla ,osta
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Introdu%tion
Massimo
e !ngelis
This issue proposes some lines of enquiry around three interrelated themes: the migratory flows of people in today global factory, the dynamics and hierarchies underpinning the production of value for capital, and the production of values other than those for capital. The search for the connection among these themes is what allows us to weave together these papers so much different in style and subject matter. Devi Sacchettos article focuses on people and capital flows in the case on the South !astern and "entral !astern !urope. #ere migration is understood as a flow of social subjects between areas of different values. The production of these value differences is brought about by wars, migrations, direct investment and the patterns and direction of enlargement of the !$. %s a result of economic disparities and cultural differences, social actors from &aghreb to the $ral &ountains have different degrees of freedom of movement and of political initiative. &igrants, investors, professional people in charge of humanitarian aid, smugglers of undocumented migrants, traders, mercenaries, seamen define and play out their strategies within this value segmented conte't. (urthermore, from the fall of the )erlin *all, the !$ has set a trend in social and economic policies, not only for members states, but also for some countries of the &editerranean southern rim. The !$ norms and policies have promoted trends of migration and flows of commodities and information that rise or fall for different regions, depending on the institutional and economic changes in the peripheral countries. These trends on the other hand, are associated to patterns of international economic and humanitarian cooperation as some of the
thecommoner :: issue 12 :: summer 2007
main instruments assuring the hegemony of transnational elites. #ere Sacchetto draws a crucial lin+ between !$s policies of immigration and asylum and the foreign policy and the international cooperation through ,-.s of member countries. The !$ elites have today the increasing opportunity to act freely in both !uropean and non !uropean territories where they operate. % neo colonial freedom emerging from the submission of the sovereignty of local states to request by new local and transnational power brea+ers see+ing to rewrite and re interpret legislation according to their will. Thus e'port processing areas are established in which labour has few rights and environmental legislation are la'er, giving raise to a re stratification of value areas and the formulation of new disciplinary instruments to face persistent threats to their articulation. (inally, the new power brea+ers overseeing these dynamics who flow bac+ and forth from the home countries to the /neo colonial0 posts whether business investors, !$ officials or humanitarian agencies develop a new colonial mentality based on the stigmati1ation of the local populace for the molecular resistance they are putting against this new form of capitalist neo colonialism. #ow this stigmati1ation contribute to the development of racism in the home country is an open question. &assimiliano Tomba addresses the question of value segmentation along global production networ+s by re reading &ar's theory of absolute and relative surplus value. The starting point of the article is the critique of &ar'ist stage theory that sees the evolution of capitalism as moving from lower to higher levels of developments. 2n different ways this /stage0 stance has plaid a role in both mainstream 33th "entury &ar'ism and some of its critiques, such as 2talian post operaismo. !choing a problematic raised by other interventions in previous issues of The Commoner, Tomba instead argues that /the first, second and third worlds0 are levels that are reciprocally interpenetrated giving rise to the co e'istence 4 even in spatial pro'imity 4 of high tech and absolute forms of e'traction of surplus value. This way we cannot tal+ about a tendency of the /old0 forms of labour and e'ploitation to develop into new form, say of /mass wor+ers0 to develop into /immaterial labourers0. To avoid the problems associated to these historicists stance, Tomba finds it necessary to /re descend0 with &ar' of Capital into the /laboratories of production0, showing how absolute and relative surplus value should not be conceived in a diachronic succession, /but synchronically in an historical temporal multiversum. *e can follow the chains of valori1ation that crosses the boundaries of the factory gates and of the national frontiers. % chain that gives rise to the wage hierarchy. This mapping of delocalisation is than read through the vivid colours of the
Introduction
subjects of living labour, the migrant wor+ers who in affirming their freedom of movement, clash with the capitalist interest to construct and preserve wage hierarchy within and outside !urope. The un%riti%al relian%e on so%ial tenden%ies, is also 4erru%%io (am'ino?s o'@e%t o. %riti6ue in this 1//0s arti%le on .ordism and 1ost0 .ordism* (am'ino %ontri'ution e51ose to histori%al s%rutin3 the +er3 earl3 literature that has %oined the %on%e1t o. 1ost0.ordism in the 1/A0s, that one asso%iated to the regulation s%hool* Toda3 this term is o.ten ta>en .or granted and used to %a1ture all sort o. trans.ormations that the literature 1osit as element o. no+elt3 in relation to .ordism: an atomised, .e5i'lised and non union )or>er, a state that no longer guarantee the material %ost o. re1rodu%tion o. la'our 1o)er* In its To3otist +ariant 1ost0.ordism is seen as the result o. a tenden%3 to ne) .orms o. rationali<ation as )ell as o. ne) and more ad+an%ed relations o. 1rodu%tion, gi+ing rise to ne) so%ialit3 that might )ell 1re.igure ne) .orms o. demo%ra%3* To a %ertain e5tent, the %ontem1orar3 %on%e1tions o. %ogniti+e %a1italism and immaterial la'our ha+e 1erha1s their roots in these earl3 1ost0.ordist %onstru%ts* (am'ino argues that this a11roa%h does not reall3 anal3<e so%ial relations o. 1rodu%tion, 'ut rather the e%onomi%-state institutions that o+ersee them* In this )a3, the regulation s%hool stresses the 1ermanen%e o. stru%tures, and tend to o+erloo> human su'@e%ts, their %hanges and )hat is ha11ening to them )ith the disorgani<ation and reorgani<ation o. so%ial relations* 4or (am'ino, not onl3 the +er3 .ormation and d3nami% o. 1reunion .ordism, .ordism and glo'al 1ost0.ordism is %entered on struggles o. %on%rete )aged and un)aged )or>ers* !lso, )hat is seen as a 1assage .rom one ism to another is the e..e%t o. %hanging %a1ital?s strategies at a rh3thm im1osed '3 the %onstraints and ru1tures o. +arious struggles* 4or the 7egulation S%hool instead, .ordism and 1ost0.ordism a11ear 'oth as sta'le tenden%ies )aiting to 'e .ul.illed* !gainst the a11earan%e o. sta'le stru%ture and 1redi%ta'le so%ial tenden%ies, the e51erien%e o. .ordism in the 1/B0s and 1/80s sho)s that )hat a11eared as a sta'le s3stem 'egan soon to .all a1art ri11ed .rom the inside* !t the end o. the 1/80s the %lass struggle, o+erturned %a1ital?s solid %ertainties as regards the )age, the organi<ation o. the la'our 1ro%ess, the relationshi1 'et)een de+elo1ment and underde+elo1ment, and 1atriar%h3* &ithout understanding the radi%alit3 o. this %hallenge and, )e )ould add, the )a3s this radi%alism has 'een out.lan>ed '3 %a1ital 1lanetar3 re0organisation, )hat is %alled toda3 1ost0.ordism assumes the %hara%ter o. a %r3stal 'all, in )hi%h * * *it is 1ossi'le to read some signs o. the .uture* Su%h a %hr3stal0'all a11roa%h ma>es it im1ossi'le to gras1 the elements o. %risis and un%ertaint3 in %a1ital?s domination,
)ith the 1oliti%al %onse6uen%e o. 'eing una'le to 1ro'lematise the issue o. %lass 1oliti%al re0%om1osition* This is a point also stressed in the two articles that follow, one a join wor+ by Silvia (ederici and -eorge "affent1is, and the other by &assimo De %ngelis. )oth articles were recently circulated in the the /edu factory0 list C)))*edu0.a%tor3*orgD as part of a debate on /cognitive capitalism0. *e invite the reader to e'plore the many contributions in this important forum to follow this debate and that on other related themes. There are two main lines of Silvia (ederici and -eorge "affent1is argument against theoretically de centering the problematic of class hierarchy and dynamics of stratification. (irst, an empirical5theoretical one, in which they claim that the history of capitalism demonstrates that capitals subsumption of all forms of production is not predicated on the e'tension of the /highest0 level of science and technology to all wor+ers contributing to the accumulation process. "ases such as the capitalist organi1ation of the plantation system and of housewor+ suggests that wor+ can be organi1ed for capitalist accumulation with the laborer wor+ing at a level of technological5scientific +nowledge below the average applied in the highest points of capitalist production. This also suggests that the /inner logic0 of capitalist development can only be grasped if we loo+ at the totality of its relations rather than only at the highest points of its scientific5technological achievements. 6oo+ing at this totality reveals that capitalism has always produced disparities along the international and se'ual5racial division of labor. These disparities are both the product of its inner wor+ings and of clear strategies which give rise to the /underdevelopment/ of particular sectors and are amplified by the increasing integration of science and technology in the production process. (rom this theoretical5empirical point follows, second, their political argument. There is in fact a political consequence in using constructs such as /cognitive capitalism0 and /cognitive labor0 in such a way as to overshadow the continuing importance of other forms of wor+ as contributors to the accumulation process. %nd this is the development of a discourse that precludes class recomposition. There is in fact the danger that by privileging one +ind of capital 7and therefore one +ind of wor+er8 as being the most /e'emplary of the contemporary paradigm0 we contribute to create a new hierarchy of struggles, thus engaging in forms of activism that /precludes a re composition of the wor+ing class.0 To become possible, this political re composition must be predicated on the awareness of the continuity of our struggle across the international division of labor and wage hierarchy, which mean that we need to /articulate our demands and strategies in accordance to these differences and the need to overcome them.0
Introduction
&assimo De %ngelis contribution builds on this twofold argument around the problematic of the wage hierarchy and articulates it to other themes debated in the edu factory forum such as /labour abstraction0, /translation0 and /e'cess0. The processes responsible for the ongoing creation of value stratification can be grasped theoretically and empirically though &ar'9s classic te'ts reinterpreted in lights of the issues raised by the struggles of those subjects that in that te't were mostly invisible and yet are and have always been so fundamental to capitalism 7women, the unwaged reproduction wor+ers, the slaves, the peasants8. The two main coordinates of these processes are the systematic and continuous /enclosure0 strategies and the process going on /behind the bac+ of the producers0, the process of the formation of /socially necessary labour time0. The former continuously re stratify the hierarchy with a variety of violent means, but also through the use of technology and +nowledge products developed at the highest levels as instrument of these enclosures. The latter is what &ar' labels the process going on /behind the bac+ of the producers0, the process of the formation of /socially necessary labour time0 which is referred here as /disciplinary integration0, since mar+et processes act as disciplinary mechanisms that allocate rewards and punishments and hence contribute again to produce hierarchy. This /inner logic0 of capitalism is predicated on a way of measuring life activity which subordinates concrete specific humans to the quantitative imperative of balance sheets. This subordination means that the sensuous and cognitive features of concrete labouring are subordinated to the drive for ma+ing money. 2t also implies that /an e'cess0 which is not put to value by capital always e'ist. This /e'cess0 is the outcome of the struggles of situated wor+ers facing the frontline and contesting the reduction of their life activity to abstract labour. :et, we must be cautious that the dynamism of capitalism is based on the ongoing attempt to recuperate and subsume these e'cesses and turn them into moments of capital accumulation. Thus, in contrast with the view that sees cognitive labour as commons across a stratified class, here the argument is that in so far as capital production is concerned what is really common across the /multitude/ is that social production occurs through the subjection of multiplicity to a common alien measure of doing, of giving value to things, of ran+ing and dividing the social body on the basis of this measure. Through this valorisation process, human powers are transmuted into commodities, and social doing is transmutated into wor+, into abstract labour. 2n this sense, abstract labour is not so much the result of a /translation/ as some claim, although processes of translation are always occurring. 2t is the result of a real abstraction, i.e. a transmutation, as a transmutation of one species into another, one
species of humans into another one. #ence, despite being a crucial issue, the central question for political recomposition is not /translation0, but the transformation of our interconnected lives. %nd this transformation cannot avoid positing the question of the overcoming of e'isting divisions as the central problematic of our organisational efforts. The 1ro'lemati%, di..i%ulties and %ontradi%tions o. 1oliti%al re%om1osition a%ross +alue %hains and %onstitution o. 1oliti%al su'@e%ti+it3 .ounded on other +alues is .a%ed u1 '3 "atri%> Cunninghame 1a1er on the ;a1atista?s Other Cam1aign Cso0%alled in mo%> re.eren%e to the 2008 1residential ele%toral %am1aignsD* This )as %atal3sed '3 the ;a1atistas %all .or a rene)ed anti0%a1italist resistan%e mo+ement .rom 'elo) and to the le.t against neoli'eral %a1italism in Me5i%o and internationall3, in the Si5th e%laration o. the $a%andona #ungle Cthe Si5thD in #ul3 200B and in the 'roader so%io0 1oliti%al %onte5t is .ramed '3 the e+ents surrounding the #ul3 2008 1residential ele%tions, )hi%h 1ro+ed to 'e 1arti%ularl3 dirt3 and .raudulent* Fere attem1ts ha+e 'een made o. hori<ontal %oordination o. autonomists, anar%hists, ;a1atistas, so%ialists, indigenous and 1easant mo+ements as )ell as inde1endent trade unions and the more radi%al 9(O %am1aigns* The 1a1er also dis%usses the 1ro'lems .a%ed '3 the organisation and mo'ili<ation o. the Other Cam1aign in the trans0'order region o. Chihuahua0Te5as09e) Me5i%o in 9orthern Me5i%o0Southern GS!* The mo'ilisations )ere against the .emi%ide o. some EB0 )or>ing %lass )omen and girls in Ciudad #uare< sin%e 1//2, as )ell as other issues 'ased around migration, the GS0Me5i%o 'order, the hegemoni% ma6uiladora C%or1orate assem'l3 1lant .or e51ortD h31er0e51loitation model and the so%ial +iolen%e and ur'an degradation 1rodu%ed '3 sa+age %a1italism* This other organi<ational 1aradigm, also in%lude the Other on the other side Co. the 'orderD, and there.ore ettem1ts to %onne%ted )ith the Ma3 a3 $atino 'o3%ott mo+ement in the GS against the %riminalisation o. undo%umented migrants* 4inall3, there are three interrelated short %ontri'utions '3 Mariarosa alla Costa, lin>ing the ma>ing and rema>ing o. the 1lanetar3 +alue hierar%h3 through en%losures C)hi%h s3stemati%all3 re0 1rodu%e its lo)er la3ersD, )ith the 1oliti%al 1ro'lemati% o. the 1rodu%tion o. .ood as %ommon, and o. ne) relations to land and agri%ulture* In 7enaturalising the )orld she 'egins re.le%ting on the %ontinuing e51ulsion o. 1o1ulations .rom the land a%%om1an3ing de+elo1ment 1ro@e%ts and the ne) en%losures* This is the eradi%ation o. a 1o1ulation that deri+ed .rom the land the 1ossi'ilit3 .or nutrition and settlement, and that instead adds to ur'an slums or ta>es the
Introduction
route o. migration* The out%ome, similar to those .ollo)ing 1atterns o. en%losures )hi%h o%%urred .i+e %enturies ago at the in@e%tion o. %a1italism, is the e51ro1riation .rom, and the a%%umulation o., land on the one hand, and the a%%umulation o. immiserated indi+iduals )ho %ould no longer re1rodu%e themsel+es 'e%ause the3 had 'een de1ri+ed o. the .undamental means o. 1rodu%tion and re1rodu%tion, a'o+e all the land itsel., on the other* =ut %ru%iall3, this %ontinuous re1lenishing the ran>s o. the eradi%ated and e51ro1riated, .un%tional to a .urther e51ansion o. %a1italist relations and to the re0strati.i%ation o. la'our on a glo'al le+el* This ongoing re0strati.i%ation o. the %onditions o. la'our and o. li.e o. men and )omen a%ross the )orld, regardless o. )here the3 li+e, is 'ased u1on the e51ulsion .rom the land* It is here that the %ondition .or %lass is re0.ounded and la'our )ithin the glo'al e%onom3 is re0strati.ied* !nd there are reall3 no solutions )ithin the traditional remedies* On one hand, it is unthin>a'le that @o's )ill multi1l3 in a%%ordan%e )ith the num'er o. those e51elled* On the other hand, nor is 1ossi'le to .ool onesel. into ho1ing .or a glo'al guaranteed in%ome o. su%h +ast 1ro1ortions* Het e+en i. it arri+ed one da3, re1la%ing the 'om's 1erha1s, %ould )e reall3 delimit the matter to one o. mone3, mone3 su..i%ient .or the 1ur%hase o. a .arming 1rodu%t )hi%h, in its industrial and neoli'eral .ormulation, in%reasingl3 1ollutes our 'odies, destro3s small e%onomies and their @o's, and de+astates the en+ironmentI !nd, 'e3ond this, ho) mu%h .reedom )ould )e ha+e )hen all o. the earth?s inha'itants de1ended onl3 and e5%lusi+el3 on mone3 .or the3 sur+i+alI This is the %onte5t in )hi%h alla Costa 'uilds her anal3sis o. the struggles around land, .arming and nutrition '3 sel.0organising net)or>s o. the glo'al mo+ement o. .armers that de+elo1ed in the nineties* This anal3sis is .urthered in her se%ond 1ie%e, T)o =as>ets, in )hi%h she mo+es .rom the need o. )hat she %alls the great rea)a>ening: one that is 'eing ena%ted '3 .armers and %iti<ens C)ho are %hallenging their role as merel3 1rodu%ers or %onsumersD against the great ma%hine o. industrial agri%ulture and the 1oliti%s that 'olster its deli+er3 o. no5ious .oods, en+ironmental de+astation* Fere she dis%usses the %oordinates o. a 1oliti%al 1ro@e%t that aims at re0 lo%alise de+elo1ment and re0rurali<e the )orld* !n argument that .ull3 o1en to the last 1a1er on .ood as %ommon, in )hi%h she argues that .ood is onl3 regained as a .undamental right in its .ullest sense )hen it is regained as a %ommon* It is regained as a %ommon i., along the )a3, all its %onditions are also regained as %ommons* This is )hat is alread3 a11arent .rom the )a3s in )hi%h net)or>s o. .armers,
.isher1eo1le, and %iti<ens )ho are not onl3 %onsumers organi<e themsel+es*
O..shore Outsour%ing and Migrations
The South0Eastern and Central0Eastern Euro1ean Case
e+i Sa%%hetto1
In the last .i.teen 3ears the Euro1ean and Mediterranean area has 'een mar>ed '3 a series o. %hanges %on%erning in 1arti%ular the mo'ilit3 o. 1ersons, %a1itals and %ommodities* These %hanges a11ear to 'e asso%iated )ith a strong as3mmetr3 o. o11ortunities* &ars, migrations, dire%t in+estments a'road and the enlargement o. the EG 1oint to ne) s%enarios )ith so%ial a%tors su%h as migrants, in+estors, 1ro.essional 1eo1le in %harge o. humanitarian aid, smugglers o. undo%umented migrants, traders, mer%enaries, seamen* These a%tors are endo)ed )ith di..erent degrees o. .reedom o. mo+ement and o. 1oliti%al s>ills in an area e5tending .rom Maghre' to the Gral mountains* These di..eren%es are the result o. )ide e%onomi% dis1arities, and e+en more o. %ultural 1e%uliarities* In the last .i.teen 3ears in South0Eastern and Central Eastern Euro1e a ne) so%ial and geo1oliti%al read@ustment has made room .or more autonom3 in the indi+iduals? )a3 o. li+ing than in the 1ast* 4rom the .all o. the =erlin &all, the EG seems to ha+e %hanged .rom a .a%ilitator o. trade to a so1histi%ated trendsetter in so%ial and e%onomi% 1oli%ies, not onl3 .or all its 1resent mem'ers and .or those )ho are )aiting .or admission, 'ut also .or some %ountries o. the Mediterranean southern rim* The norms that the EG has esta'lished ha+e stimulated a %ir%ulation o. 1eo1le, %ommodities and in.ormation
1 This 1a1er is a re+ised +ersion o. the 1a1er The %hange in the relations 'et)een the a%tors o. EG %ountries and the Euro0Mediterranean so%ieties that )as 1resented at the Elise Meeting in (enoa, !1ril A, 200B* /
that rises and .alls a%%ording to the institutional and e%onomi% %hanges in the 1eri1heral %ountries* On the other hand, the 1romotion o. international e%onomi% and humanitarian %oo1eration is one o. the main instruments assuring the hegemon3 o. transnational elites* =oth the .oreign 1oli%3 and the international %oo1eration through 9(Os o. mem'er %ountries o. the Euro1ean Gnion are lin>ed to the EG?s 1oli%ies o. immigration and as3lum* ! 'asi% %hara%teristi% o. the ne) relations 'et)een the a%tors o. the EG and the so%ieties o. the Euro0Mediterranean area is the o11ortunit3 to a%t .reel3 in the +arious Euro1ean non0Eu territories )here the .ormer .ind themsel+es to o1erate* This .reedom is not so mu%h the armed %olonialism o. the 1ast as the im1osition o. 1oliti%al and e%onomi% 'eha+iour* The so+ereignt3 o. the State is su'mitted to the re6uests 'eing ad+an%ed '3 ne) holders o. 1o)er and o. international elites, )ho are loo>ing .or areas )here legislation %an 'e easil3 re)ritten or reinter1reted a%%ording to their )ill* uring the last t)ent3 3ears these areas ha+e gro)n e%onomi%all3, in 1arti%ular )ith the esta'lishment o. the so0%alled <ones o. e51ort, )here la'our has .e) rights CI%.tu 200ED or is de1ri+ed o. legal .rame* In this %ase the3 ha+e 'e%ame non01ersons C al $ago 1///D* The %hara%teristi% trait o. these <ones is the 1re0arrangement o. s1e%ial legislations aiming to ma>e the as3mmetr3 o. 1o)er and o. .reedom o. a%tion easier 'et)een dominant and in.erior areas* In su%h rede.initions o. the norms, ne) dis%i1linar3 instruments are .ormulated on the 'ase o. 1ersistent threats* It is an u1dating o. the old 1ro%edures 1ointing to ethni%i<ation* Su%h 1ro%ess %orres1onds to the +aried, dis%ontinuous and irregular segmentation o. the e%onomi% and 1oliti%al s1heres*
=arriers and $ands%a1es
=orders in Euro1e ha+e 'een modi.ied se+eral times in the last 100 3ears* &hile 'orders in the 9orth !meri%an %ontinent ha+e 'een sta'le, the3 ha+e 'een mo+ing again in Euro1e* In s1ite o. the %ommon1la%e o. Old Euro1e, Euro1e a11ears to 'e una'le to sta'ili<e its .rontiers* &hile the 9orth !meri%an %ontinent had alread3 de.ined its 'orders at the middle o. the JIJth %entur3 C;a%%aria 200ED, in Euro1e a.ter the .all o. the =erlin &all and a.ter the %on%omitant institutional %hanges a dee1 e%onomi% and %ultural in+ersion has in+ol+ed not onl3 the so0%alled .ormer so%ialist %ountries, 'ut also the &estern ones* Ine6ualities in the .reedom to migrate ha+e largel3 in%reased in Euro1e* ! %ase in 1oint is the .ate o. the inha'itants o. .ormer
10
.ffshore .utsourcing and 'igrations
Hugosla+ia* In .a%t their a'ilit3 to migrate has 'een )idel3 di..erentiated: the Slo+enians, no)ada3s mem'ers o. EG, %an mo+e .reel3, )hile others suddenl3 ha+e 'een degraded to the status o. %iti<ens o. States or 6uasi0states that are not mem'ers o. the EG* The3 %annot e+en %ross the 'orders o. the ad@oining %ountries unless the3 ha+e +isas* This is the %ase o. =osnians and o. Ma%edonians* It is on the ruins and on the 'uilding or re'uilding o. ne) en%losures in Hugosla+ia that the strategies o. the uni.i%ation o. Euro1ean States, o. the enlargement o. the EG and o. the relations )ith the %ountries o. Mediterranean southern rim are 1la3ed* 9o) the hea+3 %osts o. 1oliti%al non0alignment, su%h as Hugosla+ia 1ursued 'et)een 1/EA and the earl3 1//0?s, a11ear %learl3 to all* In .a%t the Hugosla+ia %on.li%t has %hara%teri<ed the )a3 and timing o. the enlargement o. the EG, as )ell as the 1lanning o. ne) s3stems o. mo'ilit3 and em1lo3ment in most Euro1ean and Mediterranean %ountries* The e51ansion o. the EG is a .a%tor o. strong %orre%tion o. the e%onomi% 1oli%ies o. the %andidate States and o. the long0range and short0range mo'ilit3 o. 1eo1le* The rede.inition o. the right o. %rossing 'orders sha1es ne) d3nami%s o. in%lusion and e5%lusion* The 1ro%ess o. e5tension 1rodu%es ne) 'orders 'oth +isi'le, su%h as the one 'et)een G>raine and "oland, and in+isi'le, su%h as the ones resulting .rom ne) and long 1ro%edures to mo+e .rom %ountr3 to %ountr3 C7us1ini 200ED* The 'orders 'et)een &estern and Eastern Euro1e ha+e 'een re1eatedl3 altered* This is the most e+ident %ase* Fo)e+er the 1ro%edures to mo+e .rom Maghre' to Euro1e, ha+e also %hanged su'stantiall3* The ne) 'orders o. the EG are hea+il3 guarded not to 1re+ent militar3 aggression 'ut to limit and %ontrol migrations and 1ett3 trade along the .rontiers )ith non EG0%ountries* The ne) %ontrol s3stem at EG 'orders tends to 'e%ome a te%hnologi%all3 e6ui11ed 1oli%e sur+eillan%e on the in.ormal e%onom3 and on migrations C ietri%h 2002D, although, 'oth 1henomena ma3 sur+i+e through daring and ris>3 strategies* !s to the 1ro%ess o. enlargement, %andidate %ountries are re6uested to 1reliminaril3 enter into ne) relations )ith the ad@oining %ountriesK the3 must es1e%iall3 set more rigid norms o. entran%e .or the non0EG %iti<ens*2 Central and Eastern Euro1e %ountries ha+e to esta'lish ne) .rontiers that 'e%omes the ne) 'order o. EG: to 'uild a 'order in order to mo+e more easil3 inside, here?s one o. the main
2 Sin%e 2000, "oland has demanded +isas .or the %iti<ens o. some re1u'li%s o. the Communit3 o. Inde1endentStates C!<er'ai@an, (eorgia, Lurdistan, Ta@i>istan, Tur>menistanD* Sin%e #ul3 1, 2 002, 7ussians, =elarussians, and G>rainians must %arr3 1ro1er +isas )ith them )hen %rossing "oland CChomette 2002D* Similar re6uirements are %om1ulsor3 in %ountries su%h as Tunisia, Moro%%o, $i'3a that are e+en not %andidates to EG mem'ershi1* 11
1arado5 o. our time C imines%u 2002, 1* 22D* So the .reedom o. mo+ement in the EG %orres1onds to an en%losure that ha+e 'een 'uilt in order to >ee1 out the 1eo1le )ho do not 'elong to one o. the in%luded states* Ironi%all3 a ne) iron %urtain arises a little to the East o. the 'orders )here the .irst one arose: it %ontrols the 1eo1les )ho %ontinue to 'e strongl3 limited in their international mo'ilit3 to the )est* =orders assign 1eo1le to di..erent so%ial, 1oliti%al and legal s1a%es inside and outside national territoriesK and 'orders 1romote the 1roli.eration o. se+eral >inds o. a%ti+ities that 'e%ome illegal and su'+ersi+e merel3 '3 mo+ing .rom %ountr3 to %ountr3 '3 a .e) miles C onnan, &ilson 1///D* The transit o. undo%umented migrants is %onsidered as a threat o. su'+ersion to so+ereign states* !s a matter o. .a%t, migrants and smugglers do not aim neither to su'+ert the State, nor to eliminate 'orders* On the %ontrar3, their roles and their li+es are stri%tl3 %onne%ted to the +er3 e5isten%e o. a State and o. its 'orders, )ithout )hi%h it )ould 'e im1ossi'le .or them to ma>e a li+ing out o. those a%ti+ities that are s3m'ioti% )ith trade at 'orders* Migrants as )ell as in+estors a'road are su%h @ust than>s to <ones that are di..erentl3 +alued CSa%%hetto 200EDK the e5isten%e o. di..erent +alues .or di..erent areas %an 1artiall3 e51lain migration and o..shore outsour%ing* The regulation o. 1eo1le?s mo+ements through 'orders is %onstantl3 sele%ti+e, as 'orders are ne+er rigidl3 %losed or totall3 o1en* The3 remain usuall3 1orous* The3 are in+isi'le lines di+iding )hat the3 @oin, 'e%ause the3 are the most militarised and ra%iali<ed land stri1s in %ontem1orar3 1oliti%al ma1s C"a1astergiadis 2000D* The Euro1eani<ation o. the national legislations o. the ne) mem'er States and o. the %andidate ones su%h as 7omania and =ulgaria2 in+ol+es the introdu%tion o. ne) legal institutions, in 1arti%ular the administrati+e detention o. undo%umented .oreigners and more rigid %ontrols o. 1eo1le?s mo'ilit3* The enlargement o. EG is 'e%oming a main 6uestion on the international 1oliti%al arena 'e%ause it redesigns the ma1s o. international mo'ilit3* 9e+ertheless, the go+ernment o. the non0EG Euro0Mediterranean area seem to ha+e 'een 6ui%> in learning the ideologi%al stru%ture o. the EG and its institutional 1ra%ti%es o. hos1italit3* The so0%alled %entres o. identi.i%ation and detention o. undo%umented migrants is one o. these 1ra%ti%es*
The enlargement o. the EG )ith the %andidate %ountries that entered the Eu in Ma3 200E CC31rus, Estonia, $at+ia, $ithuania,Malta, "oland, C<e%h 7e1u'li% , Slo+a>ia 7e1u'li%, Slo+enia, Fungar3D has re6uired their ad@ustment to A0 thousand 1ages o. Euro1ean legislation* This has 1ro+o>ed a +er3 strong metamor1hosis in their legal s3stems and in their administrati+e stru%tures*
12
In s1ite o. the relentless militari<ation o. the 'orders o. EG against irregular immigration and o. restri%ti+e 1oli%ies on the +isas, undo%umented mo'ilit3 o. migrants )ithout 1a1er is .ar .rom 'eing %ontrolled* These measures in%rease 'oth the migrants? e51enses and the sele%tion o. those )ho %an a..ord a tra+el* To some e5tent the3 restrain migrations* The mo'ilit3 o. 1eo1le %an 'e en%ouraged or dis%ouraged in +arious )a3s* 4rom the .inan%ial 1oint o. +ie), the im1osition o. e51ensi+e +isas redu%es migrants? resour%e and %om1li%ates their tra+elling tra@e%tories CStal>er 2000K M+ell 200ED* On the other hand, as it has 'een 1ointed out CCohen 1/A7D, some <ones ha+e 'een deli'eratel3 >e1t in underde+elo1ment '3 the so0%alled international %ommunit3 in order to in%rease the 1ro1ensit3 o. la'our to migrate* In #une 200E, the introdu%tion o. a ne) ta5 .or the %iti<ens o. A ne)l3 admitted %ountries )ho )ant to )or> in (reat =ritain is a ne) start in migration 1oli%ies CSalt 200E, 1*ED* =oth .or the international elites and .or the migrants 'orders are surmounta'le i. the3 are 1re1ared to 1a3 more or less hea+3 admission ta5es* Conse6uentl3 the admission ta5es s3stems must 'e %onsidered as im1ortant %om1onents o. the ne) Euro1ean strateg3, )hi%h aims to redire%t the mo'ilit3 o. %a1itals and o. migrants rather than redu%ing them* This strateg3 mar>s a shi.t .rom the %ontrol to the management o. migrations and in+estments a'road*E To the tra+ellers )ho %ross the %ountries o. South0eastern Euro1e the EG 'orders are 1ermea'le 1la%es )here the %ases o. 'ri'er3 a'ound* The di..eren%e 'et)een the e5as1erating slo)ness o. the 1ra%ti%es o. legal %rossing and the s1eed o. the transit o. the migrants )ithout do%uments is e+ident, as it is e+ident that elite in+estors %an %ross 'orders easil3* &hile 'order ins1e%tors 1ro'a'l3 tr3 to de.end their 1o)er, the smugglers o. migrants e51loit the di..eren%es in +alue, )hi%h are intrinsi% to a 'order, '3 minimi<ing Cor %urtailD the time .or its %rossing: .or the hullers )ho %ross the %hannel o. Otranto, or .or the 'oats that arri+e in Si%il3 .rom $i'3a, su%%ess in terms o. 1ro.it and sa.et3 is %onne%ted to the s1eed o. their o1erations* !mong the migrants it is %lear that tra+el do%uments, 1ass1orts and +isas are their 'asi% elements in the %ase o. 'oth regular and irregular migration* Fo)e+er, .or man3 o. them onl3 mone3 is im1ortant, 'e%ause mone3 is the do%uments* Trust in mone3 and regular or %ounter0.eited do%uments sho) the ar'itrariness o. the 1o)er that is e5erted at the 'orders* The 1o)er.ul 1ass1orts and +isas o. the international elites 1ut them on the .ast tra%>, )hile the do%uments o. 1eo1le %oming .rom
E 7egarding the management o. migrations see among other Stal>er 2002K Martin 2002K M+ell 200E* 12
%ountries )ith s%ar%e 1o)er are easil3 sto11ed* =orders mar> the di..erent <ones to )hi%h 1eo1le %an ha+e a%%ess )ith +alid do%uments* In re%ent 3ears, in 1arti%ular a.ter Se1tem'er 11the 2001, the issue o. 'orders has 'e%ome %entral and %onse6uentl3 the go+ernments o. man3 %ountries ha+e hurried to 1ro+e that their 'orders are sa.e* In Euro1e too, as an a.termath o. 1oliti%al %hanges that )ere introdu%ed a.ter 1/A/ and o. the e51ansion o. EG to other %ountries, the de'ate a'out 'orders has re+i+ed* 4or ea%h 3ear .om 1//A to 2002 'et)een B0 and 80 million euros ha+e 'een allo%ated to 'uild the ne) Eastern "olish %urtain and to 1re+ent illegal immigration* It is a 1200 >ilometre long 'order through )hi%h in 2001 a'out 27 million o. indi+idual %rossings ha+e 'een re%orded* This .lo) is mu%h lo)er than the one at the 'order 'et)een the G*S* and Me5i%o, )hi%h re%ords a11ro5imatel3 200 million o. 1eo1le a 3ear C"as%u%%i 2002K !ndreas 2002D* !s to the Gnited States, "eter !ndreas C2002, 11* 102D asserts that 9orth !meri%an relations are dri+en '3 the 1oliti%s o. 'order %ontrolN 7ather than sim1l3 'eing dismantled in the .a%e o. intensi.3ing 1ressures o. e%onomi% integration, 'order %ontrols are 'eing re0tooled and redesigned as 1art o. a ne) and e51anding O)ar on terrorism???C!ndreas 2002, 1*1D* !lthough there are di..eren%es 'et)een the Euro1ean Gnion and the GS in their a11roa%hes to )ar terrorism, a ne) !tlanti% %oo1eration %on%erning home se%urit3 has 1ro+en to 'e 6uite a%ti+e C=un3an 2002D* The ne) model o. mo'ilit3 has led to signi.i%ant %hanges in 'ilateral agreements and to a rene)ed .o%us on the %on%e1t o. 'orders* In 1arti%ular, sin%e Se1tem'er 11th, 2001 %ontrols and sele%tions at the 'orders ha+e 'een in%reasingl3 lin>ed to se%urit3*B Institutionalised .ear %ontri'utes to de+elo1 1ro%esses o. hierar%hi<ation and o. a ne) isolation in ur'an s1a%esK some areas 'e%ome ina%%essi'le .or se%urit3?s sa>e* In .a%t, the )ar on terrorism is .ar .rom 'eing .ought @ust against :rogue states:K a 1erson )ho does not tra+el in 'usiness %lass is 1otentiall3 dangerous*
II
The 9e) !%tors o. the EG
=oth lo%all3 and glo'all3 the ne) a%tors, )ho mo+e .rom the EG to the %ountries o. South0Eastern Euro1e and to the %ountries o. the Mediterranean southern rim, are dee1l3 inserted in to di..erentiated relations, as .ar as )or>1la%es and so%ial and 1oliti%al milieu are %on%erned* Their 1resen%e in the %ountries o. South0Eastern Euro1e
B 1E See =igo C1//A, 200ED, al $ago C2002D, "alidda C2000, 2002D*
gi+es rise to a %ontinuous imitation o. &estern 1atterns o. li.e* This &esternisation %an ta>e 1la%e in a )a3 'oth rigid es1e%iall3 inside .a%tories and mild in e+er3da3 so%ialisation* The a'sor1tion o. &estern models are lin>ed to the a%%e1tan%e o. ne) so%ial hierar%hies* The mo'ilit3 o. so%ial a%tors )ith a .air le+el o. 1oliti%al s>ills 1rodu%es a di..erent mo'ilit3, the one o. the transnational elites* This mo'ilit3 holds a relati+el3 im1ortant 1osition in %ontem1orar3 so%ial s%ien%es* Su%h %osmo1olitan elites are a'le to sustain the 1ro%esses o. glo'ali<ation and to de+elo1 ne) %ultural and so%ial 1ra%ti%es CSassen 1//EK Fanner< 1//8K =ea+ersto%> and =oard)ell 2000D* Castells C2002D has 1ointed out the im1ortan%e o. su%h transnational elites .or the attainment o. glo'ali<ation* To that e..e%t these elites %an rel3 on 1ersonal milieus e5isting through out the glo'al metro1olises* O. less im1ortan%e ha+e 'een the resear%h 1ro@e%ts %on%erning so%ial 1ro.iles su%h as small entre1reneurs or 1ro.essional 1eo1le and +olunteers o. humanitarian aid, )ho ha+e 1redi%ta'l3 assumed 'eha+iours 'oth o. 1ragmati% ada1tation and o. +igorous re.orm o. lo%al situations CSa%%hetto 200ED* In .a%t, in the shade o. su%h elites some 1ro.iles 1ersist, su%h as the ne) international entre1reneurs, )ho re1resent the main a%tors o. the mo'ili<ation o. %ultural 1ra%ti%es in large areas o. Central and Eastern Euro1e, as )ell as o. Mediterranean southern rim Cmainl3 Tunisia and Moro%%oD* It is o'+ious that these 1ro%esses o. mo'ilit3 o.ten 'ut not al)a3s 1rodu%e hegemoni% 1oli%ies o. %ultural and s3m'oli% mimesis C e<ala3 200E, 1*AD* The international elites re1resent a ne) 1oliti%al %lass )hi%h a%ts in Euro1ean areas, .rom the Gral mountains to Maghre'* These elites are the 'earers o. a 1oliti%al and so%ial 1o)er that )as 1re+iousl3 un>no)n* $o%al power/brokers, )ho are %o0o1ted inside di..erent 1oliti%al and 1rodu%ti+e strategies, +er3 o.ten %o0o1erate )ith these a%tors* The3 are those )ho are alread3 in %harge o. 1oliti%al and e%onomi% a%ti+ities and )ho are e51editions, sin%e the3 >no) their tur.* The mo'ilit3 o. elites re1resents the attem1t to a..irm their role in 1oliti%al and so%ial %onte5ts )here the3 )ant to im1ose a ne) order in 1rodu%tion as )ell as in so%iet3* It goes )ithout sa3ing that international elites, )hi%h mo+e .rom the %ountries o. EG to Eastern and to Southern Euro1e im1ose their %ulture and )a3 o. go+erning through their 1oliti%al and e%onomi% 1o)er* These elites in their mo+ing to the East or to the Mediterranean area need 'asi% ser+i%es that their 'a%>lines are su11osed to 1ro+ide* These 'a%>lines are so%ial, industrial and 1oliti%al agen%ies that must 'uild .rame)or>s .or trans.ers o. resour%es and are o. 'asi%
1B
im1ortan%e in the mid0termK the 'a%>lines are %onstituted '3 ser+i%es .or enter1rise and 1eo1le, li>e restaurant, sho1s, tradesman* In some Eastern Euro1ean and Maghre' %ountries, lo%al 1oliti%al 1arties ha+e 'een .inan%ed '3 1oliti%al organi<ations o. the EG and international organi<ations* Some EG 1oliti%ians are also )or>ing as ad+isors .or lo%al 1oliti%ians8* In re%ent 3ears, ne) strategies .or trans.orming the so%ial and 1oliti%al s3stems, )ith some international organi<ations su11orting human rights and demo%ra%3 ha+e 'een laun%hed '3 the 9(Os* The (eorgian 7ose 7e+olution in 2002, the G>rainian Orange 7e+olution in 200E and the $e'anese S1ring 7e+olution in 200B are starting 1oints .or a non0+iolent shi.t to)ards mar>et e%onomies C(entP, 7ou3 200BD* The long0term 1oli%ies that ha+e 'een 'uilt '3 su%h international Cmainl3 GS!D and Euro1ean organi<ations seem to o..er an alternati+e to )ar inter+ention 1oli%ies that )ere 1re+iousl3 ado1ted in .ormer Hugosla+ia, !.ghanistan and Ira6* The a'ilit3 to alter the %ourse o. e+ents 'e%omes in%reasingl3 %ru%ial, sin%e in some %ountries the State la%>s the 1o)er to thoroughl3 a11l3 its national legislation* Those in %harge o. lo%al administration are there.ore more and more su'@e%t to the in.luen%e o. in+estors and se%ond0range o..i%ers )or>ing .or 1o)er.ul agen%ies* In addition to )hat ha11ens in the )orld o. 'usiness and 1oliti%s, the role 1la3ed '3 these ne) power/brokers in the a'o+e mentioned %ultural domains has to 'e ta>en into %onsideration* Thus the trend has 'een set to ignore the 'asi% la)s and so%ial norms that )ere long esta'lished at a lo%al le+el, 'e%ause the 1oliti%al and e%onomi% .or%es 'oosted '3 the trans.ormations that )ere undergone '3 institutions in the last 1B 3ears %annot 'e %onstrained )ithin a stri%t .rame)or> o. 1res%ri1tions* &ides1read attitudes and )a3s o. thin>ing that ha+e 'een e51ressed '3 some su11orters o. o..shore outsour%ing and 1ro.essionals in the humanitarian .ield in+ol+e a relentless stigmatisation o. the Other, a%%ording to )hat Sa3ad C2002D has %alled State Thought* The s1reading o. this %olonial mentalit3 is also a..e%ting Euro1ean %ountries, 'e%ause %oloni<ers return to EG %ountries too: %onse6uentl3, su%h stigmatisation is a %ontinuous 1ro%ess* On the other hand, a signi.i%ant %ultural in.luen%e is 'eing e5erted '3 the migrants )ho ha+e mo+ed the other )a3 round*
8 4or instan%e, one 1oliti%al %o0.ounder o. the Italian 1oliti%al 1art3 4or<a Italia and de1ut3 minister o. Italian Fome !..airs during the .irst =erlus%oni administration, is also as an ad+isor .or the 1resident o. the 7omanian (reat 7omania "art3 C"7MD* !n Italian 'usinessman, )or>ed as a %onsultant .or the 1resident o. the 7omanian 9e) (eneration "art3 C"9(D during the ele%toral %am1aign in 200E*
18
III
Varia'le sele%tion %riteria
In the 1//0?s 3ears &estern Euro1ean %ountries .a%ed a ne) >ind o. migration .lo): 1eo1le .rom Eastern Euro1e %ould mo+e .reel3* In re%ent 3ears migrants ha+e .ound a 1rogressi+e regimentation that in+ol+es 'oth the %reation o. an institutional .rame)or> .or administrati+e as1e%ts and the im1osition o. regulations o. 'eha+iour* On the other hand, the &estern Euro1ean %ountries 1romote just/in/ time migration: migrants should arri+e onl3 on the 'asis o. the needs o. 1rodu%tion s3stem and should go 'a%> )hen the3 are unem1lo3ed C M+ell 200ED* In addition to autonomous migrations, then, regulations aimed at a 1lanned management o. migration .lo)s are set .orth, though ea%h o. the strategies mentioned a'o+e in+ol+es .a%tors o. 'oth %onstraint and .reedom* In the last de%ade the de+elo1ment o. re%ruiting s3stems in se+eral Eastern Euro1ean %ountries that are 'ased on 1ra%ti%es usuall3 ado1ted in South0East !sia o..ers ma@or e+iden%e o. the +ie) o. a totalitarian management o. the migration .lo)* There.ore, se%tors o. 1rodu%tion that %annot 'e easil3 relo%ated Csu%h as 'uilding, agri%ulture, health and edu%ationD should 'ene.it .rom these grou1s o. )or>ers tem1oraril3 mo+ing .rom 1eri1heral %ountries to the EG, sin%e industries %an gain high 1ro.its )hile o..ering lo) )ages and 1oor guarantees* The %ountries o. Eastern Euro1e and those on the South rim o. the Mediterranean Sea, )hi%h on%e 1romoted o1en0door 1oli%ies to)ards %iti<ens .rom 'rother %ountries, are no) turning out to 'e the .ier%est o11onents o. illegal immigration* 4or e5am1le, as a result o. the in.luen%e o. IOM and G9FC7, sin%e its inde1enden%e G>raine has de+elo1ed a ne) legislation on migration %reating a migration ser+i%e, '3 strengthening its o)n national la)s through the signing o. se+eral treaties, and '3 1romoting a %ertain degree o. international %o0 o1eration )ithin the %onte5t o. migration and re.ugee 1oli%ies* On the other hand, a.ter 3ears o. o1en0door 1oli%ies to)ards immigrants .rom &est and Su'0Saharan !.ri%a, $i'3a has re%entl3 sho)ed a %learl3 stri%ter attitude '3 de1orting and im1risoning hundreds o. migrants )ho ha+e 'een merel3 guilt3 o. not 1ossessing regular 1a1ers* =oth the G>rainian and the $i'3an strategies are aimed to 1ro+ing their e..i%ien%3 in migration management in a%%ordan%e )ith the EG institutions, in e5%hange .or .a+oura'le e%onomi% agreements* The %ountries on the South rim o. the Mediterranean Sea and those on the Eastern 'orders o. the EG, 'oth o. )hi%h are 1assage)a3s .or migrants, are turning into trash <ones7 sin%e the3 )or> as a .ilter
7 C.* the inter+ie) made '3 $ongo V*, Sa%%hetto *, Vianello 4* )ith the 17
on the migration .lo), '3 'lo%>ing the 1ersons allegedl3 unsuita'le .or their entr3 into the S%hengen area* Migration and transit in these %ountries ma3 last a .e) da3s to se+eral 3earsA: .or %iti<ens o. the Eastern areas and o. the Southern rim o. the Mediterranean Sea, mo'ilit3 is a ne+er0ending %on6uest* One in a +ariet3 o. strategies ado1ted '3 migrants is to sta3 in 'elt %ountries .or some 3ears, )here )aiting .or the right time and tr3ing to earn enough mone3 to ma>e their Euro1ean dream %ome true at last* Sometimes migrants also a11l3 .or as3lum and then .or nationalit3 in %ountries @ust outside the EG, )hi%h is @ust another )a3 to 1re1are themsel+es .or an easier entr3 into the S%hengen area* !s a matter o. .a%t, a11l3ing .or a +isa to "oland is de.initel3 easier i. one has a G>rainian 1ass1ort rather than an !.ghan one/* Conditions o. legalit3 or illegalit3 ma3 %hange 6uite 6ui%>l3* In 1//A, a sta.. o. IOM e51erts )as sent to G>raine in order to .ormulate a set o. rules aimed at %ontrolling the illegal migrations through the %ountr3 to the EG, 'ut .ound out a sur1rising 1redi%ament made their tas> e+en harder: Se+ent3 1er %ent o. the transit migrants )ere a'solutel3 legal* !s a result o. this situation, a ne) legislation regarding +isa 1oli%ies and 1ro%edures had to 'e set .orth10* Toda3, international institutions )or>ing .or the management o. migrants and re.ugees are legion on the 1oliti%al s%ene C M+ell 200ED* !mong these organi<ations, the tas>s o. the IOM are '3 .ar )ider than those o. other agen%ies, in that IOM %o0o1erates )ith the go+ernments o. the %ountries 'ordering the EG, 1ro+iding '3 them )ith an e5tensi+e training in migration %ontrol and management* On their turn, state o..i%ers .rom 'order %ountries are sent to the EG in order to stud3 the di..erent la) s3stems and the )a3s the3 are a11lied*
Con%lusions
The esta'lishment o. the EG e5erts a ma@or in.luen%e on mo'ilit3 and on 1oliti%al and e%onomi% de+elo1ment 'oth in mem'er %ountries and in 'order ones* In %ountries issued .rom the so%ialist 'lo%>, the
1hiloso1her and )riter Irina Magd3sh, .or the maga<ine #i, $+i+ CG>raineD, Ma3 200E* A Migrants .rom &est !.ri%an %ountries are used to long sta3s in %ountries su%h as $i'3a, )here 101,B million migrants Cman3 o. )hom d o not ha+e regular 1a1ersD are no) 'eing gi +en shelter CTrentin 200ED* On Moro%%o as a migration and transit %ountr3 .or migrants .rom Su' 0Saharan !.ri%a, %.* =arros et al* 2002* !n e5hausti+e o+er+ie) %an 'e .ound in "alidda 2002a, )ho estimates $i'3a to ha+e 2,B millions migrants* / In G>raine one %an also 'u3 %ounter.eit 1ass1orts .or 2*00002*000 GSQ* 10 !non3mous C200ED, 4rom !rming the =orders to 7e%ruitment o. $a'our, Se1tem'er /, )))*thistuesda3*or g 1A
%ommunitarian s3stem does not seem to 'e strong enough to %on.ront the a%tion o. international Plites, )hereas in %ountries %hara%teri<ed '3 a di..erent tradition, su%h as Tur>e3 and Moro%%o, lo%al so%ieties tena%iousl3 o11ose su%h intrusions* The EG has in%or1orated ten ne) %ountries, )hile assuming the res1onsi'ilit3 .or doing the dirt3 )or> 'oth )ithin and outside their national 'orders* =eing 1art o. the EG ma3 'e an ad+antage .or ne) mem'ers, e+en i. the status the3 ha+e o'tained is not ne%essaril3 the same .or all o. them* Slo+enia, "oland, Fungar3, the C<e%h 7e1u'li% and the Slo+a> 7e1u'li% %an a..ord manu.a%turing 1rodu%tion at mid0 lo)0to0middle le+el )ages, thus rea%hing leading industrial 1ositions in Euro1e, )hile 7omania, =ulgaria and, in the longer run, G>raine should 'e limited to the lo)est )age range o. the manu.a%turing industr3* The 'roadening o. the EG seems to %ause a gradual marginali<ation o. the Southern Mediterranean %ountries: this shi.t is alread3 6uite %lear to the Moro%%an and Tunisian agri%ultural )or>ers o. S1ain, Ital3 and 4ran%e, )ho ha+e alread3 'een re1la%ed '3 "olish and 7omanian )or>ers* The 'uilding o. a 4ortress Euro1e is %onstantl3 .orging ne) so%ial hierar%hies, 'oth inside and outside the EG* "urel3 re1ressi+e immigration 1oli%ies are no) %on.ronting the re6uest .or .ull o1erating .reedom .rom Euro1ean 1o)er0'ro>ers: this re6uest sho)s the stri>ing di..eren%e 'et)een these t)o di..erent a%tors Cmigrant and eliteD )ho 1la3 the ma@or roles on the %urrent s%enario* On the other hand, 1oor )ages that .oreign in+estors 1a3 in non0EG %ountries o.ten 1ush )age earners to %hoose emigration* The rhetori% o. human rights and demo%ra%3 seems to lea+e little room .or indi+idual .reedom o. mo+ement and .or reall3 e6ual o11ortunities in the 'road Euro0 Mediterranean area*
=i'liogra1h3
!ndreas "* C2002D, ! Tale o. T)o =orders: The G*S*0Me5i%o and G*S*0 Canada $ines !.ter /-11 &or>ing "a1er n* /77, Gni+ersit3 o. Cali.ornia, San iego* =arros $*, $ahlou M*, Es%o..ier C*, "umares "* 7us1ini "* C2002D, 01immigration irr2guli3re subsaharienne 4 travers et vers le 'aroc, =it, (ene+e =ea+ersto%> #* V*, =oard)ell #* T* C2000D, 9egotiation glo'ali<ation, transnational %or1orations and glo'al %it3 .inan%ial %entres in transient migration studies, )pplied +eography, 20, 11* 227020E* =igo *, Ca %ura diD C1//AD, %icure""a e Immigra"ione, Cultures R Con.lits, nS2202E
1/
=igo
*, (uild E* C200ED, S%hengen e la 1oliti%a dei +isti, in =onaiuti (* Simon%ini !*, 0a catastrofe e il parassita, Mimesis, Milano, 11* 21202EB* =un3an T* C2002D The &ar on 4reedom and emo%ra%3, %tatewatch 5ews .nline, no* 12 CSe1tem'erD* Castells M* C2002D, 0a nascita della societ4 in rete, Milano, Gni+ersitT =o%%oni* Chomette (* "* C2002D, !lle .rontiere orientali dell?Gnione euro1ea, 0e 'onde diplomati$ue6Il 'anifesto Cmar<oD, 11* E0B* Cohen 7* C1/A7D, !he 5ew 7elots: 'igrants in the International (ivisione of 0abour, (o)er, $ondon* al $ago !* C1///D, 5on/persone 01esclusione dei migranti in una societ4 globale, Milano, 4eltrinelli* al $ago !* C2002D, -oli"ia globale +uerra e conflitti dopo l811 settembre, Om're%orte, Verona e<ala3 H* C200ED, $es %ourtiers de l?international, )ctes de la recherche en sciences sociales, +ol* 1B102 CmarsD, 11* B028* ietri%h F* C2002D, The 9e) 7egime at the =ug 7i+er* The East o. "oland and the "hare "rogrammes, %tatewatch +ol* 12 C#anuar30 4e'ruar3D* imines%u * C2002D, Introdu%tion, in imines%u * Csld*D, 9isibles, mais peu nombreu#, Maison des S%ien%es de l?homme, "aris, 11* 102E* onnan F*, &ilson T*M* C1///D, :orders *rontiers of Identity, 5ation and %tate, O5.ord, GL* M+ell 4* C200ED, 0a globali""a"ione del controllo delle migra"ioni in Me<<adra S* Ca %ura diD, I confini della libert4, 7oma* eri+e!11rodi, 11* 220B0* (entP 7*, 7ou3 $* C200BD, 9ell?om'ra delle Ori+olu<ioni s1ontanee?, 0e 'onde diplomati$ue, gennaio 200B, 1* 8* Fanner< G* C1//8D, !ransnational ,onnections, 7outledge, $ondon* I%.tu C200ED Ced*D, :ehind the :rand 5ames* ;orking ,onditions and 0abour <ights in =#port -rocessing >ones, I%.tu, $ondon* Martin "* $* C2002D, 'anaging 0abor 'igration: !emporary ;orker -rograms for the 21st ,entury, Ilo, (ene+a* "alidda S* C2000D, -oli"ia postmoderna =tnografia del nuovo controllo sociale, 4eltrinelli, Milano "alidda S* C2002D, 'igrants, 2trangers, criminels ,omment sortir du cercle des nouvelles peurs collectives et des nouveau# sujets dangereu#?, 7ela<ione al 4orum :CohPsion so%iale ou sP%uritP 1u'li6ue:, Consiglio d,Euro1a, 2202E otto're "alidda C2002aD, $e nuo+e migra<ioni +erso i 1aesi del nord0!.ri%a e +erso l?Euro1a, in Ismu Ca %ura delD, I@ <apporto sulle migra"ioniA4ran%o !ngeli, Milano* "a1astergiadis 9* C2000D, !he !urbolence of 'igration, "olit3 "ress, Cam'ridge* "as%u%%i !* C2002D, $?ultima %ortina dell?Euro1a Il 'anifesto C22 .e''raioD, 1* A 7us1ini C200ED, !he 5ew =migration %pace, "a1er 1resented at 2nd Con.eren%e o. the E!"S &or>ing (rou1 on International Migration in Euro1e, 7ome C2B027 9o+em'erD* Sa%%hetto * C200ED, Il 5ordest e il suo .riente, Verona, Om're Corte* Salt #* C200ED, 'anaging 5ew 'igrations in =urope: ,oncept and <eality, "a1er 1resented at the Con.eren%e International
20
Migration in Euro1e: 9e) Trends, 9e) Methods o. !nal3sis, 7ome C2B027 9o+em'erD* Sassen S* C1//ED, ,ities in a ;orld =conomy, Thousands Oa>s, "ine 4orge "ress Sa3ad !* C2002D, 0a doppia assen"a, Cortina, Milano* Stal>er C2000D, ;orkers ;ithout *rontiers, (ene+a, Ilo* Stal>er "* C2002D, Migration Trends and Migration "oli%3 in Euro1e, International 'igration, Vol* E0 CBD, 11* 1B1017/* Trentin M* C200ED, 0a politica economica della 0ibia 1BB2/200C, &or>ing "a1er, Istituto !..ari Interna<ionali, 7oma* ;a%%aria "* C200ED =order Studies in Coglitore 7*, Ma<<ara 4*, (i"ionario degli studi culturali, Meltemi, 7oma, 11* A80/8*
21
i..erentials o. Sur1lus0Value In The Contem1orar3 4orms o. E51loitation
Massimiliano Tom'a1
In order to %om1rehend the %ontem1orar3 .orms o. e51loitation )e need to .ree oursel+es .rom a %ertain idea o. histori%ism that has in.luen%ed Mar5ism* The %risis o. Mar5ism, announ%ed '3 !lthusser as ha+ing finally arri+ed 20 3ears ago, or its %ontem1orar3 death, announ%ed '3 man3 a.ter the .all o. a%tuall3 e5isting so%ialism, are the o%%asion .or ta>ing the o11ortunit3 to re%>on a%%ounts )ith that tradition* 9ot onl3 )ith dogmati% Mar5ism see>ing inelu%ta'le histori%al la)s, 'ut also )ith more %riti%al +ersions o. Mar5ism, )hen the3 em1lo3 %ategories li>e O1re0%a1italist? or O1re01oliti%al? in order to %hara%terise %ases that are %ertainl3 %ontem1orar3, 'ut not yet %om1letel3 %a1italist or ade6uate to the 1oliti%al .orm o. the modern state* I. there is a )a3 o. %om1rehending that )hi%h toda3 goes under the name o. glo'alisation, this %ertainl3 1asses '3 )a3 o. the assum1tion o. the o+er%oming o. the distin%tion 'et)een the .irst, se%ond and third )orlds* These le+els are re%i1ro%all3 inter1enetrated,
1 This essa3 is the modi.ied +ersion o. a 1a1er 1resented in the se%tion OThe i..erential o. Sur1lus0+alue: an indis1ensa'le .eature o. %ontem1orar3 a%%umulation? CIl differen"iale di plusvalore: un tratto indispensabile dell8accumula"ione contemporaneaD during the %on.eren%e o. O!ltreragioni?, held in =ologna on the 1st and 2nd o. Ma3, 1//A* !.ter man3 3ears during )hi%h this arti%le remained in the dra)er, %ertain %ir%umstan%es U a 'o+e all, the intention to re+i+i.3 a %olle%ti+e 1ro@e%t on 6uestions regarding %ontem1orar3 .orms o. e51loitation and the rethin>ing o. a notion o. histori%it3 ade6uate to the 1ro'lems o. glo'alisation U ha+e en%ouraged me to )or> on this old stud3 again* I 1resented this te5t at the Con.eren%e o. Fistori%al Materialism 9e) ire%tions In Mar5ist Theor3 held on / e%em'er 2008 in $ondon* This te5t is the shorter and 1artial modi.ied +ersion o. an essa3 that )ill 'e 1u'lished in the ne5t num'er o. FM*
22
gi+ing rise to the %o0e5isten%e, in a stri>ing s1atial 1ro5imit3, o. high te%hnologi%al le+els and a'solute .orms o. e5tortion o. sur1lus0+alue* The error )ould 'e to %onsider these .orms o. e51loitation toda3 as residual, or regressions to the 1/th %entur3* 7ather, the3 must 'e understood as the .orms most ade6uate to the %urrent %om1le5 o. %a1italist relations o. 1rodu%tion* The inade6ua%3 o. a )hole )a3 o. reasoning in terms o. tenden%3 and residue is no) so o'+ious that one %annot disagree )ith the se+ere @udgement o. Cha>ra'art3 )hen he a..irms that to s1ea> o. a Osur+i+al o. an earlier mode o. 1rodu%tion? means to reason )ith Ostagist and elitist %on%e1tions o. histor3?, and, in 1olemi% )ith theories o. Oune+en de+elo1ment?, maintains that it is historicist to %onsider OMar5?s distin%tion 'et)een O.ormal? and Oreal? su'sum1tion o. la'our VNW as a 6uestion o. histori%al transition?*2 =ut the same %riti6ue is also +alid .or a 1art o. one o. the most intelligent theoreti%al and 1oliti%al traditions o. Euro1ean Mar5ism: l1operaismo C)or>erismD* Sooner or later it )ill 'e ne%essar3 to )rite the histor3 o. this tradition Oagainst the grain?* This tradition, a.ter ha+ing 'egun .rom the 1ers1e%ti+e o. the 1oliti%al %entralit3 o. the mass )or>er C operaio massaD, )ent on to %onsider industrial la'our as se%ondar3 and residual in as mu%h, a%%ording to )hat 9egri )rites today, )e li+e Oin a so%iet3 %hara%terised e+er more strongl3 '3 the hegemon3 o. immaterial la'our?*2 =e.ore %ondu%ting an3 theoreti%al re.le%tion it )ould 'e ne%essar3 to as>: to )hi%h .ragment o. the 1lanet do these anal3ses re.erI !nd )h3 are material la'our and the most 'rutal .orms o. e5tortion o. a'solute sur1lus0+alue not residual in .our0.i.ths o. the 1lanetI It is %ertainl3 not a %ase o. a la%> o. in.ormation regarding the glo'al 1henomenolog3 o. la'our* The 1ro'lem regards the unrigorous %ategories ado1ted in order to read and inter+ene in the so%ial relations* The 1ro'lems seem to arise )hen the )or>erist gesture %hases a.ter the su'@e%t o. antagonism in the histori%al 1ro%ess, )hose tendency is %ar+ed out '3 loo>ing at a 1ostage stam1 o. the )orld* =eginning .rom this, a histori%al01hiloso1hi%al rh3thm is then as%ri'ed to the rest o. the 1lanet* In order to a+oid surrendering to these histori%ist e6uations, a%%ording to )hi%h the industrial )or>ing0%lass toda3 )ould stand in the same relation to immaterial la'our as the 1easants did to the industrial )or>ing0%lass in the nineteenth %entur3, it is ne%essar3 to re0 des%end into the la'oratories o. 1rodu%tion* It is ne%essar3 to .ollo) the %hains o. +alorisation that, )ith delo%alisation, e5it not onl3 .rom the .a%tor3 'ut )hi%h also %ross national .rontiers, and thus also the salar3 di..erentials .rom )hi%h %a1ital 1ro.its* =ut a ma11ing o.
2 2 2E Cha>ra'art3 2000, 11* 1201E and note 27 on 1* 281* 9egri 1//A, 1* A*
(ifferentials of %urplus/9alue In !he ,ontemporary *orms of =#ploitation
delo%alisation )ould 'e onl3 a .aded 1hotogra1h in 'la%> and )hite )ithout the +i+id %olours o. li+ing la'our, o. the migrant )or>ers )ho, a..irming their .reedom o. mo+ement, %lash )ith the %a1italist interest to %onstru%t and 1reser+e salar3 di..erentials )ithin and outside Euro1e*
In Mar5,s $a'orator3
It is ne%essar3 to rethin> the %on%e1tual stru%ture that ma>es it 1ossi'le .or us to %om1rehend the %ontem1orar3 %a1italist .orms o. e51loitation, to retra%e Mar5?s mo+ement .rom the abstract to the concrete* It is not a %ase o. gi+ing merel3 an o'@e%ti+e re1resentation o. the 1ro%esses %urrentl3 under)a3* &e ha+e to understand the su'@e%ti+e insurgen%ies that disarti%ulate the 1ro%ess, 'e%ause the 1oliti%al tas> is their rearti%ulation on ne) .oundations* In the %ele'rated O"re.a%e? o. 1AB/ Mar5 delineates the 1rogressi+e 1ro%ess o. uni+ersal histor3 a%%ording to de.inite stages* The !siati%, %lassi%al, .eudal and 'ourgeois modes o. 1rodu%tion are 6uali.ied as O1rogressi+e e1o%hs?, )ith res1e%t to )hi%h the 'ourgeois is Othe last antagonisti% .orm o. the 1ro%ess o. 1rodu%tion?* Mar5 li'erated himsel. )ith di..i%ult3 .rom this histori%al01hiloso1hi%al CgeschichtsphilosophischD lega%3, 1erha1s onl3 during the maturation o. the %on%e1tual stru%ture o. ,apital* ire%tl3 %on.ronting the !siati% modes o. 1rodu%tion and the 7ussian 1o1ulistsE, he understood that there are not 1redetermined stages o. %a1italist de+elo1ment* In a letter at the end o. 1A77 to the Editor o. .tecestvennye >apiski, he )rote that his s>et%h o. the genesis o. %a1italism in &estern Euro1e %ould not 'e trans.ormed Ointo a histori%al01hiloso1hi%al theor3 o. uni+ersal de+elo1ment, 1redetermined '3 .ate, .or all 1eo1les, regardless o. the histori%al %ir%umstan%es in )hi%h the3 .ind themsel+es?* Fe had learnt that one %ould ne+er understand histori%al 1henomena O)ith the passe/partout o. a 1hiloso1h3 o. histor3 )hose su1reme +irtue is to 'e su1rahistori%al?* B Mar5 arri+ed at this a%6uisition '3 ma>ing an idea o. the de+elo1ment o. the .or%es o. 1rodu%tion intera%t )ith the %on%rete re1lies o. histor3, that is to sa3, the histories o. the struggles that, intera%ting )ith the atem1oral histori%it3 o. %a1ital, %o0determine its histor3* The hast3 li6uidation o. the notion o. +alue has not hel1ed us to %om1rehend Mar5?s rethin>ing o. this %on%e1tual stru%ture during the
E B Mar5 o+er%omes his o)n Euro%entrism to)ards the end o. the 80s, o1ening himsel. to the 1ro'lemati% o. O1eri1heral? 7ussia: %.* ussel 1//0, %h* VII* C.* Mar5?s re1l3 to 9*L* Mi%ha@lo+s>i@ in a letter to the editor o. .tecestvennye >apiski at the end o. 1A77 in 'ar# =ngels ,ollected ;ork s C'=,;D 2E, 201* 2B
3ears o. )riting ,apital*8 4or Mar5, the notion o. +alue %onstituted a 1ro'lem* It )as .or this reason that he %ontinuall3 returned to it* In 1ABA, he still %onsidered 7i%ardo?s theor3 o. +alue to 'e %orre%t* 7 4our 3ears later, ho)e+er, it is 1resented as a 'earer o. a %on.usion 'et)een values and prices*A The 3ear is signi.i%ant, 'e%ause, e+en i. it does not signal the e5a%t moment in )hi%h Mar5 %om1letel3 a'andoned the 7i%ardian theor3, it at least indi%ates the %onte5t: the entire 1eriod 'et)een 1A81 and 1A82, during )hi%h Mar5 %om1iles a good 22 note'oo>s o. e%onomi% )ritings* The 1ro'lem trou'les him not onl3 during the 1re1aration o. ,apital, 'ut also a.ter, .or%ing him to re+ise the di+erse editions and e+en .urther, to inter+ene in the 4ren%h translation* Mar5ian 1hilolog3 1ro+ides us toda3 an enormous 6uantit3 o. material .or %om1rehending the sense o. this work in progress* It is 1ro'a'l3 use.ul to see>, not some solution o. Mar5?s to the 6uestion o. +alue, 'ut rather, to retra%e Mar5?s gesture, that is, to 1ose on%e again the 1ro'lem that is inside the 6uestion o. +alue* Continuing to re.le%t on the +alue0.orm, Mar5 em1hasises al)a3s more .or%e.ull3 'oth the social nature o. the relation o. +alue, and its histori%all3 determinate %hara%ter* O4irst, that )hi%h should 'e noted straight a)a3: the general or a'stra%t %hara%ter o. la'our is, in the 1rodu%tion o. %ommodities, its social CgesellschaftlichW %hara%ter, 'e%ause it is the %hara%ter o. the e$uality C+leichheitW o. the la'ours in%or1orated in the di..erent la'our 1rodu%ts* This determinant .orm o. social la'our C(iese bestimmte *orm der gesellschaftlichen )rbeit W distinguishes %ommodit3 1rodu%tion .rom other modes o. 1rodu%tion?*/ The a'stra%t %hara%ter o. la'our re.ers to the social %hara%ter o. the la'our o. the 1rodu%tion o. %ommodities, )hi%h is %hara%terised as a .orm o. 1rodu%tion s1e%i.i%all3 %a1italist and distin%t .rom an3 other mode o. 1rodu%tion*
8 The o+er+aluation o. the +rundrisse, set against ,apital, has also not hel1ed, at least in Ital3* 9egri still in+ites us toda3 to re0read the +rundrisse as a theoreti%al anti%i1ation o. the mature %a1italist so%iet3, )ritten '3 a Mar5 )ho Otells us that %a1italist de+elo1ment leads to a so%iet3 in )hi%h industrial la'our Cin as mu%h as it is immediate la'ourD is no) onl3 a secondary element in the organisation o. %a1italism?* Cm3 itali%sD C9egri 1//A: 70AD* Tronti, ho)e+er, had alread3 1resented the +rundrisse as a Omore ad+an%ed 'oo>? in regard 'oth to the ,ontribution to the ,riti$ue of -olitical =conomy and to ,apital CTronti 1/88: 210D* In the attem1t to see> the a%tion o. the re+olutionar3 su'@e%ti+it3 im1risoned, a%%ording to 9egri, in the %ategori%al o'@e%ti+isation o. ,apital, Mar5?s rethin>ing o. that %on%e1tual stru%ture has 'een entirel3 disregarded* Fo)e+er, it )as a rethin>ing )hose +ital su'stan%e )as instead %onstituted '3 the %on%reteness o. %lass %on.li%ts* Mar5 to $assalle, 11th Mar%h 1ABA: OHou 3oursel. )ill ha+e .ound in 3our e%onomi% studies that in the de+elo1ment o. 1ro.it 7i%ardo .alls into %ontradi%tion )ith his C%orre%tD determination o. +alue?: '=,; E0, 2A807* Mar5 to Engels, 2nd !ugust 1A82 in '=,; E1, 2/E02/A* L* Mar5, =rgDn"ungen und 9erDnderungen "um ersten :and des EFapitalsG H(e"ember 1I71/Januar 1I72K, in ME(!2, II-8, 11* 2A0/*
7 A /
28
This 1assage is .ull3 intelligi'le )hen reading the se+enth %ha1ter COThe $a'our "ro%ess and the "ro%ess o. "rodu%ing Sur1lus0Value?D as simultaneousl3 1resu11osed '3 and the result o. that )hi%h 1re%edes it10* ue to a O)ill to a s3stem?, Mar5 de+elo1ed a'stra%t la'our and +alue 'e.ore the 1ro%ess o. +alorisation* This order has generated the illusion o. 'eing a'le to histori%ise sim1le %ommodit3 1rodu%tion, distinguishing it .rom %a1italist 1rodu%tion in the stri%t sense*11 ! reading o. this t31e gi+es rise to a metahistori%al theor3 o. +alue* !t the same time, it de+elo1s dia%hroni%all3 %on%e1tual determinations that should instead 'e understood s3n%hroni%all3* This )a3 o. seeing has generated, as )e )ill soon see, the misunderstanding o. the 1aradigm in t)o stages and the e5tension o. the %ommodit3 .orm to non0%a1italist modes o. 1rodu%tion* 4or Mar5, on the other hand, the %ommodit3 e5ists onl3 in a s1e%i.i%all3 %a1italist %onstellation o. the mode and relations o. 1rodu%tion: O&hat I 1ro%eed .rom is the sim1lest so%ial .orm in )hi%h the 1rodu%t o. la'our 1resents itsel. in %ontem1orar3 so%iet3, and this is the commodity?*12 This a%6uisition allo)s us to understand the %onstituti+e %ategories o. %a1ital as entirel3 o1erati+e .rom the origin o. the %a1italist mode o. 1rodu%tion* That means that )hen )e s1ea> o. %a1ital it is ne%essar3 to assume as gi+en the entire %on%e1tual %onstellation* It )as an error to read the de+elo1ment o. %a1ital in e+olutionist terms: 1oliti%all3, this +ie) has %oin%ided )ith that o. 1rogress* Thus not onl3 is an3 so%iet3 denied the 1ossi'ilit3 o. lea1ing o+er the Onatural 1hases? o. its de+elo1ment, 'ut .orms o. e51loitation are laid out dia%hroni%all3, )hen the3 are instead %om1letel3 %om1lementar3* This is the %ase o. a'solute and relati+e sur1lus0+alue, that is, o. the e5tortion o. sur1lus0+alue '3 means o. a lengthening o. the )or>ing da3 and the intensi.i%ation o. la'our through the introdu%tion o. ma%hines* The 1assage .rom .ormal su'sum1tion to real su'sum1tion, .rom the e5tortion o. a'solute sur1lus0+alue to relati+e sur1lus0+alue, is not mar>ed a%%ording to a 1aradigm o. stages 12 in )hi%h the .irst
10 C.* =ello.iore 200E, 11* 1700210K 4inelli 200B, 11* 211022* 11 It )as Engels )ho lin>ed the %ategor3 o. OOsim1le mer%antile 1rodu%tion? to the 1art on the %ommodit3 in ,apital, thus gi+ing an histori%ist inter1retationo. %a1italist de+elo1ment: %.* Fe%>er 1//7, 11* 11/0128: OEngels?s e51lanation o. sim1le %ommodit3 1rodu%tion as .eudal 1rodu%tion re1resents the attem1t o. the histori%isation o. so%ial relations? Ci'id, 1* 122D* 12 L* Mar5, OMarginal 9otes on !dol1h &agner?s 0ehrbuch der -olitischer .ekonomie? C1AA10A2D, in '=;, =d* 1/, 1* 28/K '=,; 2E, B210B82* 12 It should 'e remem'er that the term Osu'sum1tion?, regularl3used until the end o. the 1A80s, 'e%ame less .re6uent in ,apital, e+en though ne+er disa11earing %om1letel3* =adaloni noted something signi.i%ant in this regard, em1hasising ho) the term OGnter)er.ung? Csu'missionD ta>es the 1la%e o. Osu'sum1tion?, O)ith an analogous meaning to that o. real su'sum1tion and ne+ertheless )ithout the histori%al re.eren%e to t)o stages that to a %ertain e5tent entagle the %on%e1t o. su'sum1tion? C=adaloni 1/AE, 11* 2001D* The 27
gi+es )a3 to the se%ond* 1E The 1assage .rom the third 1art COThe "rodu%tion o. !'solute Sur1lus0Value?D to the .ourth COThe "rodu%tion o. 7elati+e Sur1lus0Value?D is mar>ed '3 the .inal lines o. %ha1ter ten, )here the )or>ers, Oas a %lass?, su%%eeded in esta'lishing a state la) on the duration o. the )or>ing da3* I. in .a%t Othe %reation o. a normal )or>ing0da3 is VNW the 1rodu%t o. a 1rotra%ted %i+il )ar, more or less dissem'led, 'et)een the %a1italist %lass and the )or>ing0%lass?1B, %a1ital res1onds to the )ar )ith an augmentation o. the 1rodu%ti+e .or%e o. la'our '3 means o. ma%hines* O"rogress? is measured '3 this intensi.i%ation o. e51loitation* 4or this reason, it is unrealisti%, e+en )hen not in 'ad .aith, to 1ro1hesise the li'eration o. la'our '3 means o. ma%hines )ithin %a1italist relations o. 1rodu%tion, )hen the use0 +alue o. la'our remains intrinsi%all3 %a1italist* Innovation is a res1onse to the insurgen%3 o. li+ing la'our* That means that %a1ital introdu%es ne) ma%hiner3 'e%ause it is %om1elled to, 'oth '3 the unruliness o. the )or>ers and the 1h3siologi%al limit rea%hed in the e51loitation o. la'our 1o)er* !'solute and relati+e sur1lus0+alue are not to 'e thought in a dia%hroni% su%%ession, 'ut s3n%hroni%all3 in an histori%al0tem1oral multiversum* 7elati+e sur1lus0+alue is su%h onl3 in relation to a'solute sur1lus0+alue: relati+e sur1lus0+alue not onl3 does not re1la%e a'solute sur1lus0+alue, 'ut ne%essitates, .or its o)n realisation, an in%rease o. the 6uantit3 o. so%iall3 1rodu%ed a'solute sur1lus0+alue* The use o. ma%hines in 1rodu%tion allo)s the e51loitation o. la'our )ith a greater intensit3 )ith res1e%t to the so%ial a+erage o. e51loitation, and it is 1re%isel3 this differential 6uota that %onstitutes relati+e sur1lus0+alue* !s )e )ill see, this ga1 must ne%essaril3 'e %o+ered '3 a 1rodu%tion o. a'solute sur1lus0+alue, )hi%h thus, .ar .rom 'eing an ar%hai% .orm o. %a1italist e51loitation or a residue o. the nineteenth %entur3, is the .orm o. e5tortion o. sur1lus0+alue most ade6uate to our times* The e5isten%e o. %onditions o. la'our )here the )or>ing da3 is nota'l3 longer than A hours and the )ages are 'elo) the %onditions o. sur+i+al 0 that is, high a'solute sur1lus0+alue 0 is not to 'e attri'uted to 1ast %a1italist .orms that li+e on onl3 in e%onomi%all3 de1ressed <ones* 7ather, it is a %ase o. the result and the 1resu11osition o. the
1aradigm o. t)o stages is still 1resent in the so0%alled unedited si5th %ha1ter, )ith res1e%t to )hi%h, ho)e+er, it should 'e noted that )henMar5 %ommen%ed the )riting o. the de.initi+e te5t o. the .irst 'oo> o. ,apital, in 1A88, he eliminated the 1art o. the manus%ri1ts %ontainingthe si5th %ha1ter, o. )hi%h he le.t onl3 a summar3 in the.irst edition* Fe eliminated e+enthat in the se%ond edition* C.* !ntono)a 1/ A2, 11* 82072* 1E This Ohistori%ising? .ormulation is .ound in the )ritings o. 9egri .rom the 1/ 70s to 9egri and Fardt 2000, 11* 2BE0BB: O!t a %ertain 1oint, as %a1italist e51ansion rea%hes its limit, the 1ro%esses o. .ormal su'sum1tion %an no longer 1la3 the %entral role?* 1B '=,; 2B, 20B* 2A
O1rogress? o. %a1ital* The more %a1ital uses te%hnolog3 and thus ma%hines, the more ele+ated there.ore the mass o. sur1lus0+alues that is 1rodu%ed, so mu%h the more must the dire%t e5tortion o. a'solute sur1lus0+alue in%rease*
II In the $a'orator3 o. "rodu%tion* On the 7e%i1ro%al Im1li%ation o. !'solute and 7elati+e Sur1lus0Value
$et us sta3 .or a moment in Mar5?s la'orator3* Fere )e dis%o+er that the distin%tion 'et)een +alue and e5%hange0+alue is a late a%6uisition o. Mar5* !.ter the %on.usion o. the +rundrisse .ollo)s the attem1t to .ind a %on%e1tual rigour in the )ritings o. the 80s, until the .ormulation o. the O7andglossen <u !dol1h &agners 0ehrbuch der politischen Lkonomie1* It is im1ortant to understand e5%hange0+alue, 'e3ond some logi%al0%on%e1tual shi.ts 1resent e+en in the )ritings o. the mature Mar5, not as the o'@e%ti.i%ation o. la'our immediatel3 s1ent in the 1rodu%tion o. a determinate %ommodit3, 'ut as an e51ression o. the 6uantit3 o. so%ial la'our o'@e%ti.ied in the %ommodit3: Othat )hi%h determines the magnitude o. the +alue o. an3 arti%le is the amount o. la'our so%iall3 ne%essar3, or the la'our time so%iall3 ne%essar3 .or its 1rodu%tion?*18 It is in ,apital that )e .ind the highest le+el o. %on%e1tual determination o. so%ial la'our, and it is this determination that needs to 'e assumed in order to test Mar5?s entire theoreti%al edi.i%e* That )hi%h needs to 'e %lear, and )hi%h also %ontains a moment o. real di..i%ult3, is that the la'our o'@e%ti.ied in the e#change/value o. a %ommodit3 does not %orres1ond to the 6uantit3 o. la'our immediatel3 s1ent in its 1rodu%tion* Instead, it is the .ruit o. a mediation )ith so%iall3 allo%ated la'our* In this sense, the e51ression indi+idual +alue Cindividueller ;ertD is a %ontradi%tion in itsel.: not onl3 'e%ause, as Mar5 em1hases in the 'arginal 5otes on ;agner in 1AA10 A2 U the dates are im1ortant in this %ase U Oe5%hange0+alue in the singular does not e5ist?17, 'ut 'e%ause it 1resu11oses a +alue determined 6uantitati+el3 '3 la'our indi+iduall3 em1lo3ed in the 1rodu%tion o. this %ommodit3, and not '3 so%ial la'our* This, on the other hand, is not a de.inite si<e on%e and .or all* 7ather, it is +aria'le and its +aria'ilit3 retroacts on the determination o. the 6uantit3 o. so%ial la'our %ontained in a %ommodit3* I. the general %onditions inside )hi%h a %ertain 6uantit3 o. %ommodities are 1rodu%ed %hange, then U Mar5 a..irms U a re+erse e..e%t C<MckwirkungD ta>es 1la%e on them*1A It
18 '=,; 2B, EA* 17 L* Mar5, OMarginal 9otes on !dol1h &agner?s 0ehrbuch der -olitischer .ekonomie? C1AA10A2D, '=,; 2E, B210B82* 1A C.* Lkonomisches 'anuskript 1IN1/1INO, Teil 1, in '=;, =d* E2, 1* 7B* 2/
is 1ossi'le that a determinate 6uantit3 o. la'our time alread3 o'@e%ti.ied in a %ommodit3 %hanges due to a %hange in the so%ial 1rodu%ti+it3 o. la'our, )hi%h rea%ts on the e5%hange0+alue o. the %ommodit3 itsel.* The notion o. retroa%tion C<MckwirkungD allo)s Mar5 to e51lain a %hange in +alue that has its origins Ooutside C auPerhalbD? o. the 1ro%ess o. 1rodu%tion, and s1e%i.i%all3 .ollo)ing a %hange o. the %ost o. ra) materials or the introdu%tion o. a One) in+ention?*1/ This im1ortant Mar5ian understanding is 1ossi'le onl3 )ithin a %onstellation that is %lear on the social %hara%ter o. the la'our that +alorises +alue: OThe +alue o. a %ommodit3 is %ertainl3 determined '3 the 6uantit3 o. la'our %ontained in it, 'ut this 6uantit3 is itsel. so%iall3 CgesellschaftlichD determined* I. the amount o. la'our0time so%iall3 ne%essar3 .or the 1rodu%tion o. an3 %ommodit3 altersNthis rea%ts 'a%> on all the old %ommodities o. the same t31e, 'e%auseNtheir +alue at an3 gi+en time is measured '3 the la'our so%iall3 ne%essar3 to 1rodu%e them, i*e*, '3 the la'our ne%essar3 under the so%ial %onditions e5isting at the time*20 In other )ords: the %hanges in the intensit3 o. so%ial la'our rea%t 'a%> on the %ommodities alread3 1rodu%ed, %ausing a %hange in the la'our time o'@e%ti.ied in them21* I. ,apital re1resents the high 1oint o. %ategori%al ela'oration, it is here that )e must .ind the most mature %onse6uen%es o. this )a3 o. understanding so%ial la'our and e5%hange0+alue* !s alread3 seen, The real +alue o. a %ommodit3, ho)e+er, is not its individual, 'ut its social +alueK that is to sa3, its +alue is not measured '3 the la'our0time that the arti%le %osts the 1rodu%er in ea%h indi+idual %ase, 'ut '3 the la'our0time so%iall3 re6uired .or its 1rodu%tion*22 I. there.ore the +alue o. a %ommodit3 de1ends u1on the la'our time o'@e%ti.ied in it, it should 'e >e1t in mind that this la'our time is not that e..e%ti+el3 em1lo3ed .or the 1rodu%tion o. a gi+en use0o'@e%t, 'ut %an 'e either greater or smaller than that* The generi% human la'our time o'@e%ti.ied in the su'stan%e o. +alue must 'e ad@usted to the time that so%ial la'our )ould need to %arr3 out that same @o'* %urplus value is not a $uantifiable amount within the accounting of a single firm* The idea, re%urring in numerous 1la%es in Mar5?s anal3sis and ta>en u1 '3 Lauts>322, a%%ording to )hi%h sur1lus0+alue )ould 'e
1/ '=,; 2B, 1* 21A* 20 '=,; 2B, 1* 21A* 21 See M* e !ngelis, ValueCsD, MeasureCsD and is%i1linar3 Mar>ets, in XThe CommonerY, n* 10 C200BD, in htt1:--)))*%ommoner*org*u>-10deangelis* 1d.* 22 '=,; 2B, 1* E2E* 22 In Lauts>3 the linear de1i%tion o. sur1lus0+alue is re1resented in the .ollo)ing s%hema: !ZZZZCZZZZ=K )here !C re1resents the Oline o. time o. ne%essar3 la'our? and C= the Otime o. e5%es s la'our?* !%%ording to this s%hema, shortening the time o. ne%essar3 la'our C!CD gi+es an augmentation o. e5%ess la'our: this )ould 'e relative surplus/value* The lengthening o. the 20
determined '3 the la'our time that e5%eeds that )hi%h )ould 'e ne%essar3 .or the )or>er em1lo3ed '3 an indi+idual %a1ital to 1rodu%e his o)n )ages, is a sim1li.i%ation* $ets us su11ose that the singular %ommodit3 +alue and .rom this, sur1lus0+alue %an 'e %al%ulated in a linear )a3, that is to sa3, 'ased u1on the time o. la'our that e5%eeds that )hi%h is ne%essar3 to re1lenish the )age* On the other hand, the +alue 1rodu%ed, )hi%h is an o'@e%ti+ation o. social la'our, is not dedu%ti'le .rom the la'our a%tuall3 e51ended in a single 1rodu%ti+e 1ro%ess* I. the 1rodu%ti+e .or%e o. the latter is 'elo) the 1rodu%ti+it3 o. so%ial la'our, it %an ha11en that, des1ite )ages in this 1arti%ular se%tor are 1ushed do)n)ard and the la'our time u1)ard, the 1rodu%tion o. sur1lus la'our remains +er3 lo)2E* The %ase that %an ha11en is that an hour o. )or> o. high intensit3 %orres1onds to t)o hours o. so%ial la'our, in the 1la%es )here the so%iet3 as a )hole still does not use te%hnologi%al inno+ation* This e5%hange, )here one is e6ual to t)o, +iolates onl3 the intelle%tual 1rin%i1les o. )home+er holds to grade0s%hool mathemati%sK the +alue o. %ommodities in general, and there.ore also o. those 1rodu%ed )ith te%hnologi%al inno+ation, is its so%ial +alue, that is, the 6uantit3 o. social labour o'@e%ti.ied in it* This 1henomenon im1oses itsel. +iolentl3 in the )orld mar>et, )here an in%rease in the 1rodu%ti+e 1o)er o. la'our through the introdu%tion o. a ne) ma%hine %ounts as an in%rease in the intensit3 o. la'our i. the %a1italist %an sell the %ommodities at a su1erior 1ri%e, e6ui+alent to the la'our ne%essar3 to 1rodu%e the same %ommodit3 on the 1art o. other %a1italists )ho still la%> that te%hnologi%al inno+ation* The .a%t that the la'our time e..e%ti+el3 e51ended is in.erior to that )hi%h is so%iall3 ne%essar3 %hanges nothing in the relationshi1, e5%e1t that the %a1italist, selling the %ommodit3 at its +alue, a11ro1riates so%ial sur1lus +alue, and there.ore e5%hanges one hour o. la'our .or t)o* Fen%e the %a1italist )ho a11lies the im1ro+ed method o. 1rodu%tion a11ro1riates and de+otes to sur1lus la'our a greater 1ortion C=#tramehrwertD o. the )or>ing da3 that the other %a1italists in the same 'usiness* 2B =e3ond num'ers, the =#tramehrwert that is a11ro1riated '3 the %a1italist %orres1onds to the 6uantit3 o. so%ial sur1lus +alue that he %an
)or>ing da3 C!=D %onstitutes instead absolute surplus/value* C.* Lauts>3 1/72, 1* 102* Lauts>3?s error %onsists su'stantiall3 in understanding the time o. ne%essar3 la'our as the time o. la'our ne%essar3 .or the maintenan%e o. the )or>er C11* 7A0/D* 2E The segment !C o. the linear s%hema Csee 1re+ious noteD %an 'e shortened'3 redu%ing )ages, 'ut the +alue o. la'our01o)er and, there.ore, the 6uantit3 o. la'our that this %osts, must 'e %al%ulated on the 'asis o. the la'our 1rodu%ti+it3 )hi%h is so%iall3 ne%essar3 and not on the 'asis o. that indi+idual la'our* 2B '=,; 2B, 1* E28* 21
)ithdra) .rom the so%iet3 to the e5tent that he is an e5tra%tor o. relati+e sur1lus +alue* In this )a3 a greater num'er o. hours o. )or> %on%retel3 1er.ormed 1ass through the hands o. the %a1italist )ho utili<es a greater 1rodu%ti+e 1o)er o. )or> )ithout +iolating the la) o. e6ui+alen%e* The difference 'et)een %a1italists )ho e51loit )or> o. di..erent 1rodu%ti+it3 is therefore necessary so that it )ill 'e 1ossi'le to e5tra%t relati+e sur1lus +alue .rom the ad+antage that s1rings .rom the te%hnologi%al inno+ation* This %an 'e seen not onl3 on a )orld)ide s%ale, )here %a1ital in %ontinuall3 in sear%h o. masses o. a'solute sur1lus +alue, 'ut also )ithin the )estern metro1olises and e+en )ithin the same %or1oration, 'ro>en u1 into a11arentl3 inde1endent 1rodu%ti+e segments and in %om1etition )ith ea%h other: %a1ital is in an3 %ase sear%hing .or the ma5imum ga1 1ossi'le 'et)een the intensit3 o. la'our in 1hases that, e+en i. the3 are 1art o. the same %3%le, are re%om1osed through %ir%ulation* The di..erential 6uota 'et)een a gi+en intensit3 o. la'our and so%ial la'our is %on%retel3 realised through a trans.er o. +alue .rom 1rodu%tion s1heres in )hi%h the intensit3 o. la'our is lo)er relati+e to those in )hi%h %a1ital e51loits la'our at an intensit3 that is higher than the so%ial a+erage* The immediate re1er%ussion o. a te%hnologi%al inno+ation is a prolonging o. la'our time )here+er the inno+ation is not 3et em1lo3ed: One o. the .irst %onse6uen%es o. the introdu%tion o. ne) ma%hiner3, 'e.ore it has 'e%ome dominant in its 'ran%h o. 1rodu%tion, is the prolongation o. the la'our0time o. the la'ourers )ho %ontinue to )or> )ith the old and unim1ro+ed means o. 1rodu%tion* 28 The introdu%tion o. a ne) ma%hine generates an in%rease in relati+e sur1lus +alue, an in%rease that, in order to 'e realised, must 'e sustained '3 a 1ro1ortional in%rease in the e5tra%tion o. absolute surplus value, )here the inno+ation has not 3et 'een em1lo3ed* The relati+e sur1lus +alue is relative in this sense, 'e%ause it, to 'e real, must 'e 1la%ed in relation to a'solute sur1lus +alue* To the e5tent to )hi%h the %a1italist that ta>es ad+antage o. a te%hnologi%al inno+ation realises at least a 1art o. the relati+e sur1lus +alue that is 1otentiall3 his, this sur1lus +alue ta>es .orm through a so%ial trans.er o. +alue .rom 1rodu%ti+e areas o. high a'solute sur1lus +alue to)ards those o. high relati+e sur1lus +alue* The relati+e in%rease in the la'our 1rodu%ti+it3 and o. the sur1lus +alue in some se%tors o. 1rodu%tion leads to a de0+alorisation o. la'our01o)er that %ould also mani.est itsel. as gro)th o. the e51loitation o. re1rodu%tion )or> )hether )aged or un)aged* Indeed, )e should al)a3s >ee1 into %onsideration
28 L* Mar5, .ekonomisches 'anuskript 1IN1/1INO, Teil 1, in '=; E2, =erlin, 1//0, 1* 222* 22
the 6uantit3 o. la'our that is indire%tl3 %ommanded '3 %a1ital through a )age* Onl3 )hen Mar5 %lari.ied .urther the nature o. e5%hange0+alue, he )as a'le to sho) that the ma%hine not onl3 does not %reate +alue, 'ut it also does not produce surplus value: !s ma%hiner3 %omes into general use in a 1arti%ular 'ran%h o. 1rodu%tion, the so%ial +alue o. the ma%hine?s 1rodu%t sin>s do)n to its indi+idual +alue, and the .ollo)ing la) asserts itsel.: sur1lus +alue does not arise .rom the la'our01o)er that has 'een re1la%ed '3 the ma%hiner3, 'ut .rom the la'our01o)er a%tuall3 em1lo3ed in )or>ing )ith the ma%hiner3* 27 &hen a te%hnologi%al inno+ation 'e%omes )ides1read, the gro)ing intensit3 o. la'our o'tained through its em1lo3ment 'e%omes so%iall3 dominant and there is less %han%e o. e5tra%ting 6uotas o. so%ial sur1lus +alue .rom the means o. 1rodu%tion o. relati+e sur1lus +alue* The 1rodu%tion o. sur1lus +alue ma>e use o. ma%hines in t)o )a3s: one, indire%tl3, through the de+alorisation o. la'our01o)er .ollo)ing the e51ulsion o. )or>ers re1la%ed '3 ma%hinesK se%ond, relati+e sur1lus +alue stricto sensu, e51loiting the s1oradi% introdu%tion o. ma%hines* The latter %ir%umstan%e is that )hi%h allo)s the e51loitation o. la'our o. a greater intensit3 than the so%ial a+erage, su%h that the indi+idual la'our o'@e%ti.ied in this %ommodit3 is less than the 6uantit3 o. so%iall3 a+erage la'our* 2A !nd )e >no) '3 no) that onl3 the latter determines e5%hange0+alue* &hen the intensit3 o. la'our o'tained '3 a te%hni%al inno+ation 'e%omes so%iall3 dominant, it unleashes the most ruthless and e5%essi+e prolongation of the working day, in order that he ma3 se%ure %om1ensation .or the de%rease in the relati+e num'er o. )or>ers e51loited '3 in%reasing not onl3 relati+e 'ut also a'solute sur1lus la'our*2/ The e5tra%tion o. relati+e sur1lus +alue generates, in those 1arts o. the )orld )here )or>ers? resistan%e is lo)er, a great mass o. a'solute e51loitation* This means that the introdu%tion o. ne) ma%hiner3 is not a 1re0determined route in the histor3 o. all %ountries, 'ut on the %ontrar3 di..erent %a1itals in head0to0head %om1etition )ith ea%h other in the )orld mar>et must see> out or %reate geogra1hi% areas )ith di..erent la'our 1o)ers ha+ing di..erent )ages and 1rodu%ti+e 1o)ers*20 I. the re%i1ro%al im1li%ation o. the +arious .orms o. sur1lus +alue are gras1ed, then it is onl3 out o. .aith in some 1rogressi+e and Euro%entri% 1hiloso1h3 o. histor3 that it is 1ossi'le to %onsider some .orms o. 1rodu%tion as 'a%>)ard and )age la'our, e5tended to the )hole )orld, as residual*
27 2A 2/ 20 '=,; 2B, 1* B20* '=,; 2B, 1* B20* '=,; 2B, 1* B21* Interesting is the argument o. Marini 1//1, 1* A010* 22
4ormal su'sumtion is the 'asis o. %a1italist 1rodu%tion as the 1rodu%tion o. sur1lus +alue in a 1ro%ess )hose end is the 1rodu%tion o. %ommodities .or the mar>etK real su'sumtion 1resents itsel. instead as a s1e%i.i%all3 %a1italist .orm 'e%ause it doesn?t allo) the 1re+ious so%ial relations to remain, 'ut re+olutionises the te%hni%al 1ro%esses o. 1rodu%tion and the .ormation o. so%ial grou1s Cgesellschaftliche +ruppierungenD* 21 To these t)o .orms should also 'e added a third .orm, rarel3 studied: that o. the h3'rid or intermediate .orms C>witterformenD o. su'sum1tion*22 Mar5 s1ea>s o. them .or the .irst time in ,apital* The3 are .orms in )hi%h sur1lus la'our is e5tra%ted '3 means o. dire%t %oer%ion Cdirekter >wangD, )ithout there 'eing .ormal su'sum1tion o. la'our to %a1ital* Mar5 o'ser+es ho) these .orms %an indeed 'e understood as .orms o. transition, 'ut %an also 'e re1rodu%ed in the 'a%>ground o. large s%ale industr3* The h3'rid .orms, though the3 are not .ormall3 su'sumed to %a1ital and though la'our is not gi+en in the .orm o. )age la'our, .all under the %ommand o. %a1ital* That allo)s us to %om1rehend the %ontem1oraneit3 o. a11arentl3 ana%hronisti% .orms li>e slavery, )hi%h are not mere residues o. 1ast e1o%hs, 'ut .orms that, though )ith an altered 1h3sionom3, are 1rodu%ed and re1rodu%ed in the 'a%>ground o. the current %a1italist mode o. 1rodu%tion* The e51loitation o. %hild la'our in !sian %ountries and hours o. )or> u1 to eighteen a da322 are not %ases o. %a1italist underde+elo1ment, 'ut e51ress the %urrent le+els o. 1rodu%tion o. so%ial sur1lus +alue*2E I. )e assume all the )a3 through the re%i1ro%al %o01enetration 'et)een a'solute and relati+e sur1lus +alue, the distin%tion 'et)een 9orth and South o. the )orld, 'et)een .irst, se%ond and third )orld, or i. one 1re.ers, 'et)een core, semi/periphery and periphery )ith Oad+an%ed? and O'a%>)ard? %a1italisms, lose a great 1art o. their signi.i%an%e* It is no longer 1ossi'le to reason in terms o. tendencies and residues: the +arious .orms o. e51loitation are to 'e understood in a histori%al0tem1oral multiversum, in )hi%h the3 intera%t )ithin the %ontem1oraneit3 o. the 1resent* This interlin>ing should 'e .ollo)ed materially along the lines o. the di..eren%es 'et)een national salaries* !nal3sis and 1ra%ti%al inter+ention here should su%%eed in .using together*
21 '=; =d* 22, 1* B22, transl* '=,; 2B, 1* 8EB* 22 ! ha113 e5%e1tion is the )or> o. "* Murra3,)ho re%alled m3 attention to h3'rid su'sum1tion: Murra3 200EK Murra3 2000, 1* 122* 22 On the %onditions o. la'our in China see Chan and Jiao3ang 2002, 11* BB/0 BAE* 2E (lo'ali<ation ma>es 1oliti%al %ommand %a1italisti%all3 1rodu%ti+e that asserts itsel. along the 'orders to %onser+e the +alori<ing 1otential o. )age di..erentials* See the )or> o. Sa%%hetto 200E* See also (am'ino 2002* On the non0residual %hara%ter o. .or%ed la 'our and the 1ro%esses o. ensla+ement o. %ontem1orar3 la'our01o)er, see ;anin 2002* 2E
(lo'alisation renders the 1oliti%al %ommand that it e5er%ises along the 'orders %a1italisti%all3 1rodu%ti+e in order to %onser+e the +alorising 1otential o. di..erential )ages* This %ommand is mani.ested o+er migrant )or>ers )ithout an3 ni%eties* So+ereignt3, rights o. %iti<enshi1 and %ontrol o. the 'orders o1erate e%onomi%all3 in order to delineate di..erent )age areas that %an 'e 1reser+ed onl3 '3 redu%ing to a minimum the mo+ements o. la'our 1o)er .rom one area to the other*2B The %hains o. +alorisation %ross a multi1li%it3 o. )age areas, national and intranational, using those di..erentials 1ro.ita'l3* elo%alisation ma>es the di..eren%e o. the intensit3 o. la'our and o. )age le+els %a1italisti%all3 1rodu%ti+e: that )ould not 'e 1ossi'le )ithout a 1oliti%al %ommand o+er the migrant .lo)s* These migrant .lo)s there.ore @ustl3 ran> highl3 among the .orms o. )or>ers? resistan%e to %ontrol and the .orms o. sel.0determination o. the )age against %a1ital* The migrant )or>ers are not 'are li.e 'ut la'our 1o)er that, +iolating the 'orders, tends to disru1t the di+ision o. la'our and national di..erentials o. )ages* The 1oli%ies o. regulation o. the migrant .lo)s, on the other hand, are e%onomi% 1oli%ies o. segmentation o. the la'our mar>et and o. the demar%ation o. )age di..erentials* !ll the %ontem1orar3 .orms o. the remo+al o. )age di..erentials should thus 'e in+estigated as su'@e%ti+e insurgen%ies in tension )ith )age la'our* !s i. the assem'l3 lines had e5ited .rom the .a%tor3 in order to underta>e a long )orld tour, the %hains o. +alorisation %ross the 'orders o. states, 1ro.iting .rom the national di..erentials o. )ages* In this %onte5t, 1oliti%al %ommand o+er the 'orders and %a1italist %ommand o+er la'our 1o)er are .used* The s1e%tral nature o. this inter)ea+ing is mani.ested in the 1oli%ies against migrants and in the detention %entres .or migrants, the so0%alled OCentres o. tem1orar3 sta3? C,entri di -ermanen"a !emporaneaD* In order to %om1rehend these 1ro%esses it is urgentl3 ne%essar3 to go 'a%> do)n into the la'oratories o. 1rodu%tion, in order to 'e a'le to %om1rehend the 1rodu%tion 1ro%ess o. +alorisation in a sna1 shot* &e must also, ho)e+er, .ree oursel+es .rom the %om.ort0'lan>et o. a teleologi%al 1hiloso1h3 o. histor3 not 3et dea%ti+ated in the notion o. Otenden%3?* There aren?t an3 short %uts* !ranslated by -eter !homas and %teven ,olatrella
2B There ha+e 'een attem1ts o. 1ra%ti%al inter+ention in this dire%tion in re%ent 3ears* !n element o. these %an 'e seen in 7aimondi and 7i%%iardi 200E* 2B
7e.eren%es
!ntono)a, I* 1/A2* (er -lat" des sechsten Fapitels 7esultate des unmittel'aren "rodu>tions1ro<esses in der %truktur des Fapitals, in X=eitr[ge <ur Mar50Engels04ors%hungY, n* 11* =ello.iore, 7* 200E* 'ar# and the 'acro/monetary *oundation of 'icroeconomics, in 7* =ello.iore and 9* Ta3lor CEdsD, !he ,onstitution of ,apital =ssay on 9olume I of 'ar#1s Ca1ital, Chi11enham and East'ourne, "algra+e* =adaloni, 9* 1/AE* -refa"ione, in L* Mar5, <isultati del processo di produ"ione immediato, 7oma* Cha>ra'art3, * 2000* -rovinciali"ing =urope -ostcolonial !hought and 7istorical (ifference, "rin%eton and O5.ord, "rin%eton Gni+ersit3 "ress* Chan, !* and Jiao3ang, ;* 2002* is%i1linar3 $a'our 7egimes in Chinese 4a%tor3 in ,ritical )sian %tudies, +ol* 2B, n*E* e !ngelis, M* 200B* 9alueHsK, 'easureHsK and (isciplinary 'arkets, in XThe CommonerY, n* 10, in htt1:--)))*%ommoner*org*u>-10deangelis*1d.* ussel, E* 1//0* =l ultimo 'ar# H1INO/1II2K y la liberacion latino americana, MP5i%o, Siglo JJI* 4inelli, 7* 200B* 0a scien"a del ,apitale come Qcircolo del presupposto/ postoR, in M* Musto CEd*D, %ulle tracce di un fantasma 01opera di Farl 'ar# tra filologia e filosofia, 7oma, mani.estoli'ri* (am'ino, 4* 2002* 'igranti nella tempesta )vvistamenti per l1ini"io del nuovo millennio, Verona, Om're Corte* Fe%>er, 7* 1//7* =infache ;arenproduktion, in &*04* Faug Ced*D, 7istorisch/Fritisches ;Srterbuch des 'ar#ismus =d* 2, Fam'urg, !rgument* Lauts>3, L* 1/72* F 'ar#1 Skonomische 0ehre, Stuttgart, 1A/2E, Italian translation '3 (* =a%>haus, Introdu"ione al pensiero economico di 'ar#, =ari* Marini, 7*M* 1//1* (ial2ctica de la dependencia, Edi%iones Era, MP5i%o* Mar5, L* and 4* Engels, ,ollected ;orks, $ondon, $a)ren%e R &ishart, 1/7B0200B C'=,;D* Mar5, L*-4* Engels, +esamtausgabe, hrsg* +on Institut .Mr Mar5ismus0 $eninismus, =erlin, iet< Verlag, 1/7B ss* C'=+)2D* Mar5, L* U 4* Engels, ;erke, E2 =de, =erlin, iet< Verlag, 1/AE0/0 C'=;D* Murra3, "* 2000* 'ar#8s 8!ruly %ocial8 0abor !heory of 9alue: -art II, 7ow is 0abour that Is Tnder the %way of ,apital )ctually )bstract?, in XFistori%al MaterialismY, 9o* 7 C2000D, 11* 2E2072* Murra3, "* 200E* The So%ial and Material Trans.ormation o. "rodu%tion '3 Ca1ital: 4ormal and 7eal Su'sum1tion in ,apital, 9olume 1, in 7i%%ardo =ello.iore and 9i%ola Ta3lor Cedited '3D, ,apital, !he ,onstitution of ,apital: =ssays on 9olume I of 'ar#1s Q,apitalR, =asingsto>e0Fam1shire, "algra+e Ma%millan* 9egri, !* 1//A* Introdu"ione alla nuova edi"ione, in !* 9egri, 'ar# oltre 'ar#, 7oma, mani.estoli'ri* 9egri, !* and Fardt M* 2000* =mpire, Far+ard Gni+ersit3 "ress*
28
7aimondi, 4* and 7i%%iardi, M* Ceds*D* 200E* 0avoro migrante =sperien"a e prospettiva, 7oma, eri+e!11rodi* Sa%%hetto, * 200E* Il 5ordest e il suo .riente 'igranti, capitali e a"ioni umanitarie, Verona, Om're Corte* Tronti, M* 1/88* .perai e capitale, Torino, Einaudi* ;anin, V* 2002* %tudi sul lavoro coatto contemporaneo, "ado+a, C$EG"*
27
! Criti6ue o. the 4ordism o. the 7egulation S%hool
4erru%%io (am'ino1
Introdu%tion
Some o. the %ategories that 1eo1le ha+e used in re%ent 3ears to des%ri'e the %hanges ta>ing 1la%e in the )orld o. 1rodu%tion, su%h as 4ordism, 1ost04ordism and immaterial 1rodu%tion, ha+e sho)n themsel+es to 'e rather 'lunt instruments*2 Fere I intend to deal )ith the use o. the %on%e1ts 4ordism and 1ost04ordism '3 the regulation s%hool, )hi%h has gi+en a 1arti%ular t)ist to the .ormer term, and )hi%h %oined e# novo the latter* The aim o. m3 arti%le is to hel1 'rea> the %on.li%t0e5%luding s1ell under )hi%h the regulation s%hool has su%%eeded in %asting 4ordism and 1ost04ordism* 4rom mid)a3 through the 1/70s, as a result o. the )ritings o. Mi%hel !glietta2 and then o. other e51onents o. the regulation s%hool,
1 The English +ersion o. this 1a1er a11eared in 1//8 in ,ommon %ense no* 1/ and )as su'se6uentl3 1u'lished as a %ha1ter in &erner =one.eld CedD, <evolutionary ;riting: ,ommon %ense =ssa ys In -ost/-olitical -olitics ;riting, 9e) Hor>, !utonomedia, 2 002* 4or a timel3 %riti6ue o. the term immaterial 1rodu%tion, see Sergio =olo gna, "ro'lemati%he del la+oro autonomo in Italia C"art ID, )ltreragioni, no* 1 C1//2D, 11* 10027* Mi%hel !glietta, C1/7ED, )ccumulation et r2gulation du capitalisme en longue p2riode 01e#emple des =tats Tnis H1I70/1B70K, "aris, I9SEE, 1/7EK the se%ond 4ren%h edition has the title <2gulation et crises du capitalisme, "aris, Calmann0 $P+3, 1/78K English translation, ) !heory of ,apitalist <egulation: the T% =#perience, $ondon and 9e) Hor>, Verso, 1/7/K in 1/A7 there .ollo)ed a se%ond English edition .rom the same 1u'lisher* The lin> 'et)een the %ategor3 2/
2 2
in%luding =o3er, Coriat and $i1iet<, 4ordism 'egan to ta>e on a neutral meaning, due in 1art to a degree o. sli1shod historiogra1h3, 'ut also to the redu%tion o. mo+ements o. so%ial %lasses into mere a'stra%tion*E &hen the3 use the term 4ordism, the regulation s%hool are re.erring essentiall3 to a s3stem o. 1rodu%tion 'ased on the assem'l3 line, )hi%h is %a1a'le o. relati+el3 high industrial 1rodu%ti+it3*B The regulationists? attention is dire%ted not so mu%h to the )ell0 do%umented in.le5i'ilit3 o. the 4ordist 1ro%ess o. 1rodu%tion, to the ne%essar3 des>illing o. the )or>.or%e, to the rigidit3 o. 4ordism?s stru%ture o. %ommand and its 1rodu%ti+e and so%ial hierar%h3, nor to the .orms and %ontents o. industrial %on.li%t generated )ithin it, 'ut to the regulation o. relations o. 1rodu%tion '3 the state, o1erating as a lo%us o. mediation and institutional re%on%iliation 'et)een so%ial .or%es* I shall call this interpretation Qregulationist *ordismR, and shall use Qpre/trade union *ordismR to refer to the sense in which *ordism
o. 4ordism and that o. 1ost04ordism ma3 'e %onsidered the term neo0 4ordism, 1ro1osed '3 Christian "alloi5 t)o 3ears a.ter the 1u'li%ation o. the .irst edition o. !glietta?s 'oo>* C.* Christian "alloi5, $e 1ro%Ps du tra+ail* u .ordisme au neo0.ordisme, 0a -ens2e no* 1AB C4e'ruar3 1/78D, 11* 27080, a%%ording to )hom neo04ordism re.ersto the ne) %a1italist 1ra%ti%e o. @o' enri%hment and @o' re%om1osition as a res1onse to ne) re6uirements in the management o. )or>.or%es* 4or the regulationist inter1retation o. 4ordism 1rior to 1//1, see the .undamental +olume edited '3 &erner =one.eld and #ohn Follo)a3, -ost/ *ordism and %ocial *orm: ) 'ar#ist (ebate on the -ost/*ordist %tate, $ondon, Ma%millan, 1//1, )hi%h %ontains the 1rin%i1al 'i'liogra1hi%al re.eren%es .or the de'ate* 4or the regulation s%hool see, among others, the .ollo)ing )or>s: 7o'ert =o3er, 0a th2orie de la r2gulation: une analyse criti$ue, "aris, $a P%ou+erte, 1/A8K 7o'ert =o3er Ced*D, ,apitalismes fin de si2cle, "aris, "resses Gni+ersitaires de 4ran%e, 1/A8K !lain $i1iet<, To)ards (lo'al 4ordismI, 5ew 0eft <eview no* 122 CMar%h0!1ril 1/A2D, 11* 220E7K !lain $i1iet<, Im1erialism as the =east o. the !1o%al31se, ,apital and ,lass, no* 22 CS1ring 1/AED, 11* A1010/K !lain $i1iet<, =ehind the Crisis: the E5haustion o. a 7egime o. !%%umulation* ! O7egulation S%hool "ers1e%ti+e? on Some 4ren%h Em1iri%al &or>s, <eview of <adical -olitical =conomy , +ol* 1A, no* 102 C1/A8D, 11* 12022K !lain $i1iet<, 'irages and 'iracles: the ,risis of +lobal *ordism, $ondon, Verso, 1/A7K !lain $i1iet<, 4ordism and 1ost04ordism in &* Outh)aite and Tom =ottomore Ceds*D, !he :lackwell (ictionary of !wentieth/ ,entury %ocial !hought, O5.ord, =la%>)ell, 1//2, 11* 220021K =en@amin Coriat, -enser U l1envers !ravail et or ganisation dans l1entreprise japonaise, "aris, Christian =ourgois, 1//1K Italian translation, <ipensare l1organi""a"ione del lavoro ,oncetti e prassi del modello giapponese, =ari, edalo, 1//1, )ith introdu%tion and translation '3 Mirella (iannini* I sa3 relati+el3 high 1rodu%ti+it3 'e%ause the assem'l3 line has not al)a3s 1rodu%ed results* 4or e5am1le, the So+iet 4ordism o. the .irst t)o .i+e03ear 1lans C1/2A022, 1/22027D )as the o'@e%t o. some e51erimentation, 1arti%ularl3 on the assem'l3 lines o. the (or>i auto .a%tor3 C than>s in 1art to the te%hni%al su11ort o. 4ord te%hni%iansD, 'ut 1rodu%ti+it3 turned out to 'e a'out B0 1er %ent lo)er than that o. 4ord?s GS .a%tor3 * C.* #ohn "* Fardt and (eorge * Follida3, Te%hnolog3 Trans.er and Change in the So+iet E%onomi% S3stem, in 4rederi% #* 4leron, #r*, !echnology and ,ommunist ,ulture:the %ocio/,ultural Impact of !echnology under %ocialism, 9e) Hor> and $ondon, "raeger,1/77, 11* 1A20222*
E0
) ,riti$ue of the *ordism of the <egulation %chool
was generally understood in =urope from the early 1B20s to the 1BN0s N
7egulationist 4ordism
In )hat .ollo)s I shall outline 'rie.l3 the 1eriodisation )hi%h the in+entors o. the regulationist notion o. 4ordism ha+e gi+en their idea, 'e%ause this is %ru%ial i. )e are to understand the )a3s in )hi%h it is semanti%all3 distin%t .rom 1re0trade union 4ordismK I shall then s>et%h the 'asi% %hara%teristi%s o. the latter* !%%ording to the regulation s%hool, 4ordism 1enetrated the +ital ganglia o. the GS engineering industr3 and 'e%ame its %atal3sing .or%e in a 1eriod that is unde.ined, 'ut 1resuma'l3 in the 1/20s, deli+ering high )ages and a%ting as the %utting edge o. the mass %onsum1tion o. %onsumer dura'les* Fa+ing 1assed through the mill o. the (reat e1ression and the Se%ond &orld &ar, 4ordism then 1ro+ided the 'asis .or the e51ansion o. Le3nesian e..e%ti+e demand in the Gnited States, )here it 1ro+ided the under1inning .or a )el.are regime, and thus .or a sta'le glo'al so%ial re1rodu%tion, 1resuma'l3 .rom the end
8 In his 4ordism and 1ost04ordism, o1* %it*, 1* 220, $i1iet< maintains in%orre%tl3 that the term 4ordism )as %oined in the 1/20s '3 the Italian Mar5ist !ntonio (rams%i and '3 the =elgian so%ialist Fenri de Man* $i1iet< is o'+iousl3 re.erring to !meri%anismo e .ordi smo C1/2ED in !ntonio (rams%i, Vuaderni del carcere, +ol* 2* ed* Valentino (erratana, Torino, Einaudi, 1/7B, 11* 21270A1, a series o. notes in )hi%h (rams%i ta>es a%%ount, among other things, o. a 'oo> '3 de Man )hi%h does not dire%tl3 dis%uss 4ordism* The .irst edition o. de Man?s )or> a 11eared in (erman3 in 1/28: Fendri> de Man, >ur psychologie des %o"ialismus, #ena, E* iederi%hs, 1/28 and, a.ter a 1artial 4ren%h translation )hi%h a11eared in =russels in 1/27, a %om1lete translation )as 1u'lished under the title o. )u delU du 'ar#isme, "aris, !l%an, 1/2/, 'ased on the se%ond (erman edition 1u'lished '3 iederi%hs C1/27D* 4or his 1rison notes on !meri%anism and 4ordism, (rams%i had the Italian translation o. the 4ren%h edition 1u'lished '3 !l%an: Fenri de Man, Il superamento del mar #ismo, =ari, $ater<a, 1/2/* In Euro1e the term 4ordism 1re0dates de Man and (rams%i, and )as alread3 in use in the earl3 1/20sK %.* in 1arti%ular 4riedri%h +on (ottl0Ottlilien.eld, *ordismus? -araphrasen Mber das 9erhDltnis von ;irtschaft und !echnischer 9ernunft bei 7enry *ord und *rederick ; !aylor, #ena, (usta+ 4is%her, 1/2EK F* Sin<heimer, $?Euro1a e l?idea di demo%ra<ia e%onomi%a C 1/2BD, Vuaderni di a"ione sociale JJJIJ, no* 2 C1//ED, 11* 710E, edited and translated ' 3 Sandro Me<<adra, )hom I than> .or this re.eren%e* In his arti%le %ited a'o+e, $i1iet< states e6uall3 erroneousl3 that in the 1/80s the term )as redis%o+ered '3 a num'er o. Italian Mar5ists C7* "an<ieri, M* Tronti, !* 9egriD* In Ital3 the dis %ussion o. 4ordism )as addressed, ta>ing a %riti%al distan%e .rom (rams%i, in the +olume o. 7omano !l6uati?s )ritings, %ulla *I)! e altri scritti , Milano, 4eltrinelli, 1/7B, )hi%h 'rought together te5ts .rom the 1eriod 1/8101/87, and in the +olume '3 Sergio =ologna, (eorge "* 7a)i%> , Mauro (o''ini, !ntonio 9egri, $u%iano 4errari0=ra+o and 4erru%%io (am'ino, .perai e %tato: 0otte operaie e riforma dello stato capitalistico tra rivolu"ione d1.ttobre e 5ew (eal, Milano, 4eltrinelli, 1/72, )hi%h %ontained the 1ro%eedings o. a %on.eren%e held in "ado+a in 1/87* E1
o. the 1/E0s on)ards* In the 1/B0s, this s3stem o. 1rodu%tion is seen as rea%hing out .rom the Gnited States to)ards the %ountries o. &estern Euro1e, and #a1an* !%%ording to the regulationist 1eriodisation, there.ore, the high season o. 4ordism a%tuall3 turns out to 'e rather 'rie., sin%e it %on+ergesZal'eit onl3 on 1a1erZ)ith Le3nesianism at a'out the end o. the 1/20sK then it 'e%omes a %on%rete realit3 at the start o. the 1/B0s, and lasts through to the end o. the 1/80s, )hen it goes into irre+ersi'le %risis* In their +ie), that 1oint sees the o1ening o. the 1eriodZthrough )hi%h )e are still 1assingZo. 1ost04ordism* The regulation s%hool %an @usti.ia'l3 %laim %redit .or the inter1retation )hi%h asso%iates trans.ormations in the 1ro%esses o. +alorisation )ith %hanges ta>ing 1la%e in the so%io01oliti%al s1here, and +i%e0+ersa* It )as to ma>e this 1osition its o)n, and de+elo1ed it )ith %ontri'utions on the state a11aratus and its relations )ith modern and %ontem1orar3 %a1ital, in the )ritings o. Firs%h and 7oth in (erman3 and #esso1 in =ritain*7 !%%ording to #esso1, the regulation s%hool %om1rises .our 1rin%i1al dire%tions o. resear%h*A The .irst dire%tion, initiated '3 !glietta, studies regimes o. a%%umulation and models o. gro)th a%%ording to their e%onomi% determinations, and it a11lied its .irst inter1retati+e s%hema to the Gnited States* Other studies loo>ed at state e%onomi% .ormationsZ sometimes to e5amine the s1read o. 4ordism in a gi+en %onte5t, and sometimes to .ollo) the 1arti%ular %ir%umstan%es o. its de+elo1mentZ inde1endentl3 .rom the 6uestion o. the insertion or other)ise o. those states )ithin the international e%onomi% %ir%uit* The se%ond dire%tion %on%entrates on the international e%onomi% dimensions o. regulation* It studies the +arious 1arti%ular models o. international regulation, as )ell as the .orm and e5tent o. the %om1lementarit3 'et)een di..erent national models o. gro)th* This in+ol+es e5amining su'@e%ts su%h as the in%lusion and-or e5%lusion o. state and regional .ormations .rom the e%onomi% order, and the tenden%ies to autar%hi% %losure and-or internationalisti% o1enness o. gi+en %ountries* The third dire%tion anal3ses the o+erall models o. the so%ial stru%tures o. a%%umulation at national le+el* 7e1rodu%tion o. so%iet3 de1ends on an ensem'le o. institutionall3 mediated 1ra%ti%es )hi%h
7 See in 1arti%ular, in &erner =one.eld and #ohn Follo)a3 Ceds*D -ost/*ordism and %ocial *orm, o1* %it*, the essa3 '3 #oa%him Firs%h, 4ordism and 1o st0 4ordism: The "resent So%ial Crisis and its Conse6uen%es, 11* A02E, and the t)o essa3s '3 =o' #esso1, 7egulation Theor3, "ost04ordism and the State: More than a 7e1l3 to &erner =one.eld, 11* 8/0/1K and "olar =ears and Class Struggle: Mu%h $ess than a Sel.0Criti%ism, 11* 1EB08/, )hi%h %ontain .urther 'i'liogra1hi%al re.eren%es* =o' #esso1, 7egulation Theor3, "ost04ordism and the State, o1* %it*, 11* A70A*
A E2
guarantee at least a degree o. %orres1onden%e 'et)een di..erent stru%tures and a 'alan%e o. %om1romise 'et)een so%ial .or%es* This strand o. regulationism de+otes 1arti%ular attention to the %ategories o. state and hegemon3, )hi%h it %onsiders to 'e %entral elements o. so%ial regulation* The .ourth strand, the least de+elo1ed o. the .our, studies the interde1enden%es o. emerging international stru%tures, and +arious attem1ts to la3 the 'asis o. a )orld order through international institutions C)hi%h the regulationists %all regimesD aimed at esta'lishing or re0esta'lishing an international order* 9o), e+en .rom this summar3 listing o. the regulation s%hool?s 1rin%i1al themes it 'e%omes o'+ious that the %entre o. gra+it3 o. its interests lies in the anal3sis not so mu%h o. the so%ial relations o. 1rodu%tion, 'ut rather o. the e%onomi%-state institutions )hi%h o+ersee them* In short, the regulation school stresses the permanence of structures, and tends to overlook human subjects, their changes and what is happening to them with the disorganisation and reorganisation of social relations 4rom the start regulationism has 'een .as%inated '3 the sta3ing 1o)er o. GS %a1ital 1ost01/8A, des1ite the Gnited States? de.eat in Vietnam* !%%ording to the regulationists, in the 1eriod a.ter &orld &ar II one has to grant the GS the dominant im1erialist 1osition/: it there.ore 'e%omes ne%essar3 to understand ho), and thanks to what institutions its stru%tures and those o. its allied industrial %ountries maintained their sta'ilit3* &ithin this h31othesis there is an underl3ing assum1tion, in )hi%h &estern institutions are seen as remaining solid Ce5tremel3 solid in the %ase o. the GSD, )hile not onl3 the institutions o. the la'our mo+ement, 'ut also li+ing la'our 1o)er as a )hole a11ear as ines%a1a'l3 su'@ugated to the unsto11a'le mar%h o. a%%umulation: in short, in the medium and long term %a1ital?s statel3 1rogress is destined to %ontinue, )hile its a1orias melt on the hori<on* Thus it 'e%omes a 6uestion o. stud3ing the la)s '3 )hi%h &estern %a1ital has su%%eeded in 1er1etuating itsel.* It )as .rom )ithin this .rame)or> that Mi%hel !glietta?s 'oo>10 emerged, in the 3ear .ollo)ing the .irst oil 1ri%e sho%>, )hi%h )as also the 3ear o. &ashington?s 1oliti%al and militar3 de.eat in Vietnam*
#oa%him Firs%h, 4ordism and "ost04ordism: The "resent So%ial Crisis and its Conse6uen%es, o1* %it*, 1* 1B* 10 Mi%hel !glietta C1/7ED, )ccumulation et r2gulation du capitalisme en longue p2riode =#emple des =tats Tnis H1I70/1B70K, "aris, I9SEE, 1/7E* E2
The Gn%ertain Contours o. 7egulationist "ost04ordism

4or the regulation s%hool, 1ost04ordism is li>e a %r3stal 'all in )hi%h, lea+ing aside the still not %om1letel3 .oreseea'le %onse6uen%es o. mole%ular and geneti% te%hnolog3 it is 1ossi'le to read some signs o. the .uture* "arti%ularl3 in the ne) in.ormation te%hnolog3, in tele%ommuni%ations and in data 1ro%essing te%hnologies, all o. )hi%h %ould 'e%ome the 'asis .or a h31erindustrialisation, the3 see a 1otential .or re+olution in the )orld o. 1rodu%tion* 7adi%all3 trans.orming )or> and .ragmenting the Ta3lorist mass )or>er, the ele%troni% re+olution restrati.ies la'our 1o)er and di+ides it into a relati+el3 restri%ted u11er le+el o. the su1er0s>illed, and a massi+e lo)er le+el o. ordinar3 1ost04ordist doers and e5e%utors* In short, it se1arates and di+ides la'our 1o)er hierar%hi%all3 and s1atiall3 and ends '3 'rea>ing the .rame)or> o. %olle%ti+e 'argaining* 11 !s a result the rh3thm o. a%%umulation 'e%omes more intense, and there o1ens a 1ers1e%ti+e o. a long 1eriod o. %a1italism )ithout o11ositionZa turbo/ capitalismZ)ith a 1oliti%al sta'ilit3 that is 1reser+ed inta%t* The 1ost0 4ordist )or>er o. the regulation s%hool a11ears as an indi+idual )ho is atomised, .le5i'ilised, in%reasingl3 non0union, >e1t on lo) )ages and ines%a1a'l3 in @o's that are al)a3s 1re%arious* The state no longer guarantees to %o+er the material %osts o. re1rodu%tion o. la'our 1o)er, and o+ersees a %ontra%tion o. )or>ers? %onsum1tion* In the o1inion o. the regulation s%hool it )ould 'e hard to imagine a more %om1lete o+erturning o. so0%alled 4ordist %onsumerism, )ithin )hi%h, it is %laimed, the )or>.or%e )as allegedl3 1ut into %onditions o. )age em1lo3ment )hi%h )ould ena'le them to 'u3 the %onsumer dura'les that the3 %reated* I. )e then loo> at the dis%ontinuit3 'et)een 4ordism and 1ost0 4ordism, it seems to deri+e .rom the .ailure o. t)o essential %onditions: the mode o. %a1italist a%%umulation and the .ailure to ad@ust mass %onsum1tion to the in%rease in 1rodu%ti+it3 generated '3 intense a%%umulation*12 In the golden 3ears .ollo)ing the Se%ond &orld &ar, these t)o %onditions had 'een satis.ied* 4ordism mo'ilised industrial %a1a%ities at 'oth the e5tremes o. high s>illed and lo) s>illed la'our, )ithout the s3stem 'eing desta'ilised '3 this 1olarisationK satis.a%tor3 1ro.its )ere 1rodu%ed .rom mass %onsum1tion, )hi%h >e1t 1a%e )ith gro)ing in+estments*12 !s .rom the 1/80s, these t)in %onditions )ere no longer gi+en, 'e%ause in+estments in the %ommodit301rodu%ing
11 #oa%him Firs%h, 4ordism and "ost04ordism: The "resent So%ial Crisis and its Conse6uen%es, 11* 2B08* 12 !lain $i1iet<, To)ards (lo 'al 4ordism, 5ew 0eft <eview, no* 122 CMar%h0!1ril 1/A2D, 11* 220E7* 12 Ibid , 11* 2B08* EE
se%tor in the industrialised %ountries gre) more than 1rodu%ti+it3, generating a %risis )hi%h %a1ital then attem1ted to resol+e '3 see>ing out 1rodu%tion o1tions and mar>et outlets in the Third &orld* !%%ording to the regulationists the %onse6uen%es at the so%ial le+el are enormous* The in.luen%e o. the state is redu%ed in so%iet3K the state is 1ared 'a%>K the ma@orit3 se%tor o. the non01ri+ileged %uts 'a%> on its standard o. li+ing in order to organise its o)n sur+i+alK there is no sign o. ne) aggregations arising out o. the ashes o. the old organisations and %a1a'le o. e51ressing a %olle%ti+e solidarit3* 4or the regulationists, stri>es, %am1aigns and %on.li%ts at the 1oint o. 1rodu%tion are seen in terms o. a 1re01oliti%al s1e%trum )hi%h ranges 'et)een interesting %uriosities Cto )hi%h uni+ersit3 resear%h %annot 'e e51e%ted to 1a3 attentionD and residual 1henomena*
The To3oto1hile Variant

The 1ro1onents o. the ad+ent o. 1ost04ordism dis%o+ered To3otism as a +ariant o. 1ost04ordism to)ards the end o. the 1/A0s*1E In the 1/80s, the &est 'egan 'elatedl3 to ta>e a%%ount o. the e51ansion o. #a1anese %a1italism*1B !t that time it )as understood as a 1henomenon )hi%h %om'ined shre)d %ommer%ial strategies )ith an endemi% %on.ormism and inade6uate so%ial 1oli%ies*18 On the $e.t there )ere some )hoZ %orre%tl3, and 'e.ore their timeZsa) in #a1anese e51ansion ne) hegemoni% tem1tations .or #a1an in East !sia*17 Some 3ears later, an admirer o. the %ountr3?s rate o. e%onomi% gro)th dre) attention to the regular in%rease in #a1an?s standard o. li+ing and the )a3 in )hi%h the #a1anese a'sor'ed the oil 1ri%e sho%>s o. the 1/80s*1A There )ere also those )ho issued )arnings a'out the regimentation o. #a1anese so%iet3, and a'out its in%i1ient re.usal o. the rules di%tated '3 the &est*1/ Mean)hile there )as something o. a .ashion .or #a1anese
1E On this de+elo1ment, %.* the re+ie) '3 (iuse11e =ona<<i, $a s%o1erta del modello gia11onese nelle so%ietT o%%identali, %tato e 'ercato, no* 2/ C e%em'er 1//2D, 11* E27088, )hi%h dis%usses the +ariousl3 %riti%al re%e1tion o. the #a1anese model )ithin &estern so%iolog3K more 'rie.l3 and in more general terms, %.* "ierre04ran\ois Sou3ri, Gn nou+eau 1aradigmeI, )nnales, +ol* E/, no* 2 CMa30#une 1//ED, 11* B02010* 1B 7o'ert (uillain, Japon, troisi2me grand, "aris, Seuil, 1/8/K Ferman Lahn, !he =merging Japanese %uperstate,Minnea1olis, Minn*, Fudson Institute, 1/70* 18 7o'ert =ro%hier, 0e miracle 2conomi$ue japonais, "aris, Calmann0$P+3, 1/70* 17 #on Fallida3 and a+id M%Corma%>, Japanese Imperialism !oday: ,o/prosperity in +reater =ast )sia, Farmonds)orth, "enguin, 1/72* 1A E<ra Vogel, Japan as 5umber .ne: 0essons for )merica, Cam'ridge, Mass*, Far+ard Gni+ersit3 "ress, 1/7/* 1/ Larel Van &ol.eren, !he =nigma of Japanese -ower , 9e) Hor>, 9*H*, Lno1., 1/A/* EB
authors )ho su11lied the &est )ith du'ious 'ut eas3 e51lanations o. the rise o. #a1an on the 'asis o. its %ultural and religious )a3s o. li.e*20 In the 1/A0s the de'ate entered the 1u'li% domain )ith the 1u'li%ation o. a num'er o. im1ortant )or>s on #a1an?s e%onomi% stru%tures, des1ite the gro)ing hostilit3 o. &estern %ommer%ial interests and su'se6uent gratuitous atta%>s on the #a1anese industrial s3stem in the media*21 Fo)e+er, still in the 1/A0s, a num'er o. studies '3 #a1anese e%onomists and so%iologists that had 'een translated into English )ent almost uno'ser+ed*22 E+en the 'oo> '3 the main in+entor and 1ro1agator o. the )ord To3otism, Tai?i%hi Ohno, 22 )as onl3 translated and distri'uted in the &est at the end o. the 1/A0s, at a 1oint )hen the )orld o. #a1anese industr3 )as 'e%oming one o. the >e3 .o%uses .or dis%ussions o. industrial 1rodu%ti+it3* In the earl3 1//0s, than>s 1rin%i1all3 to the 'oo> '3 Coriat,2E in %ontinental Euro1e too the .o%us o. the de'ate on #a1anese industr3 shi.ted .rom %ultural moti+ations to 'usiness strategiesK other earlier and )orth)hile %ontri'utions had aroused less interest* !%%ording to Coriat, the lessons emanating .rom the To3ota .a%tories introdu%ed a ne) 1aradigm o. 1rodu%ti+it3, )hose im1ortan%e )as %om1ara'le to those o. Ta3lorism and 4ordism in their time* !hus !oyotism comes into the limelight in the guise of a post/*ordism that is complete and by now inevitable To3otism is seen as the .ul.ilment o. a tenden%3 to a ne) .orm o. rationalisation, a rationalisation )hi%h had %ertainl3 da)ned )ith the %ategor3 o. 1ost04ordism, 'ut )hi%h, in the &est, had a11eared +ague, not 3et ta>ing %on%rete .orm in a s1e%i.i% .orm o. 1rodu%tion and a %onsolidated so%ial s1a%e* In To3otism ho)e+er, )e are told '3 Coriat, 1ost04ordism is realised not onl3 as an ensem'le o. attem1ts to rationalise and redu%e 1rodu%tion %osts, 'ut also as a ma@or e51eriment in ne) and more ad+an%ed relations o. 1rodu%tionZ
20 Chie 9a>ane, Japanese %ociety, $ondon, &eiden.eld R 9i%holson, 1/70K Italian translation, 0a societU giapponese, Milan, Cortina* Mi%hio Morishima, ;hy 7as Japan Q%ucceededR?, Cam'ridge, Cam'ridge Gni+ersit3 "ressK Italian translation, ,ultura e technologia nel successo giapponese, =ologna, Il Mulino, 1/AE* 21 #ean0$ou1 $esage, 0es grands soci2t2s de commerce au Japon, les %hosha, "aris, "G4K Chalmers #ohnson, 'I!I and the Japanese 'iracle: the growth of industrial policy, 1B2W/7W, To>3o, Tuttle, 1/A8* 22 Masahi>o !o>i, !he =conomic )nalysis of the Japanese *irm, !msterdam, Else+ier, 1/AEK La<uo Loi>e, Tnderstanding Industrial <elations in 'odern Japan, $ondon, Ma%millan, 1/AA* 22 Tai?i%hi Ohno, !oyota %eisan 7oshiki VThe To3ota "rodu%tion MethodW, iamond Sha, 1/7AK English translation, !he !oyota -roduction %ystem: :eyond 0arge/ scale -roduction, "rodu%ti+it3 "ress, Cam'ridge, Mass*K 4ren%h translation, 01esprit !oyota, "aris, Masson, 1/A/K Italian translation, 0o spirito toyota, Torino, Einaudi, 1//2* 2E =en@amin Coriat, -enser U l1envers !ravail et organisation dans l1entreprise japonaise, "aris, Christian =ourgois, 1//1K Italian tranlation, <ipensare l1organi""a"ione del lavoro* ,oncetti e prassi del modello giapponese, =ari, edalo, 1//1* E8
in .a%t o. a ne) so%ialit3 )hi%h might 1re.igure ne) .orms o. industrial demo%ra%3* In Coriat?s 'oo> the &est remains in the 'a%>ground, 'ut i. )e trans.erred our attention .rom the deli%ate 'alan%e o. 1rodu%ti+it3 in #a1an to its Euro1ean +ariant, the di..use .a%tor3, )e )ould .ind an in.ormal To3otism alread3 o1erating there, 'ased on indi+idual )or> %ontra%ts* 4or e5am1le, in the %ele'rated Italian industrial distri%ts, )e )ould .ind the em1lo3ers in the di..use .a%tor3 attem1ting to set u1 indi+idual relationshi1s )ith their )or>ers in order to 'rea> do)n s3stems o. %olle%ti+e 'argaining* !%%ording to the To3otist +ulgate, the ne) s3stem o. 1rodu%ti+it3 emerged 1rin%i1all3 as a result o. endogenous demand .a%tors during and a.ter the 'oom o. the Lorean &ar C1/B00B2D, as @ust0in0time 1rodu%tion, and thus in large 1art as an attem1t to redu%e lead times and %ut the )or>.or%e*2B &hat is ne) a'out To3otism is essentiall3 the elements o. @ust0 in0time 1rodu%tion and 1rom1t rea%tion to mar>et re6uirementsK the im1osition o. multi0@o''ing on )or>ers em1lo3ed on se+eral ma%hines, either simultaneousl3 or se6uentiall3K 6ualit3 %ontrol throughout the entire .lo) o. 1rodu%tionK real0time in.ormation on the 1rogress o. 1rodu%tion in the .a%tor3K in.ormation )hi%h is 'oth %a1illar3 and .iltered in an authoritarian sense, in su%h a )a3 as to %reate so%ial em'arrassment and drama in the e+ent o. in%idents )hi%h are harm.ul to 1rodu%tion* "rodu%tion %an 'e interru1ted at an3 moment, thus %alling to a%%ount a gi+en )or>0team, or de1artment, or e+en the )hole .a%tor3* !n3 )or>er )ho sho)s a )aged0)or>er?s indi..eren%e to the %om1an3?s 1rodu%ti+it3 re6uirements, and there.ore de%ides not to @oin 6ualit3 %ontrol grou1s et%, is stigmatised and en%ouraged to lea+e* 4rom Coriat )e learn that in the inter1la3 o. demo%ra%3 and ostra%ism, the grou1 ma3 en@o3 a measure o. demo%ra%3, 'ut the 1erson stigmatised )ill %ertainl3 en@o3 ostra%ism* In the interests o. %om1rehensi+eness, in his des%ri1tion o. the )onders o. To3otism Coriat28 de+otes a la%oni% note to Sato%hi Lamata, the )riter )ho )ent to )or> in To3ota in 1/72 and )hose e51erien%es )ere re.le%ted in the title o. his 'oo>: !oyota, the *actory of (espair*27 To3otism has a num'er o. ad+antages .or the regulation s%hool as regards &estern managerial 1ers1e%ti+es, e+en though the #a1anese ad+antage in 1rodu%ti+it3 is sho)ing itsel. to 'e tenuous, des1ite the 1ro1agandisti% aura that has surrounded it in the &est* 2A
2B =en@amin Coriat, <ipensare l1organi""a"ione del lavoro, o1* %it*, 11* 2202* 28 Ibid , 1* AB* 27 Sato%hi Lamata, !oyota, l1usine du d2sespoir, "aris, Editions Ou+iriPres, 1/78K English translation, Japan in the -assing 0ane: Insider1s )ccount of 0ife in a Japanese )uto *actory , 9e) Hor>, 9*H*, Gn)in F3man, 1/AE* =3 the same author, 01envers du 'iracle, "aris, Mas1Pro, 1/A0* 2A 7a3 and Cindel3n E'erts, !he 'yths of Japanese Vuality,G11er Saddle, 9*#*, E7
4irst o. all, it is an e51eriment that is geogra1hi%all3 remote and %ommer%iall3 su%%ess.ul, inasmu%h as it de.ines a route to a%%umulation Cal'eit in %on@un%tures that are 'oth 1re0)ar and )ar0 'ased, and not at all in %onditions o. 1ea%e, as the enthusiasts o. To3otism )ould li>e to ha+e us 'elie+eD* In the se%ond 1la%e, To3otist methods seem to %ontradi%t the gro)ing 1ro%ess o. indi+idualisation, )hi%h is o.ten gi+en as the reason .or the endemi% resistan%e .rom &estern )or>.or%es to massi.i%ation and regimentation* Thirdl3, To3otism is the 'earer o. a 1rogramme o. tertiarisation o. the )or>.or%e, the so0%alled )hitening o. the 'lue0%ollar )or>er, )hi%h, )hile it a%tuall3 onl3 in+ol+es a rather limited minorit3 o. )or>ers, nonetheless %on+erges )ith the 1rognosis .or a dualisti% restrati.i%ation o. the )or>.or%e )hi%h the 1ost04ordists %onsider ine+ita'le*
"re0Trade Gnion 4ordism

&hat )as the realit3 o. 4ordism .or those )or>ers )ho e51erien%ed it at .irst handI "ut 'rie.l3, 4ordism is an authoritarian s3stem o. 1rodu%tion im1osed o'@e%ti+el3 '3 the assem'l3 line, o1erating on )ages and )or>ing %onditions )hi%h the )or>.or%e is not in a 1osition to negotiate %olle%ti+el3* "re0trade union 4ordism, )ith its use o. s1eed0u1, armed se%urit3 guards, 1h3si%al intimidation in the )or>1la%e and e5ternal 1ro1aganda, in the 1/20s and 1/20s )as one of the key elements in the slow construction of the world of concentration camps )hi%h 1ut out its %la)s initiall3 in Stalin?s So+iet Gnion and )hi%h )ould soon 1ut out %la)s in 9a<i (erman3 too* =3 the o11osite to>en, e+en during the e1ression, the GS )itnessed a %ontinued, and e+en strengthened, demo%rati% grass0roots )a3 o. doing things )hi%h aimed at the 'uilding o. the industrial union, and )hi%h laid siege to 4ordism, and 'rought it do)n* In the t)ent3 3ears 1re%eding the unionisation o. 4ord in 1/E1, the %om1an3?s managers and goon s6uads %ondu%ted anti0)or>er re1ression, )ith 'eatings, sa%>ings and 1u'li% relations o1erations* One da3 1erha1s )e )ill 'e a'le to 'e more detailed than Ir+ing =ernstein )hen, s1ea>ing o. the main 4ord 1lant o. that 1eriod, he )rote: The 7i+er 7ouge*** )as a giganti% %on%entration %am1 .ounded on .ear and 1h3si%al assault*2/ The .a%t is that the 4ordist mania .or 'rea>ing do)n the rh3thms o. human a%ti+it3 in order to %ri' and %on.ine it )ithin a rigid 1lan at the )orld)ide le+el )as de.eated in the Gnited States, 'ut in the meantime it had alread3 made its )a3 a%ross to a Euro1e that )as in
"renti%e Fall, 1//E* 2/ Ir+ing =ernstein, !urbulent Xears: ) 7istory of the )merican ;orker 1B OO/ 1BC1, =oston, Foughton Mi..lin, 1/8/, 1* 727* EA
.lames* One %ould argue that in the t)entieth %entur3 the assem'l3 line is, together )ith totalitarian state s3stems and ra%ist nationalism, one o. the originating stru%tures )hi%h 'roadl3 e51lain the %on%entration0%am1 %rimes 1er1etrated on an industrial s%ale* =3 this I mean that in 1re0trade union 4ordism, and in Ta3lorism 'e.ore it, there )as not alread3 %ontained in 1otentialit3 its o11osite: not the su1eriorit3 o. )or> to %a1ital as in !'raham $in%olnK nor the %onstru%tion o. the CIO industrial unionK nor the .all o. the ra%ism and male dominated di+ision o. la'ourK nor e+en less the right to stri>e* 4as%ism and 9a<ism )ere not in their origins the losing +ersions o. 4ordism, 'ut )ere .or%ed to 'e%ome su%h than>s to the so%ial and )or>ing0%lass struggles o. the 1/20s in the Gnited StatesZstruggles )hi%h had alread3 sto11ed a ruling %lass that )as set on a %ourse o. %or1oratist solutions at the time o. the .ormation o. the .irst 7oose+elt go+ernment in 1/22022* !s )e >no), in the Gnited States the assem'l3 line dates .rom )a3 'a%>* The 1ro%ess o. series 1rodu%tion o. dura'le goods in the t)entieth %entur3 )as 'uilt on the !meri%an S3stem o. Manu.a%tures, the method o. 1rodu%tion '3 inter%hangea'le 1arts )hi%h )as alread3 o1erating in GS industr3 in the nineteenth %entur3* 20 4ord?s e51eriment in his .a%tories is a %ru%ial moment in this series 1rodu%tion, inasmu%h as it a11lies it to a %onsumer dura'le, the motor %ar, )hi%h had 'een a lu5ur3 o'@e%t in the earl3 3ears o. this %entur3, e+en in the Gnited States* =3 so doing, 4ord stru%tured an in%reasingl3 'road0'ased and 1ressing %onsumer demand, )hi%h in its turn legitimated among 1u'li% o1inion the authoritarian measures so t31i%al o. the 4ord .a%tories in the 1eriod stret%hing .rom the earl3 1art o. the %entur3 to the e+e o. &orld &ar II* I use the )ord authoritarian ad+isedl3 to des%ri'e the 4ord e51eriment, 'e%ause in its )a3 it )as 'oth more authoritarian andZ es1e%iall3Zmore grounded than the 1ro1osals that had 'een ad+an%ed '3 4*&* Ta3lor t)ent3 3ears 1re+iousl3* The )or>er )ho )or>s .or 4ord is an indi+idual )ho 1rodu%es the means .or a multi1li%ation o. the 1oints o. %onta%t 'et)een indi+iduals, 21 'ut 1arado5i%all3 he 1rodu%es it 1re%isel3 than>s to his o)n im1risonment .or hours on end at the 1oint o. 1rodu%tion, )here he is de1ri+ed o. the right o. mo+ement to an e5tent hitherto unheard o., @ust as the )oman em1lo3ed on his dail3 re1rodu%tion is 'ound to the rh3thms o. industrial 1rodu%tion )hile at the same time %on.ined to the so%ial t)ilight o. domesti% la'our* The
20 a+id !* Founshell, *rom the )merican %ystem to 'ass -roduction H1I00/ 1BO2K, =altimore and $ondon, the #ohns Fo1>ins Gni+ersit3 "ress, 1 /AE* 21 Larl Mar5, +rundrisse: *oundations of the ,riti$ue of -olitical =conomy, Farmonds)orth, "enguin, 1/72, 1* 28B: So%iet3 does not %onsist o. indi+iduals, 'ut e51resses the sum o. interrelations, the relations )ithin )hi%h these indi+iduals stand* E/
)or>er is also de1ri+ed o. the right o. s1ee%h, 'e%auseZin this res1e%t 4ordist dis%i1lining goes one stage .urther than Ta3lorismZthe rh3thm o. his )or>ing da3 is set not so mu%h '3 dire%t +er'al orders .rom a su1erior, as '3 a 1re0ordained tem1o set '3 the .a%tor3?s ma%hiner3* Communi%ation and %onta%t )ith his 1eers )as minimised and the )or>er )as e51e%ted sim1l3 to res1ond automati%all3 and monotonousl3 to the 1a%e set '3 a totalitarian 1rodu%ti+e s3stem* =3 no means the least o. these .a%tors o. isolation )ere the linguisti% 'arriers )hi%h immigrant )or>ers 'rought as a gi.t to 4ord, and )hi%h the %om1an3 maintained and deli'eratel3 e5a%er'ated .or .our de%ades on end, .omenting 'itter in%om1rehensions and di+isions* These )ere lessened onl3 )ith the 1assing o. time, '3 dail3 %onta%t 'et)een )or>ers, '3 the e..e%ts o. the e1ression, and '3 the organisational e..ortsZa11arentl3 de.eated .rom the start, 'ut ne+ertheless unstintingZo. the minorit3 )ho .ought .or industrial unionism during the 1/20s and 1/20s* !s )e >no), right .rom its esta'lishment in 1/02, the 4ord Motor Com1an3 )ould not tolerate the 1resen%e o. trade unions: not onl3 the %ra.t unions or industrial unions, 'ut e+en 3ello) or %om1an3 unions* Trade unions remained outside the gates o. 4ord0GS! right u1 till 1/E1* &ages 'e%ame relati+el3 high .or a 1eriod )ith the .amous .i+e0dollar da3 in #anuar3 1/1E, 'ut onl3 .or those )or>ers )hom 4ord?s So%iologi%al e1artment a11ro+ed a.ter a minute ins1e%tion o. the intimate details o. their 1ersonal and .amil3 li+esZand then onl3 in 'oom 1eriods, )hen 4ord )as 1ressurised '3 the urgent need to sta'ilise a )or>.or%e )hi%h )as 6uitting its .a%tories 'e%ause o. the murderous le+els o. s1eed0u1*22 The 1lan .or total %ontrol o. )or>ers and their .amilies )ent into %risis a.ter !meri%a?s entr3 into the )ar in 1/17K thereu1on sur+eillan%e 'egan the more detailed use o. s1ies on the sho1 .loor* In the re%ession .ollo)ing on &orld &ar I, the )ages o. the other %om1anies )ere tending to %at%h u1 )ith )ages at 4ord, and 4ord set a'out dismantling the .orms o. )el.are ado1ted in the 1/10s* In 4e'ruar3 1/21, more than 20 1er %ent o. 4ord )or>ers )ere sa%>ed, and those )ho remained had to 'e %ontent )ith an in.lation0hit si5 dollars a da3 and .urther s1eed0u1s* 4ord?s su1rema%3 in the auto se%tor 'egan to %ra%> hal.)a3 through the 1/20s, )hen the managers at (eneral Motors Cin large 1art re.ugees .rom 4ord and its authoritarian methodsD, de.initi+el3 snat%hed 1rima%3 in the )orld o. auto 1rodu%tion* 7ather than 1ursuing undi..erentiated 1rodu%tion .or the multitudes, as Fenr3 4ord %alled them, (eneral Motors )on the 'attle in the name of
22 Ste1hen Me3er III, !he *ive (ollar (ay: 0abor 'anagement and %o cial ,ontrol in the *ord 'otor ,ompany, 1B0I/1B21, !l'an3, 9*H*, State Gni+ersit3 o. 9e) Hor> "ress, 1/A1, in 1arti%ular 11* /80202* B0
distinctiveness and individuation, 'roadening its range o. 1rodu%ts, di+ersi.3ing, and introdu%ing ne) models on a 3earl3 'asis* 4rom the end o. the 1/20s, and u1 till unionisation in 1/E1, the 4ord Motor Com1an3 )as to 'e notorious .or its )ages, )hi%h )ere lo)er e+en than the alread3 lo) )ages in the auto se%tor in general*22 The .a%t o. the %om1an3 ha+ing 'een o+erta>en '3 (eneral Motors, and 4ord?s .inan%ial di..i%ulties, )ere not su..i%ient to 'rea> 1re0trade union 4ordism in the Gnited States: it too>, .irst, the )or>ing0 %lass re+olts and the .a%tor3 sit0ins o. the 1/20s, and then the unionisation o. hea+3 industr3, to 'ring a'out the 1oliti%al en%ir%lement o. the other auto manu.a%turers, and, .inall3, o. 4ord, to the 1oint )here it e+entuall3 %a1itulated to the Gnited !uto &or>ers union .ollo)ing the 'ig stri>e in the S1ring o. 1/E1* "re0trade union 4ordism dissol+ed at the 1oint )hen, .a%ed )ith atta%>s '3 the %om1an3?s armed se%urit3 guards, the 1i%>eting stri>ers instead o. 'a%>ing do)n in%reased in num'ers and sa) them o..* It )as a moment )orth re%alling )ith the )ords o. Emil Ma<e3, one o. the main G!& organisers: It )as li>e seeing men )ho had 'een hal.0dead suddenl3 %ome to li.e*2E &ith the signing o. the .irst union %ontra%t in 1/E1, not onl3 did 4ord line u1 )ith the other t)o ma@ors in the auto industr3, (eneral Motors and Chr3sler, 'ut it e+en outdid them in %on%essions to the G!&* 4ord )as then sa+ed .rom 'an>ru1t%3 a se%ond time onl3 than>s to )ar orders .rom the go+ernment* !lread3 in the %ourse o. the Se%ond &orld &ar it had 'een attem1ting to strengthen the trade union a11aratus in the .a%tor3, to 'ring it into line )ith the %om1an3?s o'@e%ti+es* !s .rom 1/E8, a ne) 4ord management set a'out a long0 term strateg3 to %oo1t the G!& and turn it into an instrument o. %om1an3 integration* Thus )as 4ordism 'uried* I., '3 4ordism, )e mean an authoritarian s3stem o. series 1rodu%tion 'ased on the assem'l3 line, )ith )ages and %onditions o. )or> )hi%h the )or>.or%e is not in a 1osition to negotiate '3 trade union meansZ4ordism as it )as generall3 understood '3 la'our so%iologists in the 1/20s and 1/20sZthen *ordism was eliminated than>s to the struggles .or industrial unionism in the Gnited States in the 1/20s, )hi%h )ere %ro)ned '3 the im1osition o. %olle%ti+e 'argaining at 4ord in 1/E1* !s
22 #o3%e Sha) "eterson, )merican )utomobile ;orkers, 1B00/1BOO, !l'an3, 9*H*, State Gni+ersit3 o. 9e) Hor>, 1/A7* !s Samuel 7omer )rote in The etroit Stri>e, !he 5ation C+ol* 128, no* 2B2AD, 1B 4e'ruar3 1/22, 11* 1870A: The automo'ile industr3 is a seasonal one* The .a%tories slo) do)n 1rodu%tion during the .all months in order to 1re1are the ne) 3earl3 modelsK and the automo'ilie )or>er has to stret%h the Ohigh)ages? o. eight months to %o +er the .ull t)el+e0month 1eriod* C.* also M*&* $a 4e+er C1 /2/D, Insta'ilit3 o. Em1lo3ment in the !utomo'ile Industr3, 'onthly 0abor <eview, +ol* JJVIII, 11* 21E017* 2E =ernstein, !urbulent Xears, o1* %it*, 1* 7EE* B1
.or the di%tatorial tenden%3 to den3 the )or>.or%e dis%retionalit3 in the setting o. )or> s1eeds, and the im1osition o. )or> s1eeds in%or1orated into ma%hiner3, these )ere .ar .rom disa11earing )ith the end o. 1re0 trade union 4ordismK i. an3thing, '3 the late 1//0s the3 'e%ome more 1ressing than e+er, 1re%isel3 in the .a%e o. the gro)th in the 1rodu%ti+e 1o)er o. la'our and the ad+ent o. %om1uter0%ontrolled ma%hiner3Z'ut that no) ta>es us a long )a3 .rom 1re0trade union 4ordism* &e ma3 or ma3 not %hoose to see these tenden%ies as a %ha1ter in a .ar 'roader mo+ement o. rationalisation )hi%h 'egan )ith the !meri%an S3stem o. Manu.a%tures and )hi%h has not 3et .ull3 run its %ourse* In an3 e+ent, the o+erall dri+e to %ommand o+er )or>times through the o'@e%ti+it3 o. ma%hiner3 2B )as in%u'ated '3 other large %om1anies 'e.ore 4ord, e51lodes )ith the di..usion o. the 4ordist assem'l3 line, 'ut is not at all e5tinguished )ith its tem1orar3 de.eat at the end o. the 1/20s* In .a%t it seems to im1ose itsel. )ith rene)ed +irulen%e e+en in the most remote %orners )here %a1italism has 1enetrated*
(lo'al "ost04ordism and To3otism

!s .or the %ategor3 o. 1ost04ordism, in its o's%ure .ormulation '3 the regulation s%hool, it then o1ened the )a3 to a num'er o. 1ositions )hi%h seemed to 'e grounded in t)o un1ro+en a5ioms: the te%hnologi%al determinism o. small0series 1rodu%tion )hi%h, sin%e the 1/80s, is su11osed to re1resent a ma@or 'rea> )ith large series 1rodu%tion in the manu.a%ture o. %onsumer dura'lesK and the re%ent dis%o+er3 o. the 1rodu%ti+it3 o. %ommuni%ation 'et)een )hat the3 %hoose to %all the 1rodu%ers in industr3*28 The .irst a5iom deri+es .rom the assertion that material 1rodu%tion in general Ce+en in engineeringZ)hi%h is more dis%ontinuous than .lo) 1rodu%tionD toda3 1ro%eeds '3 small series, 'e%ause, than>s to the in%reasing .le5i'ilit3 o. ma%hine tools, 'eginning )ith the numeri%al %ontrol ma%hiner3 o. the 1/B0s, it has 'e%ome easier to di+ersi.3 1rodu%ts, in 1arti%ular in the 1rodu%tion o. %onsumer dura'les* This di+ersi.i%ation ma>es it 1ossi'le to meet the needs o. %onsumers see>ing indi+idualit3, 'ut also to mould 1eo1le?s
2B a+id 9o'le, So%ial Choi%e in Ma%hine esign, in !ndre) ;im'alist , ,ase %tudies on the 0abor -rocess, 9e) Hor>, Monthl3 7e+ie) "ress, 1 /7/, 11* 1A0 B0* 28 !n u1dated s3nthesis o. these 1ositions is to 'e .ound in Mar%o 7e+elli?s essa3, E%onomia a modello so%iale nel 1assaggio tra .ordismo e to3otismo in "ietro Ingrao and 7ossana 7ossanda, )ppunti di fine secolo, 7ome, Mani.estoli'ri, 1//B, 11* 181022E* B2
tastes and to o..er them the little tou%hes and 1ersonalising elements that 1ass .or e51ensi+e inno+ations* In short, this tenden%3 is merel3 a strengthening o. the dri+e to di+ersi.i%ation )hi%h (eneral Motors had attem1ted and 1romoted right .rom the 1/20s, and )hi%h ena'led it to 'eat 4ord at a time )hen Fenr3 4ord )as sa3ing that his %ustomers %ould ha+e an3 %olour o. %ar that the3 )anted as long as it )as 'la%>* Mass 1rodu%tion had onl3 in a11earan%e moulded the mass0)or>er Ca term )hi%h is used, 'ut also a'used, in identi.3ing %hanging histori%al .igures in %lass %om1ositionD* In some de1artments o. 4ord?s 'iggest .a%tor3, 7i+er 7ouge, the 4ord silen%e )as 'ro>en '3 the 4ord )his1er, or '3 dis%ourse '3 hand signals, one o. the elements o. )or>ing0%lass resistan%e u1 until the de%isi+e %on.rontation o. 1/E1* 27 es1ite the .a%t that )or>ers had to )ear identi%al 'lue o+eralls, and des1ite the .a%t that the3 )ere not gi+en 1ermission e+en to thin>, it )as 1lain that the 1rodu%ers had minds )hi%h as1ired to individuation, not to a universal levelling* &e )ere rea%hing the end o. the le+elling 'attle .or an e6ualit3 )hi%h )ould ha+e the 1ermanen%e o. a .i5ed 1o1ular o1inion* 2A To)ards the end o. the 1/20, Fenr3 4ord .ound himsel. .or the .irst time in serious .inan%ial di..i%ulties, arising out o. his insisten%e on the single0%olour Model T* It is )orth noting that in the 4ord .a%tories, e+en in the dar> 3ears o. the 1/20s, there )ere )or>ers )illing to ris> the sa%> '3 'u3ing a (eneral Motors %ar* 2/ Thus, )ithin the auto industr3, it )as (eneral Motors in the 1/20s that in+ented and 'rought a'out a .le5i'le 1rodu%tion that mat%hed the needs o. the times*E0 Its di+ersi.ied +ehi%les )ere 1rodu%ed '3 means o. a %ommonalisation o. ma%hine tools and o. the main %om1onents o. the .inished auto* The 'asis o. e%onomies o. range )as e%onomies o. s%ale* The ad+ent o. +ariet3 in 1rodu%tion did not ha+e to )ait .or To3otism, as C* &right Mills )as )ell a)are in the earl3 1/B0s, )hen he denoun%ed the mani1ulating inter1la3 'et)een mass tastes and 1ersonal tou%hes in the 1rodu%ts o. his time*E1 4urthermore, it is ta>en as real that To3otism had alread3 'ro>en )ith 4ordism in the 1/B0s and 1/80s, 'e%ause it needed to 'e .le5i'le in order .or its auto 1rodu%tion to %o1e )ith a demand that )as
27 2A 2/ E0 Ir+ing =ernstein, !urbulent Xears, o1* %it*, 1* 7E0* Larl Mar5, ,apital, +ol*1, Farmonds)orth, "enguin, 1/78, 1* 1B2* Ir+ing =ernstein, !urbulent Xears, o1* %it*, 1* 7E0* &hile not 'elonging to the regulation s%hool, there are t)o admirers o. the Italian industrial distri%ts )ho 1resented .le5i'le 1ro du%tion as an inno+ation t31i%al o. the 1/70s* Fere the re.eren%e )as not to #a1an, 'ut to the eastern 1art o. the "o Valle3 1lain: #* Mi%hael "iore and Charles 4* Sa'el C1/A2D, !he %econd Industrial (ivide: -ossibilities for -rosperity , 9e) Hor>, 9*H*, =asi% =oo>sK Italian translation, 0e due vie dello sviluppo industriale -rodu"ione di massa e produ"ione flessibile, Torino, ISE I, 1/A7* E1 Charles &right Mills, Commentar3 on OurCulture and Our Countr3, -artisan <eview, +ol* 1/, no* E C#ul30!ugust 1/B2D, 11* EE80B0, and in 1arti%ular 1* EE7* B2
some)hat di+ersi.ied* E+en the 1rime ad+o%ate o. To3otism E2 ma>es this %lear, and a num'er o. &estern resear%hers, in%luding Coriat, ha+e 1ro1agated its m3th* The .a%t )as that in the 1ost0&ar 1eriod, To3ota, as )as the %ase )ith 9issan, )as relati+el3 ine51erien%ed as a 1rodu%er o. +ehi%lesK it had 'egun 1rodu%tion onl3 in 1/28, and had 6ui%>l3 learned to 'uild itsel. an oligo1olisti% 1osition )hi%h %ontri'uted to the dislodging o. 4ord and (eneral Motors .rom #a1an a 'are three 3ears later* !.ter 1/EB, )ith the To3oda .amil3 still at the helm, the %om1an3 .o%used on large series 1rodu%tion, )hi%h )as e51orted, and then also 1rodu%ed a'road* The %ontinuit3 not )ith regulationist 4ordism 'ut )ith the GS auto se%tor turns out to 'e .ar stronger than the To3oto1hile +ulgate )ould 'e )illing to admit* !.ter a di..i%ult 1eriod o. 1ost0&ar re%on+ersion, To3ota tried the 1ath o. the %hea1 run0a'out Cthe To3ota1etD, and e51erien%ed ma@or stri>es in 1/E/ and 1/B2* It )as sa+ed 1rin%i1all3 '3 the intransigen%e o. 9issan, )hen the3 destro3ed the ;en@i auto union, 'ut also than>s to Gnited States orders arising out o. the Lorean &ar* Su'se6uentl3, and .or a .urther t)ent3 3ears to %ome, To3ota?s range o. 1rodu%ts, and those o. the other #a1anese auto %om1anies, )as restri%ted to a +er3 limited num'er o. models* G1 until the 1/80s the de.e%ti+e 6ualit3 o. these models meant that e51orts )ere not a great su%%ess* 4a%ed )ith this la%> o. su%%ess, there 'egan a 1hase o. e51erimentation 'ased on using multi0@o''ing mo'ile )or>teams on ma%hine tools )ith +aria'le 1rogramming, and on attention to 6ualit3 )ith a +ie) to e51orts*E2 It )as the su%%ess o. one single model Cthe Corolla runa'outD in the 1/70s that laid the 'asis .or a di+ersi.i%ation o. 1rodu%tion, and not +i%e0+ersaK and it )as a su%%ess that To3ota )as a'le to 'uild on a'road as )ell as at home, )here the mar>et )as .ar less 'uo3ant* G1 until the 1/A0s, the +ariet3 o. To3ota models )as 1rudentl3 limited, and onl3 in the 1/A0s, )hen the domesti% mar>et e51erien%ed a standstill, did the %om1an3 e51and their range o. 1rodu%tion )ith a +ie) to )inning ne) mar>ets o+erseas* !hus it was not the need for a variety of models, but the mobilisation of the workforce after a historic working/class defeat that e#plains 'r .hno1s e#periments at !oyota The 1rin%i1al no+elt3 o. his e51eriments )as that )hereas (eneral Motors in the 1/20s had 'een %ontent to ha+e se+eral ranges o. %ars 'uilt on se1arate lines, To3ota %reated )or> teams that %ould 'e %ommanded )here and )hen ne%essar3, to multi0@o''ed la'our on the 1rodu%tion o. a +ariet3 o. models along the same assem'l3 line*
E2 Tai?i%hi Ohno, !oyota %eisan 7oshiki VThe To3ota Method o. "rodu%tionW, o1* Cit* E2 Marie0Claude =elis =ourguignanand Hanni%> $ung C1//ED, $e M3the de la +ariPtP originelle* $?internationalisation dans la tra@e%toire du modPle 1rodu%ti. @a1onais, )nnales, E/, 2 CMa30#uneD, 11* BE1087* BE
!s .or @ust in time 1rodu%tion, this had alread3 'een e51erimented )ith, in its o)n )a3, '3 the auto industr3 in the Gnited States in the 1/20s, and e+en a.ter the e1ression* The la3o..s )ithout 1a3, )hi%h )ere so .re6uent in the 1/20s, and e+en more so during the e1ression, 'e%ause o. the seasonal nature o. demand, )as one o. the 'attle.ields that )as de%isi+e in the %reation o. the auto union in the Gnited States*EE In the 1/28027 sho)do)n 'et)een the G!& and (eneral Motors, the union )as +i%torious on the 1lanning o. sto%>s and on the elimination o. seasonal unem1lo3ment* "erha1s those )ho sing the 1raises o. @ust in time 1rodu%tion %ould ta>e a 1age or t)o out o. the histor3 o. etroit in the 1/20s, or ma3'e a 1age .rom the histor3 o. the re%ent re%urring stri>es in Euro1e and the GS '3 the inde1endent %ar0trans1orter dri+ers o1erating )ithin the %3%le o. the auto industr3, )ho are a%tuall3 the e5treme a11endages o. the 'ig %om1anies* !s regards the se%ond thesis, the su11orters o. the notion o. 1ost0 4ordism %laim that 1rodu%tion no) re6uires, and )ill %ontinue to re6uire, e+er0higher le+els o. %ommuni%ation 'et)een 1rodu%ti+e su'@e%ts, and that these le+els in turn o..er s1a%es o. dis%retionalit3 to the so0%alled 1rodu%ers, s1a%es )hi%h are relati+el3 signi.i%ant, %om1ared )ith a 1ast o. non0%ommuni%ating la'our, o. the silent %om1ulsion o. e%onomi% relationsEB o. the modern )orld* This %ommuni%ation is su11osed to %reate an in%reasingl3 intense %onne%ti+it3 'et)een su'@e%ts, in %ontrast )ith the isolation, the se1arateness and the silen%e im1osed on the )or>er '3 the .irst and se%ond industrial re+olutions* &hile it is %ertainl3 true that 1ro%esses o. learning in 1rodu%tion Clearning '3 doingD ha+e re6uired and still re6uire a su'stantial degree o. intera%tion, in%luding +er'al intera%tion, 'et)een indi+iduals, it remains the %ase that .rom Ta3lorism on)ards the sa+ing o. )or>time is a%hie+ed to a large e5tent through redu%ing to a minimum %onta%t and in.ormal intera%tion 'et)een 1lanners and doers* Ta3lorism tried, )ith s%ant results, to im1ose a 1lanning in order to in%rease 1rodu%ti+it3, de1ri+ing .oremen and )or>ers o. the time0 dis%retionalit3 )hi%h the3 assumed '3 negotiating in.ormall3 and +er'all3 on the sho1 .loor* Fo)e+er, in the era o. 1re0trade union 4ordism it should 'e remem'ered that in the 1eriods o. restru%turing o. the .a%tor3, o. %hanges o. models and o. te%hnologi%al inno+ation, the )his1ering o. restru%turation )as not onl3 1rodu%ti+e, 'ut )as a%tuall3 essential to the su%%ess.ul out%ome o. the o1eration* !n3)a3, the silen%e im1osed '3 authorit3 and the dea.ening noise o. de+elo1ment is )hat dominates the auto industr3 through to the mid0
EE M*&* $a 4e+er, Insta'ilit3 o. Em1lo3ment in the !utomo'ile Industr3, o1 * %it*, 11* 21E017* C.* also note 21 a'o+e* EB Larl Mar5, ,apital, o1* %it*, 1* A//* BB
1/20s*E8 :ut the disciplining of silence and of the whisper within the channels of capital1s productive communicationYis this not perhaps also a constitutive characteristic of the modern factory? On this 1oint, one might note that industrial so%iolog3, as a dis%i1line, )as 'uilt on the %on%ealing o. the %ommuni%ati+e dimension and on the re@e%tion o. an3 anal3sis o. the 1ro%esses o. +er'al intera%tion in the )or>1la%e* It is not a mere distra%tion* Fere )e ha+e onl3 to remem'er the )ords o. Farold (ar.in>el:
There e5ists a lo%all301rodu%ed order o. )or> thingsK V***W The3 ma>e u1 a massi+e domain o. organi<ational 1henomenaK V***W %lassi% studies o. )or>, )ithout remed3 or alternati+e, de1end u1on the e5isten%e o. these 1henomena, ma>e use o. the domain, and ignore it*E7
!s .or the tenden%3 to im1ose s1eed0u1 in totalitarian .ashion, this %ertainl3 did not disa11ear )ith the demise o. 1re0union 4ordismK i. an3thing it is e+en more in e+iden%e in this tail0end o. the t)entieth %entur3, 1re%isel3 in the .a%e o. the strengthening o. the 1rodu%ti+e 1o)ers o. la'our* In .a%t the tenden%3 no) assumes some o. the %hara%teristi%s o. the 1re0union 4ordism o. the 7oaring T)enties: a 1re%ariousness o. 1eo1le?s @o'sK the non0e5isten%e o. health %are s%hemes and unem1lo3ment 'ene.itsK %uts not onl3 in the real )age 'ut also in mone3 )agesK the shi.ting o. lines o. 1rodu%tion to areas )ell a)a3 .rom industriall3 mature regions* !lso )or>ing hours are 'e%oming longer rather than shorter* In the )hole o. the &est, and in the East too, 1eo1le are )or>ing longer hours than t)ent3 3ears ago, and in a so%ial dimension .rom )hi%h the regulator3 1o)er o. the state has 'een e%li1sed* The .a%t that 1eo1le are )or>ing longer hours, and more intensi+el3, is also than>s to the allegedl3 o'solete Ta3lorist %hronometer and the outmoded 4ordist assem'l3 line* Ironi%all3, 1re%isel3 .or 4ran%e, )hi%h is )here the regulationist s%hool .irst emerged, 1re%ious data, non0e5istent else)here, sho) that work on assembly lines and subject to the constraint of an automated pace of production is on the increase, in 'oth 1er%entage terms and a'solute terms: 12*2 1er %ent o. )or>ers )ere su'@e%ted to it in 1/AE, and 18*7 1er %ent in 1//1 Cout o., res1e%ti+el3, 8,1A7,000 and 8,22/,000 )or>ersD*EA
E8 #o3%e Sha) "eterson, )merican )utomobile ;orkers, 1B00/1BOO, o1* %it*, 11* BE08K Ir+ing =ernstein, !urbulent Xears, o1* %it*, 1* 7E0* E7 Farold (ar.in>el Ced*D, =thnomethodological %tudies of ; ork, $ondon and 9e) Hor>, 7outledge R Legan "aul, 1/A8, 1* 7* EA !non*, )lternatives =conomi$ues, Ma3 1//E, on the !7ES data: =n$u2tes sp2cifi$ues )cemo: =n$u2tes sur l1activit2 et les conditions d1emploi d e main Yd1oeuvre M3 than>s to !lain =ihr .or this re.eren%e* B8
In the 1/B0s and 1/80sZthe golden 3ears o. 4ordism as $i1iet< %alls themZthe international e%onom3 under the leadershi1 o. the Gnited States 1ushed the demand .or 1ri+ate in+estment, e+en more than the %onsum1tion o. )age goods* ;hat had appeared to be a stable system began to come apart from the inside, 'e%ause at the end o. the 1/80s the %lass struggle, in its man3 di..erent .orms, o+erturned %a1ital?s solid %ertainties as regards the )age, the organisation o. the la'our 1ro%ess, the relationshi1 'et)een de+elo1ment and underde+elo1ment, and 1atriar%h3* If one does not understand the radicality of this challenge, it becomes impossible to grasp the elements of crisis and uncertainty which characterised the prospects for capital1s dominion in the twenty years that followed *E/ The dishomogeneit3 o. the rea%tionsZ.rom the )ar o. manoeu+re against 'lue %ollar )or>ers in the industrialised %ountries, through to %a1italism?s regionalisation into three large areas C9!4T!, Euro1ean Gnion and #a1anD and to the (ul. &arZdenote not the transition to a 1ost04ordist model, 'ut a %ontinuous re%om'ination o. old and ne) elements o. domination in order to de%om1ose la'our 1o)er 1oliti%all3 )ithin a ne)l3 .le5i'ilised s3stem o. 1rodu%tion*
Con%lusions
The regulation s%hool loo>s at the im1li%ations o. this re%om'ination .rom %a1ital?s side, seeing %a1ital as the %entre and motor o. the o+erall mo+ement o. so%iet3* Firs%h and 7oth s1ea> in the name o. man3 )hen the3 state that it is al)a3s %a1ital itsel. and the stru%tures )hi%h it im1oses Oo'@e%ti+el3?, on the 'a%>s o. the 1rotagonists, that sets in motion the de%isi+e %onditions o. %lass struggles and o. 1ro%esses o. %risis*B0 Thus it is not sur1rising that the %on%lusions that the regulationists dra) .rom their 1osition tend to go in the onl3 dire%tion )hi%h is not 1re%luded .or them: namel3 that %on.li%t against the la)s o. %a1italist de+elo1ment has no .uture, and also that there is no 1oint in dra)ing attention to the %ra%>s in the edi.i%e o. domination* "ara1hrasing Mar> T)ain, one might sa3 that i. the regulationists ha+e onl3 a 1an04ordist hammer, the3 )ill see onl3 1ost04ordist nails to 'ang* In ta>ing u1 this 1osition, not onl3 do the regulationists den3 themsel+es the 1ossi'ilit3 o. anal3sis o. %on.li%tual 1ro%esses 'oth no)
E/ See the indis1ensa'le Contri'ution'3 7i%%ardo =ello.iore: On "ietro Ingrao and 7ossana 7ossands, !11unti di 4ine Se%olo, 1u'* !sso%ia<ione dei $a+oratori e delle $a+oratri%i T orinesi C!$$TD, 2E 9o+em'er 1//B* B0 #oa%him Firs%h and 7oland 7oth, (as neue +esicht des Fapitalismus, Fam'urg, VS!, 1/A8, 1* 27 B7
and in the .uture, 'ut the3 also e5%lude themsel+es .rom the multi0 +oi%ed de'ate )hi%h is toda3 .o%ussing on so%ial su'@e%ts* B1 This is the onl3 )a3 in )hi%h one %an e51lain the regulationists? redu%tion o. the )or>ing %lass in the Gnited States to a mere *ordised object,B2 e+en in its moments o. greatest antagonisti% 1ro@e%tualit3 as it )as e51ressed 'et)een the e1ression and the emergen%e o. the 9a<i04as%ist ne) order in Euro1e* !nd gi+en the limits o. its 1osition, regulationism is then una'le to understand ho) this )or>ing %lass %ontri'uted de%isi+el3 in the 1la%ing o. that sel.same Gnited States %a1italism onto a %ollision %ourse )ith 9a<ism and .as%ism* "re0union 4ordism )as transient, 'ut not in the 'anal C'ut nonetheless signi.i%antD sense o. Fenr3 4ord .inan%ing Fitler on his route to 1o)er and de%orating himsel. )ith 9a<i medals right u1 until 1/2A, 'ut 'e%ause )hat o+erturned the silent %om1ulsion o. the 4ordised )or>.or%e )as the )or>.or%e itsel., in one o. its so%ial mo+ements o. sel.0eman%i1ationZa .a%t o. )hi%h the regulationists are not stru%turall3 e6ui11ed to understand the +ast im1li%ations at the )orld le+el, and .or man3 3ears to %ome, )ell 'e3ond the end o. &orld &ar II* !s regards toda3?s %onditions, )hat is im1ortant is not the e5amination o. the no+elties .ollo)ing on the %olla1se o. +arious %ertainties in the )a>e o. the .all o. the =erlin &all, 'ut the 1ossi'ilit3 or other)ise o. a+oiding the ine+ita'ilit3 o. the 1assage to a 1ost0 4ordist 1aradigm in )hi%h la'our 1o)er .igures on%e again as a mere o'@e%t and inert mass* !s "el]e< and Follo)a3 note, the insisten%e )ith )hi%h the regulationists in+ite their audien%e to loo> the .uture in the .a%e arouses a %ertain 1er1le5it3*B2 !.ter all, a 'elie. in the mar+els o. te%hnolog3 )ithin the organisations o. the la'our mo+ement has led to e1i% de.eats in the 1ast* &hat is at sta>e here is not @ust the ine+ita'ilit3 or other)ise o. a s3stemZthe %a1italist s3stemZ)hi%h has too man3 %onnotations o. o11ression and death to 'e a%%e1ta'le, 'ut e+en the 1ossi'ilit3 o. an3 initiati+e, ho)e+er tentati+e, on the 1art o. so%ial su'@e%ts* &hat is at sta>e here is the 1ossi'ilit3 o. resisting a 1re%onstituted su'ordination o. la'our 1o)er to the ine5ora'le 9e) Times that are im1osed in 1art, %ertainl3, '3 the %om1uter %hi1, 'ut also '3 1o)er.ul intra0im1erialist hostilities, )hi%h .or the moment are disguised 'ehind slogans su%h as %om1etition and .ree trade*
B1 On this theme see "eter Miller and 9i>olas 7ose, "rodu%tion, Identit3 and emo%ra%3, !heory and %ociety, +ol* 2E, no* 2 C#une 1//BD, 11* E27087* B2 uring the .irst t)o .i+e03ear 1lans under Stalin, the )or>ers on the assem'l3 lines o. the (or>3 auto .a%tor3 )ere re.erred to as the 4ordised C.ordiro+ann3eD '3 the So+iet authorities* B2 Eloina "elTe< and #ohn Follo)a3, $earning to =o): "ost04ordism and Te%hnologi%al eterminism, in &erner =one.eld and #ohn Follo)a3 Ceds*D, "ost04ordism and So%ial 4orm, o1* %it*, 1//1, 1* 127* BA
&hat the 1resent leads us to de.end is the indetermination o. the 'oundaries o. %on.li%tual a%tion* &e shall thus ha+e to re0e5amine a means or t)o, )ith a +ie) to %learing the .uture at least o. the more lamenta'le 'leatings* G1 until no) the de%om1osition and anatomisation o. la'our0 1o)er as a human ma%hine has 'een a 1re1arator3 1ro%ess o. the +arious stages o. me%hanisationK it is a 1ro%ess )hi%h %a1italist domination has %onstantl3 1resented as ne%essar3* The 1oint is not )hether 1ost04ordism is in our midst, 'ut )hether the sa%ri.i%e o. human ma%hines on the 13ramids o. a%%umulation %an 'e halted* !ranslated by =d =mery
=i'liogra1h3
!($IETT!, Mi%hel C1/7ED, )ccumulation et r2gulation du capitalisme en longue p2riode 01e#emple des =tats/Tnis H1I70/1B70K, "aris, Insee, 1/7EK <2gulation et crises du ,apitalisme, "aris, Calmann0 $P+3, 1/78 C2nd editionDK English translation, ) !heory of ,apitalist <egulation: !he T% =#perience, $ondon and 9e) Hor>, 9e) $e.t =oo>s, 1/7/ C2nd edition, Verso, $ondon and 9e) Hor>, 1/A7D* !$^G!TI, 7omano C1/7BD, %ulla *iat e altri scritti, Milan, 4eltrinelli* !$^G!TI, 7omano C1/A/D, (ispense di sociologia industriale, +ol* III, 1arts 1 and 2, Torino, Il Segnali'ro* !9O9IMO C1//ED, Ta3lor n?est 1as mort, )lternatives =conomi$ues, CMa3D, on !7ES data, =n$uetes sp2cifi$ues )cemo, =n$uetes sur l1activit2 et les conditions d1emploi de main/d1oeuvre, Ta'le I*2*1* !OLI, Masahi>o C1/AED, !he =conomic )nalysis of the Japanese *irm, !msterdam, Else+ier* =E$IS0=OG7(OGI(9!9, Marie0Claude and $G9(, Hanni%> C1//ED, $e M3the de la +ariPtP originelle* $?internationalisation dans la tra@e%toire du modPle 1rodu%ti. @a1onais, )nnales, E/, 2* =E79STEI9, Ir+ing C1/8/D, !urbulent Xears: ) 7istory of the )merican ;orker 1BOO/1BC1, =oston, Foughton Mi..lin* =O$O(9!, Sergio, 7!&ICL, (eorge "*,(O==I9I, Mauro, 9E(7I, !ntonio, 4E77!7I =7!VO, $u%iano, (!M=I9O, 4erru%%io, .perai e stato: 0otte operaie e riforma dello stato capitalistico tra rivolu"ione d1.ttobre e 5ew (eal, Milan, 4eltrinelli, 1/72* =O$O(9!, Sergio, "ro'lemati%he del la+oro autonomo in Italia, )ltreragioni, 1 C1//2D* =O9!;;I, (iuse11e C1//2D, $a s%o1erta del modello gia11onese nella so%iologia o%%identale, %tato e mercato, 9o* 2/* =O9E4E$ , &erner and FO$$O&!H, #ohn Ceds*D C1//1D, -ost/*ordism and %ocial *orm: ) 'ar#ist (ebate on the -ost/*ordist %tate, Foundmills and $ondon, Ma%Millan* =OHE7, 7o'ert C1/A8D, 0a th2orie de la r2gulation: une analyse criti$ue, "aris, $a P%ou+erte*
B/
=OHE7, 7o'ert Ced*D C1/A8D, ,apitalismes fin de si2cle, "aris, "resses Gni+ersitaires de 4ran%e* =7OCFIE7, 7o'ert C1/70D, 0e miracle 2conomi$ue japonais, "aris, Calmann0$P+3* CO7I!T, =en@amin C1//1D, -enser U l1envers !ravail et organisation dans l1entreprise japonaise, "aris, Christan =ourgois, 1//1K Italian translation, <ipensare l1organi""a"ione del lavoro ,oncetti e prassi del modello giapponese, =ari, edalo, 1//1, )ith introdu%tion and translation '3 Mirella (iannini* !VIS, Mi>e C1/7AD, O4ordism? in Crisis: ! 7e+ie) o. Mi%hel !glietta?s <egulation et ,rises: 01=#p2rience des =tats Tnis, <eview, 2* E=E7TS, 7a3 and Cindel3n C1//ED, !he 'yths of Japanese Vuality, G11er Saddle, 9*#*, "renti%e Fall* 4OJ, 7* M* C1/27D, 4ordism: ! Criti%al E5amination, The 9ineteenth Centur3 and !.ter, CI, no* 2* (!M=I9O, 4erru%%io C1/72D, *ord britannica *orma"ione di una classe operaia, in S* =ologna, $* 4errari =ra+o, 4* (am'ino, M* (o''ini, !* 9egri, (*"* 7a)i%>, .perai e %tato, Milan, 4eltrinelli* (!M=I9O, 4erru%%io C1/A7D, !he %ignificance of %ocialism in the -ost/ ;ar Tnited %tates, in FE4E7, #ean and 7OVET, #eanine, ;hy Is !here 5o %ocialism in the Tnited %tates, "aris, Editions de l?E%ole des Fautes Etudes en S%ien%es So%iales* (!74I9LE$, Farold Ced*D C1/A8D, =thnomethodological %tudies of ;ork, 7outledge R Legan "aul, $ondon e 9e) Hor>* (OTT$0OTT$I$IE94E$ , 4riedri%h +on C1/2ED, 4ordismus? -araphrasen Quber das 9erhUltnis von ;irtschaft und !echnischer 9ernunft bei 7enry *ord und *rederick ; !aylor, #ena, (usta+ 4is%her* (7!MSCI, !ntonio C1/7BD, !meri%anismo e .ordismo C1/2ED in Vuaderni del carcere, +ol* 2, ed* V* (erratana, Torino, Einaudi* (GI$$!I9, 7o'ert C1/8/D, Japon troisi2me grand, "aris, Seuil* F!7 T, #ohn "* R FO$$I !H, (eorge * C1/77D, !echnology !ransfer and ,hange in the %oviet =conomic %ystem, in 4rederi% #* 4leron, #r*, !echnology and ,ommunist ,ulture: !he %ocio/,ultural Impact of !echnology under %ocialism, 9e) Hor> and $ondon, "raeger* FI7SCF, #oa%him e 7OTF, 7oland C1/A8D (as neue +esicht des Fapitalismus, Fam'urg, VS!* FI7SCF, #oa%him C1//1D, *ordism and -ostfordism: !he -resent %ocial ,risis and its ,onse$uences, in =O9E4E$ , &erner and FO$$O&!H, #ohn Ceds*D 1//1* FO$$O&!H, #ohn C1//1aD, !he +reat :ear: -ost/*ordism and ,lass %truggle ) ,omment on :onefeld and Jessop, in =O9E4E$ , &erner and FO$$O&!H #ohn Ceds*D 1//1* FO$$O&!H, #ohn C1//1'D, ,apital is ,lass %truggle Hand :ears are not ,uddlyK, in =one.eld, &erner and FO$$O&!H #ohn Ceds*D 1//1* F!$$I !H, #on and M%CO7M!CL, a+id C1/72D, Japanese Imperialism !oday: ,o/-rosperity in +reater =ast )sia, Farmonds)orth, England, "enguin* FOG9SFE$$, a+id !* C1/AED, *rom the )merican %ystem to 'ass -roduction H1I00/1BO2K, =altimora e $ondon, The #ohns Fo1>ins Gni+esit3 "ress* #ESSO", =o' C1//1aD, <egulation !heory, -ost/*ordism and the %tate: 'ore than a <eply to ;erner :onefeld, in =O9E4E$ , &erner and FO$$O&!H, #ohn Ceds*D 1//1*
80
#ESSO", =o' C1//1'D, -olar :ears and ,lass %truggle: 'uch 0ess than a %elf/,riticism, in =O9E4E$ , &erner, and FO$$O&!H, #ohn, Ceds*D, 1//1* #OF9SO9, Chalmers C1/A8D, 'I!I and Japanese 'iracle: the +rowth of Industrial -olicy, 1B2W/1B7W, To>3o, Tuttle* L!F9, Ferman C1/70D, !he =merging Japanese %uperstate, Minnea1olis, Minn*, Fudson Institute* L!M!T!, Sato%hi C1/78D, !oyota, l1usine du d2sespoir, "aris, Editions Ou+riPresK English translation, Japan in the -assing 0ane: Insider1s )ccount of 0ife in a Japanese )uto *actory, 9e) Hor>, 9*H*, Gn)in F3man, 1/AE* L!M!T!, Sato%hi C1/A0D, 01envers du miracle, "aris, Mas1ero* LOILE, La<uo C1/AAD, Tnderstanding Industrial <elations in 'odern Japan, $ondon, Ma%Millan* $! 4EVE7, M* & C1/2/D, Insta'ilit3 o. Em1lo3ment in the !utomo'ile Industr3, 'onthly 0abor <eview, +ol* JJVIII* $ES!(E, #ean0$ou1 C1/A2D, 0es grandes soci2t2 de commerce au Japon, les %hosha, "aris, "G4* $I"IET;, !lain C1/A2D, To)ards (lo'al 4ordismI, 5ew 0eft <eview, 9o* 122* $I"IET;, !lain C1/AED, Im1erialism as the =east o. the !1o%al31se, ,apital and ,lass, 9o* 22* $I"IET;, !lain C1/A8D, =ehind the Crisis: the E5haustion o. a 7egime o. !%%umulation* ! O7egulation S%hool "ers1e%ti+e? on Some 4ren%h Em1iri%al &or>s, <eview of <adical -olitical =conomy, +ol* 1A, 9o*102* $I"IET;, !lain C1/A7D, 'irages and 'iracles: !he ,risis of +lobal *ordism, $ondon, Verso $I"IET;, !lain C1//2D, *ordism and post/*ordism in &* Outh)aite and Tom =ottomore, !he :lackwell (ictionary of !wentieth ,entury %ocial !hought, O5.ord, =la%>)ell* M!9, Fendri> de C1/28D, >ur -sychologie des %o"ialismus, #ena, E* iederi%hs, 1/28K 2nd edition, 1/27K English translation, !he -sychology of %ocialism, $ondon, !llen R Gn)in, 1/2A* M!7J, Larl C1/8ED, Il ,apitale, +ol* I, 7ome, Editori 7iuniti* M!7J, Larl C1/8AD, 0ineamenti fondamentali della critica dell1economia politica, +ol* I, tr* di En<o (rillo, 4iren<e, $a 9uo+a Italia* MEHE7, Ste1hen III C1/A1D, !he *ive (ollar (ay: 0abor 'anagement and %ocial ,ontrol in the *ord 'otor ,ompany, 1B0I/1B21, !l'an3, 9*H*, State Gni+ersit3 o. 9e) Hor> "ress* ME;;! 7!, Sandro C1//ED, $a %ostitu<ione del la+oro* Fugo Sin<heimer e il 1rogetto )eimariano di demo%ra<ia e%onomi%a, Vuaderni di a"ione sociale, 2* MI$$E7, "eter and 7OSE, 9i>olas C1//BD "rodu%tion, Identit3, and emo%ra%3, !heory and %ociety, +ol* 2E, 9o* 2* MI$$S, Charles &right C1/B2D, Commentar3 on Our Culture and Our Countr3, -artisan <eview, +ol* 1/, no* E* MO7ISFIM!, Mi%hio C1/A2D, ;hy 7as Japan Q%ucceededR?, Cam'ridge, Cam'ridge Gni+ersit3 "ressK Italian translation, ,ultura e tecnologia nel successo giapponese, =ologna, Il Mulino 1/AE* 9!L!9E, Chie C1/70D, Japanese %ociety, $ondon, &eiden.eld R 9i%holsonK Italian translation, 0a societU giapponese, Milan, Cortina, 1//2* 9O=$E, a+id C1/7/D, %ocial ,hoice in 'achine (esign, in ;IM=!$IST,
81
!ndre), ,ase %tudies on the 0abor -rocess, 9e) Hor>, Monthl3 7e+ie) "ress* OF9O, Tai?i%hi C1/7AD, !oyota %eisan 7oshiki VThe To3ota method o. 1rodu%tionW, To>3o, iamondK English translation, !he !oyota -roduction %ystem: :eyond 0arge %cale -roduction, "rodu%ti+it3 "ress, Cam'ridge, Mass* 1/AAK 4ren%h translation, 01esprit !oyota, "aris, Masson, 1/A/K Italian translation, 0o spirito toyota, Torino, Einaudi, 1//2* "!$$OIJ, Christian C1/78D, $e 1ro%Ps de tra+ail* u .ordisme au nPo.ordisme, 0a -ens2e, no* 1AB* "E$]E;, Eloina and FO$$O&!H, #ohn C1//1D, 0earning to :ow: -ost/ *ordism and !echnological (eterminism, in =O9E4E$ , &erner and FO$$O&!H, #ohn Ceds*D 1//1* "ETE7SO9, #o3%e Sha) C1/A7D, )merican )utomobile ;orkers, 1B00/ 1BOO, !l'an3, 9*H*, State Gni+ersit3 o. 9e) Hor> "ress* "IO7E, #* Mi%hael, and S!=E$, Charles 4* C1/A2D, !he %econd Industrial (ivide: -ossibilities for -rosperity, 9e) Hor>, 9*H*, =asi% =oo>sK Italian translation, 0e due vie dello sviluppo industriale -rodu"ione di massa e produ"ione flessibile, Torino, Isedi, 1/A7* 7EVE$$I, Mar%o C1//BD, =conomia e modello sociale nel passaggio tra fordismo e toyotismo, in I9(7!O, "ietro e 7ossana 7OSS!9 !, )ppuntamenti di fine secolo, 7oma, Mani.estoli'ri* 7OME7, Samuel C1/22D, The etroit Stri>e, !he 5ation C+ol* 128, no* 2B2AD, 1B 4e'ruar3 1/22, 11* 187018A* SI9;FEIME7, Fugo C1/2BD, =uropa und die Idee der wirtschaftlichen (emokratie, in =uropas 9olkswirtschaft in ;ort und :ild :eitrage "ur ;irtschaftserkennis, hrsg von der Q*rankfurter >eitungR, 1B2W/2N, 11* JVII0JVIII, no) in SI9;FEIME7 Fugo, )rbeitsrecht und )rbeitsso"iologie +esammelte )ufsUt"e und <eden, ed* O* Lahn04reund and Th* 7amm, 4ran>.urt0L_ln, Euro1]is%he Verlaganstalt, 1/78 CS%hri.tenreihe der Otto =renner Sti.tung, ED, 2 =de*, =d* 1, 11* 221022BK 01=uropa e l1idea di democra"ia economica, trans* Sandro Me<<adra, Vuaderni di a"ione sociale, JJJIJ, 9o* 2 C1//ED, 11*7107E* SOGH7I "ierre04ran%ois C1//ED, Gn nou+eau 1aradigmeI, )nnales, +ol* E/, 9o* 2* V!9 &O$4E7E9, Larel, C1/A/D, !he =nigma of Japanese -ower, 9e) Hor>, 9*H*, Lno1.* VO(E$, E<ra C1/7/D, Japan as 5umber .ne: 0essons for )merica, Cam'ridge, Mass*, Far+ard Gni+ersit3 "ress*
82
9otes on the Edu04a%tor3 and Cogniti+e Ca1italism
Sil+ia 4ederi%i (eorge Ca..ent<is1
Sin%e 4e'ruar3 o. 2007 )e ha+e 'een in+ol+ed in dis%ussions %on%erning uni+ersit3 edu%ation )ith man3 %omrades around the )orld on a list that dealt )ith the notion o. the edu0.a%tor3* C4or more on this e..ort go to the edu0.a%tor3 )e'site: htt1:--)))*edu0.a%tor3*org*D The .ollo)ing notes 1resent some re.le%tions on t)o %on%e1ts that ha+e 'een %entral to this dis%ussion: the edu0.a%tor3 and %ogniti+e %a1italism* 4irst, )e agree )ith the >e3 1oint o. the edu0.a%tor3 dis%ussion 1ros1e%tus:
!s )as the .a%tor3, so no) is the uni+ersit3* &here on%e the .a%tor3 )as a 1aradigmati% site o. struggle 'et)een )or>ers and %a1italists, so no) the uni+ersit3 is a >e3 s1a%e o. %on.li%t, )here the o)nershi1 o. >no)ledge, the re1rodu%tion o. the la'our .or%e, and the %reation o. so%ial and %ultural strati.i%ations are all at sta>e* This is to sa3 the uni+ersit3 is not @ust another institution su'@e%t to so+ereign and go+ernmental %ontrols, 'ut a %ru%ial site in )hi%h )ider so%ial struggles are )on and lost*
&e are %oordinators o. the Committee .or !%ademi% 4reedom in !.ri%a CC!4!D and sin%e 1//1 our su11ort .or the struggles in !.ri%an uni+ersities .ollo)ed .rom the same anal3sis and logi%* Gni+ersities are im1ortant 1la%es o. %lass struggle, and not onl3 in Euro1e and 9orth
1 Sil+ia 4ederi%i ma3 'e %onta%ted at dina+alliàol*%om* (eorge Ca..ent<is ma3 'e %onta%ted at %a..ent<ùsm*maine*edu* 82
!meri%a* &e insisted on this 1oint against the %riti%s o. the 1ost0 %olonial uni+ersit3, )ho loo>ed do)n on an3 e..ort to de.end edu%ational s3stems that the3 sa) as modeled on %olonial edu%ation* &e argued that uni+ersit3 struggles in !.ri%a e51ress a re.usal to let international %a1ital:
de%ide the %onditions o. )or>K a11ro1riate the )ealth in+ested in these institutions )hi%h 1eo1le ha+e 1aid .or* su11ress the demo%rati<ation and 1oliti%i<ation o. edu%ation that on !.ri%an %am1uses had gro)n through the 1/A0s and O/0s*
More generall3, in the same )a3 as )e )ould o11ose the shutting do)n o. .a%tories )here )or>ers ha+e struggled to %ontrol )or> and )agesZes1e%iall3 i. these )or>ers )ere determined to .ight against the %losureZso )e agree that )e should resist the dismantling o. 1u'li% edu%ation, e+en though s%hools are also instruments o. %lass rule and alienation* This is a %ontradi%tion that )e %annot )ish a)a3 and is 1resent in all our struggles* &hether )e are struggling around edu%ation, health, housing, et%, it is illusor3 to thin> that )e %an 1la%e oursel+es outside o. %a1italist relations )hene+er )e )ish and .rom there 'uild a ne) so%iet3* !s students? mo+ements a%ross the 1lanet ha+e sho)n, uni+ersities are not @ust nurseries .or the leaders o. a neo0 li'eral elite, the3 are also a terrain .or de'ate, %ontestation o. institutional 1oliti%s, re0a11ro1riation o. resour%es* It is through these de'ates, struggles and re0a11ro1riations, and '3 %onne%ting the struggles in the %am1uses to the struggles in other 1arts o. the so%ial .a%tor3, that )e %reate alternati+e .orms o. edu%ation and alternati+e edu%ational 1ra%ti%es* In Ital3, .or instan%e, )ith the %ontra%t o. 1/7E, metal0me%hani% )or>ers )ere a'le to )in 1B0 hours o. 1aid stud3 lea+e 1er 3ear in )hi%h, together )ith tea%hers, mostl3 .rom the student mo+ement, the3 organi<ed %urri%ula that anal3<ed the %a1italist organi<ation o. )or>, also in their o)n )or>1la%es* In the GS, sin%e the ,80s, the %am1uses ha+e 'een among the %enters o. the anti0)ar mo+ement, 1rodu%ing a )ealth o. anal3sis a'out the militar30industrial %om1le5 and the role o. the uni+ersities in its .un%tioning and e51ansion* In !.ri%a, the uni+ersit3 %am1uses )ere %enters o. resistan%e to stru%tural ad@ustment and anal3sis o. its im1li%ations* This is %ertainl3 one o. the reasons )h3 the &orld =an> )as so eager to dismantle them* The struggle in the edu0.a%tor3 is es1e%iall3 im1ortant toda3 'e%ause o. the strategi% role o. >no)ledge in the 1rodu%tion s3stem in
8E
5otes on the =du/*actory and ,ognitive ,apitalism
a %onte5t in )hi%h the en%losure o. >no)ledge Cits 1ri+ati<ation, %ommodi.i%ation, e51ro1riation through the intelle%tual 1ro1ert3 regimesD is a 1illar o. e%onomi% restru%turing* &e are %on%erned, ho)e+er, that )e do not o+erestimate this im1ortan%e, and-or use the %on%e1t o. the edu0.a%tor3 to set u1 ne) hierar%hies )ith res1e%t to la'or and .orms o. %a1italist a%%umulation* This %on%ern arises .rom our reading o. the use that is made o. the %on%e1t o. %ogniti+e %a1italism as .ound in the statement %ir%ulated '3 Conri%er%a as )ell as in the )or> o. some Italian autonomists* True, )e need to identi.3 the leading .orms o. %a1italist a%%umulation in all its di..erent 1hases, and re%ogni<e their tenden%3 to hegemoni<e Cthough not to homogeni<eD other .orms o. %a1italist 1rodu%tion* =ut )e should not dismiss the %riti6ues o. Mar5ian theor3 de+elo1ed '3 the anti0%olonial mo+ement and the .eminist mo+ement, )hi%h ha+e sho)n that %a1italist a%%umulation has thri+ed 1re%isel3 through its %a1a%it3 to simultaneousl3 organi<e de+elo1ment and underde+elo1ment, )aged and un0)aged la'or, 1rodu%tion at the highest le+els o. te%hnologi%al >no)0ho) and 1rodu%tion at the lo)est le+els* In other )ords, )e should not dismiss the argument that it is 1re%isel3 through these dis1arities, the di+isions 'uilt in the )or>ing %lass through them, and the %a1a%it3 to trans.er )ealth-sur1lus .rom one 1ole to the other that %a1italist a%%umulation has e51anded in the .a%e o. so mu%h struggle* There are man3 issues in+ol+ed that )e %an onl3 tou%h u1on in these notes* &e )ant, a'o+e all, to %on%entrate here on the 1oliti%al im1li%ations o. the use o. the notion o. %ogniti+e %a1italism =ut here are a .e) 1oints .or dis%ussion* 4irst, the histor3 o. %a1italism should demonstrate that the %a1italist su'sum1tion o. all .orms o. 1rodu%tion does not re6uire the e5tension o. the le+el o. s%ien%e and te%hnolog3 a%hie+ed at an3 1arti%ular 1oint o. %a1italist de+elo1ment to all )or>ers %ontri'uting to the a%%umulation 1ro%ess* It is no) a%>no)ledged, .or instan%e, that the 1lantation s3stem )as organi<ed along %a1italist linesK in .a%t, it )as a model .or the .a%tor3* Fo)e+er, the %otton 1i%>ing 1lantation sla+es in the GS South o. 1AB0s )ere not )or>ing at the le+el o. te%hnologi%al >no)0ho) a+aila'le to )or>ers in the te5tile mills o. the GS 9orth o. the time, though their 1rodu%t )as a li.eline .or these same mills* oes that mean that the Southern sla+es )ere industrial )or>ers or, +i%e +ersa, the 9orthern )age)or>ers )ere 1lantation )or>ersI Similarl3, to this da3, %a1italism has not me%hani<ed house)or> des1ite the .a%t that the un1aid domesti% )or> o. )omen has 'een a >e3 sour%e o. a%%umulation .or %a1ital* !gain, )h3 at the 1ea> o. an era o. %ogniti+e %a1italism do )e )itness an e51ansion o. la'or in
8B
sla+e0li>e %onditions, at the lo)est le+el o. te%hnologi%al >no)0ho)Z %hild la'or, la'or in s)eatsho1s, la'or in the ne) agri%ultural 1lantations and mining .ields o. $atin !meri%a, !.ri%a, et%*I Can )e sa3 that )or>ers in these %onditions are %ogniti+e )or>ersI !re the3 and their struggles irrele+ant to and-or outside the %ir%uit o. %a1italist a%%umulationI &h3 has )age la'or, on%e %onsidered the de.ining .orm o. %a1italist )or>, still not 'een e5tended e+en to the ma@orit3 o. )or>ers in %a1italist so%iet3I This e5am1le and these 6uestions suggest that )or> %an 'e organi<ed .or %a1italist a%%umulation and along %a1italist lines )ithout the la'orer )or>ing at the a+erage le+el o. te%hnologi%al-s%ienti.i% >no)ledge a11lied in the highest 1oints o. %a1italist 1rodu%tion* The3 also suggest that the logi% o. %a1italism %an onl3 'e gras1ed '3 loo>ing at the totalit3 o. its relations, and not onl3 to the highest 1oint o. its s%ienti.i%-te%hnologi%al a%hie+ement* Ca1italism has s3stemati%all3 and strategi%all3 1rodu%ed dis1arities through the international and se5ual-ra%ial di+ision o. la'or and through the underde+elo1ment o. 1arti%ular se%tors o. its 1rodu%tion, and these dis1arities ha+e not 'een erased, 'ut in .a%t ha+e 'een dee1ened '3 the in%reasing integration o. s%ien%e and te%hnolog3 in the 1rodu%tion 1ro%ess* 4or instan%e, in the era o. %ogniti+e la'or, the ma@orit3 o. !.ri%ans do not ha+e a%%ess to the Internet or .or that matter e+en the tele1honeK e+en the minis%ule minorit3 )ho does, has a%%ess to it onl3 .or limited 1eriods o. time, 'e%ause o. the intermittent a+aila'ilit3 o. ele%tri%it3* Similarl3, illitera%3, es1e%iall3 among )omen, has gro)n e51onentiall3 .rom the 1/70s to 1resent* In other )ords, a lea1 .or)ard .or man3 )or>ers, has 'een a%%om1anied '3 a lea1 'a%>)ard '3 man3 others, )ho are no) e+en more e5%luded .rom the glo'al dis%ourse, and %ertainl3 not in the 1osition to 1arti%i1ate in glo'al %oo1eration net)or>s 'ased u1on the Internet* Se%ond and most im1ortant are the 1oliti%al im1li%ations o. an use o. %ogniti+e %a1italism and %ogniti+e la'or that o+ershado)s the %ontinuing im1ortan%e o. other .orms o. )or> as %ontri'utors to the a%%umulation 1ro%ess* There is the danger that '3 1ri+ileging one >ind o. %a1ital Cand there.ore one >ind o. )or>erD as 'eing the most 1rodu%ti+e, the most ad+an%ed, the most e5em1lar3 o. the %ontem1orar3 1aradigm, et%*, )e %reate a ne) hierar%h3 o. struggle, and )e engage in .orm o. a%ti+ism that 1re%ludes a re0%om1osition o. the )or>ing %lass* !nother danger is that )e .ail to anti%i1ate the strategi% mo+es '3 )hi%h %a1italism %an restru%ture the a%%umulation 1ro%ess '3 ta>ing ad+antage o. the ine6ualities )ithin the glo'al )or>.or%e* Fo) the last glo'ali<ation dri+e )as a%hie+ed is e5em1lar3 in this %ase*
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Con%erning the danger o. %on.irming in our a%ti+ism the hierar%hies o. la'or %reated '3 the e5tension o. %a1italist relations, there is mu%h )e %an learn .rom the 1ast* !s the histor3 o. %lass struggle demonstrates, 1ri+ileging one se%tor o. the )or>ing %lass o+er the others is the surest road to de.eat* Gndou'tedl3, %ertain t31es o. )or>ers ha+e 1la3ed a %ru%ial role in %ertain histori%al 1hases o. %a1italist de+elo1ment* =ut the )or>ing %lass has 1aid a +er3 high 1ri%e to a re+olutionar3 logi% that esta'lished hierar%hies o. re+olutionar3 su'@e%ts, 1atterned on the hierar%hies o. the %a1italist organi<ation o. )or>* Mar5ist-so%ialist a%ti+ists in Euro1e lost sight o. the re+olutionar3 1o)er o. the )orld?s 1easantr3* More than that, 1easant mo+ements ha+e 'een destro3ed Csee the %ase o. the E$!S in (ree%eD '3 %ommunists )ho %onsidered onl3 the .a%tor3 )or>er as organi<a'le and trul3 re+olutionar3* So%ialists-Mar5ists also lost sight o. the immense ChouseD)or> that )as 'eing done to 1rodu%e and re1rodu%e industrial )or>er* The huge i%e'erg o. la'or in %a1italism Cto use Maria Mies? meta1horD )as made in+isi'le '3 the tenden%3 to loo> at the ti1 o. the i%e'erg, industrial la'or, )hile the la'or in+ol+ed in the re1rodu%tion o. la'or01o)er )ent unseen, )ith the result that the .eminist mo+ement )as o.ten .ought against and seen as something outside the %lass struggle* Ironi%all3, under the regime o. industrial %a1italism and .a%tor3 )or>, it )as the 1easant mo+ements o. Me5i%o, China, Cu'a, Vietnam, and to a great e5tent 7ussia )ho made the re+olutions o. the 20th %entur3* In the 1/80s as )ell, the im1etus .or %hange at the glo'al le+el %ame .rom the anti0%olonial struggle, in%luding the struggle against a1artheid and .or =la%> "o)er in the Gnited States* Toda3, it is the indigenous 1eo1le, the %am1esino, the unem1lo3ed o. Me5i%o CChia1as, Oa5a%aD, =oli+ia, E%uador, =ra<il, Vene<uela, the .armers o. India, the ma6uila )or>ers o. the GS 'order, the immigrant )or>ers o. the GS, et%* )ho are %ondu%ting the most ad+an%ed struggles against the glo'al e5tension o. %a1italist relations* $et us 'e +er3 %lear* &e ma>e these 1oints not to minimi<e the im1ortan%e o. the struggles in the edu0.a%tor3 and the )a3s in )hi%h the Internet has led to the %reation o. ne) >inds o. %ommons that are %ru%ial to our struggle, 'ut 'e%ause )e .ear )e ma3 re1eat mista>es that ma3 ultimatel3 isolate those )ho )or> and struggle in these net)or>s* 4rom this +ie)1oint, )e thin> that the no0glo'al mo+ement C.or all its di..i%ultiesD )as a ste1 .or)ard in its %a1a%it3 to arti%ulate demands and .orms o. a%ti+ism that 1ro@e%ted the struggle in a glo'al )a3, %reating a ne) t31e o. internationalism, one 'ringing together %om1uter 1rogrammers, artists, and other edu0)or>ers )ith
87
.armers and industrial )or>ers in one mo+ement, ea%h ma>ing its distin%ti+e %ontri'ution* 4or this 1oliti%al re0%om1osition to 'e%ome 1ossi'le, ho)e+er, )e need to see the %ontinuit3 o. our struggle through the di..eren%e o. our 1la%es in the international di+ision o. la'or, and to arti%ulate our demands and strategies in a%%ordan%e to these di..eren%es and the need to o+er%ome them* !ssuming that a re0%om1osition o. the )or>.or%e is alread3 o%%urring 'e%ause )or> is 'e%oming homogeni<ed Zthrough a 1ro%ess that some ha+e de.ined as the 'e%oming %ommon o. la'orZ)ill not do* &e %annot %ast the %ogniti+e net so )idel3 that almost e+er3 >ind o. )or> 'e%omes %ogniti+e la'or, short o. ma>ing ar'itrar3 so%ial e6uations and o'.us%ating our understanding o. )hat is ne) a'out %ogniti+e la'or in the 1resent 1hase o. %a1italism* It is an ar'itrar3 mo+e C.or instan%eD to assimilate, under the %ogniti+e la'el, the )or> o. a domesti% )or>erZ)hether an immigrant or not, )hether s-he is a )i.e-mother-sister or a 1aid la'orer Zto that o. a %om1uter 1rogrammer or %om1uter artist and, on to1 o. it, suggest that the %ogniti+e as1e%t o. domesti% )or> is something ne), o)ing to the dominan%e o. a ne) t31e o. %a1italism* Certainl3 domesti% )or>, li>e e+er3 .orm o. re1rodu%ti+e )or>, does ha+e a strong %ogniti+e %om1onent* To >no) ho) to ad@ust the 1illo)s under the 'od3 o. a si%> 1erson so that the s>in does not 'lister and the 'ones do not hurt is a s%ien%e and an art that re6uire mu%h attention, >no)ledge and e51erimentation* The same is true o. the %are .or a %hild, and o. most other as1e%ts o. house)or> )hoe+er ma3 'e doing this )or>* =ut it is 1re%isel3 )hen )e loo> at the +ast uni+erse o. 1ra%ti%es that %onstitute re1rodu%ti+e )or>, es1e%iall3 )hen 1er.ormed in the home, that )e see the limits o. the a11li%ation o. the t31e o. %om1uter0'ased, te%hnologi%al >no)0ho) on )hi%h %ogniti+e %a1italism relies* &e see that the >no)ledge ne%essar3 .or re1rodu%ti+e )or> %an %ertainl3 'ene.it .rom the use o. the internet Cassuming there is time and mone3 .or itD, 'ut it is one t31e o. >no)ledge that human 'eings, mostl3 )omen, ha+e de+elo1ed o+er a long 1eriod o. time, in %on.ormit3 )ith 'ut also against the re6uirements o. the %a1italist organi<ation o. )or>* &e should add that nothing is gained '3 admitting house)or> into the ne) realm o. %ogniti+e la'or, '3 rede.ining is as a..e%ti+e la'or or, as some ha+e done, immaterial la'or, or again %are )or>* 4or a start, )e should a+oid .ormulas that im1l3 a 'od3-mind, reason-emotion se1aration in an3 t31e o. )or> and its 1rodu%ts* Moreo+er, does re1la%ing the notion o. re1rodu%ti+e )or>, as used '3 the .eminist mo+ement, )ith that o. a..e%ti+e la'or trul3
8A
ser+e to assimilate, under the %ogniti+e la'el, the )or> o. a domesti% )or>er C)hether immigrant or not, )hether a )i.e-sister-mother or 1aid la'orerD or the )or> o. a se5 )or>er to that o. a %om1uter 1rogrammer or %om1uter artistI &hat is reall3 %ommon in their la'or, ta>ing into a%%ount all the %om1le5 o. so%ial relations sustaining their di..erent .orms o. )or>I &hat is %ommon, .or instan%e, 'et)een a male %om1uter 1rogrammer or artist or tea%her and a .emale domesti% )or>er )ho, in addition to ha+ing a 1aid @o', must also s1end man3 hours doing un1aid la'or ta>ing %are o. her .amil3 mem'ers Cimmigrant )omen too ha+e o.ten .amil3 mem'ers to %are .or also in the %ountries )here the3 migrate, or must send 1art o. their salar3 home to 1a3 .or those %aring .or their .amil3 mem'ersDI Most %ru%ial o. all, i. the la'or in+ol+ed in the re1rodu%tion o. human 'eingsZstill an immense 1art o. the la'or e51ended in %a1italist so%iet3Zis %ogniti+e, in the sense that it 1rodu%es not things 'ut states o. 'eing, then, )hat is ne) a'out %ogniti+e la'orI !nd, e6uall3 im1ortant, )hat is gained '3 assimilating all .orms o. )or> Ze+en as a tenden%3Zunder one la'el, e5%e1t that some >inds o. )or> and the 1oliti%al 1ro'lemati% the3 generate again disa11earI Isn,t it the %ase that '3 stating that domesti% )or> is %ogniti+e )or> )e .ail, on%e again, to address the 6uestion o. the de+aluation o. this )or> in %a1italist so%iet3Zits largel3 un1aid status, the gender hierar%hies that are 'uilt u1on itZthrough the )age relationI Shouldn,t )e as>, instead, )hat >ind o. organi<ing %an 'e doneZso that domesti% )or>ers and %om1uter 1rogrammers %an %ome together Zrather than assuming that )e all 'e%oming assimilated in the mare magnum o. %ogniti+e la'orI Ta>ing re1rodu%ti+e )or> as a standard also ser+es to 6uestion the 1re+ailing assum1tion that the %ogniti+i<ation o. )or>, in the sense o. its %om1uteri<ation- reorgani<ation through the InternetZhas an eman%i1ator3 e..e%t* ! +oluminous .eminist literature has %hallenged the idea that the industriali<ation o. man3 as1e%ts o. house)or> has redu%ed house)or> time .or )omen* In .a%t, man3 studies ha+e sho)n that industriali<ation has in%reased the range o. )hat is %onsidered as so%iall3 ne%essar3 house)or>* The same is true )ith the in.iltration o. s%ien%e and te%hnolog3 in domesti% )or>, in%luding %hild%are and se5 )or>* 4or e5am1le, the s1read o. 1ersonal %om1uters, .or those house)or>ers )ho %an a..ord them and ha+e time to use them, %an hel1 relie+e the isolation and monoton3 o. house)or> through %hat rooms and so%ial net)or>s* =ut the %reation o. +irtual %ommunities does not alle+iate the in%reasing 1ro'lem o. loneliness, nor does it hel1 the struggle against the destru%tion o. %ommunit3 'onds and the 1roli.eration o. gated )orlds*
8/
In %on%lusion, notions li>e %ogniti+e la'or and %ogniti+e %a1italism should 'e used )ith the understanding that the3 re1resent a 1art, though a leading one, o. %a1italist de+elo1ment and that di..erent .orms o. >no)ledge and %ogniti+e )or> e5ist that %annot 'e .lattened under one la'el* Short o. that, the +er3 utilit3 o. su%h %on%e1ts in identi.3ing )hat is ne) in %a1italist a%%umulation and the struggle against it is lost* &hat is also lost is the .a%t that, .ar .rom %ommunali<ing la'or, e+er3 ne) turn in %a1italist de+elo1ment tends to dee1en the di+isions in the )orld 1roletariat, and that as long as these di+isions e5ist the3 %an 'e used to reorgani<e %a1ital on a di..erent 'asis and destro3 the terrain on )hi%h mo+ements ha+e gro)n*
70
Measure, E5%ess and Translation: Some 9otes on Cogniti+e Ca1italism
Massimo
e !ngelis
Sin%e 4e'ruar3 o. 2007 I ha+e 'een in+ol+ed in dis%ussions %on%erning %ontem1orar3 .orms o. >no)ledge 1rodu%tion, edu%ation and the uni+ersit3 as sites o. struggle )ith man3 %omrades around the )orld on a list %alled edu0.a%tor3 Chtt1:--)))*edu0.a%tor3*orgD* The .ollo)ing notes are a slightl3 edited +ersion o. one o. m3 %ontri'utions to this de'ate* The3 'uild on Sil+ia 4ederi%i and (eorge Ca..ent<is re.le%tions 1u'lished in this issue o. The Commoner on t)o %on%e1ts that ha+e 'een %entral to this dis%ussion Cthe edu0.a%tor3 and %ogniti+e %a1italismD and addresses three other %on%e1ts )hi%h ha+e emerged in the de'ate: measure, e5%ess and translation*
aaa
I )ould li>e to .ollo) u1 the %ontri'ution '3 Sil+ia 4ederi%i and (eorge Ca..ent<is and de+elo1 .urther some im1li%ations o. their %riti%al stan%e on the 6uestion o. %ogniti+e %a1italism* In doing so, I )ould li>e to dra) the attention on the 1oliti%al im1ortan%e o. the arguments raised against the %onse6uen%es o. theoreti%all3 de0%entering the 1ro'lemati% o. %lass hierar%h3 and d3nami%s o. strati.i%ation* 4or the sa>e o. %ontinuit3 and %larit3 m3 %ontri'ution )ill .ollo) the t)o main lines o. their argument, and attem1t to engage )ith issues )hi%h ha+e not 'een dire%tl3 %o+ered in their 1ost, namel3, the 6uestion o. %a1ital,s measure, e5%ess, and translation*
71
&age Fierar%h3, Measure, and E5%ess
The .irst argument 1ro1osed '3 4ederi%i and Ca..ent<is is an em1iri%al-theoreti%al one, in )hi%h the3 argue that the histor3 o. %a1italism demonstrates that %a1ital su'sum1tion o. all .orms o. 1rodu%tion is not 1redi%ated on the e5tension o. the highest le+el o. s%ien%e and te%hnolog3 to all )or>ers %ontri'uting to the a%%umulation 1ro%ess* Cases su%h as the %a1italist organi<ation o. the 1lantation s3stem and o. house)or> suggests that )or> %an 'e organi<ed .or %a1italist a%%umulation )ith the la'orer )or>ing at a le+el o. te%hnologi%al-s%ienti.i% >no)ledge 'elo) the a+erage a11lied in the highest 1oints o. %a1italist 1rodu%tion* This also suggests that the inner logi% o. %a1italist de+elo1ment %an onl3 'e gras1ed i. )e loo> at the totality o. its relations rather than onl3 at the highest 1oints o. its s%ienti.i%-te%hnologi%al a%hie+ements* $oo>ing at this totalit3 re+eals that %a1italism has al)a3s 1rodu%ed dis1arities along the international and se5ual-ra%ial di+ision o. la'or* These dis1arities are 'oth the 1rodu%t o. its inner )or>ings and o. %lear strategies )hi%h gi+e rise to the underde+elo1ment o. 1arti%ular se%tors and are am1li.ied '3 the in%reasing integration o. s%ien%e and te%hnolog3 in the 1rodu%tion 1ro%ess* 9o), it is im1ortant to underline t)o interrelated things on this .irst 1oint* A) Enclosures and disciplinary integration. The )age hierar%h3 here is %ertainl3 not a h31othesis to 'e +eri.ied and is instead ta>en as a 1aradigmati% stand, made intelligi'le '3 a large theoreti%al and em1iri%al literature, as )ell as an3 %ommon sense o'ser+ation o. the modern horrors* There is a limit to the 1ost0modern .lights o. imagination and a%ademi% %on@e%turing that )e %an ta>e on this matter Cand note, this does not ta>e an3thing a)a3 to the o11ortunit3 to ha+e 'oth )ithin limitsD* The 1ro%esses o+erseeing the ongoing %reation o. this strati.i%ation %an 'e gras1ed theoreti%all3 and em1iri%all3 though Mar5,s %lassi% te5ts reinter1reted in lights o. the issues raised '3 the struggles o. those su'@e%ts that in that te5t )ere mostl3 in+isi'le and 3et are and ha+e al)a3s 'een so .undamental to %a1italism C)omen, the un)aged re1rodu%tion )or>ers, the sla+es, the 1easants, and so onD* The 1rodu%tion o. the totalit3 o. so%ial relations under %a1italism de+elo1s along t)o main %o0ordinates Canother one is )hat )e %an %all go+ernamentalit3, or the %lass deal 'ut I %annot tal> a'out this hereD* One is s3stemati% and %ontinuous en%losure strategies, as it has 'een o'ser+ed in other 1osts* These %ertainl3 a..e%ts all le+els in the hierar%h3 'ut the3 also ha+e the e..e%t o. %ontinuousl3 re0
72
'easure, =#cess and !ranslation: %ome 5otes on Q,ognitive ,a pitalismR
strati.3ing the hierar%h3 itsel.* This not onl3 '3 hitting the 'ottom la3ers the hardest Cthrough land-)ater en%losures, relo%ation, ur'an 1roletarisation and so onD, 'ut also through the use o. te%hnolog3 and >no)ledge 1rodu%ts de+elo1ed at the highest le+els as instrument o. these en%losures Cterminator seeds, (MOs, and o. %ourse, remem'er the 1/80s green re+olutionID* The other one is )hat Mar5 la'els the 1ro%ess going on 'ehind the 'a%> o. the 1rodu%ers, the 1ro%ess o. the .ormation o. so%iall3 ne%essar3 la'our time, and that in order to a11ease an3 illusions that our e1o%h has mo+ed a)a3 .rom the im1osition o. dis%i1line, )e %an %all dis%i1linar3 integration* The 1ro%ess o. %om1etiti+e mar>ets Z des1ite all its im1urities in relation to te5t'oo> modelsZa%t as dis%i1linar3 me%hanism that allo%ate re)ards and 1unishments* The3 gi+e rise to %on%entration and %entralisation tenden%ies, the latter understood not as an as3m1toti% .uture out%ome des%ri'ed '3 a %r3stal 'all, 'ut as the emergent result o. so%ial 1ro%esses rooted in struggle, to the e#tent struggles are subsumed and pit one against another within the process itself !nd, .inall3, the3 %ontri'ute to ongoing the 1lanetar3 re0strati.i%ation o. so%ial la'our* B) Measure and excess. &e )ould not go mu%h to the 'ottom o. these t)o 1ro%esses o. en%losures and dis%i1linar3 integrationZthat 'ottom that interests us 'e%ause o. its radi%al im1li%ationsZi. )e )ere not understanding that this inner logi% o. %a1italism is 1redi%ated on a )a3 o. measuring li.e a%ti+it3 )hi%h su'ordinates %on%rete s1e%i.i% humans to the 6uantitati+e im1erati+e o. 'alan%e sheets, a 1ro%ess o. gi+ing meaning to a%tion, o. acting on this meaning, and sha1ing organisational .orms suita'le .or this a%tion that 1rodu%es )hat %a1ital values the most: its o)n sel.01reser+ation as %a1ital Ce+en in s1ite o. the 'an>ru1t%3 o. indi+idual %a1italsD* This su'ordination means that the sensuous and %ogniti+e .eatures o. %on%rete la'ouring areZ1re%isel3Zsu'ordinated to the dri+e .or ma>ing mone3* !nd the e5isten%e o. this su'ordination im1lies that there is al)a3s and has al)a3s 'een an e5%ess )hi%h is not 1ut to +alue '3 %a1ital, 1re%isel3 'e%ause +alue .or %a1ital is a'stra%t la'our, or human la'our 1o)er e51ended )ithout regard to the .orm o. its e51enditure, as Mar5 1ut in the .irst %ha1ter o. Ca1ital* This e5%ess emerges in the %ontradi%tor3 nature o. )hat is o. +alue .or %a1ital and )hat is o. +alue .or )aged and un)aged )or>ers* This e5%ess )ith res1e%t to )hat is re6uired '3 1ro.it0dri+en 1rodu%tion in gi+en %onte5ts, is o.ten a )a3 in )hi%h these +alue struggles mani.est themsel+es in gi+en .orms and degrees* &e %an .ind it %utting through the noise o. assem'l3 lines in the @o>es that )or>ers shout to ea%h otherK or in the )his1ers o. %hildren hiding .rom the e3es o.
72
terri'l3 serious Vi%torian s%hoolmastersK or emerging .rom the regimented .ields o. sla+e 1lantations in the .orm o. songs, %hants and rh3thms allo)ing %ommuni%ations to .lo) in a+oidan%e o. the )hi1 o. sla+e masters* In other )ords, the 1rodu%tion o. e5%ess is not the 1rerogati+e o. %ogniti+e la'our and there.ore o. %ontem1orar3 .orms o. %a1italism* The e5%ess is the out%ome o. the struggle o. situated )or>ers .a%ing the .rontline and %ontesting the redu%tion o. their li.e0 a%ti+it3 to human 1o)er e51ended )ithout regard to the .orm o. its e51enditure 'e%ause su'ordinated to the 1riorit3 o. 'alan%e sheets* This e5%ess is so%ial .orm that is +alued '3 the struggling su'@e%ts, it is human 1o)er e51ended )ith regard to the .orm o. its e51enditure* =ut let us not 'e .ooled '3 these e5%esses* Ca1italism is a d3nami% s3stem* I. in gi+en %onte5ts, times and situations, an intelle%tual, artisti% or %ogniti+e 1rodu%t emerges as a means or result o. struggle, in a di..erent situation and tem1oral .rame)or>, the same 1rodu%t %an a%t as a retro .ashion item see>ing +alorisation in a ni%he mar>et, hen%e su'@e%t to %a1ital?s measure* &hat )as 'e.ore the result o. the struggle at the .rontline, it is no) the %ondition .rom dra)ing a ne) .rontline, a ne) %lash among +alue 1ra%ti%es, among modes o. measuring li.e a%ti+it3, out o. )hi%h a ne) e5%ess )ill %ertainl3 emerge* Ca1ital %a1tures struggle and e5%ess to a +ariet3 o. degrees de1ending on %ontingent 1o)er relations* =ut the +er3 .a%t that it does it and %ontinuousl3 see>s to do it through the im1osition o. its measure and hierar%h3 %annot 'e )ished a)a3: it is the %ondition )e must .a%e u1 to and o+er%ome through %lass re%om1osition* =ut %lass re%om1osition is not a gi+en* I disagree )ith the argument that %ogniti+e la'our 1oints at )hat is %ommon a%ross the multitude* To 1osit %ogniti+e la'our as a %ommon is to indulge into idealising %ommons in similar )a3s as those )ho romanti%ise the 1ast* This 'e%ause it remo+es ru1ture and struggle the %enter o. the 1ro'lemati% o. %ommons re01rodu%tion* Cogniti+e la'our is an idealised %ommon 'e%ause it is neither )hat is %ommon a%ross the hierar%h3, nor )hat tends to 'e %ommon* In the .irst %ase, it is sim1l3 not the %ase Zas it has 'een argued '3 Sil+ia 4ederi%i and (eorge Ca..ent<is 1ost* One %annot %laim in an3 meaning.ul sense that the different %on%rete la'ours a%ross the glo'al .a%tor3 ha+e %ogniti+e la'our as %ommon* The %laim )ould 'e true onl3 i. )e maintain it as a general 1latitude, that is the .a%t that su'@e%ts are engaged in 1ro%esses o. a%6uiring-.ormulating-1rodu%ing >no)ledge and understanding through thought, e51erien%e and sense* This is o'+iousl3 al)a3s the %ase in all modes o. 1rodu%tion, and in
7E
%a1italismZas 1ointed out '3 Sil+ia and (eorgeZin e+er3 la3ers o. the )age hierar%h3* !nd the se%ond %ase sim1l3 %annot 'e made, sin%e one thing that the tenden%ies )ithin %a1italism re+eal is onl3 that the %lass struggle gets )ider and ri%her in .orm, together )ith the asso%iated dee1ening o. the hierar%hisation o. )aged and un)aged la'our* !nd this im1lies that the 1ro'lemati%-1u<<le o. 1oliti%al re%om1osition ahead o. us gets more %hallenging at the same time as the 1otentials .or li'eration that )ould 'e made 1ossi'le '3 this re%om1osition get more 1lenti.ul* &hat is reall3 %ommon a%ross the multitude is that in so far as capital production is concerned, our 1rodu%tion in %ommon, o%%urs through the su'@e%tion o. multi1li%it3 to a %ommon alien measure o. doing, o. gi+ing +alue to things, o. ran>ing and di+iding the so%ial 'od3 on the 'asis o. this measure* Thus, the strategi% em1hasis on >no)ledge 1rodu%tion that %omes .rom +arious institutional 'odies is not the e+iden%e o. a tenden%3 to turn all )or> into %ogniti+e la'our announ%ing a ne) 1hase o. %a1italism C%ogniti+e %a1italism, 1re%isel3D* 7ather, )e are .a%ed here )ith the strategi% attem1t to laun%h a ne) )a+e o. en%losures and dis%i1linar3 integration that re%reate the .u%>ed u1 %ommons that %a1ital attem1ts to im1ose on all o. us: that o. its measure o. li.e 1ro%esses* The s1e%i.i% %hara%ter o. this ne) )a+e has certainly to 'e %riti%all3 studied in details* =ut it is terri'l3 dangerous to a11roa%h this stud3 )ith the illusion that the %urrent em1hasis on >no)ledge 1rodu%tion '3 the institutional agents o. %a1ital is an3thing else 'ut to ser+e as instrument o. %om1etiti+eness, %a1italist gro)th, ne) modes o. en%losures and %ommodi.i%ation o. li.e, and, therefore, 1lanetar3 %lass strati.i%ation*
II
"oliti%al 7e%om1osition and Translation
4rom their .irst theoreti%al-em1iri%al 1oint, Sil+ia 4ederi%i and (eorge Ca..ent<is de+elo1 an im1ortant 1oliti%al argument* There is in .a%t a 1oliti%al %onse6uen%e in using %onstru%ts su%h as %ogniti+e %a1italism and %ogniti+e la'or in su%h a )a3 as to o+ershado) the %ontinuing im1ortan%e o. other .orms o. )or> as %ontri'utors to the a%%umulation 1ro%ess* !nd this is the de+elo1ment o. a dis%ourse that 1re%ludes class recomposition* There is in .a%t the danger that '3 1ri+ileging one >ind o. %a1ital Cand there.ore one >ind o. )or>er or one >ind o. la'ouringD as 'eing the most e5em1lar3 o. the %ontem1orar3 1aradigm )e %ontri'ute to %reate a ne) hierar%h3 o. struggles, thus engaging in .orms o. a%ti+ism that 1re%ludes a re0%om1osition o. the )or>ing %lass* To 'e%ome 1ossi'le, this 1oliti%al re0%om1osition must
7B
'e 1redi%ated on the a)areness o. the %ontinuit3 o. our struggle a%ross the international di+ision o. la'or and )age hierar%h3, )hi%h means that )e need to arti%ulate our demands and strategies in a%%ordan%e to these di..eren%es and the need to overcome them Cm3 em1hasisD* 9o), this arti%ulation is %ertainl3 de1endent on 1ro%esses o. translation* =ut )e )ould 'e .ooling oursel+es i. this )as the onl3 thing re6uired* Translation is o. 1aramount im1ortan%e .or t)o things* 4irst, in understanding the de+elo1ment o. %a1ital,s strategies in s1e%i.i% %onte5ts* Fen%e in so .ar as the strati.ied %lass CmultitudeD relation to %a1ital is %on%erned, %a1ital has indeed to %odi.3 la'our in its o)n grammar and %ode, )hi%h rises .or us the 1ro'lem o.Z 1re%isel3Ztranslation o. %ategories in terms rele+ant to us* !nd this %ertainl3 ha11ens at the le+el o. )hat used to 'e %alled 'ourgeoise dis%ourses )hi%h a11rehends so%ial 1ro%esses grounded on so%ial %on.li%t )ith the dis%ursi+e %losure C'ut strategi% .o%usD em'edded in its 1remises, methods, 1oli%3 im1li%ations and, no)ada3s, go+ernan%e re%ommendations* !t this le+el o. %riti%al engagement, translation is o. 1aramount im1ortan%e, as a )a3 to ma1 the enem3 stan%e +is0a,0+is struggles* Se%ondZand more in tune )ith the theme o. this se%tionZ translation is im1ortant in relation to %ommuni%ation among re'ellious su'@e%ts )hoZ1re%isel3 'e%ause are di+ided a%ross the )age hierar%h3Zone )a3 or another are a%tors in 1ro%esses su%h as those that re1rodu%e ra%ism and 1atriar%h3, or relate to the )orld mo+ing .rom the li.e0)orlds the3 inha'it, )ith their %ultural norms, imaginaries and m3thologies* Thus, )e al)a3s need to engage in 1ro%esses o. translation so as not onl3 to tal> to ea%h other, 'ut to gi+e meaning to )ords, s1ee%h0a%ts, te5ts* !nd this o. %ourse, )ith all the %aution )e need in su%h e5er%ises: )ho translates and )ho s1ea>I )ho hears and )ho listens, )ho holds the di%tionar3, so to sa3, )hat meanings are le.t outI and so on* In this sense, ongoing 1ro%esses o. translation are 1art and 1ar%el o. the %onstitution o. %ommons* ! translation ho)e+er is gi+ing meanings to words, it is ma11ing meanings .rom a %ode to another* It is not 3et to a%t u1on these meanings, %reating e..e%ts through these a%tions and gi+ing meaning to 'oth these a%tions and their results* It is not 3et, to +alue in the .ull sense o. the )ord, the sense in )hi%h to +alue 'e%omes a so%ial .or%e o. trans.ormationb Het, this is 1re%isel3 )hat %a1ital does in its 1ro%ess o. la'our a'stra%tion* This is notZas %laimed in some 1osts in the edu0 .a%tor3 de'ateZsim1l3 a 1ro%ess o. translation o. human la'ourZas i. the latter %ould e5ist in the .orm it does inde1endentl3 .rom the meaning gi+en to it '3 %a1ital C1erha1s e%hoing some illusions that are %ir%ulating that toda3,s %ogniti+e la'our has rea%hed %ommunism, a
78
.orm o. la'our %oo1eration that is largel3 inde1endent .rom %a1italD* Ca1ital does not sim1l3 gi+es meaning to )ords, does not onl3 ma1 meanings .rom one %ode to another* It does so as moment o. a 1ro%ess o. +alori<ation that must 'e %on%ei+ed as mu%h more than translation* The 1ro%ess o. +alorisation o. %a1ital is a 1ro%ess .ounded on gi+ing meaning to a%tion in a %onte5t in )hi%h this meaning %an 'e to a +ariet3 o. degrees en.or%ed Cthrough 1er+asi+e en%losures o. +arious .orms 'a%>ed '3 state mono1ol3 o. +iolen%eZe+en i. this is a transnational stateZen.or%es a %on.iguration o. e5isting 1ro1ert3 rights and +arious degrees o. e5%lusion .rom the %ommonsD and )ith results that to a large e5tent gi+e sha1e to so%ial a%tions, and %reate %onse6uen%es* Through this +alorisation 1ro%ess, human 1o)ers are transmuted into %ommodities, and so%ial doing is transmutated into )or>, into a'stra%t la'our* In this sense, a'stra%t la'our is not so mu%h the result o. a translation* It is the result o. a real a'stra%tion, i*e* a transmutation, as a transmutation o. one s1e%ies into another, one s1e%ies o. humans into another one* ! transmutation .or e5am1le that still is largel3 res1onsi'le to .ill e+ening %ommuting trains )ith drained 'odies, )hether o. %ogniti+e la'ourers or %leanersK one that rh3thmi%all3 and %3%li%all3 a%%umulates the detritus o. %a1ital,s measure into our %om1eting and %olliding 'odies in the .orms o. .ear, stress, e5%essi+e anti'ioti%s, and an5ietiesK one that also o1erates linearl3, .or e5am1le )hen it turns .armers into reser+e arm3 o. la'our due to, sa3, the detritus a%%umulated in their land '3 +irtue o. 'eing ad@a%ent to an a6ua%ulture 1ool 1rodu%ing shrim1s .or e51ortK or one also that %reates the %ondition .or turning lo%al mothers into migrant nannies, that transmutates the dire%tion o. their a..e%ts a)a3 .rom their %ommunities into the %hildren o. their 'us3 em1lo3ers, mainl3 'e%ause, in gi+en %onditions )ithin the 1lanetar3 )age hierar%h3, the .ormer are less so%iall3 +alued than the latterK or .inall3 one that turns that 'rilliant team o. %reati+e )or>ers that ha+e %ome u1 )ith that 'rilliant inno+ati+e idea, into the %om1etiti+e means to de0+alue some other %ogniti+e la'ourers, threaten their li+elihoods and 1ush them to a li.e0learning 1ro%ess to dis%o+er al)a3s ne) .orms o. undermining an in+isi'le other, to @oin a .riendl3 team so as to organise a %om1etiti+e retri'ution* The tas> o. 1oliti%al re%om1osition ahead o. us, %annot 'e .a%ed i. )e de0%enter the 1ro'lemati% o. hierar%h3 and the measuring 1ro%ess o. li.e0a%ti+it3 %onne%ted to it )hi%h re0%reate hierar%h3 and di+ision* The tas> o. re%om1osition 1asses %ertainl3 through the one no to the .u%>ed u1 %ommons o. %a1ital* !t the same time, it 1asses through the o1en 1ro'lemati% o. ho) to 1rodu%e other %ommons,
77
more meaning.ul to us, 1redi%ated on man3 3esses, that is on +alorising 1ro%esses other than those 1osited '3 %a1ital* Fen%e, des1ite 'eing a %ru%ial issue, the %entral 6uestion is not translation, 'ut the transformation of our interconnected lives* !nd this trans.ormation %annot a+oid to 1osit the 6uestion o. the o+er%oming o. e5isting di+isions as the %entral 1ro'lemati% o. our organisational e..orts*
7A
7ein+enting !n-Other !nti0Ca1italism in Me5i%o
The Si5th e%laration o. the E;$9 and the Other Cam1aign
"atri%> Cuninghame1
&ell, then, in Me5i%o )hat )e )ant to %reate is an agreement )ith 1eo1le and organi<ations that are de%idedl3 o. the le.t, 'e%ause )e 'elie+e that it is on the 1oliti%al le.t )here the idea o. resisting against neoli'eral glo'alisation reall3 li+es, and the struggle to ma>e @usti%e, demo%ra%3, and .reedom in an3 %ountr3 )here+er it )ould 'e, )here there is onl3 .reedom .or 'ig 'usiness and there is onl3 demo%ra%3 to 1ut u1 ele%tion %am1aign signs* !nd 'e%ause )e 'elie+e that onl3 the le.t %an %ome u1 )ith a 1lan .or struggle so that our %ountr3, Me5i%o, does not die* !nd, then, )hat )e 'elie+e is that, )ith these 1eo1le and organi<ations o. the le.t, )e )ill %hart a %ourse to go to e+er3 %orner o. Me5i%o )here there are hum'le and sim1le 1eo1le li>e oursel+es* H!he %i#th (eclaration of the 0acandona Jungle, 200WK
The struggles o. dignit3 tear o1en the .a'ri% o. %a1italist domination* HJohn 7olloway, 200OK
Originall3 1u'lished in &erner =one.eld CedD %ubverting !he -resent / Imagining !he *uture: Insurrection, 'ovement, ,ommons, 9e) Hor>, !utonomedia, 2007* The author is a so%iolog3 le%turer and resear%her at the !utonomous Gni+ersit3 o. Ciudad #uare<, Chihuahua, Me5i%o* Email: 1g%uninghame`3ahoo*%o*u>K 4a5: CcB2D 8B808AA2A12* 7/
"re.a%e
This 1a1er see>s to dra) some lessons at a glo'al le+el .rom the ongoing Other Cam1aign Cso0%alled in mo%> re.eren%e to the 2008 1residential ele%toral %am1aignsD, %atal3sed '3 the ;a1atistas )ith their %all .or a rene)ed anti0%a1italist resistan%e mo+ement .rom 'elo) and to the le.t against neoli'eral %a1italism in Me5i%o and internationall3, in the Si5th e%laration o. the $a%andona #ungle Cthe Si5thD in #ul3 200B* The 1a1er also .o%uses on ho) the organi<ation and mo'ili<ation o. the Other Cam1aign is e+ol+ing in the trans0'order region o. Chihuahua0Te5as09e) Me5i%o in 9orthern Me5i%o0Southern GS! C)here the author is 'asedD around the attem1ted hori<ontal %oordination o. autonomists, anar%hists, ;a1atistas, so%ialists, indigenous and 1easant mo+ements, and the e..orts to in%lude inde1endent trade unions and the more radi%al 9(O %am1aigns against the .emi%ide o. some EB0 )or>ing %lass )omen and girls in Ciudad #uare< sin%e 1//2, as )ell as other issues 'ased around migration, the GS0Me5i%o 'order, the hegemoni% ma6uiladora C%or1orate assem'l3 1lant .or e51ortD h31er0e51loitation model and the so%ial +iolen%e and ur'an degradation 1rodu%ed '3 sa+age %a1italism* This other organi<ational 1aradigm, )hi%h in%ludes the Other on the other side Co. the 'orderD, )ill 'e also 'e %onne%ted )ith the Ma3 a3 $atino 'o3%ott mo+ement in the GS against the %riminalisation o. undo%umented migrants* The 'roader so%io01oliti%al %onte5t is .ramed '3 the e+ents surrounding the #ul3 2008 1residential ele%tions, )hi%h 1ro+ed to 'e 1arti%ularl3 dirt3 and .raudulent, des1ite the %onsensus among the three %andidates o. the main 1arties on the need to %onsolidate through institutional re.orms the neo0 li'eral model C%onstru%ted on the 1//E 9!4T! agreementD, )hi%h see>s to e5tend a dee1ened GS e%onomi% hegemon3 o+er $atin !meri%a through the 2001 "ue'la0"anama "lan, the 200B Central !meri%as 4ree Trade !greement CC!4T!D and the re%entl3 shel+ed 4ree Trade !rea o. the !meri%as C4T!!D 1ro1osal* The des1erate, %3ni%al %a1itulation o. the +erti%al le.t2, 'oth 1arliamentar3 and e5tra0
2 =3 +erti%al $e.t I mean those organi<ational traditions )ithin the histori%al $e.t that .a+our a %entralist, hierar%hi%al, organi<ational stru%ture Ca mirror image o. the %a1italist .irmD and that 1ra%ti%e dogmati%, +anguardist, statist and to10do)n 1oliti%s, i*e* all their 1oliti%al initiati+es either stem .rom or ha+e to 'e a11ro+ed '3 the leadershi1, )hile rigid dis%i1line and o'edien%e is en.or%ed on the mem'ershi1 '3 threat o. e51ulsion* Their 1oliti%al ideolog3 is usuall3 'ased on an orthodo5 s%ienti.i% so%ialist inter1retation o. the Mar5ist0 $eninist %anon* $e.t 1oliti%al traditions %onsidered to 'e +erti%alist )ould 'e so%ial demo%rats, $eninists and Trots>3ists, 'ut in the %onte5t o. alterglo'alism )ould also in%lude Ce50D national li'eration mo+ements li>e Sinn 4ein* ! Me5i%an e5am1le )ould 'e the Trots>3ist "7T C"artido 7e+olu%ionario de los Tra'a@adores-&or>ers 7e+olutionar3 "art3D, )hi%h s1lit in the earl3 /0s o+er
A0
<einventing )n6.ther )nti/,apitalism in 'e#ico
1arliamentar3 Cin%luding some e50;a1atista su11orters and mu%h o. the 1ost01/8A 9e) $e.tD to the 1o1ulist, demagogi% 1residential %am1aign o. the %entre0le.t "7 %andidate !ndres Manuel $o1e< O'rador C!M$OD, some on the 'asis o. >ee1ing the %orru1t ma.ia0lin>ed "7I and Christian right0ultra neoli'eral "!9 out o. 1o)er, others in the ho1e o. 'ene.iting 1ersonall3 .rom .uture 1residential largesse, mirrors a dee1er %risis as a di+ided glo'al anti0%a1italism see>s to intensi.3 resistan%e against an in%reasingl3 .ragmented and degenerate glo'al )ar %a1italism* This hel1s to e51lain )h3 the E;$9 and its glo'al net)or>, under the title o. the ;e<ta Interna<ional, are also organi<ing a third Intergala%ti% En%uentro in late 20080earl3 2007, .a%ed )ith the 1er%ei+ed neo0re.ormist ine..i%a%3 o. the no) +erti%alist0 %ontrolled and Cha+e<0de1endent &orld So%ial 4orum C&S4D2* The 1a1er also e5amines the im1a%t o. the 1arti%ularl3 'rutal re1ression o. the !ten%o mo+ement, the Oa5a%a tea%hers? stri>e and !""O mo+ement and !M$O?s or%hestrated 'ut massi+e anti0.raud mo+ement on the Other, 'e.ore rea%hing some %on%lusions on the 1resent state o. anti0%a1italism Cautonomist, ;a1atista and other-)iseD in Me5i%o, and the im1li%ations .or the slo) and la'orious 1ro%ess o. %onsolidating the ne) $atin !meri%an re+olutionar3 le.t CCu'an $i'ertarian Mo+ement-C$M 200B: 1D and glo'al anti0%a1italist and alterglo'alist mo+ements*
Introdu%tion
Me5i%o, as the GS!?s southern neigh'our, is the $atin !meri%an %ountr3 most dire%tl3 1rone to 9orth !meri%an in.luen%e and 1ressure, no) 'eing +irtuall3 hard0)ired into its e%onom3 through the 9orth !meri%an 4ree Trade !greement C9!4T!D sin%e 1//E* Fo)e+er, that 3ear also sa) the 'irth o. the ;a1atista re'ellion in Chia1as in
entr3ism into the "7 , a 1ath the ma@orit3 %hose to .ollo), )hile a minorit3 'e%ame %lose allies o. the E;$9 and no) edit the monthl3 maga<ine, <ebeldia, the main ;a1atista 1u'li%ation* In .a%t, this is a sim1li.i%ation as there is a %ertain amount o. %rosso+er 1arti%ularl3 'et)een the leadershi1s o. the t)o .a%tions, )hi%h tends to mudd3 the )aters o. radi%al le.t 1oliti%s in Me5i%o* !n English e5am1le )ould 'e the So%ialist &or>ers "art3 CS&"D* In re%ent 3ears the +erti%alists ha+e in%reasingl3 %lashed )ith the hori<ontalists Cautonomists, anar%hists, e%o.eminists, en+ironmentalists, inde1endent so%ial mo+ements in generalD o+er the %ontrol and .uture dire%tion o. the &orld and Euro1ean So%ial 4orums in 1arti%ular and glo'al anti0%a1italism-alterglo'alism in general* 4or a dis%ussion o. +erti%alist0hori<ontalist 1oliti%s, see $e+ido) C200ED* CND )hat seems to 'e ha11ening in Cara%as U the a11arent %om1lete de1enden%e '3 the lo%al %i+il organisations Cthose )ho the &S4 International Coun%il has a11ointed to organise the 1arti%ular edition o. the )orld 4orumD on Fugo Ch]+e< and his go+ernment .or organising the 4orum 0 seems to dire%tl3 %ontradi%t the s1irit and soul o. the 4orum C#ai Sen 2008D* A1
o11osition to 9!4T!, neoli'eralism and B00 3ears o. the ra%ist dis%rimination and e5%lusion o. the Me5i%an indigenous 1o1ulation, %om1osed o. o+er B0 ethni% grou1s ea%h )ith its o)n language and %ulture, a%%ounting .or a'out 1Bd o. its 110 million 1o1ulation* T)el+e 3ears on and the remar>a'l3 resilient and un%easingl3 %reati+e ;a1atistas ha+e 'oun%ed 'a%> 3et again into the %entre o. national 1oliti%al li.e and international mo'ilisation through the Other Cam1aign, laun%hed '3 the Si5th e%laration o. the $a%andona #ungle in #ul3 200B, )hi%h mar>ed a de.initi+e ru1ture )ith the "7 and the li'eral ur'an intelligentsia, on%e united in their o11osition to the "7I di%tatorshi1 10 3ears 1re+iousl3* The ne) enem3 )as identi.ied as !M$O, the moderate "7 C"artido de la 7e+olu%ion emo%rati%a-"art3 o. the emo%rati% 7e+olutionD 1residential %andidate, at that time %lear .a+ourite to )in the 2008 ele%tions* Fis 1art3 had 'etra3ed the ;a1atistas and the indigenous 1eo1les in 2001 )hen the3 'ro>e their )ord and su11orted the ena%tment o. an unre%ognisa'l3 diluted "!9 C"artido de la !%%ion 9a%ional-9ational !%tion "art3D go+ernment +ersion o. the San !ndres !%%ord on Indigenous !utonom3, rea%hed )ith the then "7I C"artido de la 7e+olu%ion Institu%ional-"art3 o. the Institutional 7e+olutionD go+ernment in 1//8* 4urthermore, as Ma3or o. Me5i%o Cit3 he had sho)n a 1re.eren%e .or 1haraoni% 'uilding 1ro@e%ts, <ero0toleran%e 1oli%ing against the +endors o. the in.ormal e%onom3, the main sour%e o. in%ome .or man3 o. the %it3?s 1A million 1o1ulation, and attem1ts to e51el rooted 1roletarian %ommunities and gentri.3 the histori% %entre in asso%iation )ith Me5i%o?s ri%hest entre1reneur Carlos Slim* The result has 'een a 'itter di+ision )ith the 1easant and ur'an )or>ing %lass grassroots o. the "7 , )here some )anted to su11ort 'oth !M$O and the Other Cam1aign, )hile man3, in%luding some .ormer ;a1atista intelle%tual s3m1athisers, %onsidered the ;a1atistas to ha+e 'e%ome the un)itting stooges o. the right, as 1art o. its 1lot against !M$O* The sus1i%ion o. 'oth te%hnologi%all3 so1histi%ated %3'erneti% .raud and %ruder old0.ashioned 'allot stu..ing has hung o+er the ele%tions o. #ul3 2, )hi%h .a+oured the ultra neoli'eral, Christian right "!9 %andidate 4eli1e Calderon '3 0*Bd or @ust o+er 2E0,000 o. the total +ote o. E1 million C=ur'a%h 2008 R "alast 2008 .or e5am1leD* The 'rutal re1ression in Ma3 o. the "eo1les 4ront .or the e.en%e o. the $and C4" TD, and Other Cam1aign a%ti+ists in !ten%o %aused a glo'al )a+e o. re+ulsion against the 4o5 go+ernment o. %hange, as 'rutal and .raudulent as its "7I 1rede%essors* The Other Cam1aign 0 the .irst attem1t in Me5i%an histor3 to %reate a %oordinated anti0%a1italist net)or> 'elo) and to the le.t among the s1lintered grou1s, mo+ements and una..iliated indi+iduals to the le.t o. the "7 0 in the s1a%e o. a .e) )ee>s in Ma3 trans.ormed
A2
itsel. .rom a su11ort net)or> .or the %ara+an o. elegate ;ero CSu'%omandante Mar%osD and the Si5th Commission into a %ohesi+e national and transnational Cthan>s to the :Otra en el Otro $ado: VOther Cam1aign in the GS!WD mo+ement )ith strong lin>s to the anti0 %a1italist alterglo'al mo+ements* 9e+ertheless, %om1ared to !M$O?s multitudinous mar%hes o. a million and a hal. on #ul3 18 and o+er t)o million on the 20th, hundreds o. thousands o. )hom still remain %am1ed in Me5i%o Cit3?s main s6uare, %entral a+enues and 'usiness distri%t in 1rotest against the ele%toral .raud, the Other?s national mar%h against re1ression o. 1B,000 in late Ma3 and onl3 B,000 on #ul3 2nd seem tin3 in %om1arison* The !M$O anti0.raud mo+ement allegedl3 is .inan%ed '3 the lo%al %onstru%tion industr3 that 'ene.ited so handsomel3 under his ma3orshi1, as )ell as '3 the "7 through its +arious state go+ernors, senators and de1uties and isU at least .or the moment U dire%tl3 or%hestrated '3 !M$O and the "7 leadershi1, )ho ha+e 1romised the in%reasingl3 )orried 1ress, international in+estors and Me5i%an 'usiness %lass to send e+er3one home as soon as a total re%ount is agreed* The Other or Otra has esta'lished itsel. as a %onsolidated transnational mo+ement in less than a 3ear, )hile !M$O?s %han%es o. turning the ta'les on the neoli'eral right and its su11ort .rom =ush, than>s to an im1ressi+e 1o1ular mo'ili<ation )hi%h e5%eeds the ele%toral 'ase o. the "7 , seem ho)e+er e+er slimmer* Sin%e the 1u'li%ation o. the Si5th last 3ear, a .eud has raged among le.t intelle%tuals as to )hether the Other is 1art o. a rightist 1lot to .rustrate the %entre0le.t 3et again, as ha11ened in 1/AA )hen .raud 1ermitted the "7I?s Carlos Salinas, later the ar%hite%t o. 9!4T! and still seen as the eminence grise o. Me5i%an 1oliti%s, to steal the ele%tion .rom Cuauhtemo% Cardenas, son o. the "7I 1resident and national re+olutionar3 (eneral $a<aro Cardenas )ho e51ro1riated and nationali<ed the oil industr3 in the 1/20s* 4ormer ;a1atista s3m1athisers li>e !rau@o, "oniato)s>a and Monsi+ais are no) 1art o. !M$O?s entourage, )hi%h has %onstantl3 atta%>ed the Other in the 1ress, a%%using it o. nai+et3 and o11ortunism o+er !ten%o and o. %om1li%it3 )ith the right* Others li>e !lme3ra C2008a, ' R %K Oli+ares !lonso 2008D and 7oss C2008D ha+e attem1ted to remain %riti%all3 deta%hed .rom 'oth %am1s, %laiming more s3m1ath3 )ith the 'roader ;a1atista mo+ement, )hile hea+il3 %riti%ising Mar%os and the E;$9?s se%tarianism, +oluntarism and disres1e%t .or the autonom3 o. the ;a1atista %ommunities )hi%h ha+e 'een .or%ed to %ut themsel+es o.. .rom the outside )orld on%e again '3 the red alert sin%e Ma3* These a%%usations ha+e led Mar%os to %riti%ise some intelle%tuals as .en%e0sitting %o)ards C=ellinghausen 2008%D and to a storm o. disagreement )ith 7oss in 1arti%ular .rom the Other C=arrios
A2
Ca'rera 2008D* Others li>e $o1e< 3 7i+as C2008D and (on<ale< Casano+a C=ellinghausen 2008D de.end the Other Cam1aign, )hile see>ing to reo1en relations )ith !M$O and the "7 * In %ontrast, Su'%omandante Mar%os has 'een relentless in his %riti%ism o. !M$O and the "7 as the real enem3 o. 'oth the Otra and the Me5i%an )or>ing %lass, sin%e their alternati+e national 1ro@e%t )ill 'reathe ne) li.e and legitima%3 into the notoriousl3 %orru1t Me5i%an 1oliti%al s3stem and the orthodo5 neoli'eral model it ser+es, and )ill ine+ita'l3 'rea> their 1romises to 1ut the 1oor .irst .or the 'ene.it o. all C!M$O?s ele%toral sloganD* Other a%ademi%s %lose to the ;a1atista mo+ement li>e Far+e3 C200BD and Follo)a3 C2002', 2002D see> to de.end the ;a1atistas .rom their detra%tors )ithin the glo'al re+olutionar3 le.t, )hile anal3sing the E;$9?s 1arado5i%al ina'ilit3 to %a1italise on its enormous glo'al 1oliti%al %a1ital to hel1 .oment lasting so%ial, e%onomi% and demo%rati% %hange .rom 'elo), as has ha11ened in E%uador and =oli+ia )here strong indigenous mo+ements ha+e hel1ed to to11le un1o1ular neoli'eral go+ernments* Fa+ing esta'lished the 1oliti%al 'asis .or the ru1ture o. the E;$9 )ith the institutional and mu%h o. the histori%al Me5i%an le.t as the 'a%>dro1 to the Other Cam1aign, the .ollo)ing se%tion )ill e51lore in greater detail the 1ro1osals outlined in the Si5th e%laration and ho) the3 ha+e 1anned out in the tra@e%tor3 o. the Other and its international sister %am1aign, the ;e<ta or Intergala%ti% Commission o. the E;$9*
The Si5th, The Other and the ;e<ta

In %ommon )ith the .irst .i+e e%larations, the Si5th as e+ent mar>s a turning 1oint in the ;a1atista struggle and as te5t %ommuni%ates to national and international %i+il so%iet3E the de%isions o. the ;a1atista assem'lies through the E;$9 and Mar%os* The Si5th )as initiall3 greeted )ith 1ositi+e statements '3 the Me5i%an 1oliti%al and intelle%tual %lasses as a sign o. the E;$9?s .urther mo+e a)a3 .rom armed struggle and to)ards non0+iolent demo%rati% 1oliti%s* In .a%t non0+iolen%e is stressed throughout the do%ument as the 'asis .or dire%t a%tion, in %ommon )ith most o. the alterglo'alist mo+ement 'ut
I use in+erted %omma s sin%e there is so mu%h disagreement o+er the term, although the (rams%ian, more so%ial m o+ement0'ased inter1retation tends to 1redominate )ithin ;a1atista and mo+ement dis%ourse, )hile the Fegelian +ersion, 'ased on all indi+iduals and grou1s outside the state, in%luding entre1reneurs, religious institutions and rightist interest grou1s, 1redominates in 'oth 9(O and a%ademi% dis%ourse in Me5i%o* On the 6uestion o. )hat is %i+il in %i+il so%iet3 see Clea+er Cin this +olumeD and =one.eldC2008D*
AE
in %ontinued ru1ture )ith the histor3, ideolog3 and 1ra5is o. 'oth Me5i%an and $atin !meri%an +anguardist guerrilla mo+ements:
The E;$9 %ontinues its %ommitment to)ard an o..ensi+e %ease0.ire and )ill not atta%> an3 go+ernmental .or%e nor %arr3 out o..ensi+e militar3 manoeu+resK the E;$9 %ontinues, still, its %ommitment to insisting on the 1ath o. 1oliti%al struggle )ith this 1ea%e.ul 1ro1osal that )e no) ma>e* !s su%h, the E;$9 )ill %ontinue in its 'elie. in not ma>ing an3 se%ret allian%e )ith national 1oliti%o0militar3 organi<ations nor those o. other %ountriesK the E;$9 reiterates it %ommitment to de.end, su11ort, and o'e3 the ;a1atista indigenous %ommunities that %reate it and that are its su1reme %ommand, and, )ithout inter.ering in their internal demo%rati% 1ro%esses and in the measurement o. its 1ossi'ilities, to %ontri'ute to the strengthening o. their autonom3, good go+ernment, and im1ro+ement o. li+ing %onditions* That is to sa3, )hat )e are going to %reate in Me5i%o and in the )orld )e )ill %reate )ithout )ea1ons, through a 1ea%e.ul %i+il mo+ement, 3et )ithout ignoring or a'andoning our %ommunities* CE;$9 200B: 20ED
The right )as 1arti%ularl3 ha113 a'out the se+ere %riti%isms made o. !M$O and the "7 , )hi%h seemed to 1romise a di+ided le.t* The ;a1atistas and the Other, ho)e+er, do not %onsider the "7 to 'e an3 longer a 1art3 o. the le.t, or at least onl3 o. the to10do)n +ariet3* In .a%t, the Si5th has rein+igorated the de'ate o+er the meaning o. this histori%all3 am'iguous 1oliti%al %ategor3 and identit3, 'orn during the 4ren%h 7e+olution o. 17A/, )hi%h anar%hist, autonomist and li'ertarian grou1s in the Other generall3 re@e%t as o'solete and meaningless, gi+en the o'@e%ti+el3 1ro0%a1italist 1osition o. most o. the histori%al le.t, )hether so%ial0demo%rat, institutional so%ialist or Ce50D%ommunist* !nother re.le%tion on the meaning o. le.t )ithin the Si5th as uto1ia is 1ro+ided '3 the Cu'an $i'ertarian Mo+ement C200B: 102D:
CND le.t is the one that has not renoun%ed uto1ia neither '3 )ord or deed, and that, in s1ite o. e+er3thing, .inds its main en%ouragement in a uto1ia that %ould 'e generall3 de.ined as a thi%> )e' o. relationshi1s among .ree, e6ual and mutuall3 su11orti+e 'eingsK a uto1ia %a1a'le o. identi.3ing its distant and +enera'le 'eginnings and o. re%laiming them .or their mu%h needed a%tualisation* CND This is the le.t that has learned to re%ogni<e and loo> as>an%e at the narro), dr3 road le.t in the )a>e o. the guerrilla +anguards later 'e%ome some e5%lusi+e and e5%luding 1art3, %i+il or militar3 1o1ulism and so%ial0demo%rati% re.ormismK this is the le.t that doesn?t .eel re1resented '3 an3 authorit3 and e+en 6uestions the meaning o. Ore1resentation?, that see>s itsel. among the %ries o. Olet them all gob? Vûe se +a3an todosb, the slogan o. the e%em'er 2001 re+olts in !rgentinaW and the )his1ering 1romise to %hange the )orld )ithout ta>ing 1o)er VFollo)a3 2002aWK the le.t that de1ends on the non0negotia'le autonom3 o. grassroots so%ial mo+ements as the tem1late .or a ne) )orld and that in sel.0management and dire%t a%tion
AB
.inds its truest e51ression* ! le.t that surel3 the E;$9 )ants to 'elong to and that, in o1en re%i1ro%it3, .inds in it one o. its most +isi'le mani.estations*
Fo)e+er, the initial enthusiasm o. 4o5 et al .or the Si5th added grist to the mill o. the ;a1atistas? %riti%s in a%ademi% le.t and "7 %ir%les* !do1ting a neo0Stalinist +ersion o. the theor3 o. the e5tremes that tou%h, %riti%s li>e !lme3ra Co1* %it*D ha+e ranted against the Si5th and the Other in their %olumns in 0a Jornada, the onl3 le.tist national dail3 ne)s1a1er and %lose to the "7 , as e+iden%e that the Other is, )ittingl3 or not, 1art o. the 4o50Salinas anti0!M$O 1lot, and there.ore o'@e%ti+el3 a rea%tionar3 mo+ement, unless it %orre%ts itsel. and allies itsel. )ith !M$O* Fo)e+er, sin%e the re1ression o. the mo+ement at !ten%o in Ma3, su%h %ons1ira%30theor3 %harges ha+e lost the illusor3 %reden%e the3 ma3 initiall3 ha+e had* The organi<ation o. the Other %am1aign 'egan in !ugust 200B )ith a series o. meetings 'et)een the di..erent se%tors o. )hat the ;a1atistas %ontinue to re.er to as %i+il so%iet3 %on+o>ed '3 the Si5th and the E;$9 in the Cara%ol o. $a 7ealidad, the traditional meeting 1la%e, in the $a%andona @ungle near to the 'order )ith (uatemala, o. the E;$9 and its allies* Through these meetings )ith %ore organi<ations and grou1s 1re1ared to %oordinate the Other throughout the +arious .ederal entities o. Me5i%o, the Other?s strateg3 )as dis%ussed and de%ided through the dire%t demo%ra%3 o. the assem'l3* !ll grou1s, mo+ements and indi+iduals )ho a%%e1t the organi<ational 1rin%i1les o. .orming an anti0%a1italist allian%e 'elo) and to the le.t %ould 'e%ome adherents to the Si5th and 1arti%i1ants in the Other* =elo) im1lies 'ottom0u1, grassroots sel.0organi<ation among the rural and ur'an )or>ing %lass and 1oor, es%he)ing relations )ith more 1ri+ileged strata li>e intelle%tuals, small entre1reneurs et%* )hose su11ort the E;$9 on%e sought 10 3ears 1re+iousl3* To the le.t signi.ies that the Other is 'oth theoreti%all3 and 1ra%ti%all3 anti0 %a1italist, to distinguish it .rom the am'iguous and o11ortunist le.t, 1arti%ularl3 the "7 , )hi%h in the 1ast used an anti0%a1italist dis%ourse in the .orm o. orthodo5 Mar5ism and so%ialist 1oliti%s, mainl3 as a rhetori%al )indo)0dressing e5er%ise and al)a3s su'ordinated to the dis%ourses o. 1atriotism and national so+ereignt3, i*e* the interests o. those se%tors o. the national 'ourgeoisie o11osed to glo'al %a1italism* !s .or the Other?s 1lan o. a%tion in Me5i%o, guidelines had alread3 'een set out in the Se5ta:
In Me5i%oN 1* &e )ill %ontinue .ighting .or the Indian 1eo1les o. Me5i%o 'ut not onl3 .or them nor onl3 )ith them, 'ut, rather, .or all the e51loited and dis1ossessed in Me5i%o CND !nd )hen )e s1ea> o. all the e51loited o. Me5i%o )e are also s1ea>ing o. A8
the 'rothers and sisters )ho ha+e had to go to the Gnited States to see> )or> in order to sur+i +e* 2* &e are going to listen to and s1ea> dire%tl3, )ithout middlemen nor mediations, to the sim 1le and hum'le Me5i%an 1eo1le, and de1ending on )hat )e hear and learn, )e )ill %onstru%t, together )ith these 1eo1le )ho are li>e us, hum'le and sim1le, a national 1lan .or struggle, 'ut a 1lan that )ill, %learl3, 'e o. the le.t, )hi%h is to sa3 anti0%a1italist, or anti0 neoli'eral, or )hi%h is also to sa3 in .a+our o. @usti%e, demo%ra%3 and .reedom .or the Me5i%an 1eo1le* 2* &e )ill tr3 to %onstru%t or re%onstru%t another )a3 o. 1ra%ti%ing 1oliti%s, in the s1irit o. ser+ing others, )ithout material interests, )ith sa%ri.i%e, )ith dedi%ation, )ith honest3, a )a3 that >ee1s it )ord, or, that is to sa3, in the same )a3 that militants o. the le.t U )ho )ere not sto11ed '3 +iolen%e, @ail or death, and mu%h less )ith o..ers o. dollar 'ills U ha+e done so* E* &e )ill also >ee1 loo>ing at )a3s to rise u1K a .ight to demand that )e %reate a ne) Constitution, CND ne) la)s that ta>e our demands, those o. the Me5i%an 1eo1le, into a%%ount, )hi%h are: housing, land, )or>, .ood, health, edu%ation, in.ormation, %ulture, inde1enden%e, demo%ra%3, @usti%e, .reedom and 1ea%e* ! ne) Constitution that re%ogni<es the rights and li'erties o. the 1eo1le, and that de.ends the )ea> against the 1o)er.ul* CE;$9 200B: BD
"oint .our has 'een 1arti%ularl3 %ontro+ersial .or the autonomist0 anar%hist0li'ertarian grou1s )ithin or s3m1atheti% to the Other, )ho re@e%t %onstitutionalism as the gate)a3 to institutional 1oliti%s and the 'ourgeois 1oliti%al game o. 1artial, retra%ta'le human rights and indi+idual li'erties, al)a3s de1endent on the .undamental dut3 o. o'edien%e to the demo%rati% %a1italist state CC$M 200BD* 9e+ertheless, 1erha1s this is too narro) a reading o. the )ord %onstitution, )hi%h a.ter all .igures %entrall3 in the thought o. one o. autonomism?s most im1ortant thin>ers, Toni 9egri C1//2D, )hose theor3 o. %onstituent 1o)er re%ognises ho) the %ounter01o)er o. histori%al and a%tual mo+ements tends to %onstitute a ne) set o. so%ial relations, )hi%h either 'rea>s )ith 1re+ious ones or .or%es them to negotiate a ne) %onstituted 1o)er, .ollo)ing )hi%h the antagonisti% .or%e o. the mo+ement tends to 'e institutionalised and %o0o1ted under the terms o. the ne) %onstitution and its institutions, so %atal3sing a ne) %3%le o. antagonist mo+ements to struggle against the .ormer antagonists* One needs to loo> no .urther than the histor3 o. the in%essant struggle 'et)een the re+olutionar3 and re.ormist le.t during the 20th %entur3* Thus the Other, i. it 'e%omes the hegemoni% antagonist .or%e in Me5i%an 1oliti%s, )ill ha+e to %onstitute ne) so%ial relations and 1oliti%al 'alan%es as one o. its un)ritten tas>s*
A7
The organi<ational 1rin%i1les o. the Other are assem'leist, hori<ontal, anti0ele%toral, anti0delegator3 and dire%tl3 demo%rati%, 'ut to )hat e5tent these 1rin%i1les are %onsistentl3 1ra%ti%ed, gi+en the o+er)helming 1restige o. the E;$9 and Mar%os )ithin the Other, remains to 'e seen:
&e also announ%e that the E;$9 )ill esta'lish a 1oli%3 o. ha+ing allian%es )ith non0ele%toral mo+ements and organi<ations that de.ine themsel+es, in theor3 and 1ra%ti%e, as o. the le.t, a%%ording to the .ollo)ing %onditions:
9o ma>ing o. agreements .rom a'o+e to im1ose u1on those 'elo), 'ut rather, the3 should ma>e agreements to ad+an%e together and to listen and to or gani<e indignationK
9o to 'eginning mo+ements that )ill 'e later negotiated a)a3 'ehind the 'a%>s o. those )ho made them, 'ut, rather, the3 should ta>e into a%%ount, al)a3s, the o1inions o. those )ho 1arti%i1ate in themK
9o to see>ing little gi.ts, @o's, ad+antages, 1atronage, o. "o)er or o. those )ho as1ire to it, 'ut, rather, the3 should go .arther than the ele%toral %alendars allo)K
9o to tr3ing to resol+e .rom a'o+e the 1ro'lems o. our 9ation, 'ut rather, the3 must %onstru%t 47OM =E$O& !9 4O7 =E$O& an alternati+e to neoli'eral destru%tion, an alternati+e o. the le.t .or Me5i%o*
Hes to mutual res1e%t .or autonom3 and inde1enden%e o. organi<ations, o. their )a3s o. .ighting, o. their )a3 o. organi<ing themsel+es, o. their internal de%ision0ma>ing 1ro%esses, o. their legitimate re1resentati+es, o. their as1irations and demandsK
!nd, 3es, to mutual res1e%t and autonom3 and inde1enden%e and 3es to a %lear %ommitment o. mutual and %oordinated de.en%e o. national so+ereignt3, and )ith intransigent o11osition to the attem1ts to 1ri+atise ele%tri%it3, oil, )ater and natural resour%es* CI'id*: 807D
AA
It is e+ident that these %onditions e5%lude the instrumental 1oliti%s o. the institutional le.t, 'ut also o. the re+olutionar3 le.t that see>s state 1o)er* The se%ond no is 1arti%ularl3 to1i%al, gi+en the mani1ulation o. 1o1ular outrage o+er the ele%toral .raud o. #ul3 2nd '3 the "7 leadershi1 to %reate a designer re+olt C(i'ler 2008'D, )hi%h no) .a%es not onl3 imminent +iolent re1ression '3 the 1roto.as%ist Me5i%an state, 'ut also the 1er1etual danger o. 'etra3al through 'a%>room negotiations '3 its leaders* !t the same time these organisational %onditions 1resent 1ro'lems .or the le.t0)ing o. the Other, un%om.orta'le )ith traditional anti0im1erialist 1oliti%s and notions o. national so+ereignt3 that do not 1ro'lematise its 'asis in the dominan%e o. the national 'ourgeois %lasses and it use o. nationalist ideolog3 to mani1ulate and di+ide the glo'al )or>ing %lass, e+en )hen nationalism ma3 a11ear to ha+e a 1rogressi+e, anti0 Han>ee .a%e in Me5i%o* It remains to 'e seen, there.ore, to )hat e5tent the E;$9 and other more histori%al le.t grou1s )ithin the Other %an go 'e3ond the limitations o. (ue+arist le.t nationalism, still the dominant ideolog3 )ithin the Me5i%an and $atin !meri%an radi%al le.t, although in%reasingl3 %riti%ised '3 the gro)th o. autonomism and anar%hism in re%ent 3ears* The Other also see>s to se1arate itsel. .rom the +erti%alist traditions o. Mar5ist0$eninist +anguardism, re@e%ting 'oth the 13ramid model o. organi<ation and its histori%al o'@e%ti+e, the sei<ing o. state 1o)er as the means to %onstitute a so%ialist so%iet3, organi<ed as a mirror image o. hierar%hi%al %a1italist so%iet3* 4rom the start the E;$9 made it %lear that it )ould not 'e .orming the leadershi1 o. the Other, mu%h to the %hagrin o. the +erti%alists, demo%rati% %entralists, 1ro1agators o. the Mar%os 1ersonalit3 %ult and 'elie+ers in %harismati% leaders among the orthodo5 le.t:
!nd )e don?t %ome to 3ou to tell 3ou )hat 3ou should do nor to gi+e 3ou orders* 9or are )e going to as> 3ou to +ote .or a %andidate, sin%e )e alread3 >no) that the onl3 %andidates are neoli'erals* 9or are )e going to tell 3ou to do )hat )e do, nor that 3ou should rise u1 in arms* &hat )e are going to do is as> 3ou ho) 3our li+es are going, 3our struggles, 3our thoughts a'out ho) our %ountr3 is doing and a'out )hat )e %an do so that the3 don?t de.eat us CND !nd ma3'e CND together, )e )ill organi<e throughout the entire %ountr3 and %ome to an agreement 'et)een our struggles that, right no), .ight alone, se1arated .rom one another, and )e )ill %ome u1 )ith a 1lan a'out ho) )e )ill %ontinue )ith this 1rogram that in%ludes )hat )e all )ant, and a 1lan .or ho) )e are going to a%hie+e this 1rogram, that is named Othe national 1lan .or struggle? CND CE;$9 200B: 202D
9e+ertheless, elegate ;ero is )ithout dou't the primus inter pares o. the Other, as %ould 'e o'ser+ed at the 4irst 9ational !ssem'l3 on Ma3
A/
2/, )hen he in.ormed the !ssem'l3, su11osedl3 the highest de%isionar3 'od3 o. the Other, o. the E;$9?s 9ational "lan .or Struggle u1 to and in%luding ele%tion da3 on #ul3 2 nd to .ree the !ten%o 1risoners, lea+ing the !ssem'l3 to ru''erstam1 it, rather than de'ate, dis%uss and i. ne%essar3 %riti%ise and amend it, gi+en the la%> o. time to do so Conl3 1B minutes o. dis%ussion time remained .or ea%h set o. state and regional delegates to gi+e their o1inion on the 1ro1osal as the inde1endent %inema )here the !ssem'l3 )as held )as a'out to shut .or the nightD* In >ee1ing )ith most o. the glo'al anti0%a1italist mo+ement, man3 )ithin the Other are di..ident a'out su%h grand narrati+es as so%ialism, %ommunism, autonomism and anar%hism or an3 1reordained 'lue1rint to %hange so%iet3 .rom a'o+e, although )ithin its ran>s are some o. the most dogmati% Mar5ist0$eninists in Me5i%o, the Maoist Communist "art3 o. Me5i%o CMar5ist $eninistD )hose huge 'anners o. Mar5, $enin, Engels, Stalin and Mao ha+e adorned e+er3 meeting and mar%h o. the Other?s %ara+an, to the %onsternation o. man3 )ithin the Other and the derision o. its %riti%s C!lme3ra 2008aK San%he< 7amire< 2008DB* In 1ro'a'l3 unintentional a%%ordan%e )ith the autonomist theor3 o. multitude CFardt R 9egri: 2000, 200EK Virno: 200ED, these ar%hai% images, on%e the i%ons o. organi<ed )or>ing %lass %entralit3, are a%%e1ted along )ith the hammer and si%>le, anar%hist and autonomist s3m'ols, images o. ;a1ata, Villa, Magon and Che (ue+ara, and 1erha1s e+en the Virgin o. (uadalu1e, a religious image used in the 1ast '3 ;a1atista indigenous )omen on their International &omen?s a3 mar%hes through San Cristo'al, Chia1as, and an integral 1art o. re+i+ed 1o1ular $atino identit3 in the GS, as one more 1art o. the Other?s 'aggage, )hi%h a'o+e all %ontains the histor3 o. %lass struggle in Me5i%o* The ;a1atista slogan o. )al>ing '3 as>ing Ccaminando preguntandoD, i*e* mo+ing .or)ard in the struggle against and 'e3ond %a1italism '3 %onstantl3 6uestioning and %riti%i<ing 'oth our o)n ideologi%al and organi<ational assum1tions, and the %onstantl3 %hanging and amor1hous 1oliti%al and so%ial en+ironment 1rodu%ed '3 the %lash 'et)een %a1italist high0te%h and human glo'alisations, has returned to Me5i%o in the %3%les o. glo'al struggle to rein.use the Other, +ia the a'sor1tion o. that slogan '3 the alterglo'alist mo+ement sin%e the =attle o. Seattle*
B These same 'anners are no) to 'e seen in the ;o%alo, Me5i%o Cit3?s huge %entral s6uare, adorning !M$O?s 'i0)ee>l3 re1ort assem'lies, a sign that 1art o. the Other is in+ol+ed in the "7 0%ontrolled anti0.raud mo+ement, )hile the rest o. the Other .o%uses on the in%reasingl3 +iolent re1ression o. the tea%hers and !""O mo+ements in Oa5a%a and %ontinuing e..orts to .ree the 27 !ten%o 1risoners*
/0
The Other Cam1aign o..i%iall3 'egan on #anuar3 1st 2008, e5a%tl3 12 3ears a.ter the u1rising against 9!4T!, )hen elegate ;ero le.t $a 7ealidad, Chia1as, on the 'a%> o. a motor'i>e headed .or the .irst o. .our months o. dail3 meetings, s1ee%hes, 1rotests and mar%hes as he, the Si5th Commission and the Other Cam1aign %ara+an, made u1 o. the grou1s in the Other and the ;e<ta %lose to the E;$9, li>e the iso'edient Ce50&hite O+erallsD no) glo'al mo+ement .or e5am1le, )ound their )a3 through the southern and %entral states o. Me5i%o* The Other has %atal3sed the organi<ation o. 1re+iousl3 non0e5istent anti0%a1italist mo+ement net)or>s, in+ol+ing 1re+iousl3 dis1arate struggles and ri+al grou1s, and the intensi.i%ation o. those alread3 in 1la%e* It has also 1ro+o>ed a gro)ing %horus o. %riti%isms .rom 1ro0 !M$O 6uarters, although !M$O himsel. has 'een %are.ul to a'stain .rom dire%tl3 %riti%ising elegate ;ero or the Other* Fo)e+er, the general tone o. the Other had 'een intentionall3 lo)0>e3 and .o%used on organi<ation rather than 1ro1aganda, )ith elegate ;ero re.using to gi+e inter+ie)s and the Other 'arring the mainstream 1ress .rom its meetings and e+ents, ignoring the total media %o+erage o. the %horeogra1hed 1residential %am1aigns8* The e+ents o. Ma3 2 and E in and around !ten%o, a small to)n near Me5i%o Cit3 )here in 2002 the lo%al 1o1ulation had mo'ili<ed to de.end their %ommunall30o)ned e@ido7 land and 1re+ent the %onstru%tion o. a multi0'illion dollar international air1ort, in.li%ting a stinging de.eat on 4o5 and his international 'a%>ers, 1ushed 'oth Mar%os and the Other 'a%> into the national and international limelight* =3 that time the Other had alread3 rea%hed Me5i%o Cit3, its stronghold outside Chia1as due to the 1resen%e o. the G9!M students? mo+ement and the do<ens o. so%ial mo+ements and grassroots organi<ations s1a)ned '3 the dail3 struggles o. li.e in the Monster* Sin%e those e+ents, elegate ;ero has remained in Me5i%o Cit3 to %oordinate the Other?s e..orts to .ree the 1oliti%al 1risoners remaining .rom the !ten%o mass arrests, de%lared red alert in the Chia1as ;a1atista %ommunities and
8 7 The Other %ara+an )as a%%om1anied ho)e+er '3 mem'ers o. the Other @ournalism, in%luding Fermann =ellinghausen o. 0a Jornada, Ind3media, 9ar%o 9e)s, ;9et and 9!C$! among others* The e@idos )ere esta'lished throughout Me5i%o under the 1/17 Constitution to .ormali<e the )ides1read s6uatting '3 landless 1easants that too> 1la%e during the Me5i%an 7e+olution C1/1001/17D and as a means o. land redistri'ution, one o. the 1rin%i1le demands o. the 7e+olution, on the 1rin%i1le o. %ommon o)nershi1* The re+o%ation '3 the Salinas go+ernment in 1//2 o. the Constitution?s !rti%le 27, )hi%h .or'ade the 'rea>ing u1 o. e@idos into 1ri+ate lots or their sale to lando)ners, )as 'oth a .or'earer o. 9!4T! and the s1ar> .or a series o. land dis1utes and 1easant u1risings, in%luding that o. the E;$9, as %or1orate agri'usiness, Me5i%an lando)ners and tourism 1ro@e%ts ha+e %ondu%ted illegal land gra's and en.or%ed sales, )ith the instigation and su11ort o. the state and .ederal go+ernments* This >ind o. struggle .orms the 'a%>'one o. the Other in the rural areas o. Southern Me5i%o C=all+P 2008D* /1
sus1ended inde.initel3 the rest o. the Other Cam1aign?s tour around northern Me5i%o, )here 'oth the institutional le.t and grassroots mo+ements are .e)er and )ea>er* The organi<ation o. the ;e<ta Interna<ional Cin mo%> re.eren%e, 1erha1s, to 'oth Inter Milan?s a%%e1tan%e o. Mar%os? in+itation last 3ear to 1la3 a series o. mat%hes )ith the ;a1atista .oot'all team, and to the idea o. .orming a Si5th International, the 4i.th 'eing the %entralist tenden%3 )ithin the &S4D, also %alled .or in the Si5th, has 'een %ondu%ted through meetings in $atin !meri%an and Euro1ean %ountries, es1e%iall3 S1ain, )here the Se%ond Inter%ontinental (athering .or Fumanit3 and against 9eoli'eralism, or En%uentro Intergala%ti%o, ha11ened in 1//7, the .irst ha+ing 'een organi<ed '3 the E;$9 in Chia1as the 3ear 'e.ore* =oth en%uentros %an 'e seen as among the most im1ortant ste1s in setting u1 "eo1les (lo'al !%tion, a glo'al allian%e o. autonomous mo+ements, in 1//7 and the glo'al @usti%e mo+ement o. mo+ements sin%e 1///* The .inal 1art o. the Si5th e%laration 'egins '3 identi.3ing the ;a1atista mo+ement, more as students )ho listen than tea%hers )ho tal>, )ith the 1o1ular, so%ialist and autonomous mo+ements o. %ontem1orar3 $atin !meri%a in 1arti%ular, 'ut also )ith the glo'al anti0 )ar mo+ement:
!nd )e )ant to sa3 to 3ou, to the $atin !meri%an 1eo1les, that, .or us, )e are 1roud to 'e 1art o. 3ou, although )e are a small 1art* &e remem'er )ell )hen 3ears ago the %ontinent )as lit u1 '3 a light named Che (ue+ara, @ust as that light )as named =ole+ar 'e.orehand, 'e%ause, at times, the 1eo1les ta>e u1 a name in order to sho) that the3 %arr3 a .lag* !nd )e )ant to sa3 to the 1eo1le o. Cu'a, )ho alread3 ha+e s1ent 3ears in 3our 1ath o. resistan%e, that 3ou are not alone and that )e do not agree )ith the 'lo%>ade against 3ou and that )e are going to loo> .or the )a3 to send 3ou something, e+en i. it is @ust %orn, to su11ort 3our resistan%e* !nd )e )ant to sa3 to the 1eo1le o. the Gnited States that )e don?t %on.use 3ou )ith the e+il go+ernments that 3ou ha+e and that harm the )hole )orld, and that )e >no) that there are 9orth !meri%ans )ho .ight in 3our %ountr3 and )or> in solidarit3 )ith the struggles o. other 1eo1les* !nd )e )ant to sa3 to our Ma1u%he 'rothers and sisters in Chile that )e see and )e learn .rom 3our struggles* !nd to the Vene<uelan 1eo1le, that )e )at%h +er3 %are.ull3 3our )a3 o. de.ending 3our so+ereignt3 and 3our right to 'e a nation and to de%ide )here 3ou )ill go* !nd to the indigenous 'rothers and sisters o. E%uador and =oli+ia )e sa3 to 3ou that 3ou are gi+ing an e5%ellent histor3 lesson to all o. $atin !meri%a 'e%ause right no) 3ou are 1utting a sto1 to neoli'eral glo'alisation* !nd to the 1i6ueteros and the 3outh o. !rgentina )e )ant to sa3 that )e lo+e 3ou* !nd to those in Grugua3 )ho )ant a 'etter %ountr3, )e admire 3ou* !nd to the landless o. =ra<il )e res1e%t 3ou* !nd to all the 3ouths o. $atin !meri%a, it?s so great that 3ou are doing )hat 3ou are doing and 3ou gi+e us great ho1e* !nd )e )ant to sa3 to the 'rothers and sisters o.
/2
So%ial Euro1e, that is to sa3 the Euro1e that is re'ellious and has dignit3, that 3ou are not alone* Hour large mo+ements against neoli'eral )ars ma>e us +er3 ha113* &e )at%h, attenti+el3, 3our )a3s o. organi<ing 3oursel+es and 3our st3les o. .ighting so that 1erha1s )e %an learn something* CE;$9 200B: 1D
!s .or the 1rogramme o. the ;e<ta, the Si5th, 1erha1s to distinguish the hori<ontalism o. the ;e<ta .rom the in%i1ient +erti%alism o. the &S4, 1ro1osed through %hara%teristi%all3 tongue0in0%he%> language that:
In the )orldN
1* &e )ill 'uild more relationshi1s o. res1e%t and mutual aid )ith 1eo1le and organi<ations that resist and .ight against neoli'eralism and .or human>ind*
2* In a%%ordan%e )ith our a'ilities )e )ill send material su11ort su%h as .ood and %ra.ts to those 'rothers and sisters )ho struggle throughout the )orld* CND
2* !nd to e+er3one throughout the )orld )ho resists )e sa3 that there ha+e to 'e other inter%ontinental gatherings CND &e don?t )ant to gi+e an e5a%t date, or 1la%e, or de%ide )ho %omes or ho) it is done, 'e%ause this is a'out ma>ing hori<ontal agreements among us all* =ut )e don?t )ant it )ith a stage .rom )here @ust a .e) s1ea> and e+er3one else listens, 'ut, rather, that there not 'e a stage, that it all 'e at ground0le+el, 'ut )ell ordered 'e%ause i. not )ell organi<ed there )ill @ust 'e a lot o. noise and no one )ill understand the )ord* !nd )ith a good organi<ation, e+er3one %an listen, and the3 %an )rite do)n in their note'oo>s the )ords o. resistan%e that others tell so that later ea%h 1arti%i1ant %an tal> it o+er )ith their %olleagues in their )orlds* !nd )e thin> that it ought to 'e in a 1la%e )here there is a +er3 'ig 1rison, 'e%ause it %ould 'e that the3 re1ress us and @ail us, and that )a3 )e )ill not all 'e 1iled one on to1 o. another 'ut, rather, )ell organi<ed though )e 'e 1risoners* !nd .rom there in @ail )e %an %ontinue the inter%ontinental gathering .or human>ind and against neoli'eralism* CE;$9200B: E0BD
The ;e<ta?s 1arti%i1ants are .rom hori<ontalist mo+ements, 1ro'a'l3 disillusioned '3 their e51erien%e in the no) +erti%alist0%ontrolled &S4, .rom )hi%h the E;$9 as an armed organi<ation )as %onstitutionall3 e5%luded, and the hi@a%>ing o. the Euro1ean So%ial 4orum '3 the old orthodo5 le.t and its anti0demo%rati% methods and o'solete 1oliti%al st3le* The ;e<ta is due to ta>e 1la%e '3 #anuar3 2007 and the de%ision to organi<e the ;e<ta glo'all3 in tandem )ith the Other is a sign 'oth o. the %ontinuing strength o. ;a1atista0instigated ne)
/2
internationalism C inerstein 2002D and o. the 1resentl3 .ra%tured state o. the alterglo'alist mo+ementA*
!ten%o, Oa5a%a and the Other

On the morning o. Ma3 2 in the to)n o. Te5%o%o, a .e) miles .rom !ten%o and a'out 1B miles north0)est o. Me5i%o Cit3, the "7 lo%al ma3or sent riot 1oli%e to e+i%t a grou1 o. .lo)er sellers, t31i%al mem'ers o. the in.ormal e%onom3, .rom their esta'lished 1it%h* The s%u..le that .ollo)ed 6ui%>l3 de+elo1ed into a ma@or %on.li%t as mem'ers o. the "eo1les 4ront in e.en%e o. the $and C4rente de "ue'los en e.ensa de la Tierra - 4" TD .rom !ten%o, also >no)n as the ma%heteros, Cthe3 %arr3 ma%hetes on demonstrations as a s3m'ol o. the 1easantr3 in struggleD %ame to the .lo)er sellers aid and 'lo%>ed the main high)a3 to Me5i%o Cit3 .or the rest o. the da3, re1elling +arious %harges '3 riot 1oli%e* uring the arrest o. the leader o. the 4" T that da3 a 1E03ear0old 'o3 )as shot dead at %lose range '3 a 1oli%e o..i%er* Fundreds o. Other a%ti+ists, human rights o'ser+ers, do%tors, media a%ti+ists and others immediatel3 gathered in !ten%o to su11ort the 1eo1le o. !ten%o and Te5%o%o* The rightist Tele+isa and Telea<te%a media duo1ol3 'a3ed .or 1rotestor 'lood, re1eatedl3 sho)ing images o. a riot 1oli%eman 'eing >i%>ed, )hile .iltering out images o. 1oli%e 'rutalit3* Earl3 in the morning o. the ne5t da3, 2,000 armed riot 1oli%e .rom +arious lo%al, state and .ederal .or%es in+aded the to)n o. !ten%o in retaliation .or their de.eat the da3 'e.ore and .or the 1oliti%al humiliation in.li%ted on the 4o5 go+ernment .our 3ears earlier o+er the ne) Me5i%o Cit3 air1ort* The %entre o. the to)n )as smothered in tear gas as gangs o. riot 1oli%e +i%iousl3 atta%>ed, %lu''ed and >i%>ed men and )omen, the elderl3 and the 3oung, 4" T, Other a%ti+ists and '3standers, 1hotogra1hers and human rights o'ser+ers, all )ere 'adl3 'eaten 'e.ore 'eing dragged to @ee1s )here the 'eatings %ontinued and the se5ual a'use o. the arrested )omen 'egan* One B003ear0old )oman out sho11ing )as .or%ed to ha+e oral se5 )ith three riot 1oli%emen in the street, under threat o. 'eating and arrest C=allinas 2008D* ! G9!M student a%ti+ist !le5is =enumea )as shot in the head )ith a tear gas %anister and died a month later .rom his )ounds* Some 20 houses, identi.ied '3 an in.ormer as 'elonging to 4" T a%ti+ists, )ere 'ro>en into )ithout )arrants and the o%%u1ants and others )ho had ta>en shelter there 'eaten and arrested and their 'elongings stolen or destro3ed* 2A0 )ere arrested and ta>en '3 'us to
A See .or e5am1le the re%ent s1lit )ithin !TT!C 4ran%e along +erti%alist0 hori<ontalist lines CCallini%os 2008D*
/E
a high se%urit3 1rison in the State o. Me5i%o* uring the A0hour @ourne3 most o. the )omen, in%luding three .oreigners, and some o. the men )ere se5uall3 tortured and 20 )omen and at least one man )ere ra1ed '3 the 1oli%e* !t 1resent, 27 1eo1le remain im1risoned in a high se%urit3 @ail reser+ed .or terrorists and drug tra..i%>ers on %harges o. o'stru%ting the high)a3 and >idna11ing 1oli%e o..i%ers Ceight 1oli%e )ere %a1tured U a %ommon 1ra%ti%e in so%ial %on.li%ts in Me5i%o 0 during the %lashes o. Ma3 2, and )ere )ell treated 'e.ore 'eing dis%o+ered in a sa.e house '3 their %olleagues during the 1oli%e o1eration o. the .ollo)ing da3D* There ha+e 'een t)o hunger stri>es '3 the im1risoned* Some are not mem'ers o. the 4" T or .rom !ten%o, )hile others are human rights o'ser+ers and do%tors )ho )ere +oluntaril3 aiding the in@ured .rom the da3 'e.ore* ! 1ermanent +igil )as esta'lished outside the 1rison )here the3 are 'eing held to demand their release* !t the Other?s .irst national assem'l3 on Ma3 2/th, Mar%os .ormali<ed the de%ision to sus1end the %ara+an until all the remaining im1risoned are released* Fe 1ro1osed a %am1aign o. artisti% and 1oliti%al a%tions, in%luding a demonstration .or the release o. all 1oliti%al 1risoners and the 1resentation o. the disa11eared .rom the Se+enties, as )ell as a se%ond 9ational !ssem'l3, until and in%luding ele%tion da3 on #ul3 2nd )hi%h the assem'l3 unanimousl3 a11ro+ed* !s a result o. the national and international out%r3 o+er the e5%e1tional 1oli%e 'rutalit3, the Other?s 1ro.ile )as raised signi.i%antl3, a 1B,000 strong national demonstration against the re1ression in !ten%o and .or the release o. the 1risoners too> 1la%e in Me5i%o Cit3 on Ma3 20th, )ith smaller mar%hes, 1i%>ets and 1rotest a%tions throughout the %ountr3, in the GS! and internationall3 during Ma3 and #une* Mar%os 'ro>e his 'o3%ott o. the mainstream media and ga+e 1ress and tele+ision inter+ie)s in )hi%h he intensi.ied his atta%> on !M$O, )hose res1onse to the !ten%o e+ents )as a studied silen%e, and on the destru%tion o. an3 notion o. legal order and human rights in Me5i%o '3 the 1oliti%al %lass, sin%e all three o. the main 1arties )ere in+ol+ed in the re1ression*/ The re1ression o. the !ten%o and Other mo+ements in Ma3 laun%hed the other Cam1aign into the Me5i%an and international 1u'li% realms, dramati%all3 intensi.3ing the organi<ation and net)or>ing o. struggles* Fo)e+er, sin%e ele%tion da3 on #ul3 2, the de%ision to remain in Me5i%o Cit3 until the li'eration o. the im1risoned
/ The data and in%idents mentioned here )ere ta>en .rom re1orts in 0a Jornada and Indymedia 'e#ico, and ha+e sin%e 'een %on.irmed '3 the preliminary report of the ongoing investigation bythe International ,ivil ,ommission on the .bservance of 7uman <ights CComisifn Ci+il Interna%ional de O'ser+a%ifn 1or los ere%hos FumanosD into thee+ents in !ten%o and Te5%o%o on Ma3 2rd and Eth this 3ear: htt1:--%%iodh*1angea*orgK a %%essed 11th !ugust 2008*
/B
and sus1end the rest o. the Other Cam1aign?s tour o. Me5i%o, )hile humanl3 and ethi%all3 un6uestiona'le, ha+e ne+ertheless led to the Other?s 1er%ei+ed stagnation and s)am1ing '3 the media %o+erage gi+en to !M$O?s anti0.raud mo+ement* Sin%e #ul3 2nd, the .o%us o. the mo+ement has s)it%hed to the tea%hers and 1o1ular mo+ements in Oa5a%a Cit3, the %a1ital o. Oa5a%a state, one o. the most im1o+erished and histori%all3 %om'atati+e regions o. Me5i%o, along )ith Chia1as, (uerrero and "ue'la, the states )ith the main %on%entrations o. auto%hthonous 1eo1les, among the most antagonist so%ial su'@e%ts in re%ent 3ears in Me5i%o and $atin !meri%a* The Oa5a%a mo+ement started on Ma3 22 as the annual stri>e and o%%u1ation o. the %it3?s main s6uare .or a meaning.ul salar3 raise '3 the dissident se%tion o. the S9TE C9ational Edu%ational &or>ers GnionD, $atin !meri%a?s largest union and the .ie.dom o. El'a Esther (ordillo, the 1ro04o5 "7I leader )idel3 sus1e%ted o. using her union mem'ers to %arr3 out the more traditional .raudulent a%ti+ities on #ul3 2* The mo+ement ra1idl3 s1read throughout the middle and )or>ing %lasses o. Oa5a%a, disgusted '3 the des1oti% st3le o. the "7I go+ernor, Glisses 7ui<, )hose remo+al .rom 1o)er 'e%ame the mo+ement?s minimum demand* The %rude attem1ts to 'aton the tea%hers o.. the street on #une 1Eth led to a 'attle in the %it3 %entre resulting in the main s6uare 'eing reta>en '3 the stri>ing tea%hers, no) su11orted a%ti+el3 '3 am1le se%tions o. the general 1o1ulation, and the .ormation o. !""O C"o1ular !ssem'l3 o. the "eo1le o. Oa5a%aD* The o%%u1ation o. the main s6uare has s1read to the 'uilding o. 'arri%ades throughout the %it3 and the o%%u1ation o. most o. the 1u'li% and go+ernment 'uildings in the %it3, as )ell as all the TV and radio stations, rendering the state ungo+erna'le* 7ui< sur+i+es onl3 due to the 1ro0.raud 1ost0ele%toral "7I0"!9 1a%t against the anti0.raud and Oa5a%a mo+ements* The use o. state terrorist ta%ti%s '3 the re1ressi+e a11aratus, reminis%ent o. the dirt3 )ar .ought against the guerrilla mo+ements o. the 70s, in%ludes the murder o. B !""O a%ti+ists, the )ounding o. se+eral others and the >idna11ing o. .our !""O leaders '3 1lain %lothes 1oli%e and 1aramilitar3 gunmen, )ho no) laun%h nightl3 armed atta%>s against the 1i%>ets outside go+ernment 'uildings and radio stations C(i'ler 2008aD* The +iolen%e o. the no) totall3 dis%redited go+ernor?s res1onse and the non0 inter+ention o. the 4o5 go+ernment has onl3 in%reased the gro)ing sense o. 1oliti%al +a%uum, desta'ili<ation and 1olari<ation e+ident throughout the %ountr3, 'ut most nota'le in Me5i%o Cit3 and Oa5a%a, as the lines .or a generalised %on.li%t 'egin to harden*
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The Other on the =order and the Other on the Other Side
One o. the most inno+ati+e as1e%ts o. the Other has 'een the attem1t to de1art .rom national Me5i%an 1oliti%s and trans%end the %rum'ling 'oundaries o. the nation state to in%lude those Cnon0DMe5i%ans )ho li+e and struggle in one o. the most e5treme 'orderlands, )here 4irst and Third &orlds meet, %lash and intermingle, %reating a transnational s1a%e, sometimes %alled !me5i%a* This is the land o. ma$uiladoras C%or1orate assem'l3 1lants .or e51ort, %om1ared '3 =o)den V1//AW )ith 9a<i sla+e .a%tories .or their salaries, too lo) to 1ermit )or>er re1rodu%tion, guaranteed instead '3 a %onstant stream o. internal migrants, and .or a11alling )or> and health and sa.et3 %onditionsD, narco e5e%utions Cdrug tra..i%>er %artels, no) the most 1o)er.ul in $atin !meri%a, engaged in an in%reasingl3 deadl3 tur. )arD, coyotes Cimmigrant tra..i%>ers, )ho )ill 'e among the main 'ene.i%iaries o. the Sensen'renner anti0immigration 'illD, Mara Sal+atru%ha-MS12 Ca %ounter0%ultural gang mo+ement and organised %rime %artel .rom El Sal+ador no) 1resent throughout the GSD, the 'igra CGS =order "atrolD, %hild se5 tourism and the 'la%> on 1in> %rosses to remem'er the .emi%ides Csome EB0 mainl3 )or>ing %lass0 indigenous0internal migrant )omen and girls murdered in Ciudad #uare< and Chihuahua Cit3 sin%e 1//2, 120 o. )hom )ere ra1ed, tortured and mutilated, o+er 1,000 disa11eared, onl3 20 %ases in+estigated to the +i%tims? .amilies? satis.a%tion10D, 'ut also o. neo.as%ist Minutemen militia and the militarisation o. !meri%a?s so.t under'ell3 in the )ar against terrorism* Ciudad #uare< is the region?s most em'lemati% %it3 and is a'out to host the .irst =order So%ial 4orum in O%to'er, 'eing strategi%all3 1ositioned in the +er3 %entre o. the 1,B000mile long 'order and the t)in %it3 o. El "aso, Te5as, %ontaining the CI!?s head6uarters .or the 'order and glo'al south* =o)den C1//AD des1airingl3 %alls #uare< a la'orator3 o. our .uture, a 1la%e )here the no) relati+el3 lo) le+el o. )or>er resistan%e allo)s %a1ital to %reate a 1osthuman so%iet3 C=erardi 2002D* =e3ond the 'orderlands lies !t<lan, the Chi%ano term .or o%%u1ied Me5i%o Cthe south0)estern states o. the GS %eded '3 Me5i%o a.ter the 1AE7 in+asionD, )here the $atino 1o1ulation has gro)n +ertiginousl3 in the last 2B 3ears, as some 20 million Me5i%ans and Central !meri%ans ha+e %rossed the 'order, most )ithout do%uments, one o. the great e5oduses o. re%ent histor3* Fundreds ha+e 1erished .rom heat e5haustion in the !ri<ona desert,
10 See the %onstantl3 u1dated 'ilingual )e'site o. 9uestras Fi@as de 7egreso a Casa COur daughters 'a%> homeD, the most radi%al 9(O )or>ing on the .emi%ides in #uare< and Chihauhua: /7
one o. the hottest 1la%es on earth and )here GS anti0immigration 1oli%ies deli'eratel3 .unnel migrants )ith )alls, 'order 1atrols, 1ilotless s13 1lanes and no) )ith armed militias and the armoured +ehi%les o. the 9ational (uard* =ut !<tlan no) also in%ludes $os !ngeles, Chi%ago and 9e) Hor>, )hi%h ha+e 'e%ome de1endent on the %hea1 la'our o. Me5i%an migrants, )hose remittan%es to their home %ommunities are no) Me5i%o?s third largest sour%e o. .oreign e5%hange a.ter oil sales and tourism, ma>ing organi<ed migrant %ommunities in Chi%ago and else)here among the most signi.i%ant in+estors in Me5i%an rural %ommunities, so mu%h so that the =ush go+ernment no) )ants to ta5 them* The gro)ing de1enden%e o. the GS e%onom3 on migrant 1rosumers )as laid 'are '3 the Ma3 a3 Si se 1uede mo+ement?s huge demonstrations and 'o3%ott o. GS 'usinesses against the 1ro1osed %riminali<ation o. undo%umented migrants as 1otential terrorists '3 the Sensen'renner 'ill* This mass mo+ement o. millions o. 1re+iousl3 su'ordinated migrants, together )ith the in%reasingl3 1o)er.ul so%ial mo+ements o. $atin !meri%a, )hi%h ha+e .or%ed their national oligar%hies to a'andon or modi.3 their sla+ish o'edien%e o. the &ashington Consensus, has 'een des%ri'ed as the most im1ortant generalised anti0%a1italist struggle in the !meri%as sin%e the Ci+il 7ights, 'la%> nationalist, students, %ounter0%ultural and anti0)ar mo+ements o. the 80s CMidnight 9oters 2008D* So )here and ho) has the Other tried to %onne%t )ith these mo+ements 'oth in the GS and on its 'ordersI Starting )ith the Other on the =order, an attem1ted transnational <oni.i%ation and net)or>ing o. struggles in Chihuahua in Me5i%o, )ith )est Te5as and 9e) Me5i%o, a%ti+ists .rom the autonomist Lasa de la Cultura 1ara Tod`s CFouse o. Culture .or !llD, the Trots>3ist $GS CGnited So%ialist $eagueD, e@iditarios .rom the Valle de #uare< Cthe last remaining agri%ultural area near the #uare<0El "aso 'orderD, the indigenous mo+ement o. the 7aramuri 1eo1le, the 4!T C!uthenti% $a'our 4ront, the onl3 inde1endent trade union a%ti+e among ma6uiladora )or>ersD, students, tea%hers and 9(Os %am1aigning .or @usti%e .or the +i%tims o. the .emi%ides, ha+e met )ee>l3 )ith a Chi%ano rural .arm)or>ers union in El "aso %am1aigning to sa+e their homes in the Segundo =arrio in the do)nto)n .rom gentri.i%ation as 1art o. the San #eronimo "ro@e%t, )hi%h )ill lead to the di+ersion o. )ater, the %onstru%tion o. so%ial housing and other s%ar%e resour%es a)a3 .rom the .ast gro)ing 'ut almost %om1letel3 un1lanned and unser+i%ed ur'an s1ra)l o. #uare<, and )ith trade unionists, migrant rights a%ti+ists and tea%hers .rom El "aso and $as Cru%es in the GSK altogether some B0 grou1s as )ell as man3 una..iliated indi+iduals* Fo)e+er, the Other on the =order has 'een dogged .rom the start '3 a se%tarian )ar o. )ords %arried out
/A
on its email list and aimed at the Lasa, the %ore mo+ement, )hi%h had 'ilateral meetings )ith the E;$9 in Chia1as at the 'eginning o. the Other and is res1onsi'le .or %oordinating the Other on the =order: 3et another e5am1le o. the hori<ontal0+erti%al %on.li%t )ithin glo'al anti0 %a1italism, )hi%h has resulted in a %onsidera'le )aste o. time, energ3 and moti+ation* !s a result the a%tions ta>en in solidarit3 )ith the !ten%o mo+ement in Ma3 )ere +er3 limited %om1ared to south and %entral Me5i%o, )here si<ea'le demonstrations and road'lo%>s )ere organi<ed throughout Ma3* &hen the Lasa )as atta%>ed '3 armed, mas>ed state terrorists the same month and .or the se%ond time in si5 months Can e5am1le o. the no) %ommon1la%e state intimidation ta%ti%s used against the Other throughout Me5i%oD, its %om1uters destro3ed and a mem'er >idna11ed .or se+eral hours, the res1onse '3 the rest o. the Other in #uare< )as )ell 'elo) )hat the Lasa had ho1ed .or in terms o. solidarit3 and su11ort* On%e the de%ision )as ta>en '3 Mar%os, )ho )as due to +isit the 'orderlands in #une, to sus1end the rest o. the Other Cam1aign until the !ten%o im1risoned )ere .reed, enthusiasm has graduall3 dro11ed o.. and the on%e 1a%>ed )ee>l3 organi<ational meetings ha+e no) %eased* E+en though the .o%us in the Other on the +isits o. Mar%os )as %riti%ised in some 6uarters as rein.or%ing his de .a%to leadershi1, ne+ertheless the ;a1atour had im1ortant organi<ational and mo'ilisational im1a%ts, es1e%iall3 on areas o. relati+el3 lo) militant a%ti+ism su%h as #uare< )here intermo+ement relations )ere minimal or non0e5istent* &hile some +oluntaristi%all3 )el%ome this as a ne%essar3 sel.0de1uration o. the less %ommitted mem'ers o. the Other, others ha+e %riti%ised Mar%os? de%ision to im1rison himsel. in Me5i%o Cit3, )hi%h has led to a sense o. stagnation sin%e the #ul3 2 ele%tions, %on%omitant )ith the s1e%ta%ular Cin all senses o. that )ordD rise o. the !M$O anti0.raud mo+ement* 9e+ertheless, the ;a1atistas %redi'ilit3 as a %ore mo+ement, not onl3 in Me5i%o 'ut glo'all3, de1ends on their insisten%e on 1oliti%al %oheren%e* Thus their %ommitment to the !ten%o im1risoned )ill 'e >e1t e+en i. the remainder o. the Other Cam1aign has to 'e 1ost1oned to ne5t 3ear and the o11ortunit3 to shado) the 1residential %am1aigns in order to re+eal the .alsities o. o..i%ial 1oliti%s has 'een lost .or another si5 3ears* This is also a sign o. the ;a1atistas 1atien%e and di..erent %on%e1tion o. 1oliti%al time .rom the more urgent, 'ut 1erha1s more o11ortunist and %a1italisisti%all3 integrated 1oliti%al rh3thms o. some ur'an so%ial mo+ement a%ti+ists* The Other on the Other Side 1arti%i1ated in the Si se 1uede mo+ement and has %oordinated )ith the lo%al struggles o. the $atino %ommunit3, .or e5am1le the attem1t to sa+e a %ommunit3 ur'an .arm and 1ar> in South Central $os !ngeles .rom 'eing re1ossessed .or
//
de+elo1ment* This struggle 'rought together a%ti+ists .rom all the %ommunities in $! in de.en%e o. an o%%u1ied green s1a%e, one o. the .e) le.t in a highl3 1olluted and alienated ur'an en+ironment* It has also organised .ree radio )or>sho1s and alternati+e media s>ill sharing )ith the less0resour%ed Ti@uana and #uare< Others* The Other on the Other Side is a +ital %onduit 'et)een the Other Cam1aign in Me5i%o and the in%reasingl3 1o)er.ul struggles o. the $atino migrant %ommunities in the GS*
Old $e.ts and 9e) 4oes: !M$O, the "7 a.ter the #ul3 2nd Ele%toral 4raud
and the Other
It should 'e a11arent '3 no) that the %ontem1orar3 1oliti%al %lea+ages in Me5i%o are not onl3 le.t0right, as 1ersoni.ied '3 the 'itter 1ersonal .eud 'et)een 4o5 and !M$O, 'ut also the gro)ing %on.li%t 'et)een the re+olutionar3-anti0%a1italist le.t re1resented '3 the Other Cam1aign and the su'stantiall3 1ro0%a1italist- re.ormist Cin realit3, re.ormism )ithout re.orms, t31i%al o. the $atin !meri%an 1ost0insurre%tional institutional le.tD "7 * Ta>ing 'oth the 1oliti%al elites and the 'roader le.t 1arties and mo+ements '3 sur1rise, the E;$9 .irst atta%>ed the 1residential as1irations o. !M$O and the "7 , the main %entre0le.t 1art3, as neoli'eral and e+en .as%ist, %ausing %onsidera'le %onsternation among the "7 ?s generall3 1ro0;a1atista 'ase* The %on.used resentment and outrage e51ressed in the letters that .looded into 0a Jornada in #ul3 and !ugust 200B, .ollo)ing the 1u'li%ation o. the Si5th, )ere 'orn o. the .a%t that most )ithin the 1art3 +ie) !M$O as a messiani% .igure, the "7 ?s 'est %han%e to )in the 1residen%3 sin%e its .oundation in 1/A/, .ollo)ing the ele%toral .raud o. 1/AA* !M$O?s ele+ation to +irtual 1oliti%al sainthood has 'een greatl3 aided '3 the %lums3 %ons1ira%3 o. 4o5 and Salinas to remo+e him .rom %ontention through s1urious legal a%tions and media +ili.i%ation* !M$O?s right0 hand man )hen Ma3or o. Me5i%o Cit3, 7ene =e@erano, )as %aught on +ideo in 200E re%ei+ing 'ri'es in return .or %it3 %ontra%ts .rom a 'usinessman su'se6uentl3 lin>ed to Salinas, so 1ro+o>ing a .ar0 rea%hing s%andal )hi%h sho)ed that the "7 )as +er3 mu%h 1art o. the endemi%all3 %orru1t, %lientalist 1oliti%al %lass, although !M$O?s re1utation as an honest 1oliti%ian remained uns%athed* The %ons1ira%3 )as momentaril3 .rustrated '3 a huge demonstration o. o+er one million mainl3 'ut not e5%lusi+el3 "7 su11orters in !1ril 200B, .or%ing 4o5 to 'a%> do)n and reinstate !M$O?s legal immunit3
100
as Ma3or, so 1ermitting him to %ontinue as the "7 ?s 1residential %andidate11* Mar%os has sin%e %lari.ied the reasons .or the no) intense antagonism 'et)een the ;a1atistas and the "7 , )hi%h in man3 )a3s had 'een simmering sin%e 1//E: the 2001 'etra3al '3 the "7 o. the 1//8 San !ndres !%%ords on indigenous autonom3 and rights, signed '3 the E;$9 and the then "7I Me5i%an go+ernment as )ell as +arious inde1endent indigenous organi<ations and )hi%h the "7 had al)a3s +er'all3 su11orted Cand the ena%tment o. )hi%h !M$O made the .irst o. the B1 1romises in his 2008 ele%toral mani.estoD, 'ut )hi%h it une51e%tedl3 dro11ed )hen the ma@orit3 o. its senators su11orted a diluted "!9 %ounter1ro1osal )hi%h su'stantiall3 maintains the ra%ist status 6uo and denies autonom3* The armed atta%> in !1ril 200E '3 "7 mem'ers on a ;a1atista mar%h in ;ina%ant]n, a %ommunit3 in Chia1as )here the lo%al "7 go+ernment had %ut o.. )ater and ele%tri%it3 to ;a1atista .amilies in an attem1t to .or%e them to @oin the "7 * 9ear'3 ;a1atistas organi<ed a mar%h to re%onne%t the ser+i%es, )hi%h lo%al "7 mem'ers then am'ushed )ith gun.ire, )ounding se+eral o. the mar%hers* !lthough the "7 national leadershi1 1romised a .ull in+estigation into the in%ident, it has 3et to ha11en and the lo%al "7 leader res1onsi'le .or the atta%> is no) one o. the main organi<ers o. !M$O?s non01art3 Citi<ens Su11ort 9et)or> in Chia1as*
Other reasons .or the 'rea>do)n o. relations 'et)een the E;$9 and the "7 )ould 'e:
The E;$9?s un%onditional su11ort .or the G9!M students mo+ement?s stri>e and o%%u1ation in 1///02000 against the hi>ing o. .ees as the .irst ste1 in the 1ri+atisation o. $atin !meri%a?s largest state uni+ersit3, )as a )atershed in the radi%alisation o. the ;a1atista mo+ement, leading to ru1ture )ith Cardenas, the then "7 Ma3or o. Me5i%o Cit3, and the radi%al li'eral ur'an intelligentsia, led '3 Carlos Monsi+ais and Elena "oniato)s>a, on%e so .as%inated '3 the E;$9* 7elations also 'e%ame tense )ith 0a Jornada, )hi%h re1orted the
11 Gnder Me5i%an la), a 1erson a%%used o. a %rime or in+ol+ed in a %ourt %ase %annot stand .or ele%tion as 1resident* 101
o%%u1ation o'@e%ti+el3 'ut )hose %artoonists and editorialists @oined the general media demoni<ation o. the autonomous students? mo+ement as +iolent, ana%hronisti% Stalinist monsters, a.ter the3 e51elled the "7 %olonels Co..i%ial student leadersD to sto1 them mani1ulating the mo+ement* The C(F C(eneral Stri>e Coun%ilD mo+ement )as re1ressed in 4e'ruar3 2000 )hen the ;edillo go+ernment sent riot 1oli%e onto the %am1us o. an autonomous uni+ersit3 and hundreds o. students )ere im1risoned or e51elled, although G9!M dro11ed the .ee hi>e and the mo+ement?s ner+e %entre, the !ula Magna Che (ue+ara, remains o%%u1ied and is no) one o. the Other?s main organi<ational hu's* The Chia1as state go+ernment has 'een under "7 %ontrol sin%e 2000, and )hile the arm3 and "7I0lin>ed 1aramilitar3 grou1s no longer harass ;a1atista %ommunities to the same e5tent Calthough no a%tion has 'een ta>en against those res1onsi'le .or the 1//7 !%teal massa%re and hundreds o. other e5tra @udi%ial summar3 e5e%utionsD, the state?s %ounter0 insurgen%3 e..ort has %ontinued through dis%rimination against ;a1atista .amilies and %ommunities o+er go+ernment aid, o.ten administered through "7 0lin>ed 9(Os, .or%ing some to @oin the "7 and leading to %on.li%ts o+er s6uatted land )ith the ;a1atista autonomous Cara%oles and (ood (o+ernment Coun%ils12 in an attem1t to di+ide and )ea>en the ;a1atistas in their heartland* The ;a1atistas ended relations )ith most Me5i%an 9(Os, some o. )hi%h are 'oth "7 0lin>ed and .inan%ed '3 the GS State e1artment12, in 2002 )hen the !guas%alientes meeting 1la%es )ith %i+il so%iet3 )ere shut do)n and re1la%ed '3 the 1resent Cara%oles Cseashell, an im1ortant s3m'ol in Ma3an %ulture and more de.en%e0orientedD, )hi%h maintain more guarded relations )ith a .e) %are.ull3 +etted 9(Os and )ith %i+il so%iet3 in general* The ;a1atista autonomous %ommunities, ta>ing ad+antage o. the 1ro'a'l3 onl3 tem1orar3 lull in hostilities, ha+e sin%e em'ar>ed on a dual strateg3 o. lo%al %onsolidation and gradual inter-national e51ansion o. the mo+ement, o. )hi%h the Si5th and the Other are the results*
12 #untas de =uen (o'ierno, set u1 to sel.0go+ern the autonomous muni%i1alities on %olle%ti+e leadershi10re+o%a'le delegate 1rin%i1les anddra)n .rom ordinar3 %iti<ens, )ho then return to their .ormer o%%u1ations, so a+oiding the re0 emergen%e o. the %orru1tion and %lientalism %hara%teristi% o. a 1ro.essional 1oliti%al %lass )ith its o)n interests and agenda* 12 !%%ording to Eligio Calderon, an a%ademi% o. the G!M0Jo%himil%o, Me5i%o Cit3, and .ormer ad+isor to the E;$9 during its 1//B0/8 negotiations )ith the "7I go+ernment* 102
7elations )ith the "7 ha+e )orsened still )ith the %hoi%e o. #uan Sa'ines, .ormerl3 o. the "7I, as their %andidate .or the Chia1as go+ernorshi1 ele%tions on !ugust 20, )hi%h he seems to ha+e )on* Sa'ines has in%luded in his team o. ad+isors the e50"7I go+ernor !l'ores, res1onsi'le .or the !%teal massa%re and the 1//A militar3 o..ensi+e against the ;a1atista %ommunities that le.t se+eral dead, hundreds im1risoned and thousands dis1la%ed* The .ailure o. !M$O?s Me5i%o Cit3 go+ernment to 1ro1erl3 in+estigate the 2001 assassination o. igna O%hoa, an indigenous )oman and radi%al human rights la)3er %lose to the ;a1atistas, and o. the G9!M student a%ti+ist "a+el (on<ale< in 200E* Man3 sus1e%t the in+ol+ement o. the Xun$ue Can+ilD, a semi0%landestine neo.as%ist grou1 lin>ed to the "!9, some o. )hose main leaders are .ormer mem'ers, and-or CISE9, the Me5i%an se%ret ser+i%e* Fo)e+er, the @udi%ial arm o. !M$O?s go+ernment, des1ite hard e+iden%e to the %ontrar3 C'oth )ere shot more than on%e and (on<ale<? 'od3 )as .ound %ru%i.ied in a .orest outside the %it3D 1ersists )ith the sui%ide theorem, t31i%al o. one o. the )orst as1e%ts o. the "7I?s 7003ear di%tatorshi1 )hen 1oliti%al dissidents )ere regularl3 sui%ided* (i+en the la%> o. @udi%ial inde1enden%e at an3 le+el, this )ould seem to indi%ate !M$O?s relu%tan%e, as a 1ros1e%ti+e 1residential %andidate, to %on.ront the Me5i%an se%ret state, )hi%h ill 'odes an3 1ros1e%t o. @usti%e under his h31otheti%al 1residen%3 .or the +i%tims o. the 1/8A and 1/71 massa%res o. students and tea%hers, the thousands o. disa11earan%es and summar3 e5e%utions o. the dirt3 )ar in the 1/70s, and o. the more re%ent massa%res o. 1easant and indigenous mo+ements at !guas =lan%as C1//BD, !%teal C1//7D and El Char%o C1//AD, the .ull in+estigation and 1unishment o. )hi%h are the main demands o. Me5i%an so%ial @usti%e and human rights mo+ements, su11orted '3 !mnest3 International and Fuman 7ights &at%h* ! distur'ing tenden%3 '3 'oth !M$O, a .ormer mem'er o. the "7I, and o. the "7 to a%%e1t into their ran>s and leadershi1, and no) in leading 1ositions in the 1residential ele%toral team, some o. the )orst "7I authoritarian dinosaurs su%h as Manuel =artlett, one o. the ar%hite%ts o. the 1/AA .raud, $eonel Cota, .ormerl3 an orthodo5 neoli'eral on the right0)ing o. the "7I and no) "7 1art3 se%retar3, !dol.o Gri'e and So%orro ia<, %lose ad+isors to .ormer "resident ;edillo and im1li%ated in the !%teal massa%re, as )ell as o11ortunists li>e
102
Muno< $edo and Cama%ho Solis, 'oth .ormer "7I leaders )ho ha+e .lirted )ith the "!9, and are no) among !M$O?s %losest ad+isors* !M$O?s %lose relationshi1 )ith to1 Me5i%an %a1italists li>e Carlos Slim, the third ri%hest man on the 1lanet a%%ording to 4or'es Maga<ine C2008D, )ith )hom he shares a 1ro@e%t to gentri.3 the histori%al %entre o. Me5i%o Cit3, in+ol+ing the e51ulsion o. its )or>ing %lass 1o1ulation and the re1ression o. the street +endors o. the in.ormal e%onom3, through the introdu%tion o. .ormer 9e) Hor> ma3or (iuliani?s <ero toleran%e 1oli%3, )hile lea+ing organi<ed %rime ra%>ets untou%hed* !s Ma3or C20000200BD !M$O had a mi5ed, 1o1ulist st3le, 1ro+iding so%ial se%urit3 to1 u1 1a3ments to im1o+erished 1ensioners and single mothers and .ounding a mu%h0needed ne) state uni+ersit3 )ith an adult edu%ation mission, the G!CM, )hile .a+ouring the middle %lass %onsumerist, %ar and %onstru%tion lo''ies '3 'uilding the 1haraoni% Se%ond 4loor o. the %it3?s hea+il3 %ongested ring road, instead o. in+esting in im1ro+ed 1u'li% trans1ort, housing and so%ial ser+i%es, all des1erate needs in one o. the )orld?s most so%iall3 1olari<ed, %ongested and 1olluted %ities* The "7 , a %oalition o. %om1eting 1oliti%al tri'es 'rought together '3 "7I demo%ratisers, the re.ormed e50Stalinists o. the Me5i%an Communist "art3 and the de.eated remnants o. the 9e) $e.t +anguardist 1arties in 1/A/, has made 1ersistent attem1ts to %o0o1t the ;a1atista mo+ement sin%e 1//E, as 1art o. its %lientalist gala53 o. e50so%ial mo+ements no) %on+erted into internal 1art3 .a%tions or 9(Os, as ha11ened to the more traditionall3 so%ialist !ssem'lea de =arrios o. Su1er'arrio .ame and mu%h o. the on%e autonomous Colono C%ommunit3 s6uattersD mo+ement, enti%ed '3 the o..er o. 1arliamentar3 seats and organi<ational .unding, than>s to the "7 ?s enhan%ed .inan%es .ollo)ing its histori%al +i%tor3 in 1//7 )hen Cardenas 'e%ame the .irst ele%ted Ma3or o. Me5i%o Cit3, no) the 1art3?s ele%toral stronghold*
So gone are the da3s 'a%> in 1//8 )hen Mar%os, Cardenas and !M$O met in San Cristo'al to dis%uss %ommon strateg3 in the transition to demo%ra%3, as 1art o. the "ea%e ialogue 'et)een the "7I regime and the E;$9* The E;$9?s e+olution as an autonomous mo+ement has led it to 'rea> )ith most o. its 'road le.t and demo%rati% allies, in%luding the small li'eration theolog3 %om1onent, re1resented '3
10E
the e50'isho1 o. San Cristo'al Samuel 7ui<, o. the other)ise dee1l3 traditional and hard right Me5i%an Catholi% Chur%h* The e+iden%e .or ele%toral .raud against !M$O and the "7 on the #ul3 2nd 1residential, %ongressional and senate ele%tions is a%%umulating '3 the da3, des1ite the right?s 1reten%e that nothing unto)ard ha11ened and that e+er3thing is the 1rodu%t o. !M$O?s .e+erish imagination* The gro)ing 'od3 o. e+iden%e .or 'oth %3'erneti% and traditional .raud sho)s that the .oreign o'ser+ers 1ro+ided '3 the Euro1ean Gnion and other organi<ations singularl3 .ailed in their tas> and that =ush, =lair and ;a1atero ru''erstam1ed .raud in one o. the most im1ortant emerging demo%ra%ies '3 1re%i1itousl3 re%ognising Calderon, the "!9 %andidate, as the )inner* !lthough the .a'ulousl3 1aid @udges o. the TE"#4, the .inal %ourt .or ele%toral dis1utes, are a'out to ma>e their una11eala'le ruling, 1redi%ta'l3, that the ele%tions )ere .air, !M$O and his :"lanton: C1i%>etD tent %it3, )hi%h has %o+ered mu%h o. the %it3 %entre sin%e #ul3 20th, %om1letel3 disru1ting tra..i% .lo)s and tourism CMe5i%o?s se%ond sour%e o. .oreign re+enueD, )ill %ontinue at least until Se1tem'er 1Bth* Gnder the 1rete5t o. needing to %lear the %entral s6uare .or an arm3 Inde1enden%e a3 1arade, the 1lanton ma3 )ell 'e +iolentl3 dislodged, gi+en "resident 4o5?s threatening language and the %reation o. a militarised no0go area around the Congress 'uilding, reminis%ent o. the red <one at the (A Summit in (enoa in 2001, in 1re1aration .or his .inal Se1tem'er 1st 7e1ort to the nation* Su%h re1ressi+e a%tion )ill onl3 )orsen the alread3 1ro.ound s3stemi% %risis %aused '3 the .raud and the Oa5a%a %on.li%t, 1ossi'l3 1re%i1itating generalised %on.li%t throughout Me5i%o*
Con%lusions: !n-Other !nti0Ca1italism is "ossi'leI

The Si5th and the Other re1resent the %onstitution o. a 1otentiall3 re+olutionar3 autonomous le.t, organi<ed .or the .irst time in Me5i%an histor3 as an o..i%iall3 leaderless, Calthough Mar%os is .or the moment at least its uno..i%ial leader and s1o>es1ersonD and transnational Csin%e it in%ludes the Otra en el otro lado in the GS!D grassroots net)or> o. so%ial mo+ements, e5tra01arliamentar3 1oliti%al 1arties, inde1endent trade union 'ran%hes, %ommunit3 grou1s, radi%al 9(Os and una..iliated indi+iduals, all lin>ed to the net)or>s o. the anti0 %a1italist alterglo'alist mo+ement o. mo+ements* Fo)e+er, at the 1resent %on@un%ture the Other and indeed the ;a1atista %ommunities in Chia1as .ind themsel+es .a%ing re1ression '3 an authoritarian ultra0 neoli'eral 1resident, im1osed through an ele%toral .raud )hi%h is tantamount to a .as%ist %ou1 d?etat and )hi%h slams Me5i%o?s 1A03ear0
10B
old transition to demo%ra%3 into re+erse* The %hallenge to 'uild a mass autonomous anti0%a1italist alternati+e 'elo) and to the le.t at this moment seems huge and mu%h )ill de1end on de+elo1ing %lose ties )ith the glo'al net)or>s o. anti0%a1italism 'oth to de.end the ne) mo+ement .rom re1ression and to in%rease its %ounter01o)er )ithin the Me5i%an 1oliti%al s%enario* It )ill also 'e im1ortant .or the Other to a+oid the 1it.alls that allo)ed "resident Lir%hner to %o0o1t im1ortant elements o. the "i6uetero mo+ement in !rgentina Csee inerstein in this +olumeD, a similar .ate 'e.alling 1arts o. the indigenous mo+ements in E%uador and =oli+ia, although the Sem Terra landless 1easants mo+ement C$atin !meri%a?s largest and one o. its most autonomousD has su%%ess.ull3 resisted $ula?s attem1ts to di+ide and %o0o1t it C4ernandes 2008D* So along )ith a+oiding %oo1tion '3 the greatl3 e51anded "7 , )hi%h )on 2Bd o. the senate and %ongress seats and is onl3 slightl3 smaller than the "!9, )ith the "7I .a%ing ma@or internal s1lits and 1ossi'le disintegration, the Other )ill need to 'uild strong lin>s )ith $atin !meri%a?s gro)ing num'er o. autonomous anti0%a1italist mo+ements* It )ill also 'e ne%essar3 .or the Other to strengthen its lin>s )ith the Oa5a%a and !ten%o mo+ements and @oin .or%es )ith those 1otentiall3 autonomous elements )ithin the anti0 .raud mo+ement, disillusioned )ith the 1ros1e%ts .or radi%al %hange through ele%toral 1oliti%s and 1re1ared to %ontinue the struggle .or 1arti%i1ati+e demo%ra%3 .rom 'elo) and .or 'elo) long a.ter !M$O and the "7 ha+e made their 1ea%e )ith 4o5 and Calderon* !ll these mo+ements )ill need to go 'e3ond the region?s histori%al tenden%3 to)ards le.t nationalism and 1o1ular 1atriotism, )hi%h +ie) all .orms o. glo'alisation as a %alamit3, not @ust the neoli'eral e%onomi% +ariet3: an ideolog3 )hi%h .inall3 onl3 legitimates the return to 1o)er o. the national 'ourgeoisie +is0T0+is transnational %a1ital* 4or the .irst time an autonomous, alterglo'al, anti0%a1italist mo+ement is emerging in Me5i%o, aided '3 the e%li1se o. neoli'eralism in the region and the de1th o. the s3stemi% 1oliti%al %risis, 'ut its immediate .ate no) hangs in the 'alan%e* ,iudad Juare", 'e#ico, 2I )ugust 200N
!%>no)ledgements
M3 sin%ere than>s to Carolina =allesteros and &erner =one.eld .or their hel1.ul %omments on the .irst dra.ts o. this 1a1er* M3 than>s also to Eligio Calderon, Ernesto Montes, Fe%tor "edra<a, Carlos Morales and Claudio !l'ertani .or the in.ormation and insights the3 1ro+ided in
108
%on+ersations and %orres1onden%e* The o1inions e51ressed here are entirel3 m3 o)n and .or )hi%h, o. %ourse, I ta>e .ull res1onsi'ilit3*
=i'liogra1h3
!l'ertani, C* C2008D $o1e< O'rador, il su'%omandante Mar%os e l,autonomia dei mo+imenti so%iali, email manus%ri1t, 12 #ul3: %laudio*al'ertani`gmail*%om* !lme3ra, (* C2008aD Stalin 3 la historia de la %ontrarre+olu%ifn, 0a Jornada, 28 4e'ruar3K )))*unam*@ornada*m5K a%%essed 28 4e'ruar3* !lme3ra, (* C2008'D El demonio del +oluntarismo, 0a Jornada, Sunda3 1E Ma3K )))*unam*@ornada*m5K a%%essed 1E Ma3* !lme3ra, (* C2008%D $as 1ala'ras 3 los a%tos, 'emoria, no* 20A, #uneK htt1:--memoria*%om*m5-node-A07K a%%essed 27 !ugust* =allinas, V* C2008D 7e%i'e C9 F 18 6ue@as 1or a'uso se5ual 3 7 1or +iola%ifn, 0a Jornada, 10 Ma3K )))*unam*@ornada*m5K a%%essed 10 Ma3* =all+P, T* C2008D ! a3 in the $i.e o. the Other Cam1aign, 5),0) <eport on the )mericas, Mar%h0!1ril, 11*E07* =arrios Ca'rera, !* C2008D 7e%ha<ando a #ohn 7oss, )mate/ON22K 22 !ugustK se5ta%hihuahua0'oun%es`lists*'i%i+erde*orgK read 2E !ugust* =ellinghausen, F* C2008aD O$a i<6uierda neoli'eral no resol+er] los 1ro'lemas?: (on<]le< Casano+a, 0a Jornada, &ednesda3 22 Mar%h: htt1:--)))*@ornada*unam*m5K a%%essed 22 Mar%h* =ellinghausen, F* C2008'D To%a a los adherentes a la ;e<ta de%idir si organi<an en%uentro en Vene<uela: E;$9, 0a Jornada, 28 #uneK )))*unam*@ornada*m5K a%%essed 28 #une* =ellinghausen, F* C2008%D 7e1ro%ha Mar%os a intele%tuales 1erder de +ista la lu%ha %ontinua de des1oseedos, 0a Jornada, 27 #uneK )))*unam*@ornada*m5K a%%essed 27 #une* =erardi, 4* C2002D 0a fabrica de la infelicidad* 5uevas formas de trabajo y movimiento global Madrid: Tra.i%antes de Suegos Vonline +ersion a+aila'leW* =one.eld, &* C2008D !nti0glo'alisation and the ûestion o. So%ialism, ,riti$ue, Vol* 2E, 9o* 1, !1ril, 11* 2/0B/* =o)den, C* C1//AD Juare": the laboratory of our future* 9e) Hor>: !1erture 4oundation* =ur'a%h, 7* C2008D Ele%toral 4raud and 7e'ellion in Me5i%o, 0atin )merican -erspectivesK )))*latinameri%an1ers1e%ti+es*%omK a%%essed 1B #ul3* Callini%os, !* C2008D !tta% di+isions re.le%t a shi.t, %ocialist ;orker, 1 #ul3: htt1:--)))*so%ialist)or>er*%o*u>-arti%le*1h1Iarti%lehidi/120K a%%essed 2 #ul3* Cu'an $i'ertarian Mo+ement-Mo+imiento $i'ertario Cu'ano CC$M-M$CD C200BD 7e.le%tions on the VI e%laration o. the $a%andona #ungle, TF Indymedia: Cu'an $i'ertarian Mo+ement j 2/*0A*200B 17:22 j !nal3sis j So%ial Struggles j ;a1atistaK )))*ind3media*org R )))*mo+imientoli'ertario%u'ano*org K
107
a%%essed 2B Mar%h 2008* inerstein, !* C2002D =e3ond insurre%tion* !rgentina and 9e) Internationalism, !he ,ommoner, no*B, !utumn: htt1:--)))*the%ommoner*orgK a%%essed #anuar3 2002* E@Pr%ito ;a1atista de $i'era%ifn 9a%ional CE;$9D C200BD Si5th e%laration O. The $a%andon #ungle: "art V* &hat &e &ant To o CTranslated '3 5arco 5ews, #ul3 1, 200BD 5arco 5ews: !ugust 18 2008, Issue k2A: htt1:--)))*nar%one)s*%om-Issue2A-arti%le1271*htmlK a%%essed 18 !ugust* 4ernandes, S* C2008D &a3 .or)ard .or the le.tI, >5et, / !ugustK )))*<mag*orgK a%%essed 22 !ugust* (alan, #* C2008D !lienta el a'sten%ionismo el dis%urso 'arro%o de Mar%os, segln a%adPmi%os, 0a Jornada, 22 4e'ruar3K )))*unam*@ornada*m5K a%%essed 2E 4e'ruar3* (i'ler, #* C2008aD S%enes .rom the Oa5a%a 7e'ellion, >5et, E !ugustK htt1:--)))*<mag*org-%ontent-1rintharti%le*%.mIitemI i1070A Rse%tionI iB/K a%%essed 11 !ugust* (i'ler, #* C2008'D esigner G1rising* S%enes .rom Me5i%o Cit3?s "ost0 ele%toral Mo'ili<ations, >5et, 7 !ugustK htt1:--)))*<mag*org-%ontent-1rintharti%le*%.mIitemI i1072ERse %tionI i1K a%%essed 11 !ugust* Fardt, M* R 9egri, !* C2002D Imperio, =ar%elona: "aidos* Fardt, M* R 9egri, !* C200ED 'ultitude: ;ar and (emocracy in the )ge of =mpire* 9e) Hor>: "enguin =oo>s* Far+e3, 9* C200BaD In%lusion Through !utonom3, 5),0) <eport on the )mericas H=mpire and (issentK, Se1tem'er-O%to'er* Far+e3, 9* C200B'D $a di.e%il %onstru%%ifn de la demo%ra%ia 1luriPtni%a: el <a1atismo 3 la hegemonea neoli'eral en el %onte5to latinoameri%ano* "a1er 1resented at the seminar =mpire and (issent : T% 7egemony in 0atin )merica, So%ial S%ien%e 7esear%h Coun%il CSS7CD, Cuerna+a%a, Me5i%o, E 0 B Mar%h 200B* Far+e3, 9* C200B%D =e3ond Fegemon3I ;a1atismo, Em1ire and issent, un1u'lished manus%ri1t* Follo)a3, #* C2002aD ,hange the world without taking power !he meaning of revolution today* $ondon: "luto "ress* Follo)a3, #* C2002'D ;a1atismo and the So%ial S%ien%es, ,apital Z ,lass, no* 7/* Follo)a3, #* C2002D Is the ;a1atista Struggle an !nti0Ca1italist StruggleI, !he ,ommoner, no* 8, &inter 2002: htt1:--)))*the%ommoner*orgK a%%essed #anuar3 200E* Coriginall3 1u'lished in S1anish in <ebeld[a no* 1, Me5i%o Cit3, 9o+em'er 2002*D $e+ido), $* C200ED Ma>ing another )orld 1ossi'leI The Euro1ean So%ial 4orum, <adical -hilosophy, 9o* 12A, 9o+em'er- e%em'er 200E: htt1:--)))*radi%al1hiloso1h3*%om-de.ault*as1I%hannelhid i21A7Reditorialhidi18B77K a%%essed #anuar3 200B* $o1e< 3 7i+as, (* C2008D Im]genes distorsionadas de la otra campa\a, 0a Jornada, #une 20K )))*unam*@ornada*m5K a%%essed 20 #une* Midnight 9otes C2008D Migration, mo+ements, )ages and )ar in the !meri%as: reasons .or unit3 on Ma3 a3 2008 U and a.ter, !he ,ommoner, +round >ero, 'ovements: )))*%ommoner*org*u>-010 12ground<ero*htmK a%%essed 1B #ul3*
10A
9egri, !* C1//2D Il potere costituente %aggio sulle alternative del moderno* Milan: Sugar Co* Oli+ares !lonso, E* C2008D >apatistas, un mundo en construcci]n, +isifn %reti%a desde la solidaridad, 0a Jornada, 1/ #ul3K )))*unam*@ornada*m5K a%%essed 1/ #ul3* "alast, (* C2008D &h3 demo%rats don?t %ount, !he +uardian, 1E #ul3K )))*(reg"alast*%omK a%%essed 1E #ul3* "ineda, E* C2008D $a Ootra %am1aga? 3 el %amino ele%toral: mitos 3 demonios 6ue ha3 6ue e5or%i<ar, ,hiapas al ([a, 9o* B0E, CIE"!C, 28 !1ril: )))*%ie1a%*org*m5K a%%essed !ugust 10* 7a'asa, #* C2002D O9egri 1or ;a1ata: el 1oder %onstitu3ente 3 los lemites de la autonomea?, ,hiapas, no* 1B: htt1:--)))*e<ln*org-re+ista%hia1as-9o1B*htmlK a%%essed Ma3 200E* 7oss, #* C2008D ! re1ort .rom the 7ed !lert: ;a1atistas at Criti%al Crossroads, ,ounter -unch, #ul3 21K )))*%ounter1un%h*orgK a%%essed 20 !ugust* S]n%he< 7amere<, E* C2008D mStalin en la otra %am1agaI, :andera %ocialista, Me5i%o, no* 22* Sen, #* C2008D Some hard 6uestions a'out the u1%oming &orld So%ial 4orumK so%ial0mo+ements`listser+*heanet*ieK 1E #anuar3, Su'%omandante Insurgente Mar%os R Comisifn Se5ta del E;$9 C2008D !lgunas %onsidera%iones del Su1mar%os so're la 1ro1uesta de 1lan de a%%ifn de la Comisifn, 20 Ma3K se5ta%hihuahua0 'oun%es`lists*'i%i+erde*orgK read &ednesda3, 21 Ma3* Virno, "* C200ED ) +rammar of the 'ultitude* =oston, M!: The MIT "ress* ;e<ta Interna<ional - Intergala%ti% Commission o. the E;$9 C200BD Con%erning the Inter%ontinental 1ro1osed in the Si5th e%laration o. the Sel+a $a%andona, Communi6uP .rom the Clandestine 7e+olutionar3 Indigenous Committee 0 (eneral Command o. the ;a1atista !rm3 o. 9ational $i'eration, Me5i%o, 9o+em'er 200B: htt1:--<e<tainterna<ional*e<ln*org*m5 -inde5*1h1Inamei9e)sR.ileiarti%leRsidi8BK a%%essed e%em'er 200B* ;i'e%hi, 7* C200ED $a autonomea es m]s 6ue una 1ala'ra* 7e.le5iones a 1ro1fsito del Enero !utfnomo*: htt1:--)))*memoria*%om*m5-1A2-<i'e%hi*htmK a%%essed #anuar3 200B*
10/
7erurali<ing the &orld
Mariarosa
alla Costa1
I 'egan to 1ose to m3sel. the issue o. the land as a %ru%ial 6uestion at the end o. the eighties, on the heels o. a tra@e%tor3 )hi%h, during the end o. the si5ties and the se+enties, had as its %ru5 the .a%tor3 as the s1a%e o. )aged la'our and then the home as the s1a%e o. un)aged la'our )ithin )hi%h the .ormer .inds its roots* The la'our, there.ore, in+ol+ed in the 1rodu%tion o. %ommodities and that o. the re1rodu%tion o. la'our 1o)er, the la'our o. the .a%tor3 )or>er and the la'our o. the house)i.e )ithin the 4ordist organi<ation o. so%iet3* !t that time )e said that the em1lo3er )ith one 1a3%he%> in realit3 'ought t)o 1eo1le, the )or>er and the )oman 'ehind him* !gri%ultural la'our, or the la'our o. the land, )hi%h re1rodu%ed li.e .or e+er3'od3, remained in shado)s ho)e+er* The 6uestion that )as al)a3s su'tended to that 1ath o. mine, as to that o. so man3 others, )as o. )here the !%hilles heel o. %a1italism, that 1ro.oundl3 une6ual s3stem )e )anted to trans.orm, %ould 'e .ound* &or>ers, students and )omen )ere in mo+ement, 'ut at that time, )ithin the mar5ist %ulture that 1ermeated re'ellious so%iet3 )ithin de+elo1ed %ountries, the agri%ultural la'our o. the .armer )as seen as ana%hronisti%* The eighties, in )hi%h state 1oliti%s .ormulated themsel+es as a res1onse to the %3%le o. struggles o. the si5ties and se+enties, are the 3ears in )hi%h neoli'eralism ta>es o.., in )hi%h there are a11lied in a
1 This 1a1er is a translated +ersion o. 7irurali<<are il mondoN 1er re%u1erare lo s1irito e la +ita, a 1a1er deli+ered at the Terra e $i'ertT- Criti%al&ine %on+ention held at the Centro So%iale $a Chimi%a, Verona, !1ril 1 1012th, 2002* It is 1u'lished in Italian in M* !ngelini et al* CEds*D* 200E*!erra e 0ibert46,ritical ;ine* 7ome: eri+e!11rodi* 111
s3stemati% and in%reasingl3 drasti% manner in man3 %ountries the 1oliti%s o. stru%tural ad@ustment, )hi%h %ause in the )orld an un1re%edented 1o+ert3* uring those 3ears in .a%t, there multi1l3 struggles .or 'read, against the in%rease o. the %ost o. li+ing, .rom $atin !meri%a to !.ri%a to !sia* Het strongl3 in.luen%ing the dire%tion o. domesti% go+ernments )as the re%ommendation on the 1art o. the International Monetar3 4und that )here land )as .ree or su'@e%t to .orms o. lo%al %ommunit30 'ased usage that a 1ri%e 'e .i5ed .or it, in other )ords that it 'e su'@e%ted to a regime o. 1ri+ate 1ro1ert3* ! result o. this is that )home+er )ants to )or> it must .irst o. all ha+e enough mone3 to 'u3 it* It is no %oin%iden%e that those 3ears 'e%ome ones in )hi%h there multi1l3 struggles surrounding the e51ro1riation o. land and the )ater that runs through its +eins* It is in this %onte5t that the issue o. the land 'e%ame %entral .or me, %onsidering the le+els o. 1o+ert3 and the im1ossi'ilit3 o. su'sisten%e that its e51ro1riation Ctogether )ith neoli'eral 1oli%ies and other measures t31i%al o. stru%tural ad@ustmentD determined* 9aturall3 the e51ro1riation o. the land had alread3 'een sin%e the si5ties a 1arti%ularl3 )ides1read 1ra%ti%e %hara%teri<ing the (reen 7e+olution, )hi%h demanded that the 'igger and 'etter allotments o. land 'e destined .or e51ort %ro1s at the e51ense o. 1u'li% .inan%ing .or su'sisten%e .arming* The e51ro1riation o. the land )as a%%om1anied '3 the e51ulsion o. 1o1ulations that deri+ed .rom it the 1ossi'ilit3 .or nutrition and settlement* Eradi%ated .rom their land, the3 added themsel+es to ur'an slums or the3 too> the route o. migration* Het the e51ro1riation o. the land and the eradi%ation-e51ulsion o. its 1o1ulations also %hara%teri<ed man3 o. the &orld =an>?s de+elo1ment 1ro@e%ts, 'eginning )ith the %onstru%tion o. large dams or roads or 1arti%ularl3 )ith the trans.erring o. 1o1ulations, 1ro@e%ts that %om1lemented the 1oli%ies o. stru%tural ad@ustment inasmu%h as i. the latter had in%reasingl3 lo)ered the 6ualit3 o. li.e, the .ormer had ma5imi<ed 1ro.it than>s to the large0s%ale demolition o. .a%tors at the 'ase o. so%ial re1rodu%tion in those settings* There.ore I .ound as %ru%ial %onstants o. the de+elo1ment 1hase that too> o.. in those 3ears those ma%ro0o1erations u1on the land and its 1o1ulations that had allo)ed the laun%h o. the %a1italist s3stem .i+e %enturies ago: the e51ro1riation .rom, and the a%%umulation o., land on the one hand, and the a%%umulation o. immiserated indi+iduals )ho %ould no longer re1rodu%e themsel+es 'e%ause the3 had 'een de1ri+ed o. the .undamental means o. 1rodu%tion and re1rodu%tion, a'o+e all the land itsel., on the other* These o1erations )ere no) .un%tional to a .urther
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<erurali"ing the ;orld
e51ansion o. %a1italist relations and to the re0strati.i%ation o. la'our on a glo'al le+el* Het i. the e51ro1riation o. the land remains a %ru%ial element o. that 1ro%ess o. 1rimiti+e a%%umulation that is re1rodu%ed again and again, generating e+er0higher le+els o. 1o+ert3 and .amine, this ma>es the urgen%3 o. the 6uestion rele+ant not onl3 to those )ho ris> e51ulsion .rom the land, 'ut to humanit3 in its entiret3* The %onditions o. la'our and o. li.e o. men and )omen a%ross the )orld, regardless o. )here the3 li+e, are im1li%ated, 'e%ause it is u1on the e51ulsion .rom the land that the %ondition .or %lass is re0.ounded and la'our )ithin the glo'al e%onom3 is re0strati.ied* !s .ar as those e51elled .rom the land are %on%erned, it is unthin>a'le that @o's )ill multi1l3 in a%%ordan%e )ith their num'er* Instead )e are )itnessing the de%imation o. su%h 1ositions '3 +arious means* 9or is it 1ossi'le to .ool onesel. into ho1ing .or a glo'al guaranteed in%ome o. su%h +ast 1ro1ortions* Het e+en i. it arri+ed one da3, re1la%ing the 'om's 1erha1s, %ould )e reall3 delimit the matter to one o. mone3, mone3 su..i%ient .or the 1ur%hase o. a .arming 1rodu%t )hi%h, in its industrial and neoli'eral .ormulation, in%reasingl3 1ollutes our 'odies, destro3s small e%onomies and their @o's, and de+astates the en+ironmentI !nd, 'e3ond this, ho) mu%h .reedom )ould )e ha+e )hen all o. the earth?s inha'itants de1ended onl3 and e5%lusi+el3 on mone3 .or the3 sur+i+alI It is through 1osing 6uestions su%h as these that, alread3 in the eighties, 'eginning .rom the (lo'al South, and more im1ortantl3, gaining greater +isi'ilit3 and .ormali<ation in the nineties, that there )as .ormed a series o. net)or>s, man3 o. )hi%h 'e%ame %onne%ted through the 'est0>no)n one, the Via Cam1esina, )hi%h ma>e o. the issues o. .arming and nutrition their %larion %all* 9e) net)or>s and su'@e%ts, ones that are .undamental %om1onents o. the mo+ement o. mo+ements* It %an there.ore 'e said that, in the de%ade that @ust ended, 3et )ith its roots in the struggles .or 'read, land and )ater o. the eighties, a 1lanetar3 mo+ement .or the de.ense o. the a%%ess to land, .or the 1reser+ation o. its re1rodu%ti+e 1o)ers, .or a%%ess to .resh and genuine .ood, has 'een .ormed* I en%ountered the Via Cam1esina in 1//8 in 7ome )hen, )ith Vandana Shi+a, Maria Mies, 4arida !>ter and 1eo1le o. other %ir%uits )e 1ut together the .irst alternati+e %on+ention to that o. the 4ood and !gri%ulture Organi<ation, a %on+ention in )hi%h that same net)or> had a +ital role in its a'ilit3 to mo'ili<e, to organi<e, and to .ine0tune the themes that )ere 'rought to e+er3one?s attention* It )as also a %ru%ial moment o. the ;a1atista insurre%tion, )hi%h had at its heart as )ith all indigenous struggles the issue o. the land-Earth as a %ommon good* In m3 +ie), gi+en the resonan%e )ith )hi%h it %ame to the .ore and the res1onse
112
and su11ort that it en@o3ed on the 1art o. the most di+erse se%tors )ithin de+elo1ed %ountries, that re'ellion had 'uilt an ideal 'ridge, )hi%h .or the .irst time had @oined the struggle o+er the 6uestion o. land e51ro1riation )ith that o. the 1ost04ordist e51ro1riation o. la'our* Em'lemati% o. this )as the .a%t that at one 1ole there )ere the re'elling indigenous o. Chia1as and on the other the )or>ers-unem1lo3ed o. de+elo1ed Euro1e 1rotesting in the streets %arr3ing the 'anner o. ;a1ata* In 1//8 ho)e+er agri%ultural issues )ere still 1aid s%ar%e attention '3 re'el .orms o. a%ti+ism in Ital3* I still remem'er sensing a %ertain sur1rise surrounding the su'@e%t )ithin a mo+ement meeting I raised it at in Mar%h o. that 3ear* The attention 1aid to su%h themes toda3 o..ers us a measure o. the 1rogress made sin%e* The net)or>s that ha+e 'een %onstru%ting themsel+es .rom the +arious glo'al Souths and the ;a1atista insurre%tion, as I )as sa3ing, returned to the de+elo1ed )orld the %on%e1t o. the land-Earth as a %ommon good, and a man30sided %on%e1t at that* $et us %onsider the 1rimar3 .a%ets: aD The land-Earth a'o+e all as a sour%e o. li.e, o. nourishment and there.ore o. 1lent3 i. 1reser+ed as a s3stem %a1a'le o. re1rodu%ing itsel.* There.ore the right o. a%%ess to the land and to the resour%es it %ontains, a'o+e all )ater and seeds, against their %ontinual 1ri+ati<ation* The right o. a%%ess to and the e%onomi% 1ossi'ilit3 o. .arming the land a%%ording to organi% te%hni6ues, using all o. the 'iodi+ersit3 that 1la%e %an o..er* There.ore a right to the +ariet3 o. .ood as a uni+ersal right, not onl3 .or elites, and as a guarantee o. 'etter nutrition and greater health* The right to .ood .reedom as the other .a%e o. .ood demo%ra%3* 4ood demo%ra%3 as the 'asis .or a di..erent 1ro@e%t o. li.e, )here .arming, 1rodu%tion and %ommer%iali<ation 1ra%ti%es are sustaina'le .rom an e%onomi%, so%ial, and en+ironmental 1oint o. +ie)* This against .arming %hoi%es that %ondemn us to nutritional homogeneit3 Cthat is also the 'earer o. lo) nutrition and 1oor healthD, to the solel3 industrial 1rodu%tion o. .ood C1ossi'l3 .or im1ort or e51ort, 'ut .or man3 im1ossi'le to 1ur%haseD, and to the s1e%iali<ation o. %ro1 %ulti+ation im1osed geogra1hi%al areas )ithin the neoli'eral internationali<ation o. mar>etsK
11E
'D
%D
dD
The land-Earth as the sour%e o. natural e+olution* There.ore the right to 1rote%t the di+ersit3 and integrit3 o. the di..erent +arieties against their destru%tion and geneti% mani1ulation and the resulting immiseration and ris>s .or the 1o1ulation* 9et)or>s that o11ose themsel+es not onl3 to the e51ro1riation o. the land 'ut to its +iolation and to the %ommodi.i%ation o. its re1rodu%ti+e 1o)ers )hi%h %onstitute the %ru%ial terrain o. the %urrent %a1italist strateg3 o. hunger, itsel. .un%tional to strati.3ing la'our and holding it ransom* On the other hand this terrain is %ru%ial .or the 1ossi'ilit3, 6ualit3, and .reedom o. human re1rodu%tion* There.ore on su%h issues the 1oliti%al 1ositions that are the 'earers o. the 1ro@e%t o. a di..erent li.e, the most re+olutionar3 ones, a11ear to 'e the most %onser+ati+e* The land-Earth as territor3 on )hi%h to li+e against the %ontinual eradi%ation 'rought a'out '3 the industrial %on%e1t o. agri%ulture and '3 )ar o1erations* =oth o. these ta>e a)a3 land, 1olluting it in the .ormer %ase )ith %hemi%al 1rodu%ts, and in the latter )ith e51losi+es* &ar in%reasingl3 1ro+o>es +ia su%h 1ollution )ith lethal ne) e51losi+es and to5i% su'stan%es an in.inite damage and an e51ulsion )ithout a 1ossi'ilit3 o. return* The land-Earth as a 1u'li% s1a%e against its %ontinual .en%ing o.. and 1ri+ati<ation* 4rom the in%reasingl3 numerous re.ugee %am1s to the in%reasingl3 numerous gol. %ourses that alter the en+ironment, ta>ing a)a3 .ields .or .arming or ri%e .ields or 1u'li% 1ar>land* !lread3 there ha+e 'een 'lood3 struggles around su%h elite 1ro@e%ts .rom Vietnam to Me5i%o*
Het e+en the %onstru%tion o. %ommunit3 that these net)or>s re1resent, 'eginning .rom the land as a 1rimar3 %ommon good 0 in that the3 understand this to 'e the .oundation o. a di..erent so%ial %onstru%tion 0 is arti%ulated )ithin a multi.a%eted a11roa%h* !'o+e all )omen o%%u13 an emerging role that %orres1onds to the %ru%ial nature o. their 1osition )ithin agri%ultural la'our and the re1rodu%tion o. the .amil3* These net)or>s, 'e%ause the3 'rought to the .ore the .undamental role )omen ha+e in the la'our o. agri%ultural su'sisten%e, remind us o. the .a%t that u1on )omen and %hildren .all the most dire %onse6uen%es o. the (reen 7e+olution and the neoli'eral 1ro@e%t, and there.ore as> that there 'e e6ual 1arti%i1ation .or )omen )here 1lanning .or the .armers? mo+ement is %arried out* !nd, in 'ringing to the .ore the issue o. the
11B
)oman?s %ondition, the3 a'o+e all raise the 1ro'lem o. the +iolen%e she is the +i%tim o. )ithin the .amil3, )ithin the so%iet3, and 1arti%ularl3 during the o1erations o. land e51ro1riations, su%h as )omen and %hildren?s right to edu%ation and health, to mention onl3 some o. the most im1ortant %ases* !lso s3m1tomati% o. an e+olution in the relationshi1 'et)een the se5es, to gi+e @ust one e5am1le, is that )ithin the Larnata>a 4armers Gnion C.ounded in 1/A0, %ounting around ten million mem'ers, and toda3 a 1art o. the Via Cam1esinaD it )as de%ided to a'olish 1arti%ularl3 e51ensi+e )edding rituals that, gi+en their 1o+ert3, )ere im1eding marriage .or men and )omen* In other )ords )hat ha+e 'een 1romoted are %i+il marriages o. re%i1ro%al res1e%t )ithout the inter+ention o. the =rahmin in the 1la%e o. the %on+entional marriages that o.ten generated huge de'ts .or .amilies* The same union 1romotes 1rograms and meetings .or )omen, and a .i5ed 1er%entage o. seats on its %ommittees are reser+ed .or them* !nother e6uall3 signi.i%ant .a%t is that net)or>s .or the re%u1eration o. a di..erent relationshi1 )ith the earth, .or the s1read o. organi% agri%ulture, .or a%%ess to .resh and genuine .ood, are 'eing organi<ed in the more de+elo1ed %a1italist %ountries* In the Gnited States as .ar 'a%> as 1/A8 .armers resisting the dominant agri%ultural model .ounded the 9ational 4amil3 4arm Coalition* Other e5am1les, and signi.i%ant ones, )ere %reated in the nineties in that %ountr3 as )ell as in Canada, and o. %ourse in 4ran%e there emerged the e51erien%e o. 1easant0'ased .arming )ith #osP =o+P* The Communit3 4ood Se%urit3 Coalition .ormed in the Gnited States in the 1ast de%ade, in+ol+ing 1rodu%ers, %onsumers and +arious other su'@e%ts, @oined under the slogan o. .ood se%urit3 .or the %ommunit3, a notion that gathered steam simultaneousl3 .rom the !tlanti% %oast to the "a%i.i%* The latter not onl3 1ut in 1la%e an organi% agri%ulture, 'ut it assured the distri'ution o. its 1rodu%ts at a lo%al le+el allo)ing .or a%%ess, through +arious t31es o. arrangements, to lo)0in%ome %iti<ens, 'uilding distri'ution 1oints at lo) %ost and 1ro+iding the ne%essar3 trans1ortation to rea%h them* e%laring their intent to install a more demo%rati% nutritional s3stem, it gathers 12B grou1s that %onne%t .ood 'an>s, net)or>s o. .amil3 .arms, anti01o+ert3 organi<ations )hi%h rarel3 %olla'orated on su%h net)or>?s 1rograms in the 1ast, and o'+iousl3 o1erates on the 'asis o. the 1ush t3ing 1eo1le together, 1utting in %onta%t small ur'an or rural .armers, .ood 'an>s, and sou1 >it%hens .or the 1oor and lo)0in%ome %ommunities* Similarl3, the San 4ran%is%o $eague o. Gr'an (ardeners, )hi%h sel.0organi<ed around the same 1ro'lem, then 'e%ame >e3 organi<ers in the struggle .or more de%ent %onditions .or re1rodu%tion, .rom housing to 1u'li% 1ar>s, '3 ma>ing a+aila'le .or the %ommunit3 %a1a%ities, )or> s>ills and
118
>no)ledges generated at a lo%al le+el* The .irst thing to note here is that a di..erent )ill regarding the relationshi1 to the earth, one that 1la3s itsel. out through .arming, is in these e5am1les the .irst ste1 to)ards a di..erent )ill regarding modalities o. li.e in their entiret3, a di..erent .ood 1ro@e%t .or a di..erent so%ial 1ro@e%t* This is 1arti%ularl3 e+ident i. )e loo> at that 'road mo+ement o. initiati+es that goes '3 the name o. so%ial e%olog3 or 'io0regionalism or %ommunit3 e%onomi% de+elo1ment )hi%h tend to re0lo%ali<e de+elo1ment in the sense o. de+elo1ing, alongside a di..erent .orm o. managing the land C.or nutrition, .or housing, .or 1u'li% s1a%eD, a di..erent management o. )or> s>ills, 1ro.essional a'ilities and >no)ledges geared to)ards the strengthening and de.en%e o. the roots o. a so%ial %onte5t against its destitution and the eradi%ation o. its %iti<en inha'itants de%reed '3 the glo'al e%onom3* In the same )a3, the .a%t that the earth %an re1resent housing sta'ilit3, 'e3ond 'eing a sour%e o. nutrition, has led to the de+elo1ment in the Gnited States o. "u'li% $and Trusts, )hi%h are %on%ei+ed also as a means '3 )hi%h to sa.eguard the en+ironment* &ith su%h initiati+es 1eo1le 1ut together .unds to 1ur%hase land* The goal is to 1reser+e it as a 1ie%e o. untou%hed nature or to 'uild housing u1on it: the latter %an 'e sold 'ut not the land u1on )hi%h the3 are 'uilt* In this )a3 the 1ri%e o. the home is >e1t lo) and there.ore a%%essi'le .or lo)0in%ome segments o. the 1o1ulation* E+en in the 4ren%h %ase o. 1easant0'ased agri%ulture the 1lan .or a di..erent so%ial 1ro@e%t, 'eginning .rom its de%lared 1rin%i1les, is a'undantl3 o'+ious* !'o+e all that o. international .armer solidarit3 against the harshest and most destru%ti+e %om1etition )hi%h neoli'eral glo'ali<ation )ants to im1ose, and 'e3ond this are the 1rin%i1les o. the so%ial and e%onomi% signi.i%an%e o. la'our and human a%ti+it3K o. the re.usal o. 1rodu%ti+ism that is %learl3 e51ressed '3 =o+P )hen he sa3s: our goal and our )or> are not those o. 1rodu%tion: )e o%%u13 a s1a%e, )e manage it and 1arti%i1ate in the so%ial 'ond )ith the %ountr3sideK o. a management o. the %ountr3side that is res1e%t.ul o. 1eo1le, o. the en+ironment and o. animals that translates itsel. in not )anting to in%rease e5%essi+el3 one?s .arm 'e%ause the %ountr3side must re1resent @o's .or man3 1eo1le, in not )anting to ha+e more animals than those )hi%h the earth %an sustain, in assuming res1onsi'ilit3 o. the maintenan%e o. +egeta'le and li+esto%> +arieties that %hara%teri<e that area, and mu%h more* Similarl3, the .undamental theme o. nutrition and o. not )anting to run ris>s )ith res1e%t to this has 'een >e3 in allo)ing the 1oliti%al 1osition and %ommitment to gro) and en+elo1 the %ommodi.i%ation o. health, edu%ation, and %ulture*
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In sum )e %an sa3 toda3 that the land, .arming and nutrition %onstitute the emerging theme o. the sel.0organi<ed net)or>s that de+elo1ed in 1arti%ular in the nineties and )hi%h, )ith the glo'al mo+ement o. .armers, has +igorousl3 %ome to the .ore as the missing su'@e%t, u1on )hose la'our )e all de1end e+er3 da3 in the re1rodu%tion o. our li+es* I. re0lo%ali<ing de+elo1ment is 1arti%ularl3 signi.i%ant )ith res1e%t to the agri%ultural 6uestion this onl3 .uels the re0lo%ali<ation o. other as1e%ts o. de+elo1ment and li.e* (lo'al is the mo+ement, glo'al are the rights, and glo'al are the struggles, a'o+e all .or the uni+ersal right to a health3 diet, a +aried one and not a standardi<ed and not an estranged one )ith res1e%t to one?s o)n %ultural traditions and the s1e%i.i%ities that the land, )or>ed '3 men and )omen rather than ra1ed '3 humans, %an generate* !nd i. it is true that, as Colum'ian .armers that ha+e sel.0organi<ed around the %ulti+ation o. +arieties at ris> o. e5tin%tion sa3, the s1irit is )ithin the nature surrounding us, in the trees and in the ri+ers, then rerurali<ing the )orld is ne%essar3 to re%u1erate the s1irit as )ell as li.e* !ranslated by =nda :rophy
=i'liogra1h3
M* alla Costa, $?Indigeno %he n in noi, la terra %ui a11arteniamo, C1a1er deli+ered at the -er un1altra =uropa, $uella dei movimenti e dell1autonomia di classe %on+ention, Torino, Mar%h 1//8D 1u'lished in 9is/4/9is, n* B, 1//7, and in !* Maru%%i, ,amminare domandando, eri+e!11rodi, 7oma, 1///K Translated in English as: The 9ati+e in Gs, the $and &e =elong to, in ,ommon %ense n*22, 1//AK and in !he ,ommoner n*8, 2002, !+aila'le at: )))*the%ommoner*org alla Costa, %ette buone ragioni per dire luogo 1a1er deli+ered at the -ercorsi critici per un secondo ciclo di lotte globali roundta'le at the 7adio Sher)ood 4esti+al, "ado+a, #ul3 10, 2002, 1u'lished in *oedus, n*1B, 2008, and translated in English as Se+en (ood 7easons to Sa3 $o%alit3 in !he ,ommoner n*8, 2002* !+aila'le at: )))*the%ommoner*org
M*
11A
T)o =as>ets .or Change
Mariarosa
alla Costa1
!t the time o. 4ordist 1rodu%tion I )as 1arti%ularl3 mo+ed '3 a 1assage o. Mar5?s, one )hi%h I read o+er and o+er* In it, he suggested that as soon as the )or>ing %lass, stunned at .irst '3 the noise and turmoil o. the ne) s3stem o. 1rodu%tion, had re%o+ered its senses to some e5tent, it 'egan to o..er resistan%e, .irst o. all in England, the nati+e land o. large0s%ale industr3*2 7eading it, I heard the roar o. ma%hines and .elt the 1o)er o. that great rea)a>ening, that o. a ne) %ha1ter in the human stor3* The 1assage returns to mind as I o'ser+e another great rea)a>ening: one that is 'eing ena%ted '3 .armers and %iti<ens C)ho are %hallenging their role as merel3 1rodu%ers or %onsumersD against the great ma%hine o. industrial agri%ulture and the 1oliti%s that 'olster its deli+er3 o. no5ious .oods, en+ironmental de+astation, e%onomi% %rises, rural e5odus, and a'o+e all its negation o. the relationshi1 'et)een humans and the land* I. it is true, as Mar5 suggested, that the e51ro1riation o. the agri%ultural 1rodu%er, o. the 1easant, .rom the soil is the )hole 'asis o. the 1ro%ess2 then these )ills that ha+e 'een set in motion already contain the seeds of another possible world* The .orms o. e51ro1riation ha+e o'+iousl3 'e%ome more re.ined and di+erse 0 these da3s one?s relationshi1 to the land %an 'e su'@e%t to e51ro1riation e+en )ithout a 1h3si%al e51ulsion ha+ing ta>en 1la%e*E The negation o. su%h a relationshi1, in its multi1le
1 Trans%ri1t o. a 1resentation deli+ered at the Terra e $i'ertT- Criti%al&ine, 4iera dei 1arti%olari, held at the $eon%a+alloSo%ial Centre in Milan, e%em'er B07, 2002* "u'lished in Italian in !ngelini, M* et al* 200E* Terra e 0ibert46,ritical ;ine* 7ome: eri+e!11rodi* Mar5, Larl* 1//0 Vorig* 1A87W* ,apital: 9olume 1* 9e) Hor>: "enguin: 2/0* Mar5, Larl* 1//0 Vorig* 1A87W* ,apital: 9olume 1* 9e) Hor>: "enguin: A78* I am alluding to )hen, )hile remaining on their land, .armers or li+e0s to%> 11/
2 2 E
.orms, remains to this da3 the 'asis .or the 1ro%ess o. %a1italist a%%umulation* To reinstate this relationshi1 is there.ore a .undamental )a3 to disru1t o. a mode o. 1rodu%tion that has u1ended and %ommodi.ied the +er3 me%hanisms o. the re1rodu%tion o. li.e* !t the heart o. this rural and ur'an re'ellion and its %onstru%tion o. net)or>s and initiati+es is the need, to use an agri%ultural term, .or a regrafting* !midst the .allen illusion o. te%hnolog3?s a'ilities to 1ro+ide solutions a dis%ussion has reo1ened around %are, %are .or the earth* Sin%e 1eo1le ha+e 'egun to sa3 enough to the risks in+ol+ed in su%h C'ioDte%hnologi%al lea1s, 'ut a'o+e all to the %ontinuous interru1tion and u1hea+al that these in.li%t u1on the .orms and net)or>s o. li.e?s s1ontaneous re1rodu%tion o. itsel.* #* =o+P and 4* u.our B des%ri'e ho) their 'reeder %omrads .elt the3 had rea%hed their lo)est 1oint )hen the3 'e%ame %ons%ious o. the e%onomi% and e%ologi%al a'erration inherent in the 1ra%ti%e o. se1arating the %al. .rom its mother )ho )as su11osed to .eed it in order to administer .eedings o. regenerated mil>* This 1rodu%t had 'een su'sidi<ed to the 1oint that it )as no) more %om1etiti+e than the natural +ariet3* 4or them that moment )as %riti%al to s1ar>ing a re.le%tion on the 1ur1ose o. la'our, one )hi%h 'rought them to the %on%e1t o. 1easant0'ased agri%ulture* In order to 6uali.3 as su%h, the .arming must ha+e a 1arti%ular a11roa%h Cmade %on%rete through the ado1tion o. ten 1rin%i1lesD and it must ha+e a 1erimeter, )ithin )hi%h one %an e51lore the o'ser+an%e o. limits and test the 1rin%i1les*8
raisers, in the glo'al 9orth or South o. the )orld, in a%tualit3 ' e%ome )or>ers in large %om1anies* The %ase o. the agistment is t31i%al* !n agistment is a %ontra%t '3 )hi%h t)o 1artners agree to .ollo) in the raising o. li+esto %>* &hile the .armer o)ns the land and an3 stru%tureson it, the entre1reneur generall3 1ro+ides the li+esto%>, the .eed, the medi%ines, et%* !%%ording to this >ind o. agreement the .armer, .or e5am1le, ma3 raise %hi%>ens 'ut %annot ma>e an3 de%isions )ith res1e%t to their .eeding, medi%al treatment, or an3 otheras1e%t o. the 1ra%ti%e* #* =o+P e 4* u.our, 2001 Corig* 2000D* Il mondo non 3 in vendita* Milan: 4eltrinelli: 12A* In English: =o+P, #ose and u.our, 4ran%ois* 2001* !he ;orld is 5ot for %ale* 9e) Hor>: Verso* =o+P and u.our?s )or> o..ers a 'etter, i. nonetheless 1artial, idea o. the these 'inding 1rin%i1les: the 1erimeter, or s1a%e in )hi%h to e51lore the o'ser+an%e o. limits re.ers to the +eri.i%ation o. the limits su%h .arming must a'ide '3 in order to ade6uatel3 res1ond to the needs o. the so%iet3 U limits, .or e5am1le, su%h as the ma5imum nitrogen le+el allo)a'le 1er he%tare, thema5imum land si<e 1er .armer Cso as to allo) other .armers the 1ossi'ilit3 to )or>D, the ma5imum 6uantit3 o. animals the land %an sustain and other measures that are needed in order to a+oid .alling into the tra1 o. intensi.i%ation and 1rodu%ti+ism* The a11roa%h, =o+P suggests, is the manner, the dire%tion, the %om1ass, and the hori<on to)ards )hi%h )e need to 'e heading regardless o. the 1arti%ular situation o. one?s o)n %om1an3N in the do%ument the a11roa%h is re1resented '3 ten 1rin%i1les o. 1easant0'ased agri%ulture C177DN this is a result o. the %ontem1lation o. three dimensions: the so%ial one a'o+e all, that is, that .ounded u1on em1lo3ment .or and solidarit3 'et)een .armers, a%ross )orld regions, and the .a%t that it must also 'e e%onomi%all3 e..i%ient and res1e%t.ul o. 'oth %onsumers and nature C178DN the triad o. 1easant0'ased
B 8
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Q!wo :askets for ,hangeR
Fere it is not as mu%h the )orr3 a'out health ris>s 'ut indignation o+er the u1ending o. the s1ontaneous .orms o. the re1rodu%tion o. li.e that %reates the %onditions .or re.le%tion on the meaning and 1ur1ose o. la'our, that generates a desire to %hange one?s dire%tion* It is the same indignation that 1ro+o>ed a desire .or the 1ursuit o. other relationshi1s in la'our and in li.e .or man3 other se%tors o. the )orld?s 1o1ulation, that )hi%h 1ro+o>ed a res1onse o. 3a 'asta to)ards this model o. de+elo1ment and su'se6uentl3 resulted in the o1ening u1 o. %ommuni%ation aimed at e51erimenting )ith other 1aths* It is this indignation that has s1ar>ed the %reation o. %on%rete alternati+es* Het the Con.Pderation "a3sanne is onl3 one node, al'eit one o. the most signi.i%ant amongst those in de+elo1ed regions, o. the +ast 9ia ,ampesina net)or> that lin>s +er3 di+erse .arming %ommunities in the 9orth and the South o. the )orld* These %ommunities are %onne%ted '3 a %ommonalit3 o. goals and a11roa%hes* 4irst amongst these is the %onstru%tion o. .ood so+ereignt3 in its +arious e51ressions Ca'o+e all that o. di..erent >inds o. relationshi1s 'et)een 1rodu%ersD o. )hi%h I s1o>e at the 1re%eding %on.eren%e in Verona* 7 There I suggested that, e51li%itl3 or im1li%itl3, there is in%reasingl3 emerging .rom su%h situations the arti%ulation o. a need to re0lo%ali<e de+elo1ment and re0rurali<e the )orld* I )ill tr3 to e51and u1on some as1e%ts o. this )hile attem1ting to allo) .or the greatest 1ossi'le .reedom to the reader?s imaginar3* This need .or the re0lo%ali<ation o. de+elo1ment, in %on@un%tion )ith a series o. other initiati+es that I )ill not mention here .or the sa>e o. 're+it3, is not solel3 addressed to the themati% o. agri%ulture, 'ut in an3 %ase the latter has rea%6uired the %entralit3 it used to en@o3, and 'e%ause o. that I )ill .o%us on it here* 7e0lo%ali<ing de+elo1ment is a need that, emerging in 1arti%ular .rom the dis%ontinuities 1ro+o>ed '3 neoli'eral glo'ali<ation in de+elo1ed %ountries, has led to a series o. e..orts to retain and +alori<e at a lo%al le+el mone3, 1ro.essional s>ills and a'o+e all agri%ultural la'our, against their %ontinual de0lo%ali<ation and the resulting miser3 o. %iti<en inha'itants o. these settings*
agri%ulture is to 1rodu%e, 1ro+ide )or>, and 1reser+e C121D N the de+elo1ment o. 1easant0' ased agri%ulture re6uires at least t)o %onditions: a 1oliti%al %onte5t )hi%h instead o. .a+ouring industriali<ation and %on%entration must sustain .armers, as )ell as the 1ersonal %hoi%es o. .armers in their o)n %om1anies in order to ha+e a s1a%e .or initiati+e and res1onsi'ilit3 C177017AD* Translator?s note: 1age re.eren%es are to the Italian +ersion* This is a re.eren%e to alla Costa, M* 7irurali<<are il mondoN 1er re%u1erare lo s1irito e la +ita, a 1a1er deli+ered at the Terra e $i'ertT, Criti%al&ine %on+ention held at the Centro So%iale $a Chimi%a, Verona, !1ril 1 1012th, 2002, and 1u'lished in Italian in M* !ngelini et al*, 200E* !erra e 0ibert46,ritical ;ine* 7ome: eri+e!11rodi* 121
9o) in the attem1t to read these t)o needs '3 relating it to a %onte5t that is %loser to our o)n, 'ut not onl3 this, I %ould sa3 that i. I had t)o 'as>ets, one )ith )hi%h to re0lo%ali<e de+elo1ment and the other )ith )hi%h to re0rurali<e the )orld, in the .irst I )ould 1la%e .our things: 1D the right o. a%%ess to the landK 2D short0%3%le .arming and one that is sustaina'le in e+er3 res1e%tK 2D the 1ra%ti%e Cone that is gro)ing in numerous %ountriesD o. the re%u1eration o. +arieties that ha+e .allen into disuse as )ell as o. their modalities o. %ulti+ation and %onsum1tionK and ED a .o%us on 1oli%ies that %ontrast the e5tro+ersion o. de+elo1ment* In the se%ond 'as>et I )ould 1ut another .our things: 1D the di..usion o. an agri%ulture su%h as the one de.ined a'o+eK 2D the ade6uate remuneration o. .arming, in%luding that 1ra%ti%ed in more %hallenging areasK 2D the reintrodu%tion o. di..use .ree0range li+esto%> rearingK ED the 1romotion o. a %ulture, 'ut a'o+e all o. a 1oliti%s, that gi+es 1ride o. 1la%e on%e more to an agri%ulture rede.ined in this manner* O'+iousl3 these .a%tors onl3 1ro+ide a 'ottom la3er .or the 'as>ets* $et us ta>e a %loser loo> at ea%h o. them* 1* The right o. a%%ess to the land in the areas in )hi%h one li+es: this is o'+iousl3 a matter that needs to 'e arti%ulated a%%ording to the geogra1hi%al %onte5t in 6uestion* 4or areas in the glo'al South it means a'o+e all the a'ilit3 to ha+e or maintain a%%ess to the land Cthrough %ommon rights or indi+idual ones, .or small and medium0si<ed .armersD against the %ontinual e51ro1riation 1ra%ti%ed '3 large in+estors or the state* The a+aila'ilit3 o. land )here li.e is guaranteed '3 su'sisten%e agri%ulture or +ia small0s%ale sustaina'le agri%ulture ma>es the di..eren%e 'et)een the 1ossi'ilit3 or im1ossi'ilit3 o. sur+i+al* I. in +arious regions o. the )orld the s%o1e o. this 1ro'lem gestures to the ne%essit3 o. agri%ultural re.orms that ha+e al)a3s 'een 1romised 'ut rarel3 ena%ted, it is nonetheless im1ortant to re%all the gains a%hie+ed on this terrain '3 the large0s%ale mo+ements .or the a11ro1riation o. land, a'o+e all the %em !erra )ho in the last 20 3ears ha+e %ontri'uted to the settling o. 2B0,000 rural .amilies on A million he%tares in almost all =ra<ilian states* 4or de+elo1ed areas, 'eginning )ith Ital3, a%%ess to the land re6uires a'o+e all that the land has maintained a 1ri%e that is a%%essi'le to the .armer* In our %ase this is no longer 1ossi'le )hen land is 1arti%ularl3 %lose to im1ortant tra%ts o. high)a3 or )hen there are tourist0industr3 interests or other 1ro.ita'le in+estments near'3, than>s to )hi%h the 1ri%e rises so mu%h that it is no longer a%%essi'le or amorti<a'le )ithin an agri%ultural
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1ro%ess* This has 'een a t31i%all3 Italian 1henomenon, one that, due to the greater a+aila'ilit3 o. land, is not as mu%h the %ase in S1ain, 4ran%e or (erman3* Het in our %ase this is an added o'sta%le .or the 1ossi'ilit3 o. a di..use 1resen%e o. agri%ulture* !nd, o'+iousl3, a 1ro'lem that aggra+ates the matter and is su'stantial in our area )ith res1e%t to the issue o. a%%ess to the land is that o. a @ustl3 remunerati+e agri%ultural in%ome, es1e%iall3 )hen managing a t31e o. .arming that is other than the 1rodu%ti+ist and industrial >ind* !nother im1ortant as1e%t o. 'eing a'le to a%%ess the land is that relati+e to the lands u1on )hi%h there 1ersist 1ra%ti%es o. %ommon usage Co.ten this dates 'a%> to medie+al timesD, a ne%essar3 %orollar3 o. the 'reeding o. li+esto%> and .arming* These lands are diminishing in Ital3 as )ell, )here the3 are sold or hoarded '3 1ri+ate %om1anies or indi+iduals also than>s to negligen%e in their %ataloguing or in the %onser+ation o. land re%ords* Short0%3%le .arming, one that is sustaina'le a%ross its +arious dimensions, is the onl3 >ind %a1a'le o. guaranteeing .reshness, authenti%it3, and the tra%ea'ilit3 o. the .ood* 4reshness and authenti%it3 ha+e in%reasingl3 'e%ome a 1art o. the demands made '3 mo+ements o. .armers and %iti<ens in the most de+elo1ed regions, 'eginning )ith the Gnited States )here .rom the !tlanti% %oast to the "a%i.i% .resh and genuine .ood .or the %ommunit3?s nutritional se%urit3A has 'een the 'anner o. net)or>s li>e the Communit3 4ood Se%urit3 Coalition* !nother emerging demand has 'een that the .ood 'e 1rodu%ed and distri'uted )ith methods and organi<ational net)or>s that %an guarantee moderation in its 1ri%ing and there.ore its a%%essi'ilit3 .or %ustomers )ith less in%ome at their dis1osal* To this end agreements are sti1ulated 'et)een the 1rodu%er and the %onsumer, a%%ording to )hi%h an amount o. agri%ultural 1rodu%t is 1ur%hased in ad+an%e )ith %ash or through o..ering other .orms o. la'our in e5%hange* !nother im1ortant 1henomenon that, signi.i%antl3, is gro)ing in the Gnited States C'ut not onl3D in 1ast 3ears, is the 1ossi'ilit3 .or 1rodu%ers to dire%tl3 sell their 1rodu%ts in .armers? mar>ets in %ities )ithout resorting to %ostl3 intermediaries* In Ital3 .air trade 'u3ing asso%iations ha+e 'een gro)ing* (!S C(ru11i di !%6uisto SolidaleD, )hi%h has roughl3 2 million mem'ers, has ado1ted B 'asi% 1rin%i1les: 1D
alla Costa, Mariarosa* 2002* The 9ati+e in Gs, the $and )e =elong to, in !he ,ommoner n*8, 2002* G7$: htt1:--)))*the%ommoner*org 122
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res1e%t .or human 'eings, so the 1ur%hased 1rodu%ts %annot 'e the result o. so%ial in@usti%e 'ut rather must a%ti+el3 %ontri'ute to a sustaina'le so%ial de+elo1mentK 2D res1e%t .or the en+ironment, or the %hoi%e o. 1rodu%ts o'tained in a manner that is res1e%t.ul o. nature )hile tr3ing ensure the least 1ossi'le trans1ortationK 2D res1e%t .or health, )hi%h %omes in the .orm o. %hoosing organi% 1rodu%tsK ED solidarit3, or %hoosing to 1ur%hase .rom small 1rodu%ers )ho other)ise )ould 'e %rushed '3 larger onesK BD res1e%t .or .la+our, as a 1art o. returning to natural rh3thms '3 eating seasonal .oods su%h as organi% 1rodu%ts, )hi%h 'e3ond ha+ing greater nutritional %a1a%it3 are notoriousl3 'etter tasting* It is signi.i%ant that the ne) ethi% that is a11earing in+ol+es the e%onomi%, so%ial, and en+ironmental as1e%ts o. the 6uestion* Fere too there is the desire to de%lare 3a 'asta in the .a%e o. the modalities o. this >ind o. de+elo1ment and their %onse6uen%es, the desire to a..irm other relations* In this )a3 initiati+es su%h as that o. the V1re<<o sorgenteW/, or ensuring a registered designation o. origin, in%luding the ne) .orms o. lo%al designation, C e* Co*, or enomina<ione %omunale, is a sim1le and ine51ensi+e method %reated '3 the muni%i1alitiesD guarantee trans1aren%3 and tra%ea'ilit3, +alouri<e the lo%ation o. 1rodu%tion against the in+isi'le or un%ertain 1la%e o. origin, and +alouri<e the lo%alit3 o. 1rodu%tion and the di..eren%e o. relations that .lo) .rom it, not onl3 'et)een 1rodu%ers and %onsumers, 'ut 'et)een %iti<ens* These 1ra%ti%es o'+iousl3 re0.amiliari<e humanit3 )ith the lo%al, )hi%h is +alouri<ed as the .ragment o. a %ommon good and there.ore as something a%%essi'le to e+er3one* The series o. 1ro@e%ts in man3 %ountries that .or some time ha+e 'een organi<ing in order to re%u1erate +arieties o. .oodstu..s, and their relati+e methods o. %ulti+ation and 1re1aration, that are at ris> o. 'eing .orgotten or 'e%oming e5tin%t* This is a re%laiming o. %ulti+ation, o. %ultures and o. >no)ledges against the disa11earan%e o. +arieties and the
"re<<o sorgente is an e51ression that emerges .rom so%ial mo+ements, and re.ers to the original 1ri%e or sour%e 1ri%e, that )hi%h is 1aid to the .armer* The 1ro1osal is that this 'e noted on the 1rodu%t?s la'el in order to dis%ourage un@usti.ied 1ri%e hi>es during the 1hases in )hi%hthe 1rodu%t is trans.ormed and %ommer%iali<ed* In this )a3 the %onsumer %an 'e a)are o. su%h 1ri%e in%reases i. the3 ha+e o%%urred* The 1ro 'lem is that the .armer is 1aid +er3 little and 3et the end %onsumer 1a3s a great deal due to the un@usti.ied 1ro.its that are e>ed out during intermediate1hases* Su%h distortions and 1ri%e in%reases are %aused ' 3 long %3%le agri%ultural 1rodu%tion*
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standardi<ation and the o'literation o. .la+our im1osed '3 the nutritional di%tatorshi1 o. the multinationals* This is %onne%ted to the right to +ariet3 C'eginning )ith the +ariet3 o..ered '3 the land u1on )hi%h one li+esD, )hi%h in turn is tied not onl3 to the right to a +ariet3 o. taste 'ut also to the greater nutritional 1otential o. a +aried diet and the greater nutritional se%urit3 that this 1ro+ides %onsidering the ris> o. s1e%ies 'e%oming su'@e%t to disease* In Ital3 in the most re%ent 3ears, together )ith an emerging interest in the re+alori<ation o. some 1artiall3 .orgotten s1e%ies, )ithin the %onte5t o. ,ivilt4 ,ontadina, the a%ti+it3 o. the Seed Sa+ers is also gro)ing*10 Het )ithout de.ining themsel+es as su%h, elderl3 1eo1le and .armers also a%t as seed sa+ers, sei<ed as the3 are )ith the 1reo%%u1ation o. 1rolonging the li.e o. +arieties o. .ruit and +egeta'les that ha+e 'een a'sent .or 3ears .rom the %atalogues o. seed %om1anies* Houng )omen, )ith the an%ient lo+e .or the re1rodu%tion o. li.e, are seed sa+ers as )ell* I. some +arieties lend themsel+es to 'eing %ommodi.ied in di..erent regions others do not, as the3 might not 'e a'le to sur+i+e the tri1, and there.ore in su%h %ases onl3 the lo%alit3 and the regionalit3 o. 1rodu%tion and distri'ution %ould o..er the 1leasure o. seeing and en@o3ing these s1e%ies* !sso%iations su%h as "omona that are dedi%ated to the re%u1eration o. an%ient .ruit also demonstrate another 1ro%ess these 1ra%ti%es address: that o. the sur+i+al o. animal s1e%ies that do so through the %onsum1tion o. endangered .ruit* The re0lo%ali<ation o. de+elo1ment, there.ore, geared to)ards the re%u1eration o. some o. the immense ri%hness not onl3 o. +egeta'le, 'ut also o. animal 'iodi+ersit3* The ne%essit3 o. re+ealing the .alseness and to %ontrast the a'uses o. a neoli'eralism that )ishes to sim1l3 im1ose on all %ountries the erasure o. 'orders .or the 'ene.it o. a di%tatorshi1 o. the strongest, the e5tro+ersion o. de+elo1ment Cthat is, a strong orientation to)ards e51ortsD, and a'o+e all agri%ultural de+elo1ment C)ith the 1rete5t o. redu%ing international de'tD* In realit3 this model o. de+elo1ment %annot 'ut in%rease .oreign de't and )ith it the di..i%ulties .or
10 Ci+iltT Contadina is an asso%iation that +alouri<es and 1rote%ts .arming traditions* Seed Sa+ers are a grou1 'elonging to an international net)or> that in Ital3 )or> )ithin Ci+iltT Contadina, in the area o. re%o+ering +arieties o. seed at ris> o. 'e%oming e5tin%t or .orgot ten* Su%h a 1ra%ti%e is is e5%e1tionall3 im1ortant gi +en that it o%%urs in the .a%e o. tenden%ies that are destru%ti+e and %ommodi.3ing o. 'iodi+ersit3, su%h as Euro1ean ire%ti+e /A-/B that de%lares the .ree e5%hange o. seeds illegal* 12B
nourishment and .or li.e* 9e5t to the %onstru%tion .rom 'elo) o. a ne) agri%ulture there should also 'e the re%lamation o. a 1oliti%al regulation that 1romotes, 1rote%ts and +alouri<es a lo%al, regional and national agri%ulture Cthe 6uali.i%ation o. su%h terms must 'e %onte5tuali<ed ho)e+erD that is sustaina'le in e+er3 as1e%t, aimed at the ma5imum 1romotion o. sel.0su..i%ien%3 as )ell as the %onser+ation o. 'iodi+ersit3 and the di+ersi.i%ation o. %ulti+ation, all as1e%ts that are su'tended to the 1ers1e%ti+e o. .ood so+ereignt3 )hi%h alone %an o..er a guarantee against the gro)th o. .oreign de't* 4ood, as a .ondamental rule .or and right o. o. %iti<ens in the 9orth as )ell as in the South, must not onl3 'e a+aila'le, 'ut a'o+e all it must not 'e alien to the histor3 and the geogra1hi%al %onte5t o. those %onsuming it* There.ore, im1orts or e51orts, instead o. %onstituting the dri+ing a5is o. a nutritional s3stem, ought to 'e a su'sidiar3 measure )ith res1e%t to that )hi%h %annot 'e 1rodu%ed lo%all3 or that )hi%h %onstitutes an e5%ess* !s .or the items 1la%ed in m3 'as>et )ith )hi%h one %ould .igurati+el3 re0rurali<e the )orld, let us ta>e a %loser loo> at these* 1* The s1read o. an agri%ulture that is sustaina'le and di+ersi.ied in e+er3 res1e%t* In order to 'e a'le to s1read, this .arming must 'e oriented to)ards the %reation o. the ma5imum 1ossi'le num'er o. @o's and there.ore to the re.usal o. the industrial model and the logi% o. the %on%entration o. industr3 )hi%h is its 'earer* There.ore an agri%ulture that is not onl3 organi%all3, 'ut also so%iall3 oriented* ! t31e o. agri%ulture )ith these %hara%teristi%s ought to 'e maintained e+en in areas )here the land 1resents 1arti%ular di..i%ulties, along )ith e%onomi% in%enti+es that %ould assist in the remuneration o. greater )or>* ! lands%a1e )ithout agri%ulture is, in .a%t, a lands%a1e )ith less li.e* Het the lands%a1e is a %ommon good, and it ma>es sense there.ore that e+er3one ma>e it their res1onsi'ilit3* The resum1tion o. a )ides1read .ree range raising o. li+esto%> as a %ru%ial element o. agri%ulture, allo)ing the animals to gra<e, allo)ing her'i+ores to remain su%h, and maintaining in this manner the .ertilit3 o. the land through organi% .ertili<ation* The re.le%tions, honed and 1ra%ti%ed '3 4ran\ois u.our, 'eginning )ith not >ee1ing more animals than that
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)hi%h the land )hi%h one has a%%ess to %an sustain, seem 6uite illuminated to me* The 1romotion o. a %ulture, a di..usion o. e51erien%es o. sel.0 organi<ation, the a11eal .or 1oliti%s that %on%retel3 sustain the 1ossi'ilit3 o. a 'road agri%ultural re0%on+ersion* In de+elo1ed regions in 1arti%ular, a.ter the 1hase o. 4ordism and then 1ost04ordism in )hi%h agri%ulture )as .irst %onsidered the 1oor sister and then a degenerate daughter o. large0s%ale industr3, it is ne%essar3 to ensure a 1rimar3 role .or agri%ulture, one )hi%h it has had and )hi%h it must %ontinue to ha+e in human histor3* This must o%%ur '3 allo)ing agri%ultural 1ra%ti%es a%%ess to the means that %an allo) it to re0%on+ert itsel. in its entiret3 to an agri%ulture that is health3 and sustaina'le in all o. its as1e%ts, the so%ial one a'o+e all* In di..erent situations one might dis%o+er that, as m3 students tell me, man3 1eo1le, instead o. %onsidering s1ending their li+es amidst 1a1er and 1lasti% and in .ront o. a %om1uter, )ant to 'e .armers* Thus .rom the earth there has also 'egun to germinate a ne) imaginar3*
!ranslated by =nda :rophy
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4ood as Common and Communit3
Mariarosa
alla Costa1
4ood is a .undamental human right 'e%ause it is the 'asis o. the most im1ortant o. all rights, the right to li.e to )hi%h all other rights de1end* The right to eat itsel., ho)e+er, has a long histor3 o. 'eing denied, )hi%h has run in 1arallel )ith the histor3 o. the denial o. the right to land* The most re%ent 1eriod o. this histor3 runs .rom the drasti% stru%tural ad@ustments o. the eighties to the maturing o. neoli'eral glo'alisation )hi%h has 'een ta>ing 1la%e .rom the nineties on* It is thus not '3 %han%e that the emergen%e and grassroots organisation o. the +arious %olle%ti+e su'@e%ts 1rotagonists in the mo+ements o. the se+enties and then in the hard struggles .or .ood, land and )ater in the eighties has gi+en rise to net)or>s )hi%h, %rossing land and sea, ha+e .o%ussed on the most .undamental 6uestion: ho) to get .ood* It is as i. all the issues regarding de+elo1ment )ere thro)n u1side do)n and the de'ate a'out them landed )ith its .eet .irml3 1lanted on the ground: there is no sense in tal>ing a'out an3thing else unless one .irst tal>s a'out ho) 1eo1le %an .eed themsel+es, unless a solution to the 1ro'lem o. sta3ing ali+e is .ound .irst* The other 6uestions are su'ordinated to it* This )as also the stor3 o. m3 resear%h* I had a dee1 sense o. re@e%tion, and .elt a dee1 la%> o. interest in the dis%ourses )hi%h )ere going on around me* I .ound them 1ro.oundl3 'oring i. the 6uestion o. ho) to get .ood, still outstanding .or e+er larger shares o. humanit3, )as still 'eing sideste11ed*
This arti%le is .rom a le%ture gi+en at the Euro1ean So%ial 4orum, $ondon, 1E0 17 O%to'er 200E* 12/
So I 'egan '3 e5amining the land and sea routes o. those )ere )or>ing to)ards .inding a )a3 to .eed themsel+es, and dis%o+ered .irst o. all the struggles and the e51erien%es o. sel.0organisation o. nati+e 1eo1les, marginalised 1o1ulation grou1s, and tri'als )ho are .or e+er 'eing mo+ed on 'e%ause the3 are in the )rong 1la%e, some)here )hi%h )as the most suita'le 1la%e .or testing the ground to .ind 1re%ious materials, or .looding it to 'uild dams or %o+ering it )ith %on%rete to 'uild ma@or roads and 1orts or, in the %ase o. the sea, 1lundering it* This stor3 %on%erns de+elo1ed areas too, in )a3s )hi%h are sometimes similar and sometimes di..erent* &hat I ha+e .ound is that .ood is onl3 regained as a .undamental right in its .ullest sense )hen it is regained as a %ommon* It is regained as a %ommon i., along the )a3, all its %onditions are also regained as %ommons* This is )hat is alread3 a11arent .rom the )a3s in )hi%h net)or>s o. .armers, .isher1eo1le, and %iti<ens )ho are not onl3 %onsumers organi<e themsel+es* 4irst o. all, the net)or>s themsel+es are %ommunities inso.ar as the3 tend to guarantee .ood to the human %ommunit3 as a %ommon good, as a 1rimar3 human right, and e+er3 lin> )ithin a net)or> .orms a %ommunit3 )hi%h is organised in +arious )a3s to guarantee su%h a %ommon good to the 1o1ulation o. )hi%h it is an e51ression in the %onte5t in )hi%h it li+es* To rea%h su%h a %ommon good, ho)e+er, the +arious lin>s in the net)or> need to 'e %onne%ted )ith the %ommunit3?s de.en%e o. other %ommon goods* Other)ise )e )ould onl3 'e in the s1iral o. .ood as a %ommodit3 )hi%h is im1orted, e51orted, %ontaminated and .or man3 1eo1le di..i%ult or im1ossi'le to get hold o.* $et?s ta>e a loo> at some o. these %ommons )hi%h ha+e to 'e de.ended to guarantee .ull a%%ess to .ood
Sa.eguard o. the e%os3stem
This is e+en more im1ortant than a%%ess to the land* Signi.i%ant e5am1les o. this are the %am1aigns against the so0%alled O'lue re+olution?, that is the industrial0s%ale shrim1 .arms )hi%h ha+e 'e%ome notorious in man3 %ountries o. the South .or their destru%ti+eness to traditional integrated s3stems o. .arming, .ishing and the raising o. .ish, %am1aigns )hi%h man3 1eo1le ha+e died in* &ith the arri+al o. the enormous tan>s C2 metres dee1 and a he%tare a%rossD .ull o. shrim1s and %hemi%als, man3 1o1ulations ha+e seen the destru%tion o. the e%os3stem )hi%h )as the means o. 1rodu%tion and re1rodu%tion the3 de1ended on .or their li+elihoods* The damage has
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ranged .rom the destru%tion o. mangro+e .orests, a 1re%ious nurser3 .or man3 s1e%ies o. .ish, to the salination o. a6ui.ers leading to a loss o. drin>ing )ater .or 1eo1le, animals and agri%ulture, and the %hemi%al 1ollution o. the surrounding area )ith a deterioration in the )ater 6ualit3 o. the sea near'3* 4or man3, these shrim1 .arms ha+e not onl3 meant that the3 %annot get .ood 'e%ause the3 %annot %arr3 out their traditional .arming and .ishing a%ti+ities, and the3 no longer ha+e a 1la%e to li+eK the3 ha+e also de1ri+ed them o. their small trade and thus o. the %ash in%ome that is an essential su11lement to )hat the3 1rodu%e .or their o)n %onsum1tion* These .ish .arms ha+e destro3ed mangro+e .orests in E%uador, =angladesh, =ra<il, China, the "hili11ines, Fonduras, Indonesia, Me5i%o, Sri $an>a, Thailand and Vietnam, as )ell as in India* The3 ha+e gi+en rise to a great deal o. 1rotest, in%luding +iolent %am1aigns and %lashes* Murders lin>ed to the shrim1 industr3 ha+e 'een re1orted in ele+en %ountries* In India this industr3 has atta%>ed the %ountr3?s 7,000 >ilometres o. %oastline* The 1eo1le u1rooted '3 these shrim1 .arms +er3 rarel3 ha+e land )here the3 %an re0esta'lish their e%onomies* The alternati+e is the 1o+ert3, degradation and hunger o. 'ig %it3 slums, )ith other out%omes, .rom emigration in inhumane %onditions to 'e%oming meat .or the tra..i% in organs and other .oul trades* The situations o. man3 %oastal %ommunities )hi%h ha+e 'een hit '3 the arri+al o. 'ig industrial tra)lers are @ust as mu%h e5am1les o. the %ru%ial im1ortan%e o. the e%os3stem* These %ommunities used to ma>e their li+ing .rom a %om'ination o. .ishing and .arming and are no) seeing the sea 'eing de1leted, )ith a hea+3 redu%tion o. .ish sto%>s and the e5tin%tion o. man3 s1e%ies* In su%h %ases it reall3 isn?t enough to demand a%%ess to the land or the sea, )hile the3 are 'eing de+astated* To ta%>le this 1rimar3 1ro'lem, the reesta'lishment o. the e%os3stem as a %ommon, sin%e it is a .undamental good, 'e%ause )ithout it a %ommunit3 )ould not 'e a'le to .eed itsel. and sur+i+e, net)or>s o. .isher1eo1le, .armers, %iti<ens and human rights a%ti+ists ha+e 'een .ormed in the "hili11ines, India, Canada, Senegal and Central !meri%a* 4or e5am1le, in the "hili11ines the !gri0!6ua asso%iation, )hose name itsel. sho)s its )ish to res1e%t the 'alan%e 'et)een .arming and traditional .ishing, re0esta'lishing it )here it has 'een u1set, has su%%eeded in restoring the mangro+e .orest and at the same time 'ringing 'a%> the 'ird s1e%ies )hi%h had disa11eared )hen the trees )ere destro3ed, and the3 e+en 'uilt an arti.i%ial %oral ree.* It has re'uilt the 'asis .rom )hi%h to start again as a 1reliminar3 to re0 esta'lishing an e%onom3 )hi%h the %ommunit3 is .amiliar )ith and )ants to 1reser+e*
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Com1ara'le issues are .ound in man3 other %ases, .rom that o. the 1eo1le e+a%uated to ma>e )a3 .or the great dams in India, o. )hi%h the 9armada dam is among the 'est >no)n, to that o. the 1eo1le li+ing along the 'an>s o. the Mun ri+er, a tri'utar3 o. the Me>ong, )ho, again 'e%ause o. a dam, ha+e e51erien%ed the loss o. a )a3 o. getting .ood )hi%h the3 o.ten did not e+en ha+e to 1a3 .or* =ut I ha+e em1hasised the e5am1les o. %oastal %ommunities hit '3 shrim1 .arms and industrial tra)ling %arried out '3 ma@or %om1anies, 'e%ause than>s to the strength o. the .isher1eo1le mo+ement )hi%h, .rom the se+enties on, has gro)n in +arious %ountries and then .ormed itsel. into a )orld)ide .orum, the de.en%e o. the e%os3stem, .rom the maintenan%e o. the s1e%i.i% %hara%ter o. the %oastline to the a'undan%e o. .ish in the sea, has 'een a 1riorit3, a 1rimar3 %ommon good )hi%h is de.ended not onl3 'e%ause it re1resents a relia'le sour%e o. nutrition, 'ut also an e%onom3 and a )a3 o. li.e )hi%h 1eo1le do not )ant to a'andon, .irst and .oremost 'e%ause it 1uts them in %ontrol o. their o)n li+ing %onditions*
II
!%%ess to the $and
The se%ond %ommon good is that o. access to the land and, o. %ourse, to the sea .or %ommunities that li+e near it* !%%ess to the land is a mu%h0de'ated theme* The Via Cam1esina net)or> o. net)or>s, in )hi%h .armers? asso%iations .rom the 9orth and the South .rom the Larnata>a 4armers? Gnion to Con.ederation "a3sanne to the 9ational 4amil3 4arm Coalition has de+elo1ed this theme in relation to a +ariet3 o. situations: %ommunal or 1ri+ate s3stems o. land tenure asserting )omen?s right to land o)nershi1 )here this is denied them, and the 1ossi'ilit3 o. )or>ing the land organi%all3 to get all the +arieties that that land %an o..er .rom it* These demands are 'rought together under the net)or>?s 'anner o. 4ood So+ereignt3* So this is a'out 1eo1le?s right to 1rodu%e their o)n .ood, the right to a +ariet3 o. .oods rather than ha+ing standardi<ed, highl301ro%essed .oods im1osed on them, the 1rodu%t o. the industrial %on%e1t o. .ood 1rodu%tion and o. the s1e%ialisation '3 geogra1hi%al areas in the neo0li'eral glo'ali<ation o. the mar>ets* In this )a3 .reedom o. en@o3ing a +ariet3 .ood is the other side o. .ood demo%ra%3, )hi%h is itsel. an una+oida'le 'ase o. a di..erent t31e o. de+elo1ment* I. an3thing it should 'e em1hasised that in %ountries su%h as Ital3 it is di..i%ult .or those )ho )ant to .arm, 1erha1s organi%all3, to get a%%ess to land 'e%ause o. the +er3 high 1ri%es )hi%h are in%reased 'e%ause o. the 1resen%e o. industr3, tourism and im1ortant motor)a3s* =e%ause o. this there are onl3 a .e)
122
areas Cin the South and on the side o. the !1ennines o+erloo>ing the !driati%D )here land %an ha+e a 1ri%e that is amorti<a'le )ithin the .arming 1ro%ess* Then there are the other o'sta%les that get in the )a3 o. agri%ultural )or> .or a .air le+el o. in%ome %om1ara'le )ith that o. other )or>s* !s a %onse6uen%e, in Ital3 a .arm is %losing do)n e+er3 hal. hour* =e%ause o. this getting a%%ess to the land, .arming in a health3 )a3, earning a .air in%ome .rom it, esta'lishing relations )ith other .armers .rom the 1oint o. +ie) that the %ountr3side should %reate not a .e) 'ut man3 @o's, as #osP =o+P has stated, is a rather %om1li%ated underta>ing, .or )hi%h it is signi.i%ant that .armers? net)or>s ha+e 'een set u1 that are %om1letel3 in tune )ith those o. .armers in the South o. the )orld* 9ota'l3, *oro/,ontadino ^ )ltragricoltura )hi%h has 'a%>ed land s6uats has laun%hed an !11eal .or the 7ight to $and and organi<ed a 4armers? !id and a 9ational 4armers Coordination .or the 7ight to $and* In its a11eal it states: More o. all other di..i%ulties a 1ro'lem that Ital3 seemed to ha+e shel+ed )ith the +i%tories o. the .armers struggles o. the last %entur3 has 'e%ome +er3 serious again and is more and more dramati%all3 urgent: the denial o. a%%ess to the land .or those )ho )ant to )or> on it due to the +er3 high %ost o. agri%ultural land )hi%h is lin>ed e+er more %losel3 to s1e%ulation and less to the real agri%ultural +alueN
III
Fealthiness, 4reshness, and ûalit3
The third %ommon good is made u1 o. three elements: healthiness, .reshness and 6ualit3* This means a re.usal o. an agri%ulture that is the 1rodu%t o. %hemistr3 and more re%entl3 o. geneti% modi.i%ation* The de%eits o. the green re+olution and its 1rodu%ts to ma>e agri%ulture more 1rodu%ti+e ha+e meant that man3 .armers and other %iti<ens ha+e 'e%ome ill and are %ontinuing to get ill* To gi+e @ust one e5am1le, 5enoestrogens, that is to5i% estrogens lin>ed )ith 1esti%ides, are 'elie+ed to 'e %ausing serious g3nae%ologi%al disorders and to 'e a .a%tor in the redu%tion o. male .ertilit3* Thousands o. Indian .armers ta>en in '3 (MOs ha+e %ommitted sui%ide* The mo+ement .or an alternati+e agri%ulture has underta>en +arious initiati+es against .oods )hi%h in%reasingl3 'ring death and disease rather than li.e and health* It has re@e%ted the industrial +ie) o. nature )hi%h sees the land, 1lants and animals as things to 'e treated li>e ma%hines and there.ore it has re@e%ted 1rodu%ti+ism, that is the .alse 1rodu%ti+it3 .or%ed out o. nature '3 means o. %hemi%als or geneti% modi.i%ation and )hi%h intentionall3 .ails to %al%ulate other e%onomi% %osts, let alone so%ial and en+ironmental %osts* !s a %onse6uen%e, in this %onte5t there is a
122
range o. initiati+es going .rom reintrodu%ing indigenous and natural seeds against the h3'rids )hi%h .armers? net)or>s are alread3 engaged in C.rom the Larnata>a 4armers Gnion to the Colum'ian 1easants? unions to Seed Sa+ers and other asso%iations in +arious %ountries in%luding Ital3D, to the e51erien%es o. saving species which have fallen into disuse and re/establishing traditional methods of cultivation and cooking )hi%h are toda3 'eing >e1t ali+e 'e%ause o. the initiati+es o. men and )omen o. 'oth the third and .irst )orlds* Indeed, s1ea>ing o. this, in the .irst )orld toda3 there is a nota'le rea)a>ening o. interest and 1romotional a%ti+ities on the 1art o. +arious se%tors o. so%iet3* Other initiati+es in ad+an%ed %ountries are those aimed at guaranteeing that small agri%ultural 1rodu%ers %an sell their 1rodu%e dire%tl3 in %it3 mar>ets )ithout going through e51ensi+e intermediaries, as the3 ha+e su%%eeded in doing in the Gnited States or, as it has ha11ened on other %ases, in 1la%es that 1eo1le ha+e arranged themsel+es to meet the needs o. %ustomers )ith e%onomi% di..i%ulties* !t the same time %om1laints and 1rotests against the +arious t31es o. .ood adulteration )hi%h ha+e i. an3thing multi1lied )ith the 1ro%esses o. outsour%ing-o..shoring and im1ortation* 4or e5am1le, and this is @ust one e5am1le among thousands, the outsour%ing o. %hi%>en 1rodu%tion .rom Ital3 to =ra<il, )ith greatl3 redu%ed h3giene and health sa.eguards, %hi%>ens )hi%h are then sent 'a%> to Ital3 to 'e ser+ed on the ta'les o. those )ho are 1oorest in mone3 or time* !gainst that 1i%ture, in the name o. a more real 1ossi'ilit3 o. >no)ing and ma>ing >no)n the .ood 1rodu%tion %3%le and 'etter 1reser+ing its +ariet3 and s1e%i.i%it3, %onsumers and 1rodu%ers ha+e 'e%ome more .a+oura'le to and interested in short %3%le 1rodu%tion s3stems, )here .ood is distri'uted lo%all3, as o11osed to long %3%le 1rodu%tion s3stems )hi%h are, o. %ourse, still )hat mat%h the interests o. 'ig 'usiness* There are e+en t31es o. +egeta'le )hi%h %annot 'e trans1orted at all* Onl3 short %3%le 1rodu%tion %an >ee1 them ali+e* &ithin the alternati+e agri%ulture mo+ement as a )hole, there are also initiati+es to maintain agri%ultural 1rodu%tion e+en in di..i%ult 1la%es, su%h as in mountainous areas* &hen the alternati+e agri%ulture mo+ement 1romotes the short %3%le, it is thus also sa.eguarding +arious .undamental %ommon goods: 'iodi+ersit3, .reshness, healthiness, 6ualit3, the >no)a'ilit3 o. the 1rodu%tion %3%le*
IV
!%tual Trans1aren%3 and Tra%ea'ilit3
The .ourth %ommon good is the a%tual trans1aren%3 and tra%ea'ilit3 o. the 1rodu%tion 1ro%ess* The short %3%le is alread3 a good start in terms
12E
o. +eri.i%ation o. the 1ro%ess, in%luding +eri.i%ation '3 the %onsumer* The mo+ement has, ho)e+er, alread3 generated unusual a%tions to do )ith this and a series o. inno+ati+e 1ro1osals* !mong the most su%%ess.ul a%tions )as one in Mono1oli, near =ari in South0Eastern Ital3, against the oli+e oil .raud 'e%ause o. )hi%h some 'rands had 'een sold .or ine51li%a'l3 lo) 1ri%es on the Italian mar>et .or man3 3ears* In realit3 the oli+e oil )as o.ten mi5ed )ith other oils, or e+en re1la%ed '3 them, highl3 mani1ulated to gi+e %olour and .la+our, and at 'est made using oli+es im1orted .rom +arious %ountries* Sin%e the la) 1ermitted the 1la%e )here the last su'stantial trans.ormation, that is the trans.ormation into oil, to 'e %onsidered to 'e the 1la%e o. origin, rather than the 1la%e )here the oli+es had 'een har+ested, it )as in .a%t eas3 to sell all sorts o. things as Italian oli+e oil* 9e) legislation re6uires the indi%ation o. the 1la%e )here the oli+es %ome .rom* !1art .rom this %ase, though, )hi%h is stri>ing @ust 'e%ause this is su%h a %ru%ial 1rodu%t .or Italian agri%ulture, there ha+e 'een other initiati+es related to the dee1l3 .elt need to 'e a'le to +eri.3 the 1rodu%tion 1ro%ess )hi%h it is )orth noting* 4irst and .oremost e*%o, that is a denomination o. origin made '3 the lo%al %oun%il* This initiati+e is )or>ing alongside the +er3 .e) 1rodu%ts )hi%h ha+e a denomination o. origin, su%h as o%, o1, )hi%h, ho)e+er, are o.ten su'@e%t to an in%rease in 1ri%e )hi%h ma>es them elite 1rodu%ts 'e%ause o. su%h denominations* It is sho)ing the ne) 1o)ers o. lo%al %oun%ils and thus the 1ossi'ilit3 o. de%laring the origin o. a 1rodu%t '3 means o. a s1e%i.i% 'ut sim1le 1ro%edure* This 1ro+ision, )hi%h has alread3 'een ado1ted '3 +arious %oun%ils, ma>es it 1ossi'le to enhan%e the +alue o. a 1rodu%t, gi+e %ertaint3 a'out its origin and 1rodu%tion, in%rease a11re%iation o. the area and 1romote em1lo3ment )ithout .alling into a surge in 1ri%e )hi%h )ould ma>e it a lu5ur3 1rodu%t* !t the same time a %om1letel3 +oluntar3 register o. 1rodu%ers has 'een 1ro1osed, in )hi%h 1rodu%ers sel.0%erti.3 their 1rodu%t, des%ri'ing its histor3, %ulti+ation and %hara%teristi%s and a'o+e all %reating a relation )ith the 1erson )ho 'u3s it )hi%h goes 'e3ond the limits o. 'ureau%ra%3* !nother initiati+e is that o. the .arm0gate 1ri%e, o. %ourse onl3 .or those 1rodu%ers )ho agree to ado1t it, that is the indi%ation on the la'el o. the 1ri%e at )hi%h the 1rodu%t is sold '3 the 1rimar3 1rodu%er, .or e5am1le the .armer* This ans)ers the need .or 1ri%e trans1aren%3* It ma>es it 1ossi'le to re%ognise the e5or'itant in%reases )hi%h are o.ten introdu%ed )hen the 1rodu%t is 1ro%essed or mar>eted*
12B
The 9e) Ethi%s
The .i.th %ommon good is the ne) ethi%s* In the alternati+e agri%ulture mo+ement in its 'roadest sense there is an e51losion in the %all .or alternati+e relations 'oth .rom the 1rodu%er?s and the %onsumer?s side Camong othersD 1re%isel3 'e%ause o. the ne) relationshi1 )hi%h the3 are ho1ing to esta'lish .or .ood 1rodu%tion and distri'ution* !s a %onse6uen%e, ne) net)or>s ha+e also 'een esta'lished in the .ield o. distri'ution* In Ital3 mutual 'u3ing grou1s C(as, (ru11i di a%6uisto solidaleD ha+e ta>en hold* The t)o million 1eo1le in+ol+ed ha+e gi+en themsel+es .i+e 'asi% rules: B* res1e%t .or human 'eings, that is the 1rodu%ts that are 'ought must not 'e the 1rodu%ts o. so%ial in@usti%e 'ut must rather %ontri'ute to a so%iall3 sustaina'le so%iet3K res1e%t .or the en+ironment, that is the %hoi%e o. 1rodu%ts o'tained )ith a res1e%t .or nature )hi%h ha+e also 'een trans1orted as little as 1ossi'leK res1e%t .or the health that stems .rom the %hoi%e o. organi% 1rodu%tsK solidarit3, that is %hoosing to 'u3 .rom small 1rodu%ers )ho )ould other)ise 'e %rushed '3 'igger onesK res1e%t .or taste, sin%e organi% .ood is )ell >no)n .or ha+ing a 'etter .la+our as )ell as a higher nutritional +alue, in the %onte5t o. getting %loser to the natural rh3thms o. li.e '3 eating onl3 .oods that are in season*
8*
7* A* /*
&hat is signi.i%ant is the emerging o. ne) ethi%s )hi%h a..e%ts e%onomi%, so%ial and en+ironmental .a%tors* Fere too, there is a )ill to re@e%t the 1ro%edures o. a de+elo1ment that is 'e%oming more and more unsustaina'le, a )ill to esta'lish other relationshi1s* In this sense initiati+es )hi%h, li>e the .arm gate 1ri%e or the denominations o. origin made '3 the lo%al %oun%ils guarantee trans1aren%3 and tra%ea'ilit3, in%rease the +alue o. lo%al 1rodu%tion, the +alue o. the area )here the goods are a%tuall3 1rodu%ed and )ith it the +alue o. the ne) relations that s1ring .rom it, not onl3 'et)een 1rodu%ers and %onsumers, 'ut 'et)een %iti<ens* !s a result, these initiati+es ma>e that area a %ommon good )hi%h is a+aila'le not onl3 to lo%al 1eo1le 'ut to e+er3'od3* To %on%lude: in 'oth the South and the 9orth there is a gro)ing glo'al mo+ement .or .ood as a %ommon good )hi%h )ill ha+e to em'ra%e a series o. %ommons, in%luding res1e%t .or the e%os3stem to the re0esta'lishment o. its li.e %3%les, the a11re%iation o. the s1e%i.i%
128
.eatures o. +arious t31es o. territor3* 4ood that )ill 'e a 'ringer o. li.e, health, a'undan%e, and alternati+e relationshi1s )ith nature and 'et)een 1eo1le*
127

Caffentzis and Federici - Notes On The Edu-Factory and Cognitive Capitalism

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the commoner

a web journal for other values :: issue 12 :: summer 2007

Value Strata, Migration and Other Values

thecommoner :: issue 12 :: summer 2007

thecommoner :: issue 12 :: summer 2007

thecommoner :: issue 12 :: summer 2007

thecommoner :: issue 12 :: summer 2007

O..shore Outsour%ing and Migrations

The South0Eastern and Central0Eastern Euro1ean Case

thecommoner :: issue 12 :: summer 2007

=arriers and $ands%a1es

.ffshore .utsourcing and 'igrations

thecommoner :: issue 12 :: summer 2007

.ffshore .utsourcing and 'igrations

thecommoner :: issue 12 :: summer 2007

The 9e) !%tors o. the EG

.ffshore .utsourcing and 'igrations

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.ffshore .utsourcing and 'igrations

Varia'le sele%tion %riteria

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.ffshore .utsourcing and 'igrations

thecommoner :: issue 12 :: summer 2007

.ffshore .utsourcing and 'igrations

i..erentials o. Sur1lus0Value In The Contem1orar3 4orms o. E51loitation

thecommoner :: issue 12 :: summer 2007

(ifferentials of %urplus/9alue In !he ,ontemporary *orms of =#ploitation

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(ifferentials of %urplus/9alue In !he ,ontemporary *orms of =#ploitation

thecommoner :: issue 12 :: summer 2007

(ifferentials of %urplus/9alue In !he ,ontemporary *orms of =#ploitation

thecommoner :: issue 12 :: summer 2007

(ifferentials of %urplus/9alue In !he ,ontemporary *orms of =#ploitation

thecommoner :: issue 12 :: summer 2007

(ifferentials of %urplus/9alue In !he ,ontemporary *orms of =#ploitation

thecommoner :: issue 12 :: summer 2007

(ifferentials of %urplus/9alue In !he ,ontemporary *orms of =#ploitation

thecommoner :: issue 12 :: summer 2007

(ifferentials of %urplus/9alue In !he ,ontemporary *orms of =#ploitation

! Criti6ue o. the 4ordism o. the 7egulation S%hool

thecommoner :: issue 12 :: summer 2007

) ,riti$ue of the *ordism of the <egulation %chool

thecommoner :: issue 12 :: summer 2007

) ,riti$ue of the *ordism of the <egulation %chool

thecommoner :: issue 12 :: summer 2007

The Gn%ertain Contours o. 7egulationist "ost04ordism

) ,riti$ue of the *ordism of the <egulation %chool

The To3oto1hile Variant

thecommoner :: issue 12 :: summer 2007

) ,riti$ue of the *ordism of the <egulation %chool

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"re0Trade Gnion 4ordism

) ,riti$ue of the *ordism of the <egulation %chool

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) ,riti$ue of the *ordism of the <egulation %chool

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(lo'al "ost04ordism and To3otism

) ,riti$ue of the *ordism of the <egulation %chool

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) ,riti$ue of the *ordism of the <egulation %chool

thecommoner :: issue 12 :: summer 2007

) ,riti$ue of the *ordism of the <egulation %chool

thecommoner :: issue 12 :: summer 2007