Breakthrough

An objective at Level A1 of the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages, Learning, Teaching, Assessment CEFR!, base" on the mo"el emplo#e" for the Council of Europe publications Waystage 1$$% A&!, Threshold 1$$% '1! an" Vantage '&!, revise" in the light of CEFR(

Contents
)reface *ntro"uction 1 & , / 1 2 3 $ 1% 11 The objective+ "escription Components of the specification+ common core an" options Language functions .eneral notions Theme0relate" can0"o statements an" vocabular# Receptive tasks, activities, processes an" strategies+ listening an" rea"ing )ro"uctive tasks, activities, processes an" strategies+ speaking an" writing *nteraction an" me"iation .eneral an" language0relate" competences Compensation strategies communication repair! 4egrees of skill

Preface
*t is a commonplace that we all stan" on the shoul"ers of giants( A mo"ern famil# car, or a jumbo jet airliner, is an intricate, integrate" pro"uct of engineering "esign an" pro"uction, which must run or fl# on its own merits( 5owever, if we look at a series of pictures showing the evolution of the car or the plane over the past centur#, we see how it has procee"e" in small steps, as each generation of "esigners has been able to take the achievements of its pre"ecessors for grante", to be acutel# conscious of their "efects an" to a"" its own innovations to the stor# of evolutionar# progress( 6o it is, too, with the formulation of objectives for language teaching an" learning( 7e can look back over at least &,%%% #ears, back to the 5ellenists, bringing a knowle"ge of .reek as a koin to the Eastern 8e"iterranean, as well as to the Roman grammarians an" rhetoricians+ )riscian, 9arro, 4onatus an" others, who left a bo"# of language "escription an" teaching metho"olog# to the teachers of Latin to the me"ieval worl"( 7e are in"ebte" to the great figures of the Renaissance, Reformation an" Enlightenment an" particularl# to the lea"ers of the .reat Reform 8ovement, now more than a centur# ago, which overturne" tra"itional aims an" metho"s, giving us the mo"ern para"igm we still follow( A more "irect "ebt is owe" to m# colleagues in the E:pert .roup set up b# 5erbert ;ocher in 1$21 to investigate the feasibilit# of a European unit0cre"it scheme for a"ult language learning, particularl# 4avi" 7ilkins, Anthon# )eck an" <laus 'ung( The enormous "ebt owe" to ;an van Ek, the architect of the Threshold Level, is clear throughout the work( Less apparent, but essential, has been the supporting an" stimulating role of Antonietta "e 9igili an" ;oe 6heils, her successor as 6enior A"ministrator of the Council of Europe=s 8o"ern Languages 4ivision( The work of the man# colleagues across Europe who contribute" to the "evelopment of the Common European Framework, particularl# m# fellow authors 4aniel Coste an" 'rian >orth has enriche" the specification( The "ebt owe" to the pioneers in first level language learning objectives specification emerges clearl# from the *ntro"uction( 8an# more coul" have been name"( Acknowle"gement is also calle" for of the strong moral an" material support for this project b# the Association of Language Testers in Europe ALTE!, Last, but b# no means least, * am most "eepl# in"ebte" to m# late wife, 8arion, for her selfless support over man# #ears, without which none of m# contributions to the 8o"ern Languages )rojects of the Council of Europe woul" have been possible( *n the present instance, her help with the preparation of the manuscript, coping with m# illegible script, an" her man# suggestions for the improvement of the te:t an" avoi"ance of infelicities of wor"ing have been invaluable(

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Introduction
This will "eal with the ?uestion of wh# a Breakthrough Level below Waystage is nee"e"@ the "ifferent roles of 'reakthrough level in plurilingual "evelopment in "ifferent conte:ts@ the heterogeneit# of the target au"ience@ "ifferent groups an" their characteristics age@ stage of cognitive an" emotional "evelopment@ previous e"ucational e:perience, especiall# of language learning@ e:pecte" language use@ centres of interest an" motivation@ future perspective!@ conse?uences of the heterogeneit# for the specification( 1 Threshold level and Waystage Breakthrough is the latest a""ition to the series of specifications of language learning objectives inaugurate" b# the publication of The Threshold Level b# the Council of Europe in 1$2/( The Threshold Level was written b# ;( A( van Ek on the basis of preliminar# stu"ies b# a group of e:perts convene" b# the Council of Europe to investigate the feasibilit# of a European unit0cre"it scheme for a"ult language learning( *t set out to characteriAe the minimal language proficienc# that woul" enable a learner to face the challenges of moving in"epen"entl# as a visitor or temporar# resi"ent in an environment where the target language is in "ail# use, both transacting the business of ever#"a# living an" buil"ing personal relations( The use of the wor" Bminimal= was perhaps mislea"ing( The objective is b# no means minimalist( To reach the threshol" of confi"ent in"epen"ence is no mean feat, an" it was soon realiAe" that a consi"erable e:pen"iture of time an" effort was nee"e"( *t was believe" at the time that The Threshold Level was the lowest level at which it was possible to formulate an objective for global proficienc#, when an assembl# of specific abilities woul" cohere into an integrate" communicative competence( Cp till that point, it was thought, objectives woul" have to be formulate" in other terms, perhaps as mo"ules "ealing with a particular "omain of use or a particular skill( 5owever, a practical nee" soon arose in connection with the Anglo0.erman, broa"cast0le" multi0me"ia English course Follow Me( E:perience in the 9iennese Volkshochschulen ha" shown that after a one0#ear course in a"ult e"ucation, average stu"ents coul" cope with some 2/D of the Threshold level content receptivel#, but onl# ,,D pro"uctivel#( *n setting a first #ear objective, the course "esigners, L(.( Ale:an"er an" 8(A( FitApatrick, wishe" to maintain the brea"th of coverage of Threshold Level, whilst re"ucing the learning loa" to what an average a"ult e"ucation stu"ent coul" achieve after following the course for one #ear( This meant retaining the main functional an" notional categories of Threshold Level, whilst re"ucing their e:ponents b# some /%D( The resulting objective, Waystage not seen then as constituting a Blevel=!, which was elaborate" b# Ale:an"er, FitApatrick an" van Ek prove" highl# successful in practice( Follow Me was followe" worl"wi"e b# some /%% million viewers in over 1% countries, pla#ing a significant role in the establishment of English as a universal vehicle of global communication( *n 1$$%, both Threshold Level an" Waystage were revise", following a "eca"e of e:perience an" further theoretical stu"ies( 8inor mo"ifications were ma"e to the chapters on functions, general notions an" specific notions( 6even new chapters were ,

a""e"+ "ealing with te:ts@ rea"ing an" listening@ writing@ sociocultural competence@ verbal e:change patterns@ compensation strategies@ learning to learn@ "egree of skill( An appen"i: was a""e" on pronunciation an" intonation an" a s#stematic grammatical summar# was a""e"( These a""itions "i" not mean raising the proficienc# level or the learning loa"( The# were inten"e" rather to give rea"ers a more roun"e" un"erstan"ing of what was entaile" in ac?uiring a language proficienc# at these levels( 7ith the publication of Waystage 1990, it appeare" that the nee" for a first level specification of language proficienc# was satisfie"( *t correspon"e" to Level 1, the lowest level in the s#stem of ?ualif#ing public e:aminations "evelope" b# the Association of Language Testers in Europe ALTE!( 5owever, in the 1$$%s, pressure grew for the a""ition of a higher0level objective, lea"ing to the publication of Vantage Level, b# ;( A( van Ek an" ;( L( 8( Trim Cambri"ge Cniversit# )ress &%%1!( At the same time, the nee" came to be felt for the specification of an objective even lower than Waystage(
2 LANGCRED

The first use of the term B'reakthrough= is generall# attribute" to the LA>.CRE4 )roject of the European Commission( This presente" a propose" s#llabus for a Level 1 9ocational Languages Eualification e:pecte" to be of both national C<! an" European currenc#( *t built on the earlier work of the C< Language Lea" 'o"#, but took the Bclearer "escription= given in Waystage 1990 as its point of "eparture( *t consi"ere", however, that Waystage Bgoes well be#on" the re?uirements of Level 1= so that Bonl# a selection of its content will, therefore, be nee"e"=( 6ince the s#stematic form of presentation in Waystage was not followe", it is not eas# to see in which respects, if at all, LA>.CRE4 Level 1 is in fact re"uce"( *n"ee", the intro"uction of a strong vocational component raises the "eman" consi"erabl#, since the learner was e:pecte" to be able to use the vocabular# from the lists of state" "uties an" tasks agree" for the CE4EFF) Comparabilit# of 9ocational Eualifications )roject as publishe" in the ;ournal of the European Communities( Fn inspection, it is clear that "uties such as Bto act in"epen"entl# to receive guests an" clients an" un"ertake associate" activities= were formulate" without regar" to the comple:it# of the linguistic structures use"(
!ING"

*n 1$$1, five members of the Association of Language Testers in Europe ALTE! forme" a consortium to write 'reakthrough specifications for each of the less wi"el# taught an" use" languages L7TCLs! with which the# were concerne"( The institutions an" languages were+ The Cniversit# of ;#vGsk#lG Finnish! The Linguistics *nstitute of *relan" *rish! The Cniversit# of 'ergen >orwegian! The Cniversit# of Athens .reek! The Cniversit# of 6tockholm 6we"ish! From the initial letters of the five languages, the consortium has been generall# known as

F*>.6( The consortium i"entifie" four main categories of learner at 'reakthrough level+ 1 & 6ummer school learners, e(g( from the .reek or *rish 4iaspora, or people who simpl# want to learn a little of the language in, sa#, an intensive course of a monthHs "uration( Erasmus stu"ents i(e( those stu"#ing in a universit# abroa" with fun"ing from the European Commission=s BErasmus= scheme! who wish to gain some knowle"ge of a less wi"el# use" language, but who woul" not be able to "o their stu"ies through the me"ium of the language( )eople livingIworking temporaril# in the countr#, e(g( emplo#ees in multi0 national companies( *mmigrants, both a! e"ucate" an" b! une"ucate"(

, -

The# further groupe" learners into+ a! those able to rea" an" write in a language using the same alphabet as the target language b! those able to rea" an" write, but in a language using a "ifferent alphabet from that use" for the target language c! those unable to rea" or write in an# language( This recognition of the "iversit# of the potential 'reakthrough constituenc# is important( Ff course, such "iversit# is foun" at ever# level( The Council of Europe achieve" coherence b# "irecting The Threshold Level to the nee"s of one "efine" au"ience J a"ults wishing to achieve autonom# in a foreign environment( *t then turne" out that that was what most learners at that level wante"( The F*>.6 anal#sis raise" the ?uestion, how far one might be able to compass suitable objectives for some, if not all these au"iences in a single "escription, perhaps b# "istinguishing a Bcommon core=, relevant to all, from options relevant onl# to some( 5owever, whilst the F*>.6 .roup recogniAe" that teaching metho"s an" length of course woul" var#, "epen"ing on the e"ucational backgroun", motivation an" interest of the learner, it "oes not appear from the specification English version! of 4ecember 1$$3 that the objective itself was "ifferentiate" accor"ing to the "ifferent au"iences envisage"( 7ith regar" to the characteriAation of learners who have reache" 'reakthrough level, the F*>.6 group state+ B'reakthrough competence is formulaic to a consi"erable "egree( Essentiall# 'reakthrough learners have a small internaliAe" phrase0book, inclu"ing in particular short phrases that can be use" in a variet# of situations e(g( BKes=( B>o=( B)lease=( BThanks=(! an" other phrases that can be use" in "ifferent situations using strategies, some of them non0verbal( The# have onl# a limite" capacit# to link phrases together or break them up so that their parts ma# be use" in other situations( 6imilarl#, in listening an" rea"ing, the# cannot un"erstan" normal, connecte" te:ts, spoken or written( *f the# un"erstan" what is going on, the# ma# be able to recogniAe isolate" wor"s an" phrases in normal speech( *f not, the# will have to get the speaker to slow "own, to pronounce wor"s ver# /

"eliberatel#, an" to repeat things as necessar#=( Conse?uentl#, the group "eci"e" to "epart ra"icall# from Threshold an" Waystage in two wa#s( Firstl#, the# brought themes to the beginning of the specification( BThere is no presentation of general functions an" notions on their own( The# are merge" with the themes( .eneral functions an" notions "o not pla# as central a role at Breakthrough as the# "o at Waystage an" Threshold, where learners will have a capacit# to appl# general structures to particular situations( This capacit# is ver# limite" at Breakthrough, an" accor"ingl#, we "eci"e" to begin at once with language in its most concrete form, namel# a phrase, on a particular topic, in a particular situation, reflecting particular nee"s of the learnerH( 6econ"l#, the# "eci"e" to base their "escription on the use of CA>04F "escriptors, "rawing on those in the Co on !uro"ean Fra ework o# re#erence #or Languages$ learning% teaching and assess ent &CEFR!, an" a parallel project to translate the ALTE CA>04F statements into the F*>.6 languages an" to calibrate them( *n a""ition, some members of the consortium were involve" with the 4*ALA>. project on computer0 base" self0assessment for language learners, which also focuses attention on what learners can an" cannot "o at various levels of the Framework( The sociocultural component of the specification was incorporate" "irectl# into the themes( BFne a"vantage of starting with the list of themes, instea" of functions an" notions, is that each theme+ )ersonal i"entification, 5ouse an" home( Foo" an" "rink, an" so on, will have obvious aspects of sociocultural competence associate" with it( An" since the list of themes covers all aspects of "ail# life, there is no important aspect of sociocultural competence that cannot be associate" with some theme or other( 8oreover, when languages are associate" with one culture onl# J which is largel# the case for the F*>.6 languages J it is possible to procee" "irectl# from the theme to highl# specific cultural materials( For e:ample, we can state values, attitu"es an" politeness orientation of people or give the actual time that shops shut, or the ethnic composition of the population=( Finall#, a small reference grammar was a""e"( Conscious of two facts, which appear to be inconsistent with their holistic approach@ firstl#, that it woul" be of little or no use to learners with low levels of literac#, an" secon"l#, that Breakthrough learners in general woul" achieve onl# a ver# mo"est s#ntactic capacit#, the# state"+ B>onetheless, there are formal characteristics of ever# language that literate learners, an" their teachers, will fin" useful in their efforts to consoli"ate an" e:pan" even a ver# small corpus of e:ponents( These are the features of the language that we focus on in the grammar=( The a"option of this mo"el perhaps le" the project further awa# from the Bthreshol" level= series than ma# have been inten"e", not onl# in its formal presentation but also in its fun"amental conception( The Bnotional0functional= approach arose in 1$2% as a reaction to proposals for a Bsituational approach= base" on the learning of "ialogues situate" in a range of ever#"a# settings( *nstea", it looke" for those elements which were of use in a wi"er range of events, "istinguishing between functions an" general notions on the one han", which 1

were of use in man# "ifferent situations, an" the notions which were tie" to specific situations on the other( Fnl# in respect of those specific notions was a thematic organisation consi"ere" appropriate, an" then almost e:clusivel# in terms of the open wor" classes in the le:icon( The aban"onment of this principle leaves no rational basis for the "istinction between what is learnt for use in an# situation an" what is learnt for use in one particular situation( This brings a number of "angers( Among them are+ missing members of close" le:ical sets an" high fre?uenc# generic vocabular# e(g( prepositions, Bthing=, Bnothing=, etc(!( overspecification( For instance, the learner Bcan pronounce letters of the alphabet= an" Bcan 6)ELL hisIher name= but not, it seems, hisIher a""ress or in"ee" an#thing else( vagueness, un"erspecification( For instance, learners Bcan 7R*TE notes to the neighbour an" housekeeper=, Bcan 6TATE their con"ition, ailments an" feelings= an" Bcan A6< ?uestions about "ail# routines=, but it is not clear what limitations are place" on that abilit#( *t became clear from "ifferent specimen "escriptions that ver# "ifferent interpretations of wor"s like Bsimple=, Bbasic=, Bfamiliar=, etc( were possible( 6imilar consi"erations appl# to the s#llabus for the .erman e:aminations Fit in 'eutsch(
#

Fit in Deutsch

Fit in 'eutsch is a suite of e:aminations for juvenile learners con"ucte" b# the .oethe0 *nstitut( Fit in 'eutsch 1 is state" to be oriente" to the "escription of Level A1 Breakthrough! in CEFR( *t gives in Bcan "o= form the abilities of the successful can"i"ate( A brief general "escription is taken from Table 1 in Chapter 3(-(, of the 1$$3 Revise" 9ersion( This is now Table 1 on p(&- in Chapter , of the final version publishe" b# Cambri"ge Cniversit# )ress!, an" on the "escriptors for skille" activities particularl# at Level A1, previousl# in an appen"i: but now attache" to the activities concerne"( These are presente" accor"ing to the Bfour skills=+ listening comprehension, rea"ing comprehension, speaking an" writing( These general in"icators are then supplemente" b# a listing of themes, grammar an" vocabular# *n common with other A1 specifications here reviewe", Fit in 'eutsch ) takes Waystage as its point of "eparture, but "iverges from the Threshold Level mo"el followe" in Waystage b# eliminating functions an" general notions from the "escription an" conflating e:ponents an" e:amples( The conse?uences of "oing so are again consi"erable, since the functions an" general notions are those components of language competence that are generaliAable across situations an" themes( Linking functions to themes "estro#s their generaliAabilit# within the "escription( *t ma# be that learners are e:pecte" to encounter them in a specific thematic conte:t an" then e:ten" them to other conte:ts autonomousl#( 5owever, that is to confuse course "esign an" possibl#, but with less justification, testing! with level specification( A generaliAable function or general notion must inevitabl# be intro"uce" to a learner in a particular conte:t, usuall#

together with one or more topic0relate" specific notions, e(g( B)lease can #ou pass me the sugarL=( 5owever, the form of polite re?uest *+lease could , -+ , V+ in#. is not theme0 or situation0specific( Fne can re?uest an#one to "o an#thing, e(g( B)lease can #ouI*Im# frien" sit "ownIe:plainL=, etc( Again, what is passe" ma# be sugar, a screw"river or a te:tbook( *t is not the act of passing that is specific to a particular theme or situation( *t is what is passe" that ties the utterance to cooking or eating foo", or to the workplace or to school( *n the conte:t of cooking an" eating foo", the role of Bsugar= is of course b# no means confine" to re?uesting, or un"erstan"ing a re?uest, for it to be passe", e(g( BKou nee" more sugarL=, B>o sugar, thank #ou(=, BThe sugar is where, pleaseL=, etc( * "o not think that learners shoul", or in"ee" will, simpl# learn B)lease can #ou pass me the sugarL= b# heart as an unanal#Ae" whole to be rehearse" an" use" when the situation arises( The# will an" shoul" learn it, but as the basis for making further re?uests an" for talking about sugar whenever it is appropriate to "o so( $ "tarters and %overs

The Bmain suite= of e:aminations in English as a foreign language EFL! offere" b# the Cniversit# of Cambri"ge Local E:aminations 6#n"icate CCLE6! offers certification at five levels( These correspon" to the levels 1 J / in the ALTE s#stem an" to levels A& J C& in the s#stem of levels specifie" in the Common European Framework( Level 1, the <e# English Test <ET!, is e?uate" with Waystage( Cp till recentl#, CCLE6 saw no real nee" or "eman" for a public e:amination at an even lower level( *n Europe, the teaching of English in schools is almost universal from the age of 11( A ?ualification at Level A1 woul" scarcel# be value", since the level attaine" b# school leavers an" atteste" within the e"ucational s#stem of an# countr# woul" be well above this level( *t coul" not attract a viable market as a terminal ?ualification( The Cniversit# of Cambri"ge Local E:aminations 6#n"icate has now, however, i"entifie" such a market, but onl# for #oung learners( For them its value woul" be primaril# motivational, a first step on a la""er lea"ing to the main suite from <ET to First Certificate '&! an", for the more ambitious, on to the Certificate of )roficienc# C&!( The current suite of e:aminations for #oung learners is B"esigne" to offer a comprehensive approach to testing the English of primar# learners between the ages of 2 an" 1&=( The aims of the tests, situate" at three ke# levels of assessment+ "tarters, %overs an" !l&ers, are to+ sample relevant an" meaningful language use measure accuratel# an" fairl# prevent a positive first impression of international tests promote effective learning an" teaching encourage further learning an" teaching(

The three tests together Bbuil" a bri"ge to take #oung learners of English as a foreign language from beginner to Waystage=( The thir" level in the series, Ca'(ridge !l&ers) is aime" at a t#pical can"i"ate age" between $ an" 1& #ears, who has complete" some &/% hours of English language tuition( The s#llabus for Fl#ers is state" to be roughl# 3

e?uivalent to the <ET s#llabus which is seen as the e?uivalent of Waystage! in terms of siAe, Bbut is more limite" in terms of conte:ts covere"=( 'elow Fl#ers there are two levels( Ca'(ridge "tarters is the lowest level an" is B"esigne" for chil"ren from the age of 2, who have complete" about 1%% hours of learning=( Ca'(ridge %overs is the secon" level in the series( A t#pical 8overs can"i"ate is likel# to be between 3 an" 11 #ears of age an" to have complete" appro:imatel# 12/ hours of English language tuition( The s#llabuses for the three levels "escribe the to*ics and notions, the structure, the le+is an" the tasks on which the tests are base"( The content specification is clearl# influence" b# the Threshold Level mo"el, but "oes not follow it( *t starts with Btopics=, which overlap with T0levelIWaystage topic areas, but are selecte" in accor"ance with Brelevant research in a number of areas an" the specific nee"s of prospective test users chil"ren, parents an" teachers!=( Account has been taken of+ current approaches to curriculum "esign an" pe"agog# for #oung learners, inclu"ing recent te:tbooks an" other resource materials e(g( C4RF8! chil"ren=s cognitive an" first language "evelopment probable variation between "ifferent first language groups an" cultures(

The choice of topics, their weighting an" the selection of vocabular# items with them are "esigne" to cover the centres of interest of pre0pubertal chil"ren( For 6tarters 2J3 #ears of age! there is a strong emphasis on the concrete "etails of a chil"=s imme"iate surroun"ings+ bo"# an" face 1, items!, clothes 1/ items!, famil#, frien"s an" self -2 items, inclu"ing 1/ first names, Bhapp# birth"a#= an" personal pronouns!, foo" an" "rink -1 items!, the home -1 items!, school an" classroom, language an" tests // items!, sports an" leisure0time activities -3 items!( There are also topic items relate" to #oung chil"renHs picture books, particularl# animals Banimal=, Bbir"=, Bfish= an" &1 specific animals, some e:otic e(g( tiger, croco"ile! an" colours 1& items!( B8onster= an" Brobot= also appear to come from comics an" T9 rather than realit#( This biasing is no "oubt appropriate to the age0group concerne"( 5owever, the seemingl# arbitrar# choice of particular wor"s e(g( personal names! looks more like te:tbook content than the characteriAation of a level of competence( 8overs a""s some 1, further animals, bir"s an" fish, an" intro"uces Bhealth= as a topic, but also looks outsi"e the home to local places 1, items!, occupations an" the worl" of work inclu"ing clowns an" piratesM!, holi"a#s an" the worl" aroun" us &1 items!( 7hat is here in"icate", is that the specification of a Breakthrough level has to recogniAe that the nee"s an" characteristics of learners var# accor"ing to age, an" also to social an" e"ucational backgroun" an" suchlike variables in a""ition to the role of the target language in the learner=s life( The level specification must be fle:ible enough to offer options as appropriate( *t also appears to in"icate that these options ma# be most necessar# with respect to topic0relate" specific notions an" the correspon"ing vocabular#( The notions an" concepts liste" are restricte" in number 1- categories! for 6tarters, e:pan"ing to 13 for 8overs( The# relate closel# to general notions, though not consistentl#( As such the# form part of the common core an" are much less age0specific(

The same is true of grammar an" structures( *n general, /tarters an" Movers have provi"e" useful in"ications of the areas in which age0relate" options ma# be offere", but it "oes not appear that the overall "escriptive mo"el is to be preferre" to the Threshold Level t#pe( , -he AL-E .Can/do0 state'ents

After using careful statistical proce"ures correlating the self0assessment of large numbers of e:amination can"i"ates with their e:amination results, ALTE has foun" that a substantial number of "escriptors fall below its Level 1, which correspon"s to Waystage( These have been further "ifferentiate" as between J1 an" %( 7hilst ALTE states that these levels cannot be so e:actl# calibrate" as those at a higher level, the# ma# perhaps be e?uate" with Breakthrough A1! an" Breakthrough plus A1N!, or with an un"ifferentiate" Breakthrough level( The ALTE C0-1'2 "escriptors, particularl# those which are "omain0specific, are particularl# concrete an" man# have been incorporate" into this Breakthrough specification( The "ivision between J1 an" % level abilities is somewhat variable, so both have been incorporate" into a single specification( There are some surprising gaps( For instance, a Breakthrough learner confronte" with an emergenc# A$! shoul" har"l# remain silent( At least, s!he can cr# for helpM *n general, the picture of an earl# learner which emerges, here as elsewhere, is that of a somewhat passive, reactive personalit#, content to function at a low cognitive level an" somewhat lacking in initiative( The a"ult, it sometimes seems, is content with the role of an infant( *n realit#, as in the case of an emergenc#, CA> 4F often has to give wa# to 8C6T 4F, straining the limits of linguistic resources( Little account is taken of heuristic abilities( The functional range is also rather narrow, concentrating on routine transactions an" the e:change of information( 5owever, it is to be welcome" that, when eating out or sta#ing at a hotel, complaint is given high priorit#( Thus, while the ALTE Can0"o statements have ma"e a valuable contribution to this Breakthrough specification, what the# have to offer is one part of an a"e?uate mo"el for the specification as a whole( 1 -he Co''on Euro*ean !ra'e2ork 3CE!R4 The Co on !uro"ean Fra ework o# 3e#erence #or Languages$ learning% teaching% assess ent Council of Europe &%%1! calibrates language proficienc# at a series of si: levels, rising from A1 to C&( *t "oes so using "escriptors mostl# taken from a 6wiss project "escribe" in CEFR, Appen"i: '( The "escriptors for Level A1, correspon"ing to Breakthrough, ma# be summariAe" as follows+ A language user at Level A has comman" of limite" resources to "eal with concrete aspects of the basic re?uirements of the most common ever#"a# situations+ a restricte" repertor# of holophrases wor"s, phrases an" sentences learnt an" use" as unanal#Ae" wholes! an" the abilit# to un"erstan" an" pro"uce short, simple te:ts( Cn"erstan"ing 1%

re?uires the slow, careful enunciation of stan"ar" language forms b# the speaker( 6peech pro"uction is slow an" hesitant, with fre?uent pauses to search for e:pressions, backtracking, errors, etc( *nteraction re?uires a s#mpathetic an" co0operative interlocutor an" the fre?uent use of repair proce"ures( Rea"ing is confine" to isolate" wor"s an" short, simple te:ts "ealing with familiar topics, rea" a phrase at a time an" re?uiring the fre?uent use of a "ictionar#( 7riting is confine" to form0filling an" ver# short, simple postcar" t#pe! te:ts( This characteriAation of CEF Level A1 is of course somewhat repetitious an" ver# general in character( *t allows for wi"e "ifferences in the interpretation of such wor"s as Bshort=, Bsimple=, Bcommon=, Bfamiliar=, Bfre?uent=, Bslow=, etc( Their interpretation "epen"s upon strong intuitions of normalit#, which ma# well "iverge consi"erabl# in "ifferent e"ucational environments with "ifferent tra"itions( 7hilst on the one han" such vagueness makes for fle:ibilit# an" easier acceptance, these ma# be won at the e:pense of comparabilit# of ?ualifications across s#stems, which is one of the motives for the common calibration of language proficienc#( 7herever possible an" appropriate, the CEF "escriptors have been incorporate" into this Breakthrough specification( *n a""ition to the proficienc# scalings, Chapters -, / an" 2 of CEF provi"e a wi"er ta:onom# than the Threshold Level mo"el( The later chapters of Breakthrough have been remo"elle" in line with this mo"el, while incorporating the content of the correspon"ing chapters of Waystage, though of course utatis utandis( 5 DIALANG

4*ALA>. is an assessment s#stem inten"e" for language learners who want to obtain "iagnostic information about their proficienc#( The 4*ALA>. project has been carrie" out with the financial support of the European Commission, 4irectorate0.eneral for E"ucation an" Culture 6FCRATE6 )rogramme, L*>.CA Action 4!( The s#stem consists of self0assessment, language tests an" fee"back, which are all available in 1- European languages+ 4anish, 4utch, English, Finnish, French, .erman, .reek, *celan"ic, *rish, *talian, >orwegian, )ortuguese, 6panish an" 6we"ish( 4*ALA>. is "elivere" via the *nternet free of charge( 4*ALA>.=s Assessment Framework an" the "escriptive scales use" for reporting the results to the users are "irectl# base" on the Common European Framework CEF!( The self0assessment statements use" in 4*ALA>. are also mostl# taken from the CEF an" a"apte" whenever necessar# to fit the specific nee"s of the s#stem( The 4*ALA>. "escriptors provi"e" for Level A1, correspon"ing to Breakthrough, have been consulte" throughout( 6 Conclusions

*n the light of these "evelopments, the 4ivision of 8o"ern Languages of the Council of Europe commissione" the present author, in consultation with ALTE, to procee" to the specification of a Breakthrough level as an a""ition to the Waystage J Threshold level J 11

Vantage level series( A first "raft was submitte" to the Language )olic# 4ivision of the Council of Europe an" has been e:amine" an" "iscusse" b# members of ALTE( *t was not publishe" at that time, but is now offere" for further "iscussion as part of the HEnglish )rofileH )roject( After consi"ering carefull# the "escriptive mo"els a"opte" in the s#llabuses outline" above, it was "eci"e" that the Breakthrough specification shoul" be create" b# re"ucing the material in Waystage, an" that the re"uction woul" be clearer if the same mo"el were kept an" the principles governing the re"uction were clearl# formulate" an" carrie" through consistentl#( As is state" in the *ntro"uction to Vantage van Ek an" Trim &%%1, p( 1!+ B*n all, Waystage% Threshold an" Vantage now offer to all practitioners a "escription of the language nee"e" to assure a learner=s abilit# to "eal effectivel# with the challenges presente" b# ever#"a# life, presente" at three levels rising from a minimal e?uipment to "eal with the highest priorit# nee"s, through the minimum nee"e" to "eal with the full range of re?uirements for a visitor or temporar# resi"ent, to an enriche" e?uipment a"e?uate to "eal effectivel# with the comple:ities of "ail# living( *t is, of course, for the in"ivi"ual user to "eci"e how to make use of this "escriptive apparatus, in or"er to "efine appropriate objectives for a particular set of learners, whilst of course bearing in min" the nee" to co0or"inate the efforts of "ifferent provi"ers in "eveloping a learningIteaching s#stem( Csers can supplement the specification if some nee"s of the constituenc# are not met, or cut out elements the# "o not nee"( *tems which are of marginal value to the learners envisage" can be replace" b# others( The process can be articulate" into more stages if a particular e"ucational s#stem is organiAe" in a B"rip fee"= mo"e, or fewer if there is a full0time intensive programme for e:perience" an" gifte" learners( 7ith courses for non0beginners, the "escription can be use" to specif# a prior knowle"ge re?uirement as well as the objective( 8o"ules can be "erive" b# concentrating on some "efine" sub0part of the specification, as can partial competence( HThis fle:ibilit# is possible because a single mo"el has been use" for the successive levels+ Waystage% Threshold an" Vantage( 7e trust that all those concerne" with planning an" implementing language teaching an" learning will fin" it useful in setting objectives which are "esirable, appropriate an" feasible for the particular learners towar"s whom the# un"ertake responsibilit#= ( For these reasons, the functional an" notional categories in Chapters , an" - have remaine" as far as possible unchange"( 2cca .s ra4or Bentities are not to be multiplie" be#on" necessit#=! has been sharpl# hone"( Re"un"anc#, in the form of alternative e:ponents for a single categor#, has been largel# eliminate"( 7henever a single e:ponent can be use" for a number of categories, it has been preferre" to one specific to a single categor#( Thus B6orr# L!= is offere" for Be:pressing regret=, BapologiAing=, Brefusing permission= an" B"eclining an invitation= as well as a range of communication repair functions( Chapter / shows greater changes( The themes have been reorganiAe" un"er "omains+

1&

personal, public, vocational an" e"ucational, to facilitate the options open to "ifferent target groups( Teenagers an" a"ults looking to use the language for practical purposes in general social life will concentrate on the personal an" public "omains( Fthers who are strictl# job0oriente" will concentrate on the public an" vocational "omains, though the# will of course not be able to avoi" having to give personal "etails an" will, as language learners be involve", like others, in the e"ucational fiel"( Kounger learners will be mostl# involve" in the personal an" e"ucational "omains( *t is also in Chapter / that the theme0base" BCan0"o= "escriptors have been foun" to be of the greatest use( The later chapters have been reorganiAe" from those in Waystage to reflect the wi"er coverage of the Co on !uro"ean Fra ework( The# "eal in turn with receptive an" pro"uctive activities, interaction an" me"iation, then passing to the inner competences, both general an" more closel# language0relate", which are calle" upon in all language activities( The "iversit# of the target groups, referre" to in the F*>.6 )roject, makes it "ifficult to assess the length of stu"# re?uire" to reach Breakthrough( A"ult learners with e:tensive previous language learning e:perience will "o so much more ?uickl# than immigrants from a peasant backgroun" with, perhaps, no previous schooling( As a rough appro:imation, the learning loa" ma# be estimate" at, sa#, some 3%J1%% hours of tuition( *t will, in an# case, be clear from the specification itself that there will be consi"erable variation in what a language learner who has reache" this target will in fact be capable of "oing, with what he or she has learnt(

1,

1 -he o(7ective
Breakthrough His consi"ere" the lowest level of generative language use J the point at which the learner can interact in a si "le way% ask and answer si "le 5uestions a6out the selves% where they live% "eo"le they know and things they have% initiate and res"ond to si "le state ents in areas o# i ediate need or on very #a iliar to"ics% rather than rel#ing on a ver# finite, rehearse", le:icall# organiAe" repertoire of situation0specific phrases= Council of Europe &%%1, p(,,!( As appropriate to their age, an" in accor"ance with their nee"s an" interests, learners will be able to use the foreign language in a simple wa# for the following purposes+ 1 giving an" obtaining factual information+ a! personal information e(g( about name , a""ress, place of origin, "ate of birth, e"ucation, occupation! b! non0personal information e(g( about places an" how to get there, about the time of "a#, about various facilities an" services, about rules an" regulations, about opening hours, about where an" what to eat, etc(!(
& establishing an" maintaining social an" professional contacts, particularl#+

a! meeting people an", if strangers, making their ac?uaintance b! e:ten"ing invitations an" reacting to being invite" c! proposingIarranging a course of action "! e:changing information, views, feelings, wishes, concerning matters of common interest, particularl# those relating to personal life an" circumstances living con"itions an" environment e"ucationalIoccupational activities an" interests leisure activities an" social life( , carr#ing out certain transactions+ a! making arrangements planning, tickets, reservations, etc(! for travel accommo"ation appointments leisure activities b! making purchases c! or"ering foo" an" "rink( Learners will be able to carr# out the above communicative activities in contacts with+ native speakers of the foreign language other non0native speakers of the foreign language, using the foreign language as a common means of communication(

1-

6uch contact ma# occur in a countr# or region where the foreign language is the native language in the learner=s own countr# in a countr# or region outsi"e the learner=s own countr# an" where the foreign language is not the native language( Learners will primaril# be able to function in contacts involving the oral use of the foreign language, mainl# face0to0face contacts, but also those re?uiring the use of the telephone or of public me"ia( 6econ"aril#, where appropriate, the# will be able to un"erstan" the gist an"Ior relevant "etails of te:ts written in clear an" ver# simple language an" to e:press themselves in writing( 'oth the te:t t#pes to be un"erstoo" an" those to be pro"uce" will be specifie" subse?uentl#( This "escription closel# parallels that of Waystage( The "ifference between what learners are able to "o at Waystage an" at Breakthrough is one of ?ualit# rather than range( *t lies not so much in the purposes for which the language is use", as in the balance between them accor"ing to the age, nee"s an" interests of the learner, in the resources the learner brings to the task an" the skill with which these resources are "eplo#e"( Clearl#, not all learners will share i"entical objectives, or follow the same learning path( There are some things all learners will inevitabl# nee" to know an" to "o( These constitute the Bcommon core= of language learning an" use( Fther things are more specific to particular groups( *n a famil#, the nee"s an" interests of parents are "ifferent from those of teenagers, which are "ifferent again from those of their #ounger brothers an" sisters( For #ounger learners, "ail# famil# life, pla# an" school set the horiAon( For teenagers, interests change an" e:pan" into the public "omain, as frien"ships, peer group activities, fashion an" entertainment become centres of interest, while the intellectual "eman"s an" pressures of schoolwork increase( *n a"ult life, the vocational an" public "omains grow in importance an" "iversif#, as careers an" lifest#les "iverge( To provi"e for such "iversit#, a statement of learning objectives must either confine its attention to one well0"efine" target au"ience, as was the case with The Threshold Level, or provi"e a range of options( Ff course, to meet ever# in"ivi"ual re?uirement is impossible J social provision must "eal with groups of a viable siAe J fine0tuning must be left to the autonomous learner( This Breakthrough specification attempts to "eal with major groupings, such as a"ult learners, sa# of a less wi"el# use" language for practical use, teenage learners an" #ounger learners, for whom Breakthrough is the first step on a long la""er, b# offering options( There ma# be options between "omains, or in the weighting of "omains, or in the in"ivi"ual items to be selecte" within a particular class of wor"s e(g( kinds o# e "loy ent!( *n this wa#, we trust that the "escription ma# be of relevance an" practical help to the wi"est range of users(

1/

2 Co'*onents of the s*ecification

This chapter gives a run0"own of the structure of the specification in later chapters an" a brief characteriAation of the role an" nature of each component( *t will also "eal with the ?uestion of fle:ibilit# an" the relation of core elements to options nee"e" in view of the heterogeneit# of the target au"ience "iscusse" in the *ntro"uction( The first part of the specification follows closel# the mo"el use" throughout the Waystage1Threshold1Vantage series( The Bcommon core=, relevant to all learners no matter what their particular in"ivi"ual interests ma# be, is presente" in the form of language #unctions an" general notions% which permeate the whole of language in use( 1 Language functions

Though languages ma# be learnt b# in"ivi"ual learners for man# "ifferent reasons, the work of the Council of Europe has been particularl# concerne" with language for interpersonal communication( The starting point is the purposes for which language is use"( CEFR "ivi"es its "etaile" classification of such language functions into microfunctions an" macrofunctions( 8acrofunctions, such as "escription, narration, argumentation, persuasion, etc(, Hare categories for the functional use of spoken "iscourse or written te:t consisting of a sometimes e:ten"e"! se?uence of sentencesH Council of Europe &%%1+ 1&1!( 8acrofunctions are not specifie" in "etail at Breakthrough level, since learners are not e:pecte" to organise language effectivel# above the level of short turns in a conversation but see Chapter $, section -!( At Waystage, an" even more at Threshold or Vantage level, a full range of language functions microfunctions! is classifie", together with their e:ponents the language which e:presses them!( *n most cases, it is possible to e:press function in more wa#s than one an" at higher levels a choice is offere"( *n this Breakthrough specification, an attempt is ma"e to maintain the full functional range, but to further re"uce or eliminate choices, concentrating on the barest minimum of e:pressions that will suffice for the purpose( 2 General notions

*t is sometimes appropriate to e:press a language function without e:plicitl# stating what it refers to( For instance, we ma# e:press agreement b# sa#ing BKes=( There is no wa# of telling what is being agree" to( 6imilarl#, if we sa# B6orr#M=, we are clearl# e:pressing regret or apologiAing, but for whatL )resumabl#, the speaker thinks that is obvious to the listener, who has just aske" whether it is still raining, or whose foot has just been steppe" on( 8ore often, perhaps, we nee" to be more e:plicit, pro"ucing sentences with both a functional an" a conceptual notional! content( .eneral notions are those which are not tie" to the concrete "etails of a particular situation, but provi"e linguistic categories which form the framework of our intellectual un"erstan"ing of the worl"+ concepts of space an" time, ph#sical ?uantities an" ?ualities, logical an" other relations between entities an" events( 6uch concepts are ver# often incorporate" into the grammar of a language e(g( verb tenses!, or close" wor"0classes e(g( prepositions!(

11

"*ecific notions) the'e/related .can/do0 state'ents and voca(ular& 6pecific notions are those which "eal with the concrete "etails of a particular situation, use" either when "ealing with the situation itself or when referring to it as a theme( The# are highl# relevant, even essential, to an#one nee"ing to "eal with or talk about that situation, but not to an#one who "oes not( Conse?uentl#, their e:pression "oes not form part of the Bcommon core= of the language, e:cept in so far as the situation is one concerning all human beings( The e:ponents of specific notions are for the most part le:ical items in the open wor"0classes, above all, nouns an" verbs( This chapter is organiAe" largel# as in Waystage( 5owever, the themes are groupe" more clearl# into "omains+ personal, public, vocational an" e"ucational( 6ome sub0classification is intro"uce" so as to i"entif# elements likel# to be of common interest an" to facilitate the e:ercise of options( 8ore space an" better presentation is given to intro"uctor# theme0 relate" Bcan0"o= statements( Even at the earliest stages of language learning, in"ivi"uals will nee" or wish to talk about their particular interests, tastes an" con"itions of life( *n this respect some "omains an" themes will be highl# relevant, others peripheral( Consi"er, for e:ample, the role of the public, vocational an" e"ucational "omains in the lives of #oung learners, teenagers an" mature a"ults( 7ith regar" to travel, a"ult learners will nee" to "eal with transactions such as consulting timetables, making reservations, bu#ing tickets, etc(, whereas #oung learners "o not nee" to worr# about such things( 7ithin the personal "omain, we each have our name, a""ress, nationalit#, occupation, hobbies an" interests, etc(, which it is clearl# impossible to list in e7tenso( *n those areas where personal choice is involve", it seems best to specif# the theme, leaving the in"ivi"ual learners to "eci"e whether or not it is of relevance an" if so to i"entif# an" learn with the assistance of a teacher, peer group, native speaker, work of reference as appropriate an" available! what is re?uire" for self0"escription( At the same time, suggestions are ma"e for some of the most common items in the fiel" concerne", After all, in an e:change of information we nee" also to un"erstan" what other people tell us about themselves( *t must, of course, be acknowle"ge" that this problem is not to be solve" b# learning an# number of le:ical items( The learner must be prepare" to elicit an" un"erstan" an" also provi"e! e:planations see Chapter , 6ection 1 an" the note on the wor" list below!( # Rece*tive tasks) activities) *rocesses and strategies8 listening to) and reading) te+ts

Chapter 1 has been base" on Chapter - of the Co on !uro"ean Fra ework CEFR! an" superse"es Chapter 1 of Waystage( *t specifies what a learner will be able to "o in these respects at Breakthrough level( *n "oing so it "raws on the can0"o statements in CEFR an" in the non0"omain0specific ALTE specifications as well as those of F*>.6 an" others( Te:t0t#pes an" me"ia are liste" an" what the learner can "o in relation to them is specifie", inclu"ing the use of heuristic proce"ures an" reference sources( The chapter "eals with the abilit# of learners at Breakthrough level to "eal receptivel# with the te:ts, written an" spoken, which the# ma# e:pect to encounter in "ail# life( *t is pointe" out that learners cannot re?uire other users of the language to confine themselves to the language which learners at Breakthrough level will alrea"# have been taught( *n 12

oral interaction face0to0face, the resources set out in Chapters ,J/ shoul" enable them to un"erstan" an interlocutor using short turns in simple language an" speaking slowl# an" clearl# un"er favourable con"itions( The# shoul" also be able to use repair strategies an" heuristic competences to "eal with a limite" amount of material outsi"e what the# have been taught( 6imilarl#, these competences can be "rawn upon to e:tract the necessar# information from public announcements of a simple kin"( 7ith written te:ts other than scrolling! their resources shoul" enable them to un"erstan" basic te:ts letters, e0mail, signs an" posters, etc(! an" to make proper use of a "ictionar# as re?uire"( $ Productive tasks) activities) *rocesses and strategies8 s*eaking and 2riting

Chapter 2 replaces Chapter 2 an" Appen"i: A of Waystage in the light of CEFR Chapter -( *t emphasiAes the "ifferences between reception an" pro"uction an" the effect of "ifferent resources, con"itions an" constraints on what a Breakthrough learner can "o in pro"ucing spoken an" written te:ts( As compare" to man# previous specifications, it attempts to in"icate not how little, but how much a learner at this level can achieve with severel# limite" resources( , Interaction and 'ediation

Chapter 3 superse"es Chapters $ an" 1% of Waystage an" applies sections -(-(, an" -(-(of CEFR to Breakthrough level, inclu"ing the "escriptors for A1 given there an" also "rawing on other can0"o statements as appropriate( *t "eals with both spoken an" written interaction, contrasting both with one0wa# communication( 7ith regar" to me"iation, it consi"ers the relation of interpretation to translation an" points out that an# learner, even with a ver# low level of proficienc#, will be sought after for informal assistance( *t warns learners against being "rawn into taking responsibilities be#on" their competence( 1 General and language/related co'*etences

Chapter $ "raws upon CEF Chapter / an" applies it to Breakthrough level, inclu"ing, where appropriate, the characteriAation of Level A1 in the scalings given there( *t points out the "isproportion between the general competences of a learner at Breakthrough level, which are those of an# native speaker of similar age, e"ucation an" e:perience, an" the language0relate" competences, which are at a ver# earl# stage of "evelopment the Ba"ult imprisone" in a bab#= s#n"rome! an" "iscusses the conse?uences for communication( 5 Co'*ensation strategies 3co''unication re*air4

Chapter 1% "eals briefl# with the fact that learners at Breakthrough level must e:pect problems to arise in communication with onl# ver# limite" resources an" skills, an" their nee" to have available techni?ues for "ealing with them(

13

Degrees of skill

Chapter 11 raises briefl# the issues arising from the fact that the "ifferent activities involve" in communication make "ifferent "eman"s on the skills of learners, which at Breakthrough level are still at a ver# earl# stage of "evelopment( *t asks how the resulting HnormalH une?ual proficienc# profile shoul" be accommo"ate" in a s#stem of levels( 19 :ord inde+ for Breakthrough

The wor" list contains the c(31% wor"s which are to be foun" in Chapters ,J/, together with c(1% wor" fiel"s, mostl# those in which learners ma# wish to ac?uire a personaliAe" vocabular# relate" to their own particular nee"s, interests an" characteristics in a""ition to the more common e:amples entere" in the wor" list itself( For e:ample, if a #oung person has a pet hamster an" pla#s the cello, ha ster an" cello will figure in that personHs vocabular# as personal choices from the categories "ets an" usical instru ents% along with the more common dogs an" cats% or guitar an" "iano% which are inclu"e" in the wor" list as being useful to all learners( *t is not in an# case to be e:pecte" that the vocabular# of an# in"ivi"ual learner at Breakthrough or an# other! level will consist of all an" onl# the wor"s in the list( An# real life contact with the omnipresent English language will have e:pose" them to wor"s not specifie" here, which the# ma# well remember, recognise an" perhaps use when nee"e"( Fn the other han", part of the le:icon, especiall# the e:ponents of specific notions in Chapter /, ma# not be sufficientl# relevant to a learnerHs particular nee"s an" interests to justif# learning them for pro"uctive use( This ma# appl# to a whole "omain e(g( the vocational "omain for #ounger learners!( *nappropriate items ma# then be left asi"e for pro"uctive use, whilst perhaps being note" for purel# recognition purposes( Fverall, the active le:icon available to a learner at Breakthrough level for both pro"uctive an" receptive purposes seems likel# to amount to some 1/%J2%% hea"wor"s( The number available for receptive purposes is likel# to be higher, perhaps much higher, "epen"ing on age, knowle"ge of the worl", e"ucational level, heuristic skills an" previous plurilingual e:perience J inclu"ing the presence of loanwor"s from L& in L1( As the effect of these factors is not generaliAable, no account can be taken of them in this specification, but their importance shoul" not be un"erestimate"(

1$

Language functions
Ever# utterance has a role in communication, whether it is to state a fact, ask a ?uestion, e:press an opinion, make a re?uest or announce an intention( The fact ma# relate to the present or the past, an" ma# concern home life or a manufacturing process( *n an# situation a language user nee"s to be able to state a fact an" un"erstan" someone else=s assertions( For this reason, it is more economical to separate such functional categories an" the language which gives them e:pression from the "etails of what is being spoken of in an# one particular situation( *n this Breakthrough specification, language functions are classifie" un"er+ 1 & , / 1 1 1;1 imparting an" seeking factual information e:pressing an" eliciting attitu"es getting things "one suasion! socialiAing structuring "iscourse communication repair -he learner CAN i'*art and elicit factual infor'ation identif&ing with pointing gesture! an object! this one% that one% these% those a person! e% you% hi % her% us% the where pointing impossible! a person! )t N B! N e% you% hi % her% us% the ( a person or object! )t N B! N >) noun phrase!( re*orting 3descri(ing and narrating4 "eclarative sentences within the learnerHs grammatical an" le:ical competences see $+&(1! >'( This limitation applies wherever declarative sentence is specifie"( correcting As 1(1 an" 1(&, but with contrastive stress( asking a! for confirmation "eclarative sentences with high0rising intonation short ?uestions )% you% he% she% it% we% they N B!890V!8'28C0-8W)LLL 2:; b! for information &%

1;2

1; 1;#

Wh ?uestions+ time! When; place! Where; manner! 9ow; reason! Why; c! seeking i"entification Wh ?uestions+ person! Who; thing! What; Which N oneI>)!; 1;$ ans2ering <uestions a! for confirmation <es Ntag! -o Nnegative tag! b! for information short answers+ time an" place= a"verbs, prepositional phrases manner! prepositional phrases like this with "emonstration! reason! 6ecause N "eclarative sentence( c! for i"entification as 1(1( >) 2 2;1 2;1;1 -he learner CAN e+*ress and find out attitudes; !actual8 agree'ent) etc; e+*ressing agree'ent 2ith a state'ent with positive statements! <es N no" of the hea"!( with negative statements! -o N shake of the hea"!( e+*ressing disagree'ent 2ith a state'ent /orry!( with positive statements! -o N shake of the hea"!( with negative statements! <es N no" of the hea"!( en<uiring a(out agree'ent and disagree'ent 2:; den&ing so'ething -o N shake of the hea"!( &1

2;1;2

2;1; 2;1;#

2;2 2;2;1

!actual8 kno2ledge stating 2hether one kno2s or does not kno2 so'ething) so'eone) or a fact ) &don.t= know N >)!( ) know , "eclarative sentence( en<uiring 2hether so'eone kno2s or does not kno2 so'ething) so'eone) or a fact <ou know N >)!L <ou know , "eclarative sentence; !actual8 'odalit& e+*ressing a(ilit& and ina(ilit& >) N can &*t= N 9) inf( verb phrase infinitive! en<uiring a(out a(ilit& and ina(ilit& >) N can N 9) inf(L !actual8 certaint& e+*ressing ho2 certain one is of so'ething ) a &not= sure( en<uiring ho2 certain so'eone is of so'ething &<ou.re= sure; =(ligation e+*ressing o(ligation to do so'ething )% you% he% she% we% they I >) have to N 9) inf( e+*ressing one is not o(liged to do so'ething )% you% he% she% we% they I >) don.t 8 doesn.t have to , 9) inf( en<uiring 2hether one is o(liged to do so'ething )% you% he% she% we they N have 8 has to N 9) inf(; Per'ission giving *er'ission <es( <ou% he% she% they can N 9) inf(!( seeking *er'ission Can )% he% she% we% they N 9) inf(!;

2;2;2

2; 2; ;1 2; ;2 2;# 2;#;1 2;#;2 2;$ 2;$;1

2;$;2 2;, 2;,;1

2;,;2

&&

2;,;

stating that *er'ission is not given -o( &). = sorry( <ou% he% she% they% can.t N 9) inf(!( >olitional e+*ressing 2ants) desires something! ).d like , >)% "lease( to "o something! ).d like to N 9) inf(, please( asking for something! Can ) have N >), "lease; asking to "o something! see &(1en<uiring a(out 2ants) desires <ou would like &to do= so ething; to have something! >); to "o something! <ou% he% she% they would like to N 9) inf(; e+*ressing intention >) N will N9) inf(!( en<uiring a(out intention >) N will N 9) inf(!L e+*ressing *reference ) &*d= like , >) 6etter86est( E'otional e+*ressing and re*orting e'otional states )> I>),B! &very= ha""y 8 sad 8 glad 8 e7cited 8 worried 8 a#raid( en<uiring a(out e'otional states 9ow are you; e+*ressing liking Lovely? >) , B! &very= nice( )I>) love&s= 8 like&s= N >) very uch!( e+*ressing dislike &,

2;1 2;1;1

2;1;2

2;1; 2;1;# 2;1;$ 2;5 2;5;1 2;5;2 2;5;

2;5;#

9orri6le? >) , B! N not very nice( )% he% she% we% they hate N >)( "isgust! @gh? 2;5;$ en<uiring a(out 3dis4*leasure) 3dis4like 2:; 'o you like , >); e+*ressing ho*e ) ho"e N so I "eclarative sentence( e+*ressing satisfaction Aood? e+*ressing dissatisfaction )t.s not good( en<uiring a(out satisfaction 2:;

2;5;, 2;5;1 2;5;5 2;5;6

2;5;19 giving reassurance -ever ind( There% there( 2;5;11 e+*ressing disa**oint'ent What a "ity? 2;5;12 e+*ressing gratitude Thank you &very uch=( 2;6 2;6;1 2;6;2 %oral a*ologi?ing /orry? granting forgiveness 2:( That.s all right( e+*ressing a**roval &Very= Aood? e+*ressing a**reciation &Very= good? &Very= nice? &-

2;6; 2;6;#

2;6;$

e+*ressing regret a shake of the hea"! &). = &very= sorry( e+*ressing indifference with a shrug of the shoul"ers! )t is not i "ortant( )t doesn.t atter( -he learner CAN get things done 3suasion4;

2;6;,

;1

suggesting a course of action Why not , 9); inclu"ing the speaker! Let.s N9)!( agreeing to a suggestion 2:( <es% why not; <es% let>s( re<uesting others to do so'ething +lease N 9) imperative( +lease can you N 9) infinitive( inviting others to do so'ething +lease N 9) i "=( Would you like to , 9) in#(L acce*ting an offer or invitation Thank you( <es% "lease( declining an offer or invitation -o% thank you( with shake of hea" ! /orry? en<uiring 2hether an invitation or offer is acce*ted or declined F<L Can you , 9) inf(!; advising others to do so'ething Why not N 9) inf(L 2arning &Be= Care#ul!

;2

;#

;$

;,

;1

;5 ;6

&/

;19 ;11

offering assistance Can ) hel" you; re<uesting assistance 9el"? Can you hel" e% "lease; -he learner CAN sociali?e; attracting attention 9ello? !7cuse e% "lease( greeting *eo*le 9ello , name!? 9ow are you; res*onding Fine% thank you( addressing *eo*le strangers! no a""ress form "eferential or formal, especiall# in writing! /ir8Mada ac?uaintances! Mr 8 Mrs 8 Miss , famil# name frien"s an" relations= #irst na e( introducing so'eone other people! a""ress form N! This is N name( oneself! 9ello? ). , name( reacting to (eing introduced 5elloM formal! 5ow "o #ou "oL congratulating so'eone Congratulations! Well done? *ro*osing a toast Cheers! -aking leave Aood6ye? -he learner CAN structure discourse; o*ening a conversation &1

# #;1

#;2

#; #;#

#;$

#;,

#;1

#;5 #;6 $ $;1

9ello? Well% B $;2 e+*ressing hesitation) looking for 2ords O er ((( O er% what is it% er ((( correcting oneself incorrect form! no% sorry N correcte" form enu'erating first item! and secon" item! and thir" item! su''ing u* O and so O closing Well% thank you( Aood6ye( @sing the tele*hone; o*ening if the caller! 9ello% this is N name( if another person calle"! 9ello; N own telephone numberIname! asking for an e+tension numberIname N "lease re<uesting or giving notice of a ne2 call &) will= call 6ack later( =*ening and closing a letter or e/'ail; o*ening 'ear N a""ress form( cf -(-! closing <ours% , signature on ne:t line -he learner CAN re*air snags in co''unication; signalling non/understanding /orry &;=

$; $;# $;$ $;,

$;1 $;1;1

$;1;2 $;1; $;5 $;5;1 $;5;2 , ,;1

&2

,;2

asking for overall re*etition /orry; 0gain% "lease( asking for *artial re*etition /orry; N75L! asking for clarification /orry; N ?uerie" wor"!; asking for confir'ation of understanding &/orry%= you said N ?uerie" wor"!; asking for a 2ord to (e s*elt out +lease s"ell that( asking for so'ething to (e 2ritten do2n +lease write that( e+*ressing ignorance of an e+*ression /orry% ) don.t know the word( a**ealing for assistance What is N native language e:pression! in !nglish; asking a s*eaker to slo2 do2n /lowly% "lease(

,; ,;# ,;$ ,;, ,;1 ,;5 ,;6 ,;19

&3

General notions

Introduction .eneral notions ma# be thought of as the glue that hol"s a language together( To change the metaphor, it is the closel# spun network of interlocking concepts which make a language an integrate" instrument of thought rather than a set of s#mbols( *n English, the linguistic e:ponents of general notions are for the most part grammatical categories, such as tenses an" the singularIplural "istinction, or high0fre?uenc# close" le:ical sets, either with grammatical functions, such as prepositions an" articles, or such close" sets as car"inal an" or"inal numbers or "a#s of the week an" months of the #ear( Breakthrough level is conceive" as the lowest level at which general notions can be consi"ere" to form a coherent s#stem, though still at an earl# stage of "evelopment( An attempt is ma"e here to cover a broa" enough range to justif# that claim, whilst offering onl# the minimal an" simplest e:ponents(
(

General notions for Breakthrough 2ith reco''ended e+*onents 1 1;1 E+istential e+istence) non/e+istence There is N >)( There is no , >)( There is &no= N >); *resence) a(sence &not= here% &not= there availa(ilit&) non/availa(ilit& as 1(1 occurrence) non/occurrence to ha""en "*atial location here% there Where; relative *osition in% on% under% 6ehind% near distance &not= #ar &#ro = &$

1;2 1; 1;# 2 2;1

2;2 2;

9ow #ar; 2;# 'otion go% co e% sto"% start% ove% "ush% "ull% #all% dro"% li#t sit% stand% lie direction here% away% u"% down% le#t% right to% #ro % 6ack% #orward 6ring% take% send% "ut origin #ro arrange'ent #irst% then% last 6e#ore% a#ter di'ension si?e &not= 6ig% tall% high% dee" 9ow 6ig% tall% high% dee"; length inch% #oot% yard% ile centi etre% etre% kilo etre &not= long 9ow long; *ressure &not= heavy 9ow heavy; 2eight ounce% "ound% ton gra e% kilo&gra &not= heavy 9ow heavy; volu'e "int litre &not= uch 9ow uch; s*ace ,%

2;$

2;, 2;1

2;5 2;5;1

2;5;2

2;5;

2;5;#

e=

2;5;$

2;5;,

&not= 6ig 9ow 6ig; 2;5;1 te'*erature degree &not= hot% &not= cold 9ow hot;% 9ow cold; -e'*oral ;1 *oints of ti'e number 1 J 1&! N o.clock number 1 J 1&= , number 1 J /$! What.s the ti e; divisions of ti'e second% inute% hour% day% week% onth% year ti es o# day$ orning% a#ternoon% evening% night seasons$ s"ring% su er% autu n% winter indications of ti'e yesterday% today% to orrow last8this8ne7t N items in ,(& "ates+ or"inal numbers 1 J ,1 N month N #ear names of "a#s of week+ Monday% Tuesday% Wednesday% Thursday% Friday% /aturday% /unday names of months of #ear+ Canuary% Fe6ruary% March% 0"ril% May% Cune% Culy% 0ugust% /e"te 6er% 2cto6er% -ove 6er% 'ece 6er names of #ears at , time on N "a# in N month, #ear duration #or% until% since% 6y &not= long 9ow long; earliness &too= early lateness &too= late anteriorit& 6e#ore% earlier

;2

;#

;$ ;, ;1

,1

;5 ;6 ;19

*osteriorit& a#ter% later se<uence #irst% then si'ultaneit& at the sa e ti e Bcontinuous= aspect future reference >) N will N 9) inf( soon% later ne7t N items in ,(& to orrow% tonight *resent reference simple present present continuous present perfect now *ast reference simple past past continuous yesterday ago last N items in ,(& si'*le *resent dela& late s*eed &not= &very= #ast number N miles an hour written "h! fre<uenc& always% never% so eti es every N items in ,(& continuit& continuous aspect perfective aspect #or N number N secon"s, #ears, etc(

;11

;12

;1

;1# ;1$ ;1,

;11

;15

,&

since , items in ,(, ;16 ;29 ;21 inter'ittence so eti es% not always *er'anence always% never te'*orariness continuous aspect as in+ ) a living in London vs( ) live in London! #or N "ivision of time see ,(&! re*etitiousness again% any ti es% number N ti es% so eti es uni<ueness only one ti e co''ence'ent start since , items in ,(, cessation sto" until% 6y N items in ,(, sta(ilit& stay% wait always% never change) transition 6eco e Auantitative nu'(er singularIplural car"inal numbers 1 D 99% hundred% thousand% illion or"inal numbers+ #irst% second% third% etc(% 1st D 1%000%000th fractions+ hal#, one N or"inal number( +oint as in+ one "oint three #ive, written 1(,/! <uantit& not N! all% uch% any% enough% any% so e 9ow N uch% any; cu"%86ottle8glass8"iece N o# N >

;22 ;2 ;2#

;2$

;2,

;21 # #;1

#;2

,,

#;

degree comparative an" superlative of a"jectives an" a"verbs in vocabular# not N! very% too% enough% uch% 5uite Aualitative *h&sical sha*e round di'ension see &(3 'oisture) hu'idit& wet% dry visi(ilit&) sight see% light% dark% look audi(ilit&) hearing hear% sound% loud% listen taste and s'ell to taste, to smell sweet% sour &not= good like N >) te+ture hard colour 6lue% green% yellow% red% 6lack% white% grey% 6rown

$ $;1 $;1;1 $;1;2 $;1; $;1;# $;1;$ $;1;,

$;1;1 $;1;5 $;1;6

age &not= new% young% old 9ow old; >) , B! , number N years old! see also Chapter 1, 1(1 an" Chapter /, A(1(/ $;1;19 *h&sical condition and actions well% strong hurt% dead hit% kick% kill% throw $;1;11 accessi(ilit& ,-

&not= o"en $;1;12 cleanness &to= clean% dirty dirt $;1;1 'aterial air% water & ade o# ,= leather% "lastic% wood% "a"er% etal% cloth% glass

$;1;1# fullness #ull% to #ill% &to= e "ty $;2 $;2;1 evaluative value) *rice 9ow uch; &not= chea" see also Chapter /, 3(/! <ualit& &not= &very= good% well acce*ta(ilit& 2: ade<uac& &not= 2: &not= a"j! enough &not= too Na"j desira(ilit&Bundesira(ilit& nice, to like see also Chapter ,, &(3(,, &(3(/! correctnessBincorrectness &not= right ca*acit&Binca*acit& can% can.t i'*ortance &not= i "ortant 9ow i "ortant; nor'alit&Ba(nor'alit& &un=usual&ly= ,/

$;2;2 $;2; $;2;#

$;2;$

$;2;, $;2;1 $;2;5

$;2;6

$;2;19 facilit&Bdifficult& &not= easy , ,;1 %ental reflection to ho"e% to know% to think see Chapter ,, &(/ J &(1% an" &(&-! e+*ression to say% to ask% to write Relational s*atial relations see Chapter -, &(& J &(, an" &(/ J &(2! te'*oral relations see Chapter -, ,(- J ,(1-! action/event relations agenc& agent as subject >) as in+ My cat eats #ish(! o(7ective objective as object >) as in+ 9e eats #ish(! dative to , >) as in+ Aive the 6ook to e(! instru'ental with N >) as in+ 9e o"ened the door with his key(! (enefactive #or , >) as in+ ) have 6ought this #or you(! *lace see Chapter -, section &! ti'e see Chapter -, section ,! 'anner) 'eans like this with "emonstration! #ast% well% hard ,1

,;2 1 1;1 1;2 1; 1; ;1 1; ;2 1; ; 1; ;# 1; ;$ 1; ;, 1; ;1 1; ;5

9ow; with N>) 1;# 1;#;1 contrastive relations e<ualit&Bine<ualit& &not= the sa e as N >)!, another &not= as a"jIa"v as >) contrast &not= like comparative "egree N than N>) *ossessive relations o2nershi*) *ossession possessive a"jectives+ y% your% his% her% its% our% their possessive pronouns+ ine% yours% his% hers% ours% theirs have% give% get logical relations con7unction and% 6ut dis7unction or inclusionBe+clusion with&out= cause Why; 6ecause o# N >) 6ecause N sentence 6! effect so reason Why; 6ecause o# , >) 6ecause N 6 *ur*ose to N 9) inf as in+ ) did it to hel" you(!

1;#;2

1;$ 1;$;1

1;, 1;,;1 1;,;2 1;,; 1;,;#

1;,;$ 1;,;,

1;,;1

,2

1;,;5 5 5;1 5;1;1

condition i# N 6 Dei+is definite non/ana*horic

personal pronouns, subject forms+ * #ou he she it we the# personal pronouns, non0subject forms+ me #ou him her it us them possessive a"jectives+ m# #our his her its our their possessive pronouns+ mine #ours his hers 0 ours theirs "emonstrative a"jectives an" pronouns+ this that these those "efinite article+ the interrogative 75! pronouns+ 7hoL 7hatL 7hichL interrogative a"jectives+ 7hatL 7hich N >)L a"verbs+ here there now then

5;1;2

ana*horic
personal pronouns, subject forms+ he she it the# personal pronouns, non0subject forms+ him her it them possessive a"jectives+ his her its their possessive pronouns+ his hers 0 theirs "emonstrative a"jectives an" pronouns+ this that these those a"verbs+ there then pro0clause+ so as in+ )s the #ood good; ) think so(! "efinite article+ the propwor"+ one as in+ ) like the red one(! pro09)+ do &so= as in+ 9e asked e to co e in and ) did &so=(!

5;2

indefinite
in"efinite article in"efinite pronouns, personal in"efinite pronouns non0personal in"efinite a"verbs+ place in"efinite a"verbs+ time in"efinite a"verbs+ manner a, an somebo"# something somewhere some times somehow an#bo"# an#thing an#where an# time an#how nobo"# nothing nowhere never in no wa# ever#bo"# ever#thing ever#where alwa#s

5;

"e'i/deictics
.eneric nouns ma# be use" in a "eictic, more particularl# an anaphoric function e(g( "erson% "eo"le% an% wo an% 6oy% girl% child% ani al% "lant% thing% stu##% "lace% ti e% way as in+ ) know Bill well and ) like the an(!

,3

-he'es and s*ecific notions

Introduction Communication takes place in specific situations in major social "omains an" "eals with specific themes( Concepts which are closel# linke" to the themes characteristicall# han"le" in the situations arising in particular "omains are terme" Hspecific notionsH( Csing the means of e:pression in Chapters , an" - an" the vocabular# given in this chapter, learners CA> state an" write "own e(g( in application an" registration forms, personal letters an" notes! the information in"icate" in the can0"o specification for each successive theme( The# CA> elicit an" un"erstan" similar information from others, using, if necessar#, the means for communication repair in Chapter , section 1( The# CA> "raw upon the linguistic resources set out in this chapter when carr#ing out the other functions given in Chapter ,( 6ince these abilities are of general application, the# are state" here once for all an" will not be restate" for each theme in"ivi"uall#( >'( 8an# of the items below) though intro"uce" in connection with a particular theme, are of wi"er application( *n"ee", at Breakthrough level, where learners are encourage" to make the wi"est use of ver# limite" resources, brea"th of application is a strong criterion for le:ical selection( 6pecific vocabular# items are given in roman t#peface, e(g( birth"a#!( Thematic le:ical categories are given in italics e(g( na es o# countries=( *n some cases e(g( cardinal nu 6ers= this is "one simpl# for practical reasons@ one cannot list a million numbersM *n most cases, learners will nee" to ac?uire those items relevant to them, however infre?uent the wor"s ma# be in general usage e(g(H * come from 9a"uA, in LiechtensteinH(!( 7here e:amples are given, the# are the wor"s most likel# to be of some relevance to most, if not all, learners e(g( for ani als, "og, cat!( Do'ains) the'es) can/do state'ents and s*ecific notions for Breakthrough including reco''ended e+*onents A; Personal do'ain A;1 Personal identification

A"ult learners CA> state an" write "own e(g( in application an" registration forms, or in personal notes!+ their name, a""ress, telephone number an" e0mail a""ress, nationalit#, where the# are from, what the# "o for a living, their famil#, personal relations, likes an" "islikes, personal possessions(

,$

The# CA> elicit an" un"erstan" similar information from others, using, if necessar#, the means for communication repair in Chapter , section 1( 7ith assistance, if necessar#, #ounger learners CA> state an" elicit information regar"ing+ their name, a""ress, famil#, frien"s, pets, school an" personal possessions( The# can spell their name an" a""ress an" give a telephone number( A;1;1 Na'e personal na es #irst na es nickna es #a ily na es 8r( 8rs( 8iss 8s( writing onl#! Pto write Pna es o# letters o# the al"ha6et Pto be see also Chapter -, sections -(-, J -(/! A;1;2 address to live street na es number na es o# cities na es o# countries A;1; tele*hones) fa+ and e/'ail telephone cardinal nu 6ers 0D10 to phone number Aero nought, oh receptive! fa: e0mail at written BQ=! "ot written B(=! slash written BI=!

A;1;# date and *lace of (irth to be born, birth"a# see Chapter -, section ,(, an" Chapter /, section 1(&! A;1;$ age see Chapter -, section /(1($!

-%

A;1;, se+ male female man woman bo# girl A;1;1 'arital status not! marrie" A;1;5 nationalit& na es o# nationalities A;1;6 origin to be from O na es o# countries A;1;19 occu*ation see also section C below! na es o# occu"ations to be a O e(g( * am a teacher@ m# mother is a nurse(! "laces o# work to! work e(g( 7hat is #our workL * work in a hospital(! A;1;11 education see also section 4 below! school universit# stu"ent to stu"# to learn to go to school, universit#! na es o# su6Eects A;1;12 fa'il& famil# father mother husban" wife chil" son "aughter brother sister cousin A;1;1 religion -1

na es o# religious a##iliations e(g( Christian, Catholic, )rotestant, Frtho"o:, 8uslim, 5in"u, Agnostic, Atheist! .o" faith to believe A;1;1# likes and dislikes 6ee Chapter ,, &(3(,0&(3(/ o6Eects o# likes and dislikes to 6e derived #ro this and other the es( A;1;1$ character and *ersonal a**earance to be N not! N ver#! to look N not! N ver#! brave clever kin" nice tall slim "ark fair
A;2

Couse) ho'e and environ'ent

Learners CA> refer to the home+ its rooms, furnishings, e?uipment, services, amenities, an" to the main features of the environment+ its lan"scape, climate an" weather, flora an" fauna( The# can un"erstan" an" elicit similar information from other people( Kounger learners CA> name man# of the common Aoo an" "omestic animals an" their #oung( The# CA> "escribe their own pets an" their care( The# CA> listen to simple stories about animals, rea" ver# simple well0illustrate" chil"ren=s books about animals an" watch animal films, vi"eos an" T9 broa"casts( A;2;1 acco''odation) roo's house flat room floor bathroom be"room toilet living0room kitchen garage gar"en win"ow "oor wall -&

to! rent A;2;2 furniture) (edclothes chair table be" be"clothes A;2; services heat ing! light ing! switch onIoff!

A;2;# e<ui*'ent and a'enities machine bath shower telephone computer cooker fri"ge A;2;$ household articles knife fork spoon plate cup bottle glass towel bo: clock A;2;, environ'ent town park countr# fiel" hill river lake sea si"e! A;2;1 flora and fauna animal -,

pet na es o# ani als &"ets% 4oo and do estic= e(g( cat, "og, tiger, cow, bir", insect! na es o# "lants e(g( grass, flower, tree, vegetable, plant! A;2;5 cli'ate and 2eather weather sun n#! rain #! fog g#! snow #! ice, ic# win" #! storm #! floo" A; Dail& life

Learners CA> speak about the main features of their "ail# routines at home, an" elicit an" un"erstan" similar information from other people( The# can talk about the major seasonal an" religious festivals( A; ;1 at ho'e home to get up to wash to un!"ress to go to be" to have+ a meal breakfast lunch "inner supper to clean to go+ out to work to school shopping to come home A; ;2 seasonal festivals na es o# #estivals e(g( Christmas, Easter! A;#; !ree ti'e) entertain'ent

--

Learners CA> sa# when the# are free an" what the# "o in their spare time( The# can elicit an" un"erstan" information on these topics from other people( A;#;1 leisure to be free "lus ti e re#erence see Chapter -, section ,! to go on! holi"a# see also Chapter /, section '(&! to go out A;#;2 *la& and ga'es to pla# to# "oll "raw ing! paint ing! game na es o# ga es e(g( lu"o, snap, poker! na es o# "layground e5ui" ent e(g( swing, sli"e, see0saw! A;#; ho((ies and interests hobb# na es o# ho66ies e(g( gar"ening, 4*K! na es o# #ields o# interest e(g( the *nternet, the arts, sport, politics! walk to collect

A;#;# entertain'ent) 'edia ra"io hi0fi to listen to! television, T9 vi"eo to watch programme news ?uiA film music A;#;$ intellectual and artistic *ursuits to! talk to rea" book art music kinds o# usic e(g( classical, pop! na es o# usical instru ents e(g( guitar, piano, violin! to sing, song -/

"ance A;#;, s*orts and *h&sical activities sport na es o# s"orts and ga es e(g( football, athletics, chess! match to pla# to win to swim to walk to run to! c#cle A;#;1 *ress news!paper magaAine stor# article picture page A;$ Relations 2ith other *eo*le

Learners CA> refer to an" establish personal relations, participate in social life an" "eal with correspon"ence( The# CA> un"erstan" simple information, e(g( on "ates, names, places, a""resses, wishes, etc( on postcar"s, greetings car"s, invitations, etc( A;$;1 social life see also Chapter ,, section -! bo#0Igirl0! frien" partner colleague guest to know to visit present part# A;$;2 corres*ondence see also Chapter ,, section /(3! to write to! to hear from! car" letter fa: e0mail to sen" to get paper -1

pen pencil envelope to answer B; -he *u(lic do'ain B;1 Pu(lic entertain'ent8 cine'a) theatre) s*ectator s*orts

A"ult an" teenage learners CA> take part in public entertainment events, fin"ing out what is on offer, booking an" bu#ing tickets, bu#ing programmes, fin"ing their seats, etc( The# CA> "iscuss them later( The# CA> recogniAe relevant information in written te:ts, such as on posters an" in programmes( Kounger learners CA> talk about films, etc( the# like, have seen or want to see( cinema theatre sta"ium kinds o# entertain ent e(g( pla#, film, show, concert, gig! to watch ticket programme seat B;2 -ravel

A"ult an" teenage learners CA> refer to places, speak about an" use travel facilities, such as means of public an" private transport, tourist accommo"ation, luggage an" "ocuments( The# CA> elicit an" un"erstan" such information from other people( The# CA> give an" receive simple "irections, written an" spoken, as to how to get to places( The# CA> gather relevant information from written te:ts, such as timetables, roa"si"e signs an" notices( Kounger learners CA> name, "escribe an" talk about means of transport, journe#s the# have ma"e, places the# like, have been to or woul" like to visit( The# CA> give an" follow simple "irections, especiall# if repeate" an" accompanie" b# appropriate gestures( B;2;1 *laces see Chapter -, sections &(1J&(1 an" Chapter /, sections A(1(& an" A(&(1! *u(lic trans*ort to go b#! eans o# trans"ort e(g( bus, coach, train, plane, ta:i, ship, tram! ticket return to go N "lace and ti e re#erences see Chapter -, sections & an" ,! to arrive

-2

station airport stop platform information B;2;2 *rivate trans*ort bi!c#cle car to "rive "river garage petrol B2; traffic) directions street roa" motorwa# traffic lights co on road sign te7ts &e(g( 6topM, 6lowM, acci"ent, roa"works ahea"! stop turn! left, right keep! straight on park

B;2;# holida&s tourist visit na es o# sights and 6uildings o# interest foreign na es o# cities na es o# countries na es o# continents beach B;2;$ acco''odation hotel campsite tent to book single room "ouble room ke# bill B;2;, luggage luggage -3

case bag B;2;1 docu'ents passport insurance "riving licence B; Cealth and (od& care

All learners CA> refer to matters of personal well0being, personal h#giene an" health( The# CA> "escribe s#mptoms in simple terms to a "octor or "entist( A"ult learners CA> elicit an" un"erstan" similar information from other people( The# CA> report acci"ents an" use me"ical services an" un"erstan" simple information an" instructions given b# a "octor or nurse, using repair strategies as nee"e"( The# CA> rea" an" un"erstan" simple written instructions such as those on me"icine bottles, tablets, etc( B; ;1 *arts of the (od& na es o# "arts o# the 6ody e(g( hea", e#es, ears, nose, mouth, tooth, chest, back, stomach, arms, legs, fingers, foot! B; ;2 *ersonal 2ell/(eing to feel to look un!well better hungr# thirst# tire" awake asleep to! sleep to wake up B; ; h&giene towel wash bath shower soap

B; ;# ail'ents) accidents 5elpM na es o# illnesses e(g( col", flu! ill ness! to have a! painIache in a bo"# part! -$

hurt acci"ent fire break burn cut bloo" B; ;$ 'edical services me"icine tablet na es o# edicines e(g( aspirin, antibiotic! hospital clinic "octor nurse "entist chemist me"icine glasses ambulance B;# "ho**ing

Learners CA> refer to an" use shopping facilities, refer to an" purchase goo"s, such as foo"stuffs, clothes an" souvenirs, using repair proce"ures as nee"e", an" elicit an" un"erstan" information from others on these matters( The# CA> un"erstan" store gui"es e(g( information on where to fin" goo"s, lifts, toilets, etc(!( The# CA> gather simple information from the labelling of goo"s name, price, contents, sell0 R use0b# "ates, instructions for cooking, cleaning, etc!( B;#;1 sho**ing facilities shop to go! shopping market supermarket store na es o# kinds o# sho" e(g( baker#, florist=s! na es o# goods e(g( brea", book, to#, necklace, hankies! to pa# for! to bu# to sell na es o# weights and easures e(g( gramme, kilo, metre! see also Chapter ,, sections &(2 an" ,(1 J ,(1%! B;#;2 foodstuffs /%

see Chapter /, section '(/(1! B;#; clothes) fashion see also Chapter -, section &(3(1 an" /(1(2 J /(1(3! clothes na es o# articles o# clothing e(g( coat, skirt, "ress, shirt, trousers, jeans, shoes, socks! to put on to take off watch

B;#;# *rices and <ualit& of goods see also Chapter -, section /! cost to pa# sale mone# note change poun" written S! penn# euro written T! cent na es o# national currencies e(g( "ollar, franc! cre"it car" receipt B;$ !ood and drink

Learners CA> refer to, bu# an" or"er various kin"s of foo" an" "rink an" CA> elicit an" un"erstan" information from other people on these matters( B;$;1 t&*es of food and drink see also Chapter -, section -(& an" Chapter /, section A(&(/ for eating implements! foo" to eat to taste vegetable na es o# vegeta6les sala" to!cook e"! meat na es o# kinds o# eat e(g( pork, beef, lamb! sausage fish na es o# kinds o# #ish e(g( co", salmon, tuna! /1

chicken egg cheese soup salt pepper fruit na es o# #ruits e(g( apple, orange! brea" butter sweet s! chocolate ice 0cream! to! "rink na es o# drinks e(g( water, milk, lemona"e, beer, wine! B;$;2 eating and drinking out restaurant cafU pub bar menu bill self0service waiter B;, "ervices

A"ult learners CA> refer to an" use postal, banking, garage, me"ical, securit# an" emergenc# services( The# CA> elicit an" un"erstan" information from others on these matters( The# CA> rea" an" un"erstan" the basic information an" instructions on public signs, notices, leaflets an" brochures relating to these services( Kounger learners CA> name buil"ings, jobs an" workers in the service area( *n post offices, clinics an" in contact with police officers, the# CA> make simple re?uests an" ask, un"erstan" an" answer ?uestions relevant to their nee"s, if given help( B;,;1 *ost see also Chapter /, section A(/(&! post office mail parcel B;,;2 tele*hone) fa+ and e/'ail see Chapter ,, sections /(2 J 1(1% an" Chapter /, section A(1(,! B;,; (ank see also Chapter /, section '(-(/! /&

bank change note traveller=s! che?ue to! cash B;,;# *olice police police! officer police station to steal to lose B;,;$ 'edical services see Chapter /, section '(,! B;,;, garage) (reakdo2n services garage na es o# "arts o# car problem not! to work broken to repair to tow B;,;1 *etrol station see also Chapter -, section &(3(/! petrol oil full to check to wash

C;

-he vocational do'ain

7ithin the limits of this specification, an" using repair an" "iscover# strategies as nee"e", a"ult learners CA> refer to their emplo#ment, status an" "uties an" elicit similar information from others( The# CA> state simple work0relate" service re?uirements in speech an" writing an" un"erstan" simple replies( The# CA> un"erstan" simple instructions an" take an" pass on simple messages face0to0face or b# telephone an" leave messages for others( The# CA> e:tract relevant information from a short report on a familiar matter, provi"e" that it is clearl# e:presse" in simple language, the contents are pre"ictable an" enough time is given( The# CA> un"erstan" the general meaning of a presentation ma"e at a meeting, conference or "emonstration, if the language is simple /,

an" backe" up b# visuals or vi"eo( The# CA> ask for clarification an" un"erstan" a simple, brief, clear repl#( The# CA> e:press an opinion in simple terms, if the ?uestionIissue has been put clearl#( The# CA> un"erstan" a short pro"uct "escription within their own area of work, provi"e" that this is e:presse" in simple language an" "oes not contain unpre"ictable "etail( The# CA> un"erstan" written instructions in notices, in pamphlets, manuals, etc(, concerne" with safet#, securit#, working practices, operation of machiner#, etc( 6ubject to the same con"itions an" constraints, teenage learners CA> refer to the worl" of work, en?uire as to possible future career possibilities an" un"erstan" simple presentations an" replies to en?uiries( Kounger learners CA> i"entif# some common places of work e(g( office, hospital, school, farm, factor#! an" professions e(g( "octor, nurse, policeman, farmer!( The# CA> name the profession an" place of work of other famil# members( "laces o# work e(g( office, hospital, factor#! na es o# "ro#essions e(g( law#er, engineer, accountant! kinds o# Eo6 e(g( cleaner, porter, "river, mechanic, buil"er! work grades and status e(g( boss, manager, worker! occu"ational titles e(g( sales e:ecutive, personal assistant! na es o# tools and achines e(g( spanner, hammer, boiler, computer! na es o# de"art ents e(g( stores, personnel, accounts! na es o# co "anies business tra"e in"ustr# service work job to make buil" ing! to run e(g( a business! colleague mate customer client train ing! emplo# sack unemplo#e" securit# safet# /-

4angerM first ai" welfare report memo salar# wage earn ings! overtime fee tra"e union strike

D;

-he educational do'ain

7ithin the scope of this specification, using repair an" "iscover# proce"ures where nee"e", teenage stu"ents an" a"ult learners CA> follow a course of instruction in the language concerne" up to the level here "escribe", given that the teacher presents the material clearl# an" simpl#( *n particular, the# CA> un"erstan" an", if necessar#, check an" take "own basic "etails of arrangements such as lecture, class an" e:am times, "ates an" room numbers given orall# b# teachers, or from classroom boar"s, notice boar"s or han"outs( The# CA> rea" an" cop# "own notes written b# teachers an" lecturers, giving instructions on assignments, e?uipment, rea"ing lists, tutorial times, etc( The# CA> un"erstan" te:tbooks an" other teaching materials as well as e:amination rubrics aime" at this level, following instructions an" un"erstan"ing ke# points( The# CA> follow the main gist of an article an" follow argumentation if couche" in simple language( The# CA> make notes for their own later reference or for a fellow0stu"ent( The# CA> take a limite" part in a seminar or tutorial, provi"e" this is con"ucte" s#mpatheticall#, using simple language( *n a language class, the# can answer ?uestions put to them clearl# an" simpl# b# the teacher an" participate effectivel# in group an" pair work with other stu"ents at a similar level( The# can refer to foreign language abilit# an" "eal with problems of un"erstan"ing an" e:pression see Chapter ,, sections 1(1 J 1(1%, Chapter -, sections /(&(2 an" /(&(1% an" 1(& an" Chapters 1 J $!( Koung learners age" 2J11! CA> un"erstan" an" respon" appropriatel# to the language use" b# the teacher in classroom management e(g( greetings, instructions, in"ications of corrections, corrections, encouragement!( The# CA> i"entif# features of the school environment an" e?uipment an" objects use" in the classroom( The# CA> ask simple ?uestions relating to nee"s for pencil, paper, etc(, to go to the toilet, etc(! an" un"erstan" answers given slowl#, simpl# an" clearl#, using simple repair strategies if necessar#( The# CA> rea" classroom notices, labels an" captions( The# CA> cop# sentences from //

the classroom boar"( The# CA> follow simple movement comman"s an" participate in pla#groun" activities( ty"es o# institution e(g( school, college, universit#! na es o# curricular su6Eects e(g( maths, languages, science, histor#! "arts o# educational 6uildings e(g( stu"#, classroom, toilet, librar#, hall, corri"or, pla#groun"! 6asic study ter inology e(g( sum, prove, grammar, e:periment, e:plain! classroo e5ui" ent e(g( boar", screen, "esk, computer, projector! "ersonal e5ui" ent e(g( pen, pencil, paper, rubber, ruler, te:tbook, workbook, laptop, C4! educational roles e(g( teacher, lecturer, tutor, stu"ent, pupil! stu"# learn rea" write listen ask answer ?uestion cop# "raw paint class teach lecture lesson homework test mark tick cross out! mistake correct

/1

Dealing 2ith te+ts8 rece*tive activities) *rocesses and strategiesD listening and reading

Listening As listeners, learners at Breakthrough level CA> recogniAe an" "istinguish b# ear the e:pressions, wor"s an" sentences containe" in the Breakthrough specification( The# CA> also "istinguish phonemicall# "istinct wor"s, such as proper names of people e(g( ;eanie, .inn#, ;enn#@ ;ane, ;an, ;ohn, ;oan, ;onah!, place names, etc( The# CA> recogniAe basic intonation patterns, such as that "istinguishing a ?uestion from a statement, e(g( 9e lives in +aris; I 9e lives in +aris( The# are, however, ver# "epen"ent on the con"itions( 6peech must be clear, free from broa" "ialectal "eviation from stan"ar" forms or from e:treme phonetic re"uction, relativel# slow an" "eliberate up to 3% wor"s per minute!( *n public places, the message shoul" also be transmitte" at a level well above the ambient noise level an" free from significant interference from other soun" sources( 6ubject to these con"itions an" constraints, learners CA> e:tract the gist an" ke# information items from simple public announcements such as those at stations, airports, police an" traffic instructions, etc( Cnfortunatel#, these con"itions are not so often metM The# CA> also, un"er such favourable con"itions, e:tract the gist an" relevant specific information from longer te:ts, such as news bulletins, pla#s an" films, given that there is strong visual support, an" CA> un"erstan" talks, stories, etc( given that the structures an" vocabular# are within the limits of the Breakthrough specification an" fre?uent pauses, repetitions, rephrasing, etc( slow "own the flow of information an" give the listener plent# of time to absorb the message( 7hen the con"itions are a"verse e(g( high noise level, interference, stress, "istractions, etc(! an"Ior the te:t pro"uce" is at a higher level of comple:it#, with a wi"er vocabular#, etc(, the abilit# of Breakthrough level listeners to un"erstan" a message is e:tremel# limite", but the# are still able to use listening strategies so as to bring other elements of their plurilingual competence to bear, such as recogniAing cognate forms from the mother tongue or other languages previousl# learnt or simpl# picking out wor"s an" h#pothesiAing topics an" meaning from their se?uence, using knowle"ge of the worl"( 5owever, a Breakthrough listener=s abilit# to "o so is highl# variable accor"ing to training an" e:perience( *t imposes consi"erable effort an" strain an" will often be aban"one", especiall# if the learner is tire"( 6uccessful communication often means a struggle to make the most of ina"e?uate means an" the abilit# of learners, even at an earl# stage, to "o so an" to learn from the e:perience shoul" be encourage" an" "evelope"( Reading Language learners at Breakthrough level will normall# be literate( 7ritten te:ts e(g( a te:tbook, workbook! will normall# be use" in courses lea"ing to Breakthrough, an"

/2

written te:ts will normall# form part of testing an" self0evaluation at this level( 6uch learners CA> i"entif# the letters of the alphabet in use in the countr# concerne", in upper an" lower case an" in printe" an" cursive forms, given that the han"writing is clear an" well0forme"( The# CA> also recogniAe numbers an" the most common logographic signs representing wor"s rather than soun"s, e(g( T, S, N, V, R! as well as basic t#pefaces e(g( roman, italic, bol"!( Learners at Breakthrough level CA> rea" public signs consisting of one or two of the wor"s given in Chapters ,J/ above, such as+ roa" signs, roa"si"e notices, filling station signs, etc( country% city and street na es sho" na es and kinds o# sho" e(g( baker=s, butcher=s, greengrocer=s! na es o# goods in shop win"ows, in "epartment stores an" in supermarkets( .iven that the information is clearl# an" simpl# presente" an" that a"e?uate time is available, a"ult an" ol"er teenage learners CA> e:tract the gist an" essential information from+ timetables newspaper weather reports an" forecasts, sports fi:tures an" results, e:change rates, etc( tourist brochures an" leaflets gui"es to hotels, etc( facilities telephone "irectories an" instructions labelling of goo"s giving prices, contents an" instructions for use bills, invoices an" receipts posters giving "etails of concerts, shows an" public events safet# an" securit# notices an" warnings instructions on ven"ing machines, cashpoints, "omestic machiner#, etc( The# CA> rea" short han"written notes e(g( .one out( 'ack at / pm(! The# CA> follow the gist of longer te:ts such as news items an" short stories, given the time to use rea"ing strategies such as e:ploiting knowle"ge of the worl" an" of the subject matter concerne", as well as of "iscourse structure@ recogniAing cognate wor"s loan wor"s from a known language@ h#pothesiAing meaning from conte:t@ consulting a bilingual "ictionar# if available( *n consulting a "ictionar# the# are aware of the problems pose" b# "olyse y several meanings for one wor" form!, false frien"s, etc( The abilit# of Breakthrough learners to "eal with te:ts above that level "epen"s greatl# on the language s! learners alrea"# know, their language learning e:perience, their knowle"ge of the worl", their problem0solving skills, etc( 7hilst it is impossible to buil" this abilit# into a Breakthrough specification, its e:istence shoul" not be ignore" or un"erestimate"( To "evelop such skills is an important aspect of language teaching an" learning at all levels(

/3

Productive tasks) activities) *rocesses and strategies8 s*eaking and 2riting

"*eaking Learners at Breakthrough level CA> pronounce wor"s, e:pressions an" statements in their repertor# intelligibl#, "ifferentiating phoneticall# "istinct wor"s so as to avoi" misun"erstan"ings( The# CA> use rising an" falling intonation patterns to signal ?uestions as oppose" to statements an" e:clamations e(g( 9e.s co ing; vs( 9e.s co ing?! The# CA> place stress on the correct s#llables of pol#s#llabic wor"s in their repertor#( The# CA> follow the in"ications of pronunciation in a "ictionar# the# habituall# use( Breakthrough learners will normall# speak when interacting face0to0face with one or more partners see Chapter 3!( 5owever, the# can recor" a short message on a familiar topic on an answerphone or voicemail s#stem( The# CA> "eliver a ver# short, rehearse" statement e(g( to intro"uce a speaker or propose a toast!( The# CA> "eliver a brief speech on a familiar topic to a s#mpathetic au"ience, using the language specifie" in Chapters , J /, provi"e" the# are given time to prepare, an" especiall# if the# can rea" alou" a prepare" written te:t( The# CA> rea" alou" a written te:t pro"uce" for them b# a proficient user of the language, if it is clearl# written in simple language within their repertor# an" given time for a"vance preparation( :riting Learners at Breakthrough level CA> write recogniAabl# the letters of the alphabet in use in the countr# concerne" an" combine them, together with punctuation marks an" the proper spacing, to form wor"s an" sentences( The# CA> cop# out a written te:t( The# CA> take "own in writing a "ictate" or recor"e" message within the limits of their repertor#( The# CA> write a brief message on a familiar topic in a familiar "omain, using the language resources set out in Chapters , J /( The# can take ver# simple notes for later consultation( .iven time for preparation an" consultation of sources an" reference works, Breakthrough learners CA> pro"uce somewhat longer te:ts, consisting of a se?uence of simple sentences, for e:ample, to give information of a personal character see Chapter /, section A! or to give information or a"vice in an area in which the# are professionall# competent see Chapter /, section C!( *n "oing so the# make use of such writing strategies as the following+ The# CA> make use of a relevant e:isting te:t pro"uce" b# a proficient user inclu"ing, but not confine" to phrase books! b# making slight grammatical changes an" replacing wor"s in the te:t b# appropriate items in their own vocabular#( The# CA> consult a bilingual "ictionar# an" are aware of the nee" to check carefull# to avoi" Hfalse frien"sH an" such "angers as choosing the wrong wor" in the case of

/$

pol#sem# in the source language, translating i"ioms literall#, etc( Clearl#, the abilit# of Breakthrough learners to use such strategies varies wi"el#, "epen"ing on their knowle"ge of the worl" an" on their previous e:perience of language learning an" use(

1%

Interaction and 'ediation

Chapters 1 an" 2 have "ealt with listening, rea"ing, speaking an" writing as isolate" activities, in which no imme"iate reaction from another person is e:pecte"( This is normall# the case with rea"ing an" writing( 7hen we rea" a publishe" book or a newspaper, the te:t is before us an" the person who has written it is far awa#( *n"ee", we ma# never know an#thing about the author or even who has written what( 7e are in no position to ask for clarification, challenge the author with a "ifferent opinion or interpretation, etc( 7hen we are listening to a lecture or a broa"cast ra"io or T9 programme, we cannot interrupt to ask ?uestions or to make our own comments( Complementaril#, if we are lecturing or making a public announcement, we make it to an au"ience an" tr# to take their nee"s an" characteristics into account, but cannot ask them to intervene or help us( *nteraction "iffers in that the participants alternate in pro"uctive an" receptive roles( *n man# wa#s, the te:t of a correspon"ence or a conversation as a whole is more than just the sum of the in"ivi"ual contributions( "*oken interaction 7ithin the limits of this specification, using the linguistic resources set out in Chapters ,, - an" /, learners at 'reakthrough level CA> interact in a simple wa#, given that the interlocutor is willing an" able to co0operate in repair proce"ures see Chapter ,, section 1!( The# CA> ask an" answer ?uestions, initiate an" respon" to simple statements in areas of imme"iate nee" or on ver# familiar topics( The# CA> un"erstan" an" respon" to utterances "elivere" "irectl# to them in clear, slow speech, an" follow short, simple "irections( The# CA> participate in a conversation an" in informal "iscussion among frien"s, following with un"erstan"ing the gist of what is sai" in a relativel# ?uiet atmosphere with a low level of noise an" interference from other conversations( The# CA> make brief contributions, given that interlocutors are patient an" co0operative, an" somewhat longer ones if the# are prepare" to accept an" compensate for the hesitations, wor"0fin"ing problems, false starts, slips of the tongue an" grammatical lapses, which are inevitable when a speaker is straining limite" an" unconsoli"ate" linguistic resources to e:press meaning without prior preparation an" rehearsal( At an interview, the# CA> un"erstan" simple, "irect ?uestions spoken ver# slowl# 3% wor"s per minute! in "irect, non0i"iomatic speech about personal an" vocational "etails an" clearl# in a close appro:imation to a stan"ar" accent, an" respon" with simple, "irect answers, given that the interviewer is patient an" co0operative( *n general, it shoul" be remembere" that in all cases of une?ual communicative interaction, as between a near0beginner an" a proficient language user, the responsibilit# for successful communication rests to a great e:tent with the stronger, better0e?uippe" partner( :ritten interaction Learners at Breakthrough level CA> con"uct a correspon"ence with a partner, giving an" eliciting personal information( .iven a mo"el to follow, the# CA> write a simple 11

letter of en?uir# about holi"a# travel an" accommo"ation, un"erstan" replies, raise an" answer ?ueries, give an" follow instructions within the limits of the Breakthrough specification an" using language resources set out in Chapters ,J/( 8uch, perhaps most, interaction can involve both speech an" writing( For instance, learners CA> un"erstan" the hea"ings asking for personal information on hotel registration forms, asking the counter clerk for clarification where necessar# an" un"erstan"ing the answers( The# CA> then complete the form with the personal information re?uire" an" check that the answers are in or"er( 6imilarl#, on leaving the hotel, the# can greet the counter clerk, ask for the bill, rea" it, check the charges, raise ?ueries an" un"erstan" the answers or amen"ments before pa#ing an" taking leave( Kounger learners are not calle" upon to manage travel arrangements in these wa#s( The# CA> con"uct a correspon"ence with a pen frien", e:changing personal information an" likes an" "islikes pets, hobbies, school, etc(!( The# CA> un"erstan" notes accompan#ing gifts an" write simple letters of thanks( The# CA> sen" greetings car"s, etc( with a brief message( Interaction strategies 7hen participating in communicative interactions, Breakthrough level learners CA> use interaction strategies( *n particular, the# CA> use repair proce"ures an" use the language pro"uce" b# the interlocutor as a template for an answer e(g( *nterlocutor J )t is very cold today% isn.t it; Learner J <es it is( Very cold(!( 6uch simple e:pressions, signalling un"erstan"ing an" agreement, are a normal part of ever#"a# conversation( The# are well within the scope of Breakthrough an" help to establish soli"arit# an" seal personal relations( %ediation *n me"iation, a language user acts as an interme"iar# between interlocutors who, for one reason or another, are unable to communicate "irectl#( This is in most cases "ue to each not knowing the language of the other( Formal translation an" interpretation are highl# skille" activities far be#on" the capabilities of learners at Breakthrough level( 5owever, an# language learners, even at an earl# stage an" with e:tremel# limite" resources, ma# fin" themselves in a situation where the# are able, an" usuall# e:pecte", to use their knowle"ge an" skills to help others to communicate with each other( "*oken 'ediation8 infor'al inter*retation *n the "ersonal do ain, Breakthrough learners CA> assist frien"s, famil# an" foreign guests to e:change information in the areas set out in Chapter /, section A( Fn famil# holi"a#s, or when giving hospitalit# to foreign visitors, the# CA> help others to cope with transactions in the "u6lic do ain, such as bu#ing tickets, or"ering meals an" un"erstan"ing public notices on posters, roa" signs, etc( 'oth a"ult learners an" #oung learners can perform these services( *n a""ition, a"ult learners CA> ren"er assistance in the vocational do ain, using the simple language at their "isposal to welcome clients an" customers from abroa", show them roun", help them with getting a meal or refreshments 1&

at the canteen, etc( The# shoul" not allow colleagues or superiors to e:pect services be#on" their actual ver# limite" competence( Koung learners CA> help others without an# knowle"ge of the language concerne" "uring school e:changes an" visits to bu# souvenirs, make frien"s, etc( Breakthrough level learners are particularl# likel# to be calle" upon for such services if the# have the abilit# to use, in no matter how simple a manner, one of the less wi"el# stu"ie" languages( :ritten 'ediation *t is ost inadvisa6le for learners at Breakthrough level to un"ertake to translate an# written "ocument with legal or commercial conse?uences( That is a task which ust be left to properl# ?ualifie" e:perts( Breakthrough level learners CA> write an informal note for a frien" or relation in their mother tongue, giving the gist of a newspaper report or a personal letter written in the language the# are stu"#ing, but shoul" alwa#s make clear their ver# limite" knowle"ge of the language an" "isclaim responsibilit# for its accurac#(

1,

General and language/related co'*etences

*n or"er to carr# out the tasks an" activities re?uire" to "eal with the communicative situations in which the# are involve", users an" learners "raw upon a number of competences "evelope" in the course of their previous e:perience( *n return, participation in communicative events inclu"ing, of course, those events specificall# "esigne" to promote language learning! results in the further "evelopment of the learnerHs competences, for both imme"iate an" long0term use( All human competences contribute in one wa# or another to the language userHs abilit# to communicate an" ma# be regar"e" as aspects of communicative competence Clearl#, learners approaching a new language bring to the task their e:isting competences, which will var# wi"el# accor"ing to their age, e:perience an" e"ucation( These an" other factors will influence not onl# the spee" an" efficienc# of their learning, but also the use the# can make of the linguistic resources the# have ac?uire"( This principle will appl# at ever# level( Competences ma# be general or more closel# language0relate"( 6;1 General co'*etences

.eneral competences are those which ma# be calle" upon for actions of all kin"s, inclu"ing, but b# no means confine" to, those actions an" interactions involving the use of language( 6;1;1 Eno2ledge of the 2orld

8ature human beings have a highl# "evelope" an" finel# articulate" mo"el of the worl" an" its workings, closel# correlate" with the vocabular# an" grammar of their mother tongue( *n"ee", both "evelop in relation to each other( The basic features of this mo"el are full# "evelope" "uring earl# chil"hoo", but it is further "evelope" through e"ucation an" e:perience "uring a"olescence an" in"ee" throughout a"ult life( 6econ" an" foreign language teaching is often able to assume that learners have alrea"# ac?uire" a knowle"ge of the worl" sufficient for the purpose( This is, however, not b# an# means alwa#s the case( <nowle"ge of the worl" embraces+ the locations, institutions an" organiAations, persons, objects, events, processes an" operations which characteriAe "ifferent "omains( Ff particular importance to the learner of a particular language is factual knowle"ge concerning the countr# or countries in which the language is spoken, such as its major geographical, environmental, "emographic, economic an" political features Landeskunde=(

1-

classes of entities concreteIabstract, animateIinanimate, etc(! an" their properties an" relations temporal, spatial, associative, anal#tic, logical, causeIeffect, etc(! as set out, for instance, in Chapter - above(

Breakthrough, representing the pro"uct of the earliest learning of a language, "oes not re?uire a knowle"ge of the worl" be#on" that general knowle"ge which even a normal seven0#ear0ol" chil" shoul" have ac?uire"( 5owever, the receptive abilities of ol"er learners will be consi"erabl# affecte" b# the e:tent an" "irection of their knowle"ge, especiall# in respect of their vocational an" hobb# interests( 6;1;2 "ociocultural kno2ledge

6trictl# speaking, knowle"ge of the societ# an" culture of the communit# or communities in which a language is spoken is one aspect of knowle"ge of the worl"( *t is, however, of sufficient importance to the language learner to merit special attention, especiall# since unlike man# other aspects of knowle"ge it is likel# to lie outsi"e the learnerHs previous e:perience an" ma# well be "istorte" b# stereot#pes( The features "istinctivel# characteristic of a particular European societ# an" its culture ma# relate, for e:ample, to+ 1 everyday living, e(g( 0 0 0 0 & foo" an" "rink, meal times, table manners public holi"a#s working hours an" practices leisure activities hobbies, games an" sports, rea"ing habits, entertainment, me"ia!(

living conditions, e(g( 0 living stan"ar"s with regional, class an" ethnic variations! 0 housing con"itions 0 welfare arrangements(

inter"ersonal relations, inclu"ing relations of power an" soli"arit#!, e(g( with respect to+ 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 class structure of societ# an" relations between classes relations between se:es gen"er, intimac#! famil# structures an" relations relations between generations relations in work situations relations between public an" police, officials, etc( race an" communit# relations relations among political an" religious groupings( 1/

values% 6elie#s and attitudes in relation to such factors as+ 0 social class 0 occupational groups aca"emic, management, public service, skille" an" manual workforces! 0 wealth income an" inherite"! 0 regional cultures 0 securit# 0 institutions 0 tra"ition an" social change 0 histor#@ especiall# iconic historical personages an" events 0 minorities ethnic, religious! 0 national i"entit# 0 foreign countries, states, peoples 0 politics 0 arts music, visual arts, literature, "rama, popular music an" song! 0 religion 0 humour(

non1ver6al co

unication

)aralinguistics an" bo"# language see CEFR p(33J$%! are of particular importance to learners at Breakthrough level in supplementing an" reinforcing their limite" knowle"ge an" skill in the earl# stages of learning an" using a new language( <nowle"ge of the conventions governing such behaviour form part of the userHsIlearnerHs sociocultural competence( Learners at Breakthrough level are aware of, an" CA> use, the most common conventionaliAe" form of non0verbal communication, such as+ no""ing an" shaking the hea" pointing shaking han"s kissing clapping smiling embracing( 1 social conventions, e(g( with regar" to giving an" receiving hospitalit#, such as+ punctualit# presents "ress refreshments, "rinks, meals behavioural an" conversational conventions an" taboos length of sta# leave0taking( 11

ritual 6ehaviour in such areas as+ religious observances an" rites birth, marriage, "eath au"ience an" spectator behaviour at public performances an" ceremonies celebrations, festivals, "ances, "iscos, etc(

At Breakthrough level, the learner=s knowle"ge of the sociocultural aspects of the target language is still at an earl# stage of "evelopment@ the concepts e:presse" are mostl# sufficientl# general to be wi"esprea", though not universal, at least in a European conte:t( Learners of English as a means of communication on a global scale are, however, well aware that "ifferent conventions ma# be followe" b# an interlocutor from a "ifferent cultural backgroun" an" are prepare" to "eal with an# resulting incomprehension or misinterpretation see $(1(, below!( 6;1; Intercultural a2areness and skills

<nowle"ge, awareness an" un"erstan"ing of the relation similarities an" "istinctive "ifferences! between the Hworl" of originH an" the Hworl" of the target communit#H pro"uce an intercultural awareness( *t is of course important to note that intercultural awareness inclu"es an awareness of regional an" social "iversit# in both worl"s( *t is also enriche" b# awareness of a wi"er range of cultures than those carrie" b# the learnerHs L1 an" L&( This wi"er awareness helps to place both in conte:t( Learners at Breakthrough level will of course var# wi"el# in the range of their previous e:perience of cultural "iversit#( For instance, those who are a""ing a limite" competence in a less0wi"el# taught language to an alrea"# e:tensive plurilingual competence will be in a ver# "ifferent position from #oung learners for whom this is a first ac?uaintance with an# language "ifferent from that of their imme"iate environment( *n a""ition to objective knowle"ge, intercultural awareness covers an awareness of how each communit# appears from the perspective of the other, often in the form of national stereot#pes( At Breakthrough level, learners are aware of cultural "iversit# an" the nee" to avoi" giving offence( The# are aware of the most common causes of offence in the "ominant culture associate" with the target language( The# CA> use repair proce"ures to remove misun"erstan"ings, shoul" the# occur, an" CA> learn from the e:perience( The# are also open to the influence of other wa#s of organiAing social life, other s#stems of values an" beliefs as e:presse" in the target language an" willing to mo"if# attitu"es base" on preju"ice an" stereot#ping when confronte" with the realit# of a "ifferent culture( Learners of English will of course be aware of its uni?ue status as a language of global communication( For man#, perhaps most, it will be use" mainl# for communication with other non0native speakers( For this reason, the language is less closel# i"entifie" with the culture of its native speakers J which is in an# case pol#centric( The cultural norms of 'ritain, *relan", Australia an" the C6A "iffer from each other an" all "ispla# great internal "iversit#( There is no longer if in"ee" there ever was! an# one social norm to which all e"ucate" speakers are e:pecte" to conform( Fn the other han", e:treme localiAe" "ialectal an" sociocultural "istinctions continue to shrink, as in"ivi"uals in all 12

places an" classes of societ# are e:pose", through travel, internal mobilit#, me"ia, etc(, to an ever wi"er range of influences( As a result of this process, in"ivi"uals are no longer locke" into a single monolithic culture, but become plurilingual an" pluricultural, aware of an" respon"ing to a variet# of cultures other than their own culture of origin( The e:tent to which learners at Breakthrough level will alrea"# be plurilingual an" pol#cultural will var# greatl#( *n the case of English, as the language becomes more wi"el# a part of basic e"ucation in man# parts of the worl", most learners at Breakthrough level are likel# to be #oung learners or e"ucationall# "isa"vantage" a"ults such as immigrant workers an" famil# members from "eveloping countries with a rural backgroun"!( *n both cases, such learners ma# have ha" little or no e:posure to languages an" cultures outsi"e their own imme"iate environment an" therefore fin" greater problems in taking account of cultural "ifferences from speakers of English from other countries( 5owever, on reaching Breakthrough level, all learners shoul" be aware of cultural "ifferences in an" affecting language use an" avoi" taking offence or misinterpreting une:pecte" actions, reactions an" language usage on the part of interlocutors from other cultural backgroun"s( The# shoul" be able an" willing to learn from such e:periences, which on a global scale are largel# unpre"ictable( At Breakthrough level, their abilit# to a"just their own language behaviour must be ver# limite", but the# shoul" be conscious that interlocutors from other cultural backgroun"s ma# well follow "ifferent conventions with regar" to such features of language use inclu"ing paralinguistics an" bo"# language! as+ the e:pression of agreement an" "isagreement@ making re?uests@ making, accepting an" "eclining offers@ referring to bo"il# functions, relations between persons of "ifferent generation, se:, class, hierarchical status, etc( an" the like( The# will also be aware that their own use of English will in some wa#s, even at this level, e:press their own cultural values, beliefs, attitu"es an" presuppositions an" that these ma# give rise to misun"erstan"ings or give offence, with which the# must be prepare" to "eal( 6;1;# FE+istentialF co'*etence

The communicative activit# of usersIlearners is affecte" not onl# b# their knowle"ge, un"erstan"ing an" skills, but also b# selfhoo" factors connecte" with their in"ivi"ual personalities, characteriAe" b# the attitu"es, motivations, values, beliefs, cognitive st#les an" personalit# t#pes which contribute to their personal i"entit#( At Breakthrough level, learners CA> use their limite" language resources while remaining true to their own personalit# t#pe, values an" beliefs, #et open to the e"ucational influence of new e:perience( 6;1;$ .Ceuristic0 co'*etence8 learning to learn

B5euristic= is "efine" in ChambersH 4ictionar# as Hthe metho" in e"ucation b# which the pupil is set to fin" out things for himselfH( H5euristic competenceH is use" here for the abilit# of a learner to "evelop an" emplo# learning an" stu"# skills an" especiall# to learn autonomousl# an" to operate "iscover# proce"ures, not onl# in the formal e"ucation 13

process, but also in making sense of language be#on" what has been formall# learne"( *t is now wi"el# accepte" that it is part of the responsibilit# of an e"ucational s#stem to "evelop such skills in learners, so as to prepare them for life0long learning( Autonomous learning re?uires the fostering of attitu"es an" the progressive "evelopment of stu"#I"iscover# skills over a substantial perio" of time( *t is not perhaps to be e:pecte" of ver# #oung learners, though some e:perience in 6can"inavia has shown that skille" an" inspiring teaching can achieve remarkable results in this respect, even at primar# school level( 5owever, post0pubertal learners who have attaine" Breakthrough level ma# be e:pecte" to have "evelope" some "egree of heuristic competence( The e:tent to which the# have "one so will var# greatl# accor"ing to their level of e"ucational "evelopment an" the attitu"es, metho"s an" skills of their teachers, as well as an# previous e:perience of language learning( *t seems reasonable to e:pect the following of all a"ult an" teenage learners+ Learners at Breakthrough level CA> un"erstan" an" use instructional materials "esigne" for use at this level( The# CA> carr# out homework tasks set b# their teachers( The# CA> un"erstan" the nature an" purpose of tasks set( The# CA> un"erstan" the nature an" cause of correcte" errors or, if not, elicit the information from others e(g( teacher, fellow stu"ents, native informants!( The# CA> use techni?ues of memoriAation an" know which work best for them( The# CA> integrate the le:ical an" grammatical resources "etaile" in Chapters ,, - an" / as nee"e" to "eal with new situations( The# CA> consult an" use works of reference, such as monolingual an" bilingual "ictionaries( The# CA> i"entif#, learn an" use items in the wor" fiel"s italiciAe" in Chapter / which are relevant to themselves nationalit#, job, hobb#, etc(!( The# CA> e:periment with language use an" learn from mistakes( The# CA> observe an" learn from the language pro"uce" b# proficient users in speech or in written te:ts!, asking ?uestions about usage the# "o not un"erstan"( The# ARE A7ARE of their own characteristics, strengths an" weaknesses as language learners( The# CA> operate self0assessment proce"ures "evise" b# others e(g( 4*ALA>.!( The# CA> set themselves appropriate learning objectives in the light of their communication nee"s, their present level an" the available resources, an" choose appropriate metho"s an" materials( The# CA> hol" an" maintain a recor" of language learning such as the European Language )ortfolio( The# CA> bring their knowle"ge of the worl" an" of other languages inclu"ing their L1! to bear on the un"erstan"ing of te:ts written an" spoken! containing unfamiliar material( 6;2 Co''unicative language co'*etences

For the realiAation of communicative intentions, usersIlearners bring to bear their general capacities as "etaile" above together with a more specificall# language0relate" 1$

communicative competence, which as treate" here has the following components+ 0 linguistic competences 0 sociolinguistic competence 0 "iscourse competence( 6;2;1 Linguistic co'*etences

5ere, the term BLinguistic competences= is use" to refer to a learner=s knowle"ge of an" abilit# to use the formal resources of a language( At Breakthrough level, learners= linguistic competences are at a ver# earl# stage of "evelopment( The# have a small vocabular# an" are able to form onl# ver# simple sentences( Their abilit# to "o even this is still fragile an" somewhat erratic, subject to hesitations, false starts, incorrect forms, etc( *t is a matter of ju"gment on the part of learners an" teachers what balance to "raw between range, fluenc# an" accurac#, since "eveloping each is likel# to be at the e:pense of the others( 5ere, we "istinguish+ 0 0 0 0 le:ical competence grammatical competence phonological competence orthographic an" orthoepic competence(

6;2;1;1 Le+ical co'*etence BLe:ical competence= refers to a learner=s knowle"ge of an" abilit# to use the vocabular# wor"s an" fi:e" e:pressions! of a language( At Breakthrough level, learners CA> use the vocabular# given in Chapters ,J/ in the uses an" meanings given there( *t shoul" be remembere" that man# wor"s, particularl# the most common wor"s, have man# meanings an" uses( *t is a mistake to think that, having learnt a wor" in one meaning in one conte:t, a learner now Bknows= that wor" wherever an" whenever it occurs( For instance Babout= ma# mean Bsurroun"ing=, Bappro:imatel#=, Bconcerning=, Bin the opposite "irection=, etc( These meanings are not pre"ictable one from another an" are not necessaril# translatable b# the same wor" in another language( *n a""ition, learners at Breakthrough level CA> use the vocabular# the# have i"entifie" as relevant to them in the areas italiciAe" in Chapter /( The# CA> also recogniAe an" un"erstan" some wor"s the# have not previousl# learnt, when the# are clearl# cognate with, or compoun"s of, wor"s the# know in the same or another language, an" are presente" in conte:ts where their meaning is apparent in the light of the learner=s knowle"ge of the worl" e(g( English yology, French yologie, .erman Myologie!( The# are aware that L& e(g( English or French! loanwor"s in their L1 ma# well have a change" meaning from that in the language from which the# were borrowe"( 6;2;1;2 Gra''atical co'*etence The grammar of a language ma# be seen as the set of principles governing the combination of wor"s into sentences( .rammatical competence is the abilit# to 2%

un"erstan" an" e:press meaning b# pro"ucing an" recogniAing well0forme" phrases an" sentences in accor"ance with these principles as oppose" to memoriAing an" repro"ucing them as fi:e" formulae!( The basic function of the grammar of an# language is to enable a user to make infinite use of finite resources, the ?uestion of formal accurac# being of secon"ar# importance( The principle a"opte" for "eriving Breakthrough b# a minimalist re"uction of Waystage has been to enable a learner to make ma:imal use of minimal resources( This principle is in conflict, or at least a Bcreative tension= with the Bphrasebook= approach, which offers a repertor# of holistic utterances selecte" to perform highl# specific communicative functions in highl# specific situations, e(g( BThe offsi"e brake light is functioning intermittentl#( )lease check the wiring for a fault# connection=( )hrasebooks issue" b# motoring organiAations ma# well contain such e:pressions, for reference b# motorists who ma# not know the language concerne" at all, but who rea" the correspon"ing entr# in their own language an" either point to the translation or pronounce it accor"ing to a pseu"o0phonetic transcription or a pronunciation ke#( 5owever, to base language learning, even at the most elementar# level, on such an approach woul" not be cost0effective( The loa" on memor# is ver# high, far in e:cess of the magic figure 2 usuall# consi"ere" the limit for memoriAation of a ran"om string of arbitrar# signs( The communicative #iel" is likel# to be ver# low( *t "epen"s on the fre?uenc# an" probabilit# of occurrence of that particular event in relation to the infinite variet# of human situations( *n contrast, an approach base" on Bthe ma:imal use of minimal means=, with cost0effectiveness as its main criterion, will seek to select items with a low learning0loa", usable in the wi"est range of situations, weighte" where specificit# is necessar#! in favour of those situations which are most common an" pre"ictable( .rammar therefore pla#s an important part in the "efinition of Breakthrough, as "o the close" wor" classes, which have a significant grammatical function( A possible grammatical specification for Breakthrough% covering the recommen"e" e:ponents of the categories set out in Chapters , an" - follows( The specification relates to English( *t is not necessaril# applicable to an# other language, though the principles on which it is base" ma# have wi"er application( 1 1;1 1;2 1; 1;# "entences The use of sentences b# learners will be restricte" to main clauses an" sentence wor"s e(g( yes% no% sorry!( 6entences use" b# learners will generall# consist of a single main clause e(g( ) like a""les( They are very nice(! consisting of a noun phrase >)! an" a verb phrase 9)!( HKesInoH ?uestions are aske" b# using the "eclarative sentence or short utterance! with a high0rising intonation e(g( <ou are #ro France; rather than+ 0re you #ro France;!( H75H ?uestions are aske" b# inserting the 75 wor" in the appropriate position in a "eclarative sentence e(g( <ou live where; rather than+ Where do you live;! or 21

1;$ 1;, 1;1 1;5

alone e(g( Why;!( Learners are able to use compoun" sentences with main clauses conjoine" b# Ban"= an" Bbut= e(g( ) was 6orn in France and ) live in )taly(!( Learners are able to use a few comple: sentences, but onl# where embe""ing "oes not affect the form of the sentence embe""e" e(g( ) think he is #ro France(!( Learners are able to use gerun"s with simple a"juncts e(g( ) like living in the country(!( Learners are able to use, in place of full sentences, short utterances, e(g( ?uestions an" answers, consisting of a single wor" or phrase e(g( Why not; 3ed( That one(! where the conte:t makes the reference clear( Phrases Noun *hrases 3NP4 >) ma# consist of+

2 2;1

2;1;1 2;1;2 2;1; 2;1;# 2;1;$ 2;1;, 2;2 2;2;1 2;2;2 2;2; 2;2;# 2;2;$ 2;2;, 2;2;1 2;2;5 2;2;6 2;2;19 2;2;11 2; 2; ;1 2; ;2 2;# 2;#;1

a proper noun e(g( Coan% Aer any! an abstract or uncountable noun e(g( art% ilk! a pronoun e(g( you% so e6ody! a gerun" 9 N ing! e(g( eating% swi ing! "eterminer article@ "emonstrative, possessive, in"efinite or interrogative a"jective! N noun >! e(g( a "en% this 6oy% y wi#e% so e wine% which 6ook! "eterminer N a"verb! a"jective a"j! N > e(g( that very hard 6ed!( >er( *hrase 3>P4 verb 9! intransitive e(g( They walk(! 9 transitive N >) e(g( 9e eats #ish(! 9 N a"v e(g( They work well(! 'E N a"j e(g( This is good(! 'E N >) e(g( They are nice "eo"le(! 'E N 9 present participle N >)! e(g( /he is watching TV(! 'E N 9 past participle N >)! e(g( The radio is 6roken(! 5A9E N past participle N >)! e(g( /he has gone out(! 'EI5A9EI4FImo"al N not N 9! e(g( 9e is not intelligent( )t has not co e(! 4F N not N 9 inf e(g( ) do not s oke(! mo"al verb N 9 inf e(g( 9e can hel" you(! Ad7ectival *hrase a"jective e(g( good! a"verb of "egree N a"jective e(g( very good% ore intelligent! Adver(ial *hrase a"verb e(g( #ast! 2&

2;#;2 2;#; 2;#;#

a"jective N ly e(g( nicely! a"verb of "egree N a"verb e(g( very #ast% ore intelligently! preposition N >) e(g( near London% in our new house! :ord for's morpholog#! Learners can use an" un"erstan" the following wor" forms+

;1 ;2

Noun for's+ singular, plural an" possessive e(g( My other likes Mary.s children(! Prono'inal for's+ personal subject! personal object! possessive "emonstrative interrogative * #ou he she me #ou him her mine #ours his hers this, that, these, those 7hoL 7hatL 7hichL it it we the# us them ours theirs

Ad7ectival for's8 simple e(g( 9e is old(! comparative+ a"j N 0er monos#llables an" some two0s#llable wor"s@ e(g( #aster, heavier! superlative+ a"j N 0est an" some two0s#llable wor"s@ e(g( #astest% heaviest! interrogative+ Which; possessive+ m# #our his her its our their

;#

>er( for's+ a! for all verbs+ simple present, affirmative an" negative simple past, affirmative an" negative b! for all verbs e:cept for the mo"al au:iliaries can an" will+ infinitive imperative present participle present continuous, affirmative an" negative past continuous, affirmative an" negative

;$

:ord for'ation Learners are able to un"erstan" an" then remember an" use but not invent! wor"s forme" from those within their vocabular# b# a""ing the following affi:es+ prefi:es+ un0 e(g( unwell!, is0 e(g( iss"ell!, re0 e(g( re1use! 2,

suffi:es+ 0ness e(g( loudness!, 0hood e(g( anhood!, 0like e(g( childlike!, 0ish e(g( oldish!, 0ly e(g( loudly! 6;2;1; Phonological co'*etence )honological competence involves a knowle"ge of, an" skill in the perception an" pro"uction of+ the soun"0units phonemes! of the language an" their realiAation in particular conte:ts allophones! the phonetic features which "istinguish phonemes "istinctive features, e(g( voicing, roun"ing, nasalit#, plosion! the phonetic composition of wor"s s#llable structure, the se?uence of phonemes, wor" stress, wor" tones! sentence phonetics proso"#!+ sentence stress an" rh#thm intonation phonetic re"uction vowel re"uction in unstresse" s#llables of pol#s#llabic wor"s strong an" weak forms of articles a% an% the!, verbs 6e% have can% will!, prepositions at% #ro =% conjunctions and% 6ut! assimilation elision )honological or phonetic! competence is an area in which the "istinction between Breakthrough as, on the one han", an initial learning objective an", on the other, the lowest level for the assessment of competence is particularl# strongl# marke"( 8ost mature speakers are unaware of the processes involve" in the pro"uction an" perception of speech( 5abituation is at its strongest an" mother tongue interference in the pro"uction an" perception of the soun"s of a foreign language is more clearl# marke" than elsewhere( *n fact, interference ma# be so strong as to ren"er speech virtuall# unintelligible( 6uch performance will certainl# be evaluate" at the lowest available level, but can har"l# be a"opte" as an objective for achievement after an initial phase of learning( *n arriving at an appropriate objective, the principle of cost0benefit must be borne in min"( There is no place for utopianism or purism( Learners an" their teachers an" e:aminers, if a certificate is offere" at this level! must consi"er+ 5ow important is it for the learner to perceive what is sai" accuratel#L 5ow important is it for the learner to be perceive" accuratel#L 7hat are the learner=s future perspectivesL 5ow much teaching time an" learning effort are involve" in reaching a given effectiveness in pro"uction an" perceptionL

2-

The answers to these ?uestions ma# well var# wi"el# from one part of the Breakthrough constituenc# to another( A learner for whom Breakthrough is the first rung on a long la""er will perhaps attach importance to getting this aspect of language learning right at an earl# stage, so as not to have to think about it later( Fn the other han", a learner who wishes to pick up a ver# basic abilit# to cope with ever#"a# living as ?uickl# as possible ma# fin" other things more urgent( Clarit# of "iction is more important for a learner who e:pects to make public announcements e(g( in airports an" railwa# stations! than for one who simpl# wants to converse with frien"s an" famil#( Kounger learners will be more likel# to learn b# simple imitation than ol"er learners, who ma# nee" to un"erstan" the target soun" s#stem in or"er to break ingraine" habits( For them, a programme of phonetic training involving the use of phonetic transcription, ear training an" articulation "rilling ma# well be more acceptable at an earl# stage of learning, when the soun" pattern of a new language is a challenging novelt#, rather than later, when attention is concentrate" on the e:pression of meaning( 5owever, in this perspective, phonetic awareness is seen as a means to an en", not an en" in itself, an" is therefore not specifie" as a criterion for Breakthrough level( 7hat follows ma# perhaps be seen as a suitable objective for an average learner J if such e:istsM At Breakthrough level, learners CA> i"entif# the wor"s an" sentences the# hear, given that the# are pro"uce" clearl# an" slowl# in a familiar e(g( stan"ar"! accent( The# CA> repeat an" store in memor# new wor"s the# hear, given that the# are clearl# pro"uce" an" that the# can ask for repetition( The# CA> pro"uce wor"s an" sentences in such a wa# that listeners are able to i"entif# them without misperception( The# CA> perceive an" pro"uce stress on the correct s#llable in a wor", an" stresse" wor"s in a sentence( The# CA> perceive an" pro"uce falling an" rising sentence intonation when use" with the same wor"ing, especiall# to "istinguish between a statement an" a ?uestion( The# CA> perceive an" use the strong an" weak forms of wor"s as appropriate to a ver# slow rate of utterance( 6;2;1;# =rthogra*hic and orthoe*ic co'*etence Frthographic competence is the knowle"ge of, an" abilit# to use, the correct spelling of wor"s( At Breakthrough level, learners CA> spell correctl# wor"s within their vocabular# an" write them legibl# using upper an" lower case cursive an" printe" forms as appropriate( The# CA> make proper use of punctuation marks an" observe wor", sentence an" paragraph spacing( Fn hearing a new wor", the# CA> ask for an" note "own its written form( Frthoepic competence is the knowle"ge of, an" abilit# to use, the correct pronunciation of written forms( At Breakthrough level, learners CA> rea" alou" a prepare" te:t within the limits of this specification with intelligible pronunciation, stress an" intonation( The# CA> un"erstan" an" follow the in"ications of pronunciation in an# "ictionar# the# normall# consult(

2/

6;

"ociolinguistic co'*etence

6ociolinguistic competence is the knowle"ge of, an" abilit# to use, language appropriate to the social "imension of language use( At Breakthrough level, while learners "o not #et comman" a range of s#non#mous e:pressions to un"erstan" or e:press "ifferences of a purel# sociolinguistic character, the# CA> use greetings an" some a""ress forms appropriatel#, intro"uce themselves an" others an" take their leave( The# are aware of an" CA> observe conventions for turn taking, given that their interlocutor s! are patient an" s#mpathetic when the# are slow to respon"( The# are aware of an" CA> use e:pressions such as Bplease=, Bthank #ou= an" Bsorr#= in accor"ance with the most important politeness conventions of the communit# concerne"( The# are aware of the sometimes fre?uent! use of e:pletives b# some speakers( >o pro"uctive use of e:pletives is recommen"e" at Breakthrough level, since their inappropriate use ma# be lu"icrous or offensive( 6;# Discourse co'*etence

4iscourse competence as treate" here is the abilit# of a userIlearner+ a! to arrange sentences in se?uence so as to pro"uce coherent stretches of language( At Breakthrough level, learners have ver# limite" linguistic resources, not #et full# establishe", which enable them to form ver# simple sentences( To pro"uce coherent se?uences of such sentences imposes a greater loa" on their processing abilities( At Breakthrough level, learners CA> pro"uce coherent se?uences of simple sentences, given that the# are given time to "o so( This is of course easier when writing alone, sa# composing a letter, than when un"er pressure to maintain the interest of one or more listeners, of whom patience an" goo"will are aske"( to take turns an" contribute effectivel# to a well0structure" communicative interaction with one or more interlocutors( Learners at Breakthrough level CA> contribute short, simple turns effectivel# to a well0structure", largel# pre"ictable interaction as when shopping, bu#ing tickets, etc(! with one or more interlocutors, given their patience an" goo"will( Communication is a meeting of min"s( Fluent conversation "evelops a partnership between interlocutors( *t "epen"s to a large e:tent on the abilit# of each partner to empathise with the other, to envisage what the other is thinking an" to forecast what he or she ma# sa# ne:t( This abilit# is now often terme" Htheor# of min"H TF8!( The process is of course ma"e more "ifficult when a speakerHs knowle"ge of the language is ver# limite", as is the case with learners at Breakthrough level( *n such cases of une?ual communication, it is for the more e:perience" partner to accept greater responsibilit# for the success of the communication, forecasting an" interpreting the partnerHs attempts to e:press his or her communicative intent an" in turn speaking in such a wa# as to be easil# un"erstoo"( This involves clarit# of "iction, a slower speech rate, longer pauses between sense groups an" avoi"ance of the hints, allusions an" opa?ue or abbreviate" metaphors that woul" be use" in conversation between native speakers( The process is, however, ma"e easier b# 21

b!

the e:istence of ver6al e7change "atterns, often highl# routine an" known to the generalit# of the speech communit#( 6ome verbal e:change patterns are ver# simple, such as a pairing of ?uestion an" answer, or of a re?uest, offer or invitation with its acceptance or refusal, or of a statement with an e:pression of agreement or "isagreement( Triplets, in which the first speaker respon"s to the partnerHs repl#, are common, even usual e(g( 9ow are you; 1 Fine% thank you( 1 Aood(!( Fther social interactions are more comple:, passing through a number of stages( CEFR presents a general scheme for co0 operative action+ HFor instance, in more comple: goal0oriente" co0operative transactions, language is use" as necessar# to+ form the working group an" establish relations among participants establish common knowle"ge of the relevant features of the current situation an" arrive at a common rea"ing i"entif# what coul" an" ought to be change" establish common agreement on goals an" on the action re?uire" to meet them agree roles in carr#ing out the action manage the practical actions involve" b# e(g(+ 0 i"entif#ing an" "ealing with problems which arise 0 co0or"inating an" se?uencing contributions 0 mutual encouragement 0 recognising the achievement of sub0goals recognise the final achievement of the task evaluate the transaction complete an" terminate the transaction( HThe total process can be represente" schematicall#( An e:ample is the general schema offere" for the purchase of goo"s or services in Threshold Level 1990, Chapter 3+ .eneral schema for purchase of goo"s or services( 1 8oving to place of transaction( 1(1 fin"ing the wa# to the shop, store, supermarket, restaurant, station, hotel, etc( 1(& fin"ing the wa# to the counter, "epartment, table, ticket office, reception, etc( Establishing contact( &(1 e:changing greetings with the shopkeeperIassistantIwaiterIreceptionist, etc( 22

&

&(1(1 &(1(& ,

assistant greets customer greets

6electing goo"sIservices( ,(1 i"entif#ing categor# of goo"sIservices re?uire" ,(1(1 seeking information ,(1(& giving information ,(& i"entif#ing options ,(, "iscussing pros an" cons of options e(g( ?ualit#, price, colour, siAe of goo"s! ,(,(1 seeking information ,(,(& giving information ,(,(, seeking a"vice ,(,(- giving a"vice ,(,(/ asking for preference ,(,(1 e:pressing preference, etc( ,(i"entif#ing particular goo"s re?uire" ,(/ e:amining goo"s ,(1 agreeing to purchase E:changing goo"s for pa#ment( -(1 agreeing prices of items -(& agreeing a""ition of total -(, receivingIhan"ing over pa#ment -(receivingIhan"ing over goo"s an" receipt! -(/ e:changing thanks -(/(1 assistant thanks -(/(& customer thanks Leave0taking( /(1 e:pressing mutual! satisfaction /(1(1 assistant e:presses satisfaction /(1(& customer e:presses satisfaction /(& e:changing interpersonal comment e(g( weather, local gossip! /(, e:changing parting greetings /(,(1 assistant greets /(,(& customer greets

H>'( *t shoul" be note" that, as with similar schemata, the availabilit# of this schema to shoppers an" shop assistants "oes not mean that on ever# occasion this form is use"( Especiall# un"er mo"ern con"itions, language is often use" more sparingl#, particularl# to "eal with problems that arise in an otherwise "epersonalise" an" semi0automate" transaction, or to humanise it H Council of Europe &%%1+1&2!( *t ma# at first sight appear that schemata of this comple:it# are be#on" the scope of a learner at Breakthrough level( Fn inspection it will be foun" that Chapters ,, - an" / provi"e the necessar# simple e:ponents for all, or almost all, the in"ivi"ual turns( *t ma# 23

seem obvious, but is perhaps worth stating, that the communicative competence of an# language learner, at Breakthrough level no less than at an# other, is to be ju"ge" not merel# b# the abilit# to un"erstan" an" pro"uce the particular items liste" as e:ponents of functional an" notional categories, but rather b# the abilit# to use them effectivel# in structure" social interaction( *n accor"ance with the principle of Hma:imum use of minimal meansH, a learner at Breakthrough level CA> follow through a number of basic, routine social interactions in accor"ance with the correspon"ing interaction schemata(

2$

19

Co'*ensation strategies 3co''unication re*air4

A basic principle of an action0oriente", communicative approach to language learning is that, from the outset, learners shoul" be prepare" to use the limite" means of e:pression the# have ac?uire" to the ma:imum effect an" be willing to engage in communicative interaction with other users of the language( This inevitabl# means that learners at Breakthrough level will ver# fre?uentl# fin" themselves confronting problems in communication, which nee" to be overcome if the interaction is not to break "own( For instance, as speakers or writers, the#+ ma# be unable to recall a wor" or e:pression which the# HknowH an" woul" imme"iatel# recognise if given to them ma# wish to e:press a concept for which the# know the e:pression in their L1, but have not #et encountere" it in the L&( As listeners, the#+ ma# be face" with interlocutors speaking at a faster rate than the# can process, using an unfamiliar "ialect or a collo?uial register with opa?ue i"ioms or strong phonetic re"uction, or using wor"s, e:pressions or comple: s#ntactic structures outsi"e their e:perience ma# nee" to un"erstan" public announcements un"er a"verse con"itions such as noise, "istortion an" interference, or which contain unfamiliar material or are rea" in an unfamiliar "ialect( As rea"ers, the# ma# nee" to rea" an" un"erstan" letters, brochures, posters, public signs, newspaper hea"lines, etc(, which are poorl# written or printe", or contain unfamiliar wor"s or s#ntactic constructions( To "eal with such situations, using as appropriate the e:pressions liste" in Chapter ,, 6ection 1, as well as their heuristic competence see Chapter $, 6ection 1(/! the# CA> elicit help from a s#mpathetic an" more competent language user in+ i"entif#ing an" un"erstan"ing unfamiliar wor"s an" utterances use" to them e:pressing their own communicative intent un"erstan"ing written te:ts e(g( letters, e0mails, brochures, public signs, announcements an" notices!(

3%

11

Degree of skill

Language communication is a highl# skille" activit#, involving a wi"e range of skills( At the phonetic level, the skills concerne" inclu"e+ a! the perception of soun"s, especiall# phonemicall# "istinct speech soun"s, as well as soun" ?ualities such as pitch, length an" lou"ness an" b! the movements of the organs of speech which pro"uce these soun"s an" soun" ?ualities( *n L1, these skills become fi:e" habits, with"rawn from conscious attention( The same is true with regar" to the forms of wor"s le:icon an" morpholog#! an", to a large e:tent, basic grammatical constructions( This strong habituation of low0 level skills allows the min" to concentrate attention on the higher0level skills involve" in the negotiation of meaning+ receptivel# on the un"erstan"ing an" interpretation of "iscourse, an" pro"uctivel# on the formulation an" organisation of te:t( 7hen learning another language subse?uentl#, the learner can call upon these habituate" skills, which will often facilitate its use( 5owever, when L1 an" L& are not isomorphic, the skills cannot be transferre" an" the "evelopment of new ones ma# be hampere" b# L1 interference( This ma# be so strong as to lea" to misun"erstan"ings an" even incomprehensibilit#( 6ince the habituation of low0level skills takes place in L& also, it cannot be assume" that progress in the low0level skills will run parallel to that in other aspects of language "evelopment( 4ifficult issues are raise" regar"ing e"ucational priorities an" the relation between the use of level "escriptions for setting objectives an" assessing proficienc# see Chapter $, 6ection &(1(,!( *t is probabl# best to state that a learner at Breakthrough level has the "egree of skill re?uire" to communicate intelligibl#, given a full# co0operative interlocutor, whilst recognising that man# e"ucators ma# wish to set a higher target for earl# language learning in respect of phonetic skills( 7ith regar" to the Hfour skillsH listening, speaking, rea"ing an" writing!, une?ual skills "evelopment is to be e:pecte"( Recognition is easier than recall an" real0time operations are more "eman"ing than those where the time available is more fle:ible( Accor"ingl#, pro"uctive activities speaking, writing! are more "eman"ing than receptive skills listening, rea"ing!, an" real0time activities listening, speaking! than the less time0constraine" activities rea"ing, writing!, which are also facilitate" b# the availabilit# of heuristic skills( At an# level, inclu"ing Breakthrough, more can be e:pecte" of the learner regar"ing the less "eman"ing activities than the more "eman"ing ones an" un"er less e:acting con"itions than more e:acting ones( The ?uestion then arises, whether this ine?ualit# shoul" be built into a HnormalH profiling of learners at each level or not, leaving the learner then to be assesse" as having attaine" a higher level in the less "eman"ing activities than those which are more so( That is a "ecision which has, of course, to be ma"e for the s#stem as a whole rather than at each level in"epen"entl#( :ord inde+ for Breakthrough This list contains the wor"s foun" as e:ponents of the categories "evelope" in chapters ,,

31

- an" /( *t shoul" not be taken in isolation as a Hrecommen"e"H vocabular# at CEFR level A1, or as a re?uirement for the attainment of Breakthrough level( The heterogeneit# of learners is such that wor"s relevant to the lives an" nee"s of some will not be so for others( Koung learners will not onl# have "ifferent interests from a"ults, but will also be at "ifferent stages of cognitive "evelopment, have a more limite" knowle"ge of the worl" an" carr# less social responsibilit#( The# will not be e:pecte" to move as in"epen"ent agents in an alien environment( These "ifferences will profoun"l# affect the language appropriate to their nee"s, interests an" motivations(

a, an acci"ent accountant accounts ache afrai" after afternoon again Agnostic ago agree ahea" air airport all right all alwa#s ambulance an" animal another answer antibiotic an# an#bo"# an#how an#thing an#where apple April arms arrive art article arts as ask asleep aspirin assistant

#8 3(& $8 '(&(,, '(,($8 C $8 C $8 '(,(8 &(3(1 #8 &(2, ,(3 #8 ,(& 8 1(&, #8 ,(&& $8 A(1(1, #8 ,(1, 8 &(1, &(1(, $8 '(&(, #8 /(1(1, $8 '(&(1 8 &($(& #8 -(& #8 ,(12, ,(1$, ,(&%, ,(&1, 3(& $8 '(,(/ 8 /(-, /(/, #8 2(1(1 #8 3(,, $8A(&(2 #8 2(-(1 $8 A(/(&, $84 $8 '(,(/ #8 -(&, 3(& #8 3(& #8 3(& #8 3(& #8 3(& $8 '(/(1 #8 ,(, $8 '(,(1 $8 '(&(1 $8 A(-(/ $8 A(-(2 $8 A(-(, #8 2(-(1 #8 1(&, $8 4 $8 '(,(& $8 '(,(/ $8 C

3&

at Atheist athletics August autumn awake awa# back bag baker# bank bar bath bathroom be beach because become be" be"clothes be"room beef beer before behin" believe best better bic#cle big bill bir" birth"a# black bloo" blue boar" boiler book born boss bottle bo: bo# brave brea" break breakfast bring broken brother brown buil" ing! buil"er bus

#8 ,(,, ,(1%, $8A(1(, $8 A(1(1, $8 A(-(1 #8 ,(, #8 ,(& $8 '(,(& #8 &(/ 8 /(2(,, #8&(/, $8'(,(1 $8 '(&(1 $8 '(-(1 $8 '(1(, $8 '(/(& $8 A(&(-, $8 '(,(, $8 A(&(1 8 1(1, 1(-, $8A(1(1 $8 '(&(8 1(/, #8 2(1(-, 2(1(1 #8 ,(&2 $8 A(&(&, $8A(,(1 $8 A(&(& $8 A(&(1 $8 '(/(1 $8 '(/(1 #8 &(2, #8 ,(2 #8 &(& $8 A(1(1, + &(2(/ 8 &(2(/, $8'(,(& $8 '(&(& #8 &(3(1, #+ &(3(1 $8 '(&(/, $8 '(/(& $8 A(&(2 $8 A(1(#8 /(1(3 $8 '(,(#8 /(1(3 $8 4 $8 C $8 A(-(/, $8'(&(/, $8'(-(1 $8 A(1($8 C #8 -(&, $8A(&(/ $8 A(&(/ #8 3(,, $8A(1(1 $8 A(1(1/ $8 '(-(1, $8'(/(1 $8 '(,($8 A(,(1 #8 &(/ $8 '(1(1 $8 A(1(1& #8 /(1(3 $8 C $8 C $8 '(&(1

3,

business but butter bu# burn b# cafU call campsite can car car" careful case cat Catholic C4 cent centimetre chair change cheap check CheersM cheese chemist che?ue chess chest chicken chil" chocolate Christian Christmas cinema class classical classroom clean cleaner clever client clinic clock cloth clothes coach coat co" col" colleague collect college come computer

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3-

concert CongratulationsM cook cooker cop# correct corri"or cost countr# cousin cow cre"it car" cross out! cup customer cut c#cle "ance "anger "ark "aughter "a# "ea" "ear 4ecember "eep "egree "entist "esk "inner "irt "irt# 4*K "o "octor "og "oll "ollar W! "oor "ot "ouble "own "raw ing! "ress "rink "rive "river "riving licence "rop "r# earlier earl# earn ings! ears

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3/

Easter eas# eat egg e0mail emplo# empt# engineer enough envelope er euro T! evening ever# ever#bo"# ever#thing ever#where e:cite" e:cuse e:ecutive e:periment e:plain e#es factor# fair faith fall famil# far fast father fa: Februar# fee feel female fiel" fill film fine fingers fire first ai" first fish flat floo" floor florist=s flower flu fog g#! foo" foot football

$8 A(,(& #8 /(&(1% $8 '(/(1 $8 '(/(1 $8 A;1; ) A(/(& $8 C #8 /(1(1 $8 C #8 -(&, -(,, /(&($8 A(/(& 8 /(& $8 '(-(#8 ,(& #8 ,(12 #8 3(& #8 3(& #8 3(& 8 &(3(1 8 -(1 $8 C $8 4 $8 4 $8 '(,(1 $8 C $8 A(1(1/ $8 A(1(1, #8 &($8 A(1(1& #8 &(, #8 ,(11, 2(,(3 $8 A(1(1& $8 A(1(,, A(/(& #8 ,(, $8 C $8 '(,(& $8 A(1(1 $8 A(&(1 #8 /(1(1$8 A(-(-, '(1 8 -(, $8 '(,(1 $8 '(,($8 C #8 &(2, ,($ $8 '(/(1 $8 A(&(1 $8 A(&(3 $8 A(&(1 $8 '(-(1 $8 A(&(2 $8 '(,($8 A(&(3 $8 '(/(1 #8 &(3(&, $8 '(,(1 $8 A(-(1

31

for forwar" foreign fork franc free Fri"a# fri"ge frien" from fruit full game garage gar"en gar"ening get up get gig girl give gla" glass glasses go .o" goo" goo"b#e gram me! grammar grass green gre# guest half hall hammer hankies happen happ# har" have to have he hea" hear heat ing! heav# hello help her here hi0fi high hill

#8 ,(-, ,(13, 2(,(/ #8 &(/ $8 '(&($8 A(&(/ $8 '(-($8 A(-(1 #8 ,(, $8 A(&($8 A(/(1 #8 &(,, &(/, &(1, $8 A(1($ $8 '(/(1 #8 /(1(1-, $8 '(1(2 $8 A(-(& $8 A(&(1, $8 '(&(&, '(1(1 $8 A(&(1 $8 A(-(, $8 A(,(1 #8 2(/(1, $8 A(/(& $8 '(1 #8 3(,, $8 A(1(1 #8 2(/(1 8 &(3(1 #8 -(&, /(1(1,, $8A(&(/ $8 '(,(/ #8 &(-, $8A(1(11, A(,(1, '(&(1 $8 A(1(1, 8 &(3(2, &(3(3, &($(,, &($(-, #8 /(1(1, /(&(& 8 -($, /(1 #8 &(3(-, $8'(-(1 $8 4 $8 A(&(2 #8 /(1(3 #8 /(1(3 $8 A(/(1 #8 -(1 $8 4 $8 C $8 '(-(1 #8 1(8 &(3(1 #8 /(1(2, 2(,(3 8 &(/(1, &(/(& 8 1(-, &(2(1, #8 2(/(1, $8 A(,(1 8 1(-, #8 3(1(1, 3(1(& $8 '(,(1 #8 /(1(/, $8 A(/(& $8 A(&(, #8 &(3(,, &(3(8-(1,-(&,-(/,-(1,/(1,/(2(1 8 ,(1%, ,(11, $8'(,(8 1(1, #8 2(/(1, 3(1(1, 3(1(& #8 1(&, &(1, &(/, 3(1(1 $8 A(-(#8 &(3(1 $8 A(&(1

32

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