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Human Resource Management Review 17 (2007) 427 441 www.elsevier.com/locate/humres

Developing holistic leaders: Four domains for leadership development and practice
Scott A. Quatro a, , David A. Waldman b, 1 , Benjamin M. Galvin c, 2
a

Department of Business Administration, Covenant College, 14049 Scenic Highway, Lookout Mountain, GA 30750, USA b School of Global Management and Leadership, Arizona State University, P.O. Box 37100, Phoenix, AZ 85069, USA c W. P. Carey School of Business, Arizona State University, P.O. Box 874006, Tempe, AZ 85287-4006, USA

Abstract Leadership development and practice have traditionally been quite narrow, with a decided focus on the analytical realm of leadership. However, the contemporary climate of corporate scandal and resultant loss of societal confidence, coupled with the evolving demands, needs, and expectations of employees, point to the potential need for a more holistic approach to leadership. Thus, this article proposes how management education and leadership development programs can develop holistic leaders that are adept at operating in the analytical, conceptual, emotional, and spiritual domains of leadership practice. An integrated model for holistic leadership development and practice that addresses all four of these domains is proposed, and grounded in both established and emerging leadership development theory. Additionally, a leadership development classification scheme is proposed based on classroom, job, and organizational contexts. 2007 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Leadership development; Management education; Strategic human resource management

1. Introduction The recent rash of high-profile corporate failures has raised many questions. Chief among them is the question of leadership effectiveness. In short, what happened with the individuals in leadership positions in these failed organizations? Were they simply devotees of agency theory (cf., Jensen & Meckling, 1976), narrowly focused on doing whatever possible to ensure the best possible quarterly results and related stock performance for their firms, including engaging in questionable or even illegal activities as necessary? Were these individuals simply acting in accord with the leadership training they had received via corporate education or business school curricula? Were they operating in accordance with perceived norms among executives across industries? We propose that the contemporary climate demands a consideration of these questions, as well as a renewed focus on the means through which effective leaders are developed and effective leadership practices ensured. Bennis (2005), Mintzberg (2004), and Ghoshal (2005) are
Corresponding author. Tel.: +1 706 419 1664; fax: +1 706 820 2165. E-mail addresses: quatro@covenant.edu (S.A. Quatro), waldman@asu.edu (D.A. Waldman), benjamin.galvin@asu.edu (B.M. Galvin). 1 Tel.: +1 602 543 6231; fax: +1 602 543 6221. 2 Tel.: +1 480 727 3431; fax: +1 480 965 8314. 1053-4822/$ - see front matter 2007 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.hrmr.2007.08.003

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just three of the many authors calling for such investigation, all soundly criticizing management education and development, be it corporate or through a business school, as conduits through which misguided leaders are oftentimes produced. It appears that there is a clear call for reform of leadership development and management education. 1.1. ACES a model for holistic leadership development and practice In this vein, we propose that leadership development programs and initiatives may need to be holistic in their scope, explicitly addressing the Analytical, Conceptual, Emotional, and Spiritual (ACES) domains of leadership practice and development. Such leadership development programs can help ensure that corporate leaders will assume roles as stewards of scarce societal resources and architects of business organizations that under-gird secure civil society. The four distinct, yet interrelated, domains of holistic leadership development and practice are further delineated below: Analytical Developing leaders who are adept at understanding and managing discrete complexity. Traditionally, this has indeed been the primary focus of both corporate leadership development and business school education programs. Analytically-skilled leaders understand and manage the individual trees in the forest quite well. For example, calculation of the break-even point for a new product development project requires a leader to employ strong analytical abilities. Conceptual Developing leaders that are adept at both understanding and managing interrelated complexity and fostering creativity. Traditionally, this has been at most a tangential focus of both corporate leadership development and business school education programs. Leaders with strong conceptual skills understand and manage the forest within which the individual trees are growing. As an example, designing and managing a project plan for a new product development project requires a leader to demonstrate advanced conceptual skills. Emotional Developing leaders who are attuned to emotional issues. Traditionally, this has not been a strong focus of either corporate leadership development or business school education programs. Highly attuned emotional leaders are skilled at understanding and managing human emotion as an inevitable phenomenon in a corporate setting, and leveraging it as a source of energy and shaping influence on follower behavior. For example, aligning employees around an exciting vision for a new product development project team requires a leader to employ welldeveloped emotional skills. Spiritual Developing enlightened leaders who recognize the value of spirituality. This last domain has also traditionally not been a focus of either corporate leadership development or business school education programs. Spiritually enlightened leaders enable their followers to connect both individual tasks and the mission of the larger firm to deeply held moral and ethical values. As an example, a leader with advanced spiritual leadership skills openly considers and discusses the normative spiritual beliefs and values of the employees assigned to a biotech project team dealing with cloning technology. S/he also considers the greater moral implications for society as a whole. Given these definitions of the four ACES domains it becomes clear that each is uniquely different and independently critical to leadership effectiveness, as further illustrated in Table 1. The representative leadership skills and behaviors outlined in the Table 1 delineate the unique leadership challenges associated with the four domains. However, we posit that it is in the conjoining of the four that truly represents holistic leadership. We propose that the most effective leaders recognize the critical interdependencies that exist among each of the four domains, and demonstrate leadership practices that reflect this recognition. Clearly, the largest and most natural overlapping occurs between the analytical and conceptual domains, and between the emotional and spiritual domains, as reflected in Fig. 1. Nevertheless, we argue that the most effective leaders intentionally strive to integrate all four domains into a truly holistic approach. As a prime example, consider the development and championing of corporate mission statements, a task that has been solidly established as a mandate for contemporary corporate leaders. Such statements clearly delineate both the industry and customer segments to be served by the firm, as well as the core competencies to be leveraged in so doing. Accordingly, they will reflect both the analytical and conceptual domains of leadership practice. Yet this is where many corporate mission statements appear to stop short. Holistic leaders strive to ensure that such statements engage employees at an emotional and even spiritual level, either explicitly or implicitly.

S.A. Quatro et al. / Human Resource Management Review 17 (2007) 427441 Table 1 Leadership skills and behaviors across the four ACES domains Leadership domain Analytical Key skills Quantitative analysis Logical reasoning Decisiveness Qualitative analysis Creativity Curiosity Persuasive communication Empathic understanding Self-monitoring Self-reflection Integrity Meditative thinking Representative behavioral examples

429

Conceptual

Emotional

Spiritual

Calculating a break-even point Developing a decision tree Choosing one alternative over another Weighing and balancing the needs of multiple stakeholder groups Developing a new product Facilitating a brainstorming session Aligning employees around a vision Actively listening to an employee grievance Avoiding an unnecessary confrontation with a customer or employee Self-assessing a poor decision or behavior Assessing personal/organizational values congruence Deeply considering the environmental impact of a new production process

1.2. An introductory word about the spiritual domain As posited above, leadership development programs and management education have traditionally focused on the analytical domain and secondarily on the conceptual domain. While these are important and certainly necessary areas of development, we propose that the addition of the emotional and spiritual domains is particularly noteworthy. Attention to these domains is not only warranted, but may be mandated, given the relatively low level of confidence that currently exists in society at large with regard to corporate management and the apparent track record of management failures. As will be described in more detail below, the emotional domain is increasingly being addressed in leadership models. However, many people may still view the spiritual domain in particular as somewhat far removed from the practice of corporate leadership, and even inappropriate for such inclusion. We question this view. The last two decades have witnessed a tremendous advancement in the fundamental nature of the world economy. In short, globalization is increasingly driven by services-based and technology-based industries and firms (Downes & Heap, 2002; Farrell, 2003) that require a more highly educated and evolved workforce than at any other point in history. Concurrent with this pattern has been a significant increase in the relative affluence of the citizens and employees in the world's most developed nations. As a result, many employees are no longer motivated by lower-order needs alone, but

Fig. 1. The ACES model of holistic leadership.

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Table 2 The normativity of the golden rule Good people proceed while considering what is best for others is best for themselves. (Hitopadesa, Hinduism). Thou shalt love thy neighbor as thyself. (Leviticus 19:18, Judaism). By embracing spiritual transformation and kindness, we wind up in a personal universe of Blessed. As this spiritual revolution of Kabbalah increases in the world, a critical mass will be achieved, and the chaos of life will vanish forever like a long-forgotten dream. Therefore, love thy neighbor as thyself. All the rest is mere commentary. Now go and learn. (Yehuda Berg, Kabbalah). Therefore all things whatsoever ye would that men should do to you, do ye even so to them. (Matthew 7:12, Christianity). When you become detached mentally from yourself and concentrate on helping other people with their difficulties, you will be able to cope with your own more effectively. Somehow, the act of self-giving is a personal power-releasing factor. (Norman Vincent Peale, Humanism). Hurt not others with that which pains yourself. (Udanavarga 5:18, Buddhism). No one of you is a believer until he loves for his brother what he loves for himself. (Traditions, Islam).

rather operate as a workforce in search of aggregate self-actualization (Abramson & Inglehart, 1995). As such, they are increasingly desirous of reconciling their daily work lives with their higher-order, spiritual, or religious beliefs (Herman & Schaefer, 2001; Neal, 2000; Quatro, 2004). Nevertheless, many leaders, and the management development and education programs that train them, are still largely resistant to the idea of embracing the spiritual domain of leadership practice and development (aside from those corporations and institutions that have an explicitly spiritual or religious mission). This is ostensibly for fear of becoming entangled in a web of philosophical, theological, and even religious differences. We propose that, in reality, there is a great deal of philosophical and even doctrinal harmony among the varied spiritual and religious traditions, especially as those doctrinal elements relate to management and leadership practice, as demonstrated in Table 2. The normativity of belief and morality expressed by the passages shown in Table 2, each attributed to either a major world religion or an emerging or humanistic spiritual philosophy, is clear. It is also clearly applicable to embrace these spiritual and religious beliefs in conjunction with the spiritual domain of leadership development and practice, as many followers strive to connect their individual and corporate work lives to such moral imperatives. Lastly, from a pragmatic standpoint, it may be sobering for leaders and institutions that continue to resist the spiritual domain of leadership practice and development to reflect on the fact that fully 78% of the world's population claim to be adherents of the five world religions referenced in Table 2, 95% of Americans consider themselves to be spiritual, and 80% of Americans desire to experience spiritual integration and growth in conjunction with their daily work lives.3 Thus, continued resistance to the spiritual domain and to the herein proposed holistic model for leadership practice and development may be unfounded. This resistance may be based upon the assumption that most employees/followers are not religious or spiritual, or the further assumption that employees/followers do not view the corporate workplace as an appropriate setting for living out their religious or spiritual beliefs. We question these assumptions. Accordingly, each of the four domains of leadership development and practice is now addressed in detail, and anchored in both established and emerging leadership development theory and research. In a later section of this article, we provide a leadership development classification scheme to guide the potential development of the leadership domains specified by the ACES model. 2. Theoretical and conceptual foundation for the ACES model The classification of managerial and leadership requirements has long been a goal of theorists and writers. These requirements have been framed using a variety of terminology, including roles (Mintzberg, 1973), skills (Katz & Kahn, 1978; Mann, 1965), and behaviors and practices (Yukl, 2002). Obviously, there is an overlap between the various classification schemes that have evolved over time, and indeed, we view the understanding of leadership and its requirements as a moving target that can change with time. We propose that the classification scheme outlined in this article reflects thinking that has evolved into the 21st century, and yet is concurrently anchored in seminal leadership theory (see Table 3). As introduced above, we view the key elements of leadership development and practice to include analytical, conceptual, emotional, and spiritual (ACES) domains. The first domain, analytical, can be traced to such theories as scientific management (Taylor, 1911), theory management
These statistics were derived from several sources, including the International Database (IDB) developed by the U.S. Census Bureau, the Universal Almanac, and the Gallup Organization.
3

S.A. Quatro et al. / Human Resource Management Review 17 (2007) 427441 Table 3 Representative theoretical and research bases of the ACES model Leadership domain Analytical Theoretical and research bases

431

Conceptual

Emotional

Spiritual

Scientific management (Taylor, 1911) Theory management (McGregor, 1960) Agency theory (Jensen & Meckling, 1976) Cooperative systems (Barnard, 1938) Organizational social psychology-based systems (Katz & Kahn, 1978) Systems thinking and organizational learning (Senge, 1990a) Hawthorne studies (Mayo, as described by Roethlisberger & Dickson, 1966) Transformational leadership (Bass, 1985, 1997; Burns, 1978) Emotional intelligence (Goleman, 1995) Self-actualization in the workplace (Maslow, 1965) Institutional theology and servant leadership (Greenleaf, 1970) Values-based leadership (House & Aditya, 1997)

(McGregor, 1960), and agency theory (Jensen & Meckling, 1976). The conceptual domain can be viewed as being anchored in such theories as cooperative systems (Barnard, 1938), organizational social psychology-based systems (Katz & Kahn, 1978), and systems thinking and organizational learning (Senge, 1990a). The third domain, namely the emotional domain, can be traced to such theories and research as the Hawthorne studies conducted by Mayo (as described by Roethlisberger & Dickson, 1966), transformational leadership (Bass, 1985, 1997; Burns, 1978), and emotional intelligence (Goleman, 1995). Lastly, the spiritual domain can be viewed as being anchored in such theories as self-actualization in the workplace (Maslow, 1965), institutional theology and servant leadership (Greenleaf, 1970), and values-based leadership (House & Aditya, 1997). It is interesting to note that while the emotional and spiritual domains are arguably more contemporary, and to a large extent still emerging in the leadership and management literature, all four domains are supported by long-standing leadership theory and research (as delineated in Table 3). With this representative theory and research overview provided, we now proceed to further clarify each of these domains as reflected in the leadership literature at large. 2.1. Analytical domain The analytical domain of the ACES model has long been considered. Indeed, of the four domains, leadership development literature has been most devoted to it (Mintzberg, 2004; Pitcher, 1997). Yukl (2006) discusses a number of practices that represent the analytical domain, including planning and organizing, problem solving, monitoring performance and trends, and clarifying roles and objectives. To a large extent, the pathgoal model of leadership is based on the effective use of such practices (House, 1996). The pathgoal leader is able to clarify follower roles and objectives through the effective planning and organizing of their work. Further, by monitoring their work, they are able to clarify deficiencies that might prevent followers from attaining organizational and personal goals. The analytic domain obviously stresses cognitive abilities and skills of leaders. For example, planning and problem solving requires the processing of information in a systematic manner to deal with the causes of problems, as well as potential solutions. Early on, Katz and Kahn (1978) recognized such abilities and skills in terms of the technical and subsystem perspective skills of leaders. In essence, they suggested that lower- and middle-level leaders need to possess the technical knowledge and cognitive abilities to understand and organize work within a relatively narrow subsystem of an organization. However, the analytic domain does not take into account the higher-level systems thinking that requires the integration of various aspects of a system and its environment. 2.2. Conceptual domain The conceptual domain of the ACES model also reflects cognitive abilities and skills, but at a more systems level of analysis. Locke (2003) lamented that although the intellectual aspect may be the most important domain of leadership, it is also the most neglected one in the literature. It is interesting how similar concerns were expressed by Katz and Kahn (1978) a quarter of a century previously. Locke's (2003) characterization of the intellectual aspect focused on

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abilities and skills analogous to inductive reasoning, including creatively putting together information from the environment in order to get at the heart of complex, systemic issues and problems. We consider such abilities and skills to be the essence of the conceptual domain of our model. Although they share a cognitive basis with analytical abilities and skills, the conceptual realm of leadership is obviously broader and more inductive and, in the case of leadership, more future-oriented. The conceptual domain is not altogether absent from the leadership literature. For example, Bass (1985) referred to intellectual stimulation when considering the cognitive side of transformational leadership. Intellectual stimulation involves leader actions geared toward the arousal and change in problem awareness and problem solving on the part of followers, as well as beliefs and values (Bass, 1985). Intellectually stimulating leaders help followers to question old assumptions and beliefs so they can view complex problems and issues in more innovative ways (Bass, 1997). The increasing relevance of intellectual stimulation at more strategic leadership levels has been considered in the literature. For example, Wortman (1982) described the importance of top-level executives engaging themselves and subordinates in the intellectual task of conceptualizing and articulating a firm's broader environmental context, as well the threats and opportunities posed by that context. More recently, Boal and Hooijberg (2001) also emphasized the importance of the intellectual or cognitive aspects of strategic leadership. Stratified systems theory (SST) can shed light on how the conceptual domain may be relevant to effective leadership, especially at strategic levels. SST focuses on the cognitive side of leadership and strategy, and it stresses that effective versus ineffective leaders can be distinguished in terms of their level of conceptual capacity (Jacques & Clement, 1991; Lewis & Jacobs, 1992). Conceptual capacity involves the ability to think abstractly and integrate complex information, providing an antecedent to leadership action. SST emphasizes that conceptual capacity is most relevant in terms of how the leader structures an understanding of the strategic environment. As such, the theory is in line with the work of Conger and Kanungo (1998), as well as Locke (2003), who stressed the leader's ability to recognize both opportunities and constraints in the environment, and they noted how the ability to do so varies widely among leaders. Lewis and Jacobs (1992) stressed that conceptual capacity allows for leaders to have insight and construct visions over long time horizons using their own judgment processes unconstrained by the boundaries, values, beliefs, or points of view of others. Conceptual capacity also allows leaders to demonstrate intellectual stimulation to help followers get at the heart of complex problems. The intellectually stimulating leader will use conceptual capacity to scan and think broadly about the environmental context and the manner in which a wide variety of organizational stakeholders may be served. They will possess complex mental maps that contain a systematic view of the external forces that impact the organization. Their mental maps include a dynamic picture of how the various external forces interact with each other and as a result, present a richer perspective of firm performance and competitive advantage that, for example, goes beyond simple cost leadership or product differentiation (Porter & Kramer, 2002). Intellectually stimulating leaders with high conceptual capacities realize that success in such an environment requires a strong understanding of, and relationships with, a variety of key stakeholders. 2.3. Emotional domain The issue of leadership vision introduced above in Table 1 provides a good example of how conceptual and emotional domains may be inextricably linked in any consideration of leadership and its development. We define vision as a futureoriented articulation or image of an organization's purpose and direction that inspires enthusiasm and is ambitious, but within a latitude of acceptance on the part of followers (Berson, Shamir, Avolio, & Popper, 2001; Conger & Kanungo, 1998; House, 1977; Nanus, 1992). Further, as compared to strategic goals, visions tend to be less concrete, encompass a broader time span, and contain a higher content of idealistic values, beliefs, and purpose, as opposed to business-oriented content. In an attempt to further delineate vision, Boal and Hooijberg (2001) separated the affective and cognitive domains. As argued in more detail below, the affective domain makes a direct, emotional appeal to the personal values and beliefs of followers and, as such, is in line with most previous considerations of the nature of leadership vision (e.g., Nanus, 1992; Sashkin, 1988). However, as noted by Boal and Hooijberg (2001), the cognitive domain is also important because it influences the information that is sought out and used in vision formation. Although Bass (1985) originally conceived intellectual stimulation to be separate from more affective domains of visionary and charismatic leadership, subsequent empirical work has found them to be highly intercorrelated, thus suggesting that affective and cognitive domains of vision may be highly bound together (Judge & Piccolo, 2004; Lowe, Kroeck, & Sivasubramaniam, 1996).

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The emotional domain of leadership can be largely understood by considering how leadership visions become shared with followers. We define a vision as shared when there is commitment to carrying it out by the preponderance of followers to whom the vision pertains. To a large extent, there is an assumption in the literature that a vision will become shared because of a combination of visionary behaviors on the part of leaders and favorable attributions toward the leader on the part of followers (Conger & Kanungo, 1998; Shamir, 1991). For example, if the leader presents a vision that seems insightful and exciting, followers will have confidence in the leader and naturally coalesce around his or her vision in unison (i.e., share the vision). This, however, seems overly simplistic. We argue, on the other hand, that it is quite possible for a leader to articulate a vision that does not become widely shared among followers. According to Senge (1990b), a leader's vision becomes shared when it builds upon a desire on the part of followers to pursue a common important undertaking, and when it connects emotionally to their personal values and visions. Shamir, House, and Arthur (1993) put forth a theory of charismatic leadership that was based on the self-concepts of followers and emotional attachment to the vision of a leader. The essence of their work was that such leaders communicate or symbolize messages that contain many references to values and moral justifications. They are able to have motivational effects on followers by presenting goals or a vision in terms of the values that they represent, thus generating an emotional response. Subsequently, the intrinsic valence of effort and goals, and the follower's selfconcept, become linked to values, resulting in value internalization on the part of the follower (Lord & Brown, 2001, 2004). Effective leaders deal not only with the emotional needs and responses of others; they also deal with their own emotions in order to achieve effectiveness. That is, they are able to maintain their emotional intelligence. There is some evidence that a leader's emotional abilities and understandings (i.e., emotional intelligence) can play a key role in transformational leadership and the attribution of charismatic qualities to a leader (Megerian & Sosik, 1996; Shamir, 1991). But how exactly does emotional intelligence come into play for such leaders? We wish to emphasize two issues. First, the emotionally intelligent leader is able to stimulate emotional contagion by maintaining balance and keeping themselves positive and motivated, thereby inspiring others around him or herself (Hatfield, Cacioppo, & Rapson, 1994). Emotional contagion can, in turn, foster collective efficacy and unity (Van Knippenberg & Hogg, 2003). Second, effective leaders are able to manage negative emotions, such as anxiety and fear, thereby showing courage. They do so through accepting responsibility, occasional nonconformity, stating potentially unpopular beliefs, and acting as moral leaders (Daft, 2005). 2.4. Spiritual domain As noted previously, the last domain of our model is the one that is least developed in leadership taxonomies and theory. Moreover, to some degree, it may be the most controversial. At its core, this domain involves an understanding of how the needs of followers to connect to higher-order, spiritual purposes are relevant to effective leadership in work settings. As such, moral leadership is closely connected to the spiritual domain. We define moral leadership as distinguishing right from wrong in one's leadership role, and then taking steps to ensure justice, honesty, and helping followers to connect to a higher-order, spiritual purpose. Transformational leadership theory may be particularly relevant to the spiritual domain. Burns (1978) originally advanced the argument that transformational leadership is tantamount to moral leadership, and that both followers and leaders progress to the highest levels of moral development (Kohlberg, 1976) as a result of such leadership. That is, transformational leaders are able to progress to the post-conventional stage of development, in which they act in an independent and ethical manner, regardless of the expectations of other individuals or the norms of society. Subsequently, other theorists have also considered how transformational leaders develop deeply-held values and standards, such as those pertaining to integrity, justice, and maintaining the societal good (Bass and Steidlmeier; Kuhnert, 1994; Kuhnert & Lewis,1987). Turner, Barling, Epitropaki, Butcher, and Milner (2002) present recent evidence of an empirical relationship between transformational leadership and higher stages of moral development. Along similar lines, Kanungo (2001) and Mendonca (2001) argued that charismatic leadership, a key element of transformational leadership, is often rooted in strong ethical values. The essence of this argument is that such leaders may be guided by morally altruistic principles that reflect a helping concern for others even at considerable personal sacrifice or inconvenience (Mendonca, 2001; 268). We should caution that as noted by previous authors (e.g., Bass & Steidlmeier, 1999; Howell & Avolio, 1992; Waldman & Yammarino, 1999), not all leaders with charismatic appeal will have strong moral values, and indeed some

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may have motives leaning more toward personal power and self-aggrandizement. Thus, it may be necessary to delineate two types: (1) socialized charismatic leadership, and (2) personalized charismatic leadership. The socialized charismatic will have a strong commitment to socially-based goals that benefit the larger entity of which s/he is a part, or even society in general, since he or she has an authentic sense of moral or ethical values (Avolio, Gardner, Walumbwa, Luthans, & May, 2004; House & Howell, 1992). In turn, the socialized charismatic is likely to encourage followers to also engage in moral pursuits as a means of meeting their own spiritual needs, as opposed to proselytizing them. In contrast, the personalized charismatic uses power for personal gain, is exploitative or manipulative of others, and narcissistic (Maccoby, 2004). The personalized charismatic might have some interest in pursuing socially-based goals (i.e., corporate social responsibility) simply as a means of building a positive image for the leader, the firm, or both (Gardner & Avolio, 1998; Kets de Vries, 1993). However, his or her interest in, and commitment to, such goals is likely to be marginal and purely calculative, rather than authentic. Moreover, the personalized charismatic is more likely to attempt to proselytize followers, as opposed to encouraging followers to simply live out their own spiritual beliefs in the workplace. 2.5. Putting it all together The ACES classification of domains paints a very involved picture of leadership effectiveness. In addition to the often considered analytical domain, we have presented three other domains that are still emerging in the leadership literature: conceptual, emotional, and spiritual. It is clear that while it is possible to consider these domains individually, they are inextricably linked. Thus, we posit that development efforts will need to take into account the various connections between the domains. For example, the maximum development of visionary leadership capabilities will be associated with efforts designed to link conceptual/creative thinking, emotional appeal, and morality/spirituality. We now turn our attention to a leadership development classification scheme that we propose to be relevant to the ACES model. 3. A classification scheme for leadership development A broad classification scheme of leadership development that provides a comprehensive, holistic view has yet to be established. The leadership development literature primarily uses the formal and informal development classifications (Clarke, 2004; Enos, Kehrhahn, & Bell, 2003). Formal development activities are limited to the classroom, while informal activities include development outside of the classroom experience (Clarke, 2004). Yukl (2006) provides a framework that enables a more involved look at informal activities by delineating the informal into two separate categories: self-help activities, and developmental activities. His classification scheme consists of these two categories as well as the formal training category, and provides a more precise scheme to use when classifying development and training activities. There are other classification schemes that appear in the literature that take a similar approach and use alternative terms to the formal and informal development classifications such as off-the-job, on-the-job, incidental, work-based, and classroom-based, to describe approaches toward leadership development (Ready & Conger, 2003; Woodall, 2000). The underlying theme among these classification schemes is that development mechanisms are part of the classroom/formal context or the workplace/informal context. 3.1. ACES leadership development and a three-category classification scheme Classifying leadership developmental mechanisms into the classroom/formal or the workplace/informal categories works well with many activities, but these classifications do not readily accommodate the organizational mechanisms that can have an important impact, especially on the emotional and spiritual domains of leadership. We propose that there are developmental mechanisms that do not fit into the existing models. As shown in Fig. 2, we have taken the leadership development categories of the classroom and job context and added a third category, the organizational context, to formulate a classification scheme that enables a more holistic view of leadership development. The addition of the third category allows us to take into account important organizational mechanisms that are largely left out of existing leadership development schemes. Aspects of leadership development such as organizational culture and related core values, as well as HR strategies and policies that exist at the organizational level fit into this third category. Thus, in total we propose that the majority of

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Fig. 2. A classification typology for leadership development across the ACES domains.

leadership development mechanisms can be classified within a framework that includes the classroom, job, and organizational contexts. Leadership development strategies may need to employ all three contexts of the development process to establish a solid foundation for long-term and comprehensive development. Further, the three leadership development categories shown in Fig. 2 may be differentially efficacious for leader development across the four ACES domains. We have indicated the proposed effectiveness of respective categories by the number of plus marks, with one mark representing some degree of applicability, while two marks represent substantial applicability. With this underlying premise, we put forth the below discussion in the pursuit of mechanisms to most fully cultivate the four core domains of the ACES model in aspiring leaders. It is important to note that this is clearly not an exhaustive discussion of all available leadership development mechanisms. Rather, it is posed as a representative framework for considering the efficacy of various contexts for developing leaders across the four ACES domains. 3.2. Classroom context We posit that the classroom context is particularly effective for leadership development in relationship to the analytical domain. The classroom context encompasses activities that are formal in their nature and take place in either an indoor or outdoor classroom setting. It is interesting to note that historically, the classroom setting has been the predominant venue of choice for leadership development and educational activities, and therefore a possible driver of the preponderance of analytically-focused leaders, as discussed above. Although it has been established that the classroom alone is insufficient for leadership development to occur, it should still play an important role in leadership development (Yukl, 2005). Classroom training should be strategically relevant, powerful, and well-timed in order to be effective (McCall, 2004, 129). In short, the classroom has the potential to play an important role in helping the leader develop, especially with regard to necessary analytical skills. Many people in leadership positions in organizations have had extensive classroom training as students in undergraduate and/or graduate programs of business. As such, they have already had some experience with classroom

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techniques such as the case study and simulations approach, especially in the instance of MBA program graduates. The use of case studies and simulations are viable methods for developing the analytical capacity associated with leadership, as well as, to some degree, conceptual abilities (Yukl, 2005). For example, case studies allow for a risk-free environment that can encourage calculated risk-taking as well as creativity in approaching problems. However, the case study approach alone cannot completely replicate on-the-job experience or fully develop the emotional capacity needed to succeed when real life challenges appear (James & Arroba, 2005). Another classroom context mechanism that allows for leader development is the outdoor challenge in this case, a classroom without four walls. These development activities help build self-confidence, self-control, trust, and cooperation (Yukl. 2005). Outdoor challenges represent an approach that provides the opportunity for a limited level of emotional and spiritual development for the aspiring leader. These outdoor classrooms have the potential to elicit emotions and feelings that may be hard to draw out in a four-walled classroom, but that are necessary for individuals to develop in the spiritual and emotional domains. 3.3. Job context The job context includes activities that are experiential, have a less formal structure, and are tied to the actual job performance of the individual. The job context is a key developmental setting for aspiring leaders (McCall, 2004), and as shown in Fig. 2, a context within which all four domains of the ACES model are at least modestly addressed. That is, the varying aspects of the individual can be developed during the experiences provided by job-context activities. Further, in the job context, aspiring leaders have the opportunity to apply the principles and tools they learn in the classroom. On-the-job leadership development represents an opportunity to alleviate bad habits and develop new strengths through practice and application (Goleman, 1998). For example, job design or redesign represents an approach that can ensure that an aspiring leader is being challenged and getting opportunities for growth. He or she may be strong analytically, but also needs more help developing conceptual capacity or emotional strength. Specific responsibilities can be added to the individual's current responsibilities to facilitate the development of underdeveloped areas (Yukl, 2005). The use of job rotation represents a good opportunity for an aspiring leader to get out of his or her comfort zone and be exposed to new situations and individuals who provide opportunities to develop not only analytical and conceptual skills, but also emotional and spiritual maturity. However, if job rotation is used for leadership development, it must be done strategically so as to provide those experiences that the aspiring leader needs, rather than a random assortment of positions that end up hindering their progress (McCall, 1992). Executive retreats represent another mechanism that enables aspiring leaders to develop relative to the conceptual, emotional, and spiritual domains. Retreats allow them to step back from their day-to-day activities and think about the conceptual and strategic aspects of their role. Retreats present a likely situation for self-analysis and contemplation of the big picture of their organizational role. They help individuals measure their current performance versus their vision of what they have the potential to contribute to the organization. Leaders can also use these opportunities to review goals and objectives that they have set to focus their strategies and objectives. Lastly, people can be encouraged during these retreats to connect with other colleagues on an appropriately emotional level, and also to investigate how their own spiritual and moral values fit with those of their colleagues and their organization as a whole. Youngdahl, Waldman, and Anders (1998) provided an account of how the general manager of Goodyear Mexico, Hugh Pace, used an executive retreat to help build the conceptual thinking of his top management team, as well as demonstrate shared values and vision. Specifically, Pace introduced a new vision that would take the subsidiary from being a producer devoted to the local Mexican market, to being an exporter operating globally. He then subsequently used a shared leadership approach (cf., Pearce & Conger, 2003) that allowed the top management team at Goodyear Mexico to reshape his initial vision, based on agreement concerning commonly-held values. The larger vision was, in turn, rolled out to include visions of the top management team at lower, sub-unit levels that were aligned with the larger vision of the organization. 3.4. Organizational context The organizational context represents a heretofore under-represented category to be considered for the potential development of leadership. The organizational context can include mechanisms and activities that exist or take place at

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the organizational level that are outside the classroom and do not fit into the job context, such as culture, core values, existing vision, and HR strategies. As shown in Fig. 2 and described below, we propose that the organizational context represents the category within which the spiritual domain is most effectively addressed, while concurrently playing an overarching role in the leadership development process across all of the ACES domains. For example, organizational culture and values send strong messages to developing leaders about the importance the organization places on the analytical, conceptual, emotional, and spiritual domains of leadership (Kotter & Heskett, 1992; Schein, 1996). If an organizational culture fails to reinforce any one of the four domains, aspiring leaders are likely to neglect that aspect of their development. As an example, when a culture stresses shared beliefs, values, and norms suggesting adherence to morality and ethics in all pursuits of the organization's members, we would expect to see aspiring leaders selected, rewarded, and developed to embody such a culture. Core values that are written and reinforced, as well as mission and vision statements, also contribute to the development of leadership. Such mechanisms, when reinforced by high-level executives, can shape a range of leadership domains, especially the emotional and spiritual domains. These mechanisms create a framework of the organization's orientation towards such areas as organizational purpose, teamwork, performance, ethical behavior, and rewards (Kabanoff, Waldersee, & Cohen, 1995). A clear framework of the core values, mission, and vision helps the aspiring leader shape his or her development. For example, by understanding that the company values teamwork, the aspiring leader can concentrate on the team's goals, rather than on individual achievement. As such, the individual development of the leader will be focused on those domains that are important to being able to lead a team, such as emotional maturity, rather than on individual pursuits. Likewise, a written organizational value of ethical behavior will allow for spiritual development by avoiding ethical compromises in leader decision-making. AES corporation, one of the largest energy firms in the world, provides an interesting example in this vein. Individuals in leadership positions at AES are acculturated to believe that the firm is less about generating and distributing power, and more about serving the larger society within which AES operates. That is, they are developed to believe that the literal mission or enduring purpose of AES is to live out their four key corporate values (Bakke, 2005). These values are integrity (AES and AES employees act with wholeness, or completeness), fairness (AES ensures that all stakeholders, including employees, are treated equitably), social responsibility (AES benefits society and mitigates the potentially negative consequences of the firm's activities), and fun (AES fosters a work environment that is rewarding, exciting, and creative). For AES leaders, these values dictate that, for example, moral and spiritual components of leadership will be operative and reinforced in the workplace. For example, due to the shared commitment to integrity, AES executives are not only encouraged to make their spiritual values operative in the workplace, they are expected to do so. Further, these values suggest that the organization (and its leaders) will engage employees at an emotional level by emphasizing fairness and societal benefit. AES appears to be so firmly committed to the primacy of these values that the firm publicly states in its investor prospectus that if the Company perceives a conflict between these values and profits, the Company will try to adhere to its values even though doing so might result in diminished profits and foregone opportunities (Bakke, 2005: 39). In sum, through the clear designation and reinforcement of such values, we view AES as an example of a firm committed to the continuous development of emotional and spiritual domains on the part of leaders via mechanisms that fit into the organizational context category herein proposed. Similarly, HR policies have the potential to play an important role in facilitating the development of aspiring leaders by helping identify behaviors and performance outcomes that are important to the organization (Becker & Gerhart, 1996). Policies oriented towards long-term employment can foster commitment from the aspiring leader toward his or her development (Delery & Doty, 1996). Organizational mechanisms such as employment policies can create security and allow for the development of skills and areas that take longer to develop, such as the conceptual, emotional and spiritual domains (Delery & Doty, 1996). Thus, policies that promote the development of leaders, in secure environments that are focused on long-term results, allow aspiring leaders to develop holistically by being involved in developmental processes that are part of long-term HR strategies (Delery & Doty, 1996). Organizational strategy-setting provides an opportunity for development as well. When leaders are challenged to align HR and organizational strategies, they are likely to develop their capacities to work through complex situations at the organizational level. By developing the capacity to work through the difficult process of linking strategies at the organizational level (e.g. aligning a rewards system with an organizational strategy such as a quality program), individuals develop conceptual and possibly emotional abilities (Youndt, Snell, Dean, & Lepak, 1996). Accordingly, aspiring leaders are afforded the opportunity to develop conceptual, systems-thinking skills, while concurrently increasing emotional maturity as they navigate difficult organizational challenges, such as employee resistance to change.

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Leaders are also developed through specific HR practices or programs. For example, the use of multi-source feedback represents a practice that can ensure that an aspiring leader develops in a well-balanced manner, including aspects of emotional, and even spiritual development. In the process of receiving feedback, the individual has the chance to learn about himself or herself, as well as opportunities for growth (Atwater, Waldman, & Brett, 2002). It is important to help the aspiring leader learn through these situations, while they review the feedback of others, where there are opportunities to balance emotion and manage negative emotion. Further, multi-source feedback represents an opportunity for the individual to look at the spiritual domain and assess how others view the extent of their moral or ethical behavior, as well as how they reward/punish such behavior when shown by others. Thus, the effective use of multi-source feedback can lead to strides in the development process and potentially change behavior and the effectiveness of leaders (e.g., Atwater, Waldman, Atwater, & Cartier, 2000). As noted by Yukl (2006), such feedback may need to be coupled with follow-up and additional coaching and support after the aspiring leader has a chance to make progress in the areas upon which the feedback pertains (Yukl, 2006). It is also interesting to note that as expressed by Atwater et al. (2002), multi-source feedback is most likely to have positive effects on leadership development in organizational cultures stressing openness, change, and development and where such core values are made known. As such, various aspects of the organizational context (i.e., HR strategies, organizational culture, and core values) may work together in the leadership development process. General Electric (GE) is an example of a firm that has used multi-source feedback, as well as other performance management strategies, to reinforce leader behavior in line with the firm's core values. GE has specifically employed multi-source feedback to determine a leader's ability to energize others (e.g., inspire and incite passion within others), as well as their ability to demonstrate sustained energy (e.g., the level of personal inspiration and passion demonstrated by the leaders themselves). GE has further developed a leader typology focused on identifying individuals in leadership positions that do not effectively practice leadership in the emotional and spiritual domains of the ACES model, and thereby fail to demonstrate authentic energy or to holistically energize others. Such a Type 4 leader forces performance out of people, rather than inspires it (Welch & Byrne, 2001: 188). When identified, such individuals are first provided opportunities within GE designed to foster development across the emotional and spiritual leadership domains. If these developmental efforts fail, the Type 4 leaders either voluntarily or involuntarily leave the firm. In sum, utilizing all three contexts helps to ensure holistic leadership development. When leadership development is conceptualized in terms of the gamut of classroom, job, and organizational contexts, individuals stand the best chance of maturing in all four domains of the ACES model. As previously noted, the above outlined discussion of leadership development mechanisms is by no means an exhaustive one. However, as summarized in Table 4, it does portray a representative mix of several leadership development mechanisms as conceptualized into our proposed three-category typology, in addition to providing some indication of proposed efficacy for several specific mechanisms relative to the four ACES domains. We should note that while we have focused our discussion of the three-category classification scheme delineated above primarily on leadership development in corporate settings, our framework may also be useful in formal management education settings (such as in a business school-based, MBA program). In this vein, it may be desirable that MBA programs consider requiring students to participate in activities that can be categorized across the three development contexts and four ACES domains shown in Fig. 2, as well as employing the specific mechanisms summarized in Table 4. The classroom context is clearly already the norm in formal business school management education, but this is where such leader development efforts often stop. It may be advantageous to also employ mechanisms and activities aligned with job and organizational contexts. For example, multi-source feedback from MBA program peers, as well as from peers and subordinates in a student's current job context, could accompany behavioral MBA courses such as seminars devoted to leadership and its development. In addition, MBA programs can require that students complete all core curricular requirements on a rotational and cross-disciplinary or cross-functional
Table 4 Representative leadership development mechanisms across the ACES domains Leadership domain Analytical Conceptual Emotional Spiritual Classroom context Case study Job design Executive retreat Alignment of HR and organizational strategies 360-degree feedback Culture/core values Job context Organizational context

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basis, allowing students to develop the conceptual domain of leadership described earlier. Moreover, to address the emotional and spiritual domains, MBA programs can task all students with the development of core value statements while further employing multi-source feedback to evaluate student behavior vis--vis the articulated core values. Lastly, community-based or social responsibility projects and activities could be used to further develop leadership skills relative to the emotional and spiritual domains. 4. Conclusions We caution against leadership development activities that may create narrowly-focused leaders. In contrast, we have put forth arguments here for the development of people in leadership positions that are consistent with the ACES model, thereby reinforcing leadership effectiveness in not just the analytical domain, but the conceptual, emotional, and spiritual domains as well. Such leaders are holistic in their leadership approach and are likely to be better suited to the leadership demands of today's evolving business environment. We have also argued that each of the three contexts of leadership development proposed herein may, to some degree, be relevant to each of the four domains of leadership included in the ACES model. However, formal classroom training would seem to be applied best to the analytic domain. Conceptual and emotional domains are more likely to be developed through job context. A further contribution of this article is to recognize the growing relevance of the spiritual domain of leadership and how it might best be developed by directing our attention to more macro-level, firm infrastructure (including culture, mission, and core values) and related HR strategies or practices (e.g., performance appraisal and multi-source feedback). As a result, we suggest that the general construct of leadership development may need to be reframed as something much larger than discrete formal training programs, thereby embracing the organizational context category for leadership development that we have proposed here. This last point may be particularly salient given the continuing evolution of HR as a corporate function. Traditionally, the HR function of a firm has stewarded leadership training and development as an area of activity, but such activity has been inconsistently reinforced via other HR practices. Progressively, the HR function in many firms has evolved into a more far-reaching driver of corporate direction and behavior. As the HR function takes on this broader role as a strategic partner, it becomes an asset that offers a source of hard to imitate, competitive advantage (Becker & Gerhart, 1996). As such, traditionally isolated HR practices such as leadership training and development, compensation administration, job analysis and design, and performance management, have become more tightly integrated into a coherent force that collectively can shape employee behavior in conjunction with clearly articulated statements of organizational core values, vision, and mission (Delery & Doty, 1996). In sum, we propose that those firms that have adopted this sort of strategic view of the role of the HR function are more capable of developing the type of holistic leaders described in this article. References
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