1 INTRODUCTION

Imagine yourself in a world where humans interact with computers. You are sitting in front of your personal computer that can listen, talk, or even scream aloud. It has the ability to gather information about you and interact with you through special techniques like facial recognition, speech recognition, etc. It can even understand your emotions at the touch of the mouse. It verifies your identity, feels your presents, and starts interacting with you .You ask the computer to dial to your friend at his office. It realizes the urgency of the situation through the mouse, dials your friend at his office, and establishes a connection. Human cognition depends primarily on the ability to perceive, interpret, and integrate audio-visuals and sensoring information. dding e!traordinary perceptual abilities to computers would enable computers to work together with human beings as intimate partners. "esearchers are attempting to add more capabilities to computers that will allow them to interact like humans, recognize human presents, talk, listen, or even guess their feelings. #he $%&' 'Y'( technology aims at creating computational machines that have perceptual and sensory ability like those of human beings. It uses non-obtrusige sensing method, employing most modern video cameras and microphones to identifies the users actions through the use of imparted sensory abilities . #he machine can understand what a user wants, where he is looking at, and even realize his physical or emotional states.

2 EMOTION MOUSE
*ne goal of human computer interaction +H,I- is to make an adaptive, smart computer system. #his type of pro.ect could possibly include gesture recognition, facial recognition, eye tracking, speech recognition, etc. nother non-invasive way to obtain information about a person is through touch. /eople use their computers to obtain, store and manipulate data using their computer. In order to start creating smart computers, the computer must start gaining information about the user. *ur proposed method for gaining user information through touch is via a computer input device, the mouse. 0rom the physiological data obtained from the user, an emotional state may be determined which would then be related to the task the user is currently doing on the computer. *ver a period of time, a user model will be built in order to gain a sense of the user1s personality. #he scope of the pro.ect is to have the computer adapt to the user in order to create a better working environment where the user is more productive. #he first steps towards realizing this goal are described here.

2.1 EMOTION AND COMPUTING

"osalind /icard +)223- describes why emotions are important to the computing community. #here are two aspects of affective computing4 giving the computer the ability to detect emotions and giving the computer the ability to e!press emotions. 5ot only are emotions crucial for rational decision making as /icard describes, but emotion detection is an important step to an adaptive computer system. n adaptive, smart n computer system has been driving our efforts to detect a person6s emotional state. computer user.

important element of incorporating emotion into computing is for productivity for a study +7ryer 8 Horowitz, )223- has shown that people with personalities that are similar or complement each other collaborate well. 7ryer +)222has also shown that people view their computer as having a personality. 0or these reasons, it is important to develop computers which can work well with its user.

$y matching a person6s emotional state and the conte!t of the e!pressed emotion, over a period of time the person6s personality is being e!hibited. #herefore, by giving the computer a longitudinal understanding of the emotional state of its user, the computer could adapt a working style which fits with its user6s personality. #he result of this collaboration could increase productivity for the user. *ne way of gaining information from a user non-intrusively is by video. ,ameras have been used to detect a person6s emotional state +:ohnson, )222-. ;e have e!plored gaining information through touch. *ne obvious place to put sensors is on the mouse. #hrough observing normal computer usage +creating and editing documents and surfing the web-, people spend appro!imately )<= of their total computer time touching their input device. $ecause of the incredible amount of time spent touching an input device, we will e!plore the possibility of detecting emotion through touch.

2.2 THEORY
$ased on /aul 'kman6s facial e!pression work, we see a correlation between a person6s emotional state and a person6s physiological measurements. (elected works from 'kman and others on measuring facial behaviors describe 'kman6s 0acial ction ,oding (ystem +'kman and "osenberg, )223-. *ne of his e!periments involved participants attached to devices to record certain measurements including pulse, galvanic skin response +>("-, temperature, somatic movement and blood pressure. He then recorded the measurements as the participants were instructed to mimic facial e!pressions which corresponded to the si! basic emotions. He defined the si! basic emotions as anger, fear, sadness, disgust, .oy and surprise. 0rom this work, 7ryer +)22=- determined how physiological measures could be used to distinguish various emotional states.

(i! participants were trained to e!hibit the facial e!pressions of the si! basic emotions. ;hile each participant e!hibited these e!pressions, the physiological changes associated with affect were assessed. #he measures taken were >(", heart rate, skin temperature and general somatic activity +>( -. #hese data were then sub.ect to two analyses. 0or the first analysis, a multidimensional scaling +?7(- procedure was used to determine the dimensionality of the data. #his analysis suggested that the physiological similarities and dissimilarities of the si! emotional states fit within a four dimensional model. 0or the second analysis, a discriminant function analysis was used to determine the mathematic functions that would distinguish the si! emotional states. #his analysis suggested that all four physiological variables made significant, nonredundant contributions to the functions that distinguish the si! states. ?oreover, these analyses indicate that these four physiological measures are sufficient to determine reliably a person6s specific emotional state. $ecause of our need to incorporate these measurements into a small, non-intrusive form, we will e!plore taking these measurements from the hand. #he amount of conductivity of the skin is best taken from the fingers. However, the other measures may not be as obvious or robust. ;e hypothesize that changes in the temperature of the finger are reliable for prediction of emotion. ;e also hypothesize the >( can be measured by change in movement in the computer mouse. *ur efforts to develop a robust pulse meter are not discussed here.

2.3 EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

n e!periment was designed to test the above hypotheses. #he four physiological readings measured were heart rate, temperature, >(" and somatic movement. #he heart rate was measured through a commercially available chest strap sensor. #he temperature was measured with a thermocouple attached to a digital multimeter +7??-. #he >(" was also measured with a 7??. #he somatic movement was measured by recording the computer mouse movements.

2.3.1 Method (i! people participated in this study += male, = female-. #he e!periment was within sub.ect design and order of presentation was counter-balanced across participants. 2.3.2 Procedure /articipants were asked to sit in front of the computer and hold the temperature and >(" sensors in their left hand hold the mouse with their right hand and wore the chest sensor. #he resting +baseline- measurements were recorded for five minutes and then the participant was instructed to act out one emotion for five minutes. #he emotions consisted of4 anger, fear, sadness, disgust, happiness and surprise. #he only instruction for acting out the emotion was to show the emotion in their facial e!pressions. 2.3.3 Re u!t #he data for each sub.ect consisted of scores for four physiological assessments A>( , >(", pulse, and skin temperature, for each of the si! emotions +anger, disgust, fear, happiness, sadness, and surprise-B across the five minute baseline and test sessions. >( data was sampled CD times per second, >(" and temperature were reported appro!imately =-@ times per second and pulse was recorded as a beat was detected, appro!imately ) time per second. ;e first calculated the mean score for each of the baseline and test sessions. #o account for individual variance in physiology, we calculated the difference between the baseline and test scores. (cores that differed by more than one and a half standard deviations from the mean were treated as missing. $y this criterion, twelve score were removed from the analysis. #he remaining data are described in #able ).

In order to determine whether our measures of physiology could discriminate among the si! different emotions, the data were analyzed with a discriminant function analysis. #he four physiological difference scores were the discriminating variables and the si! emotions were the discriminated groups. #he variables were entered into the equation simultaneously, and four canonical discriminant functions were calculated. .)29, chi-square +9D- G 92.3@C, p H .D3E. #he functions are shown in #able 9 ;ilks6 %ambda test of these four functions was marginally statistically significantF for lambda G

#he unstandardized canonical discriminant functions evaluated at group means are shown in #able =. 0unction ) is defined by sadness and fear at one end and anger and surprise at the other. 0unction 9 has fear and disgust at one end and sadness at the other. 0unction = has happiness at one end and surprise at the other. 0unction @ has disgust and anger at one end and surprise at the other. #able =4

#o determine the effectiveness of these functions, we used them to predict the group membership for each set of physiological data. cases were successfully classified s shown in #able @, two-thirds of the

#he results show the theory behind the 'motion mouse work is fundamentally sound. #he physiological measurements were correlated to emotions using a correlation model. #he correlation model is derived from a calibration process in which a baseline attributeto emotion correlation is rendered based on statistical analysis of calibration signals generated by users having emotions that are measured or otherwise known at calibration time. 5ow that we have proven the method, the ne!t step is to improve the hardware. Instead of using cumbersome multimeters to gather information about the user, it will be better to use smaller and less intrusive units. ;e plan to improve our infrared pulse detector which can be placed inside the body of the mouse. lso, a framework for the user modeling needs to be develop in order to correctly handle all of the information after it has been gathered. #here are other possible applications for the 'motion technology other than .ust increased productivity for a desktop computer user. *ther domains such as entertainment, health and the communications and the automobile industry could find this technology useful for other purposes.

3 MANUAL AND GA"E INPUT CASCADED #MAGIC$ POINTING

#his work e!plores a new direction in utilizing eye gaze for computer input. >aze tracking has long been considered as an alternative or potentially superior pointing method for computer input. ;e believe that many fundamental limitations e!ist with traditional gaze pointing. In particular, it is unnatural to overload a perceptual channel such as vision with a motor control task. ;e therefore propose an alternative approach, dubbed ? >I, +?anual nd >aze Input ,ascaded- pointing. ;ith such an approach, pointing appears to the user to be a manual task, used for fine manipulation and selection. However, a large portion of the cursor movement is eliminated by warping the cursor to the eye gaze area, which encompasses the target. #wo specific ? >I, pointing techniques, one conservative and one liberal, were designed, analyzed, and implemented with an eye tracker we developed. #hey were then tested in a pilot study. #his early stage e!ploration showed that the ? >I, pointing techniques might offer many advantages, including reduced physical effort and fatigue as compared to traditional manual pointing, greater accuracy and naturalness than traditional gaze pointing, and possibly faster speed than manual pointing. #he pros and cons of the two techniques are discussed in light of both performance data and sub.ective reports. In our view, there are two fundamental shortcomings to the e!isting gaze pointing techniques, regardless of the maturity of eye tracking technology. 0irst, given the one-degree size of the fovea and the subconscious .ittery motions that the eyes constantly produce, eye gaze is not precise enough to operate &I widgets such as scrollbars, hyperlinks, and slider handles In Proc. CHI99: ACM Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems. 246 2!"# Pitts$urg%# &! 2' May&999 Copyrig%t ACM &999 ' 2'& 4(!!9 &)99)'!...*!.'' on today6s >&I interfaces. t a 9E-inch viewing distance to the screen, one degree of arc corresponds to D.@@ in, which is twice the size of a typical scroll bar and much greater than the size of a typical character.

(econd, and perhaps more importantly, the eye, as one of our primary perceptual devices, has not evolved to be a control organ. (ometimes its movements are voluntarily controlled while at other times it is driven by e!ternal events. ;ith the target selection by dwell time method, considered more natural than selection by blinking A3B, one has to be conscious of where one looks and how long one looks at an ob.ect. If one does not look at a target continuously for a set threshold +e.g., 9DD ms-, the target will not be successfully selected. *n the other hand, if one stares at an ob.ect for more than the set threshold, the ob.ect will be selected, regardless of the user6s intention. In some cases there is not an adverse effect to a false target selection. *ther times it can be annoying and counter-productive +such as unintended .umps to a web page-. 0urthermore, dwell time can only substitute for one mouse click. #here are often two steps to target activation. single click selects the target +e.g., an application icon- and a double click +or a different physical button click- opens the icon +e.g., launches an application-. #o perform both steps with dwell time is even more difficult. In short, to load the visual perception channel with a motor control task seems fundamentally at odds with users6 natural mental model in which the eye searches for and takes in information and the hand produces output that manipulates e!ternal ob.ects. *ther than for disabled users, who have no alternative, using eye gaze for practical pointing does not appear to be very promising. re there interaction techniques that utilize eye movement to assist the control task but do not force the user to be overly conscious of his eye movementJ ;e wanted to design a technique in which pointing and selection remained primarily a manual control task but were also aided by gaze tracking. *ur key idea is to use gaze to dynamically redefine +warp- the KhomeL position of the pointing cursor to be at the vicinity of the target, which was presumably what the user was looking at, thereby effectively reducing the cursor movement amplitude needed for target selection.

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*nce the cursor position had been redefined, the user would need to only make a small movement to, and click on, the target with a regular manual input device. In other words, we wanted to achieve ?anual nd >aze Input ,ascaded +? >I,- pointing, or ?anual cquisition with >aze Initiated ,ursor. #here are many different ways of designing a ? >I, pointing technique. ,ritical to its effectiveness is the identification of the target the user intends to acquire. ;e have designed two ? >I, pointing techniques, one liberal and the other conservative in terms of target identification and cursor placement. #he liberal approach is to warp the cursor to every new ob.ect the user looks at +(ee 0igure )-.

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#he user can then take control of the cursor by hand near +or on- the target, or ignore it and search for the ne!t target. *perationally, a new ob.ect is defined by sufficient distance +e.g., )9D pi!els- from the current cursor position, unless the cursor is in a controlled motion by hand. (ince there is a )9D-pi!el threshold, the cursor will not be warped when the user does continuous manipulation such as drawing. 5ote that this ? >I, pointing technique is different from traditional eye gaze control, where the user uses his eye to point at targets either without a cursor or with a cursor that constantly follows the .ittery eye gaze motion. #he liberal approach may appear Kpro-active,L since the cursor waits readily in the vicinity of or on every potential target. #he user may move the cursor once he decides to acquire the target he is looking at. *n the other hand, the user may also feel that the cursor is over-active when he is merely looking at a target, although he may gradually adapt to ignore this behavior. #he more conservative ? >I, pointing technique we have e!plored does not warp a cursor to a target until the manual input device has been actuated. *nce the manual input device has been actuated, the cursor is warped to the gaze area reported by the eye tracker. #his area should be on or in the vicinity of the target. #he user would then steer the cursor annually towards the target to complete the target acquisition. s illustrated in 0igure 9, to minimize directional uncertainty after the cursor appears in the conservative technique, we introduced an KintelligentL bias. Instead of being placed at the enter of the gaze area, the cursor position is offset to the intersection of the manual actuation vector and the boundary f the gaze area. #his means that once warped, the cursor is likely to appear in motion towards the target, regardless of how the user actually actuated the manual input device. ;e hoped that with the intelligent bias the user would not have to >aze position reported by eye tracker 'ye tracking boundary with 2EM confidence #rue target will be within the circle with 2EM probability. #he cursor is warped to eye tracking position, which is on or near the true target /revious cursor position, far from target +e.g., 9DD pi!els- 0igure ).

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#he liberal ? >I, pointing technique4 cursor is placed in the vicinity of a target that the user fi!ates on. ctuate input device, observe the cursor position and decide in which direction to steer the cursor. #he cost to this method is the increased manual movement amplitude. 0igure 9. #he conservative ? >I, pointing technique with Kintelligent offsetL #o initiate a pointing trial, there are two strategies available to the user. *ne is to follow Kvirtual inertia4L move from the cursor6s current position towards the new target the user is looking at. #his is likely the strategy the user will employ, due to the way the user interacts with today6s interface. #he alternative strategy, which may be more advantageous but takes time to learn, is to ignore the previous cursor position and make a motion which is most convenient and least effortful to the user for a given input device.

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#he goal of the conservative ? >I, pointing method is the following. *nce the user looks at a target and moves the input device, the cursor will appear Kout of the blueL in motion towards the target, on the side of the target opposite to the initial actuation vector. In comparison to the liberal approach, this conservative approach has both pros and cons. ;hile with this technique the cursor would never be over-active and .ump to a place the user does not intend to acquire, it may require more hand-eye coordination effort. $oth the liberal and the conservative ? >I, pointing techniques offer the following potentia+ advantages4 ). "eduction of manual stress and fatigue, since the cross screen long-distance cursor movement is eliminated from manual control. 9. /ractical accuracy level. In comparison to traditional pure gaze pointing whose accuracy is fundamentally limited by the nature of eye movement, the ? >I, pointing techniques let the hand complete the pointing task, so they can be as accurate as any other manual input techniques. =. more natural mental model for the user. #he user does not have to be aware of the role of the eye gaze. #o the user, pointing continues to be a manual task, with a cursor conveniently appearing where it needs to be. @. (peed. (ince the need for large magnitude pointing operations is less than with pure manual cursor control, it is possible that ? >I, pointing will be faster than pure manual pointing. E. Improved sub.ective speed and ease-of-use. (ince the manual pointing amplitude is smaller, the user may perceive the ? >I, pointing system to operate faster and more pleasantly than pure manual control, even if it operates at the same speed or more slowly. #he fourth point wants further discussion. ccording to the well accepted 0itts6 %aw, manual pointing time is logarithmically proportional to the <; ratio, where is the movement distance and ; is the target size. In other words, targets which are smaller or farther away take longer to acquire.

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0or ? >I, pointing, since the target size remains the same but the cursor movement distance is shortened, the pointing time can hence be reduced. It is less clear if eye gaze control follows 0itts6 %aw. In ;are and ?ikaelian6s study, selection time was shown to be logarithmically proportional to target distance, thereby conforming to 0itts6 %aw. #o the contrary, (ilbert and :acob A2B found that trial completion time with eye tracking input increases little with distance, therefore defying 0itts6 %aw. In addition to problems with today6s eye tracking systems, such as delay, error, and inconvenience, there may also be many potential human factor disadvantages to the ? >I, pointing techniques we have proposed, including the following4 ). ;ith the more liberal ? >I, pointing technique, the cursor warping can be overactive at times, since the cursor moves to the new gaze location whenever the eye gaze moves more than a set distance +e.g., )9D pi!els- away from the cursor. #his could be particularly distracting when the user is trying to read. It is possible to introduce additional constraint according to the conte!t. 0or e!ample, when the user6s eye appears to follow a te!t reading pattern, ? >I, pointing can be automatically suppressed. 9. ;ith the more conservative ? >I, pointing technique, the uncertainty of the e!act location at which the cursor might appear may force the user, especially a novice, to adopt a cumbersome strategy4 take a touch +use the manual input device to activate the cursor-, wait +for the cursor to appear-, and move +the cursor to the target manually-. (uch a strategy may prolong the target acquisition time. #he user may have to learn a novel hand-eye coordination pattern to be efficient with this technique. >aze position reported by eye tracker 'ye tracking boundary with 2EM confidence #rue target will be within the circle with 2EM probability #he cursor is warped to the boundary of the gaze area, along the initial actuation vector /revious cursor position, far from target Initial manual actuation vector

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=. ;ith pure manual pointing techniques, the user, knowing the current cursor location, could conceivably perform his motor acts in parallel to visual search. ?otor action may start as soon as the user6s gaze settles on a target. ;ith ? >I, pointing techniques, the motor action computation +decision- cannot start until the cursor appears. #his may negate the time saving gained from the ? >I, pointing technique6s reduction of movement amplitude. ,learly, e!perimental +implementation and empirical- work is needed to validate, refine, or invent alternative ? >I, pointing techniques.

3.1 IMPLEMENTATION
;e took two engineering efforts to implement the ? >I, pointing techniques. *ne was to design and implement an eye tracking system and the other was to implement ? >I, pointing techniques at the operating systems level, so that the techniques can work with all software applications beyond KdemonstrationL software.

3.2 THE I%M ALMADEN EYE TRAC&ER

(ince the goal of this work is to e!plore ? >I, pointing as a user interface technique, we started out by purchasing a commercial eye tracker + (% ?odel EDDD- after a market survey. In comparison to the system reported in early studies +e.g. A3B-, this system is much more compact and reliable. However, we felt that it was still not robust enough for a variety of people with different eye characteristics, such as pupil brightness and correction glasses. ;e hence chose to develop and use our own eye tracking system A)DB. vailable commercial systems, such as those made by I(, 5 Incorporated, %, #echnologies, and pplied (cience %aboratories + (%-, rely on a single light source that is positioned either off the camera a!is in the case of the I(, 5'#%-@DD systems, or on-a!is in the case of the %,# and the (% 'ED@ systems. Illumination from an off-a!is source +or ambient illumination- generates a dark pupil image.

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;hen the light source is placed on-a!is with the camera optical a!is, the camera is able to detect the light reflected from the interior of the eye, and the image of the pupil appears bright +see 0igure =-. #his effect is often seen as the red-eye in flash photographs when the flash is close to the camera lens.

$right +left- and dark +right- pupil images resulting from on- and off-a!is illumination. #he glints, or corneal reflections, from the on- and off-a!is light sources can be easily identified as the bright points in the iris. #he lmaden system uses two near infrared +I"time multiple!ed light sources, composed of two sets of I" %'71s, which were synchronized with the camera frame rate. *ne light source is placed very close to the camera1s optical a!is and is synchronized with the even frames. *dd frames are synchronized with the second light source, positioned off a!is. #he two light sources are calibrated to provide appro!imately equivalent whole-scene illumination. /upil detection is realized by means of subtracting the dark pupil image from the bright pupil image. fter thresholding the difference, the largest connected component is identified as the pupil. #his technique significantly increases the robustness and reliability of the eye tracking system. fter implementing our system with satisfactory results, we discovered that similar pupil detection schemes had been independently developed by #omonoetal and 'bisawa and (atoh.

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It is unfortunate that such a method has not been used in the commercial systems. ;e recommend that future eye tracking product designers consider such an approach. *nce the pupil has been detected, the corneal reflection +the glint reflected from the surface of the cornea due to one of the light sources- is determined from the dark pupil image. #he reflection is then used to estimate the user1s point of gaze in terms of the screen coordinates where the user is looking at. #he estimation of the user1s gaze requires an initial calibration procedure, similar to that required by commercial eye trackers. *ur system operates at =D frames per second on a /entium II === ?Hz machine running ;indows 5#. It can work with any /,I frame grabber compatible with Nideo for ;indows.

3.3 IMPLIMENTING MAGIC POINTING

;e programmed the two ? >I, pointing techniques on a ;indows 5# system. #he techniques work independently from the applications. #he ? >I, pointing program takes data from both the manual input device +of any type, such as a mouse- and the eye tracking system running either on the same machine or on another machine connected via serial port. "aw data from an eye tracker can not be directly used for gaze-based interaction, due to noise from image processing, eye movement .itters, and samples taken during sacca,e +ballistic eye movement- periods. ;e e!perimented with various filtering techniques and found the most effective filter in our case is similar to that described in A3B. #he goal of filter design in general is to make the best compromise between preserving signal bandwidth and eliminating unwanted noise. In the case of eye tracking, as :acob argued, eye information relevant to interaction lies in the fi-ations. #he key is to select fi!ation points with minimal delay. (amples collected during a saccade are unwanted and should be avoided. In designing our algorithm for picking points of fi!ation, we considered our tracking system speed +=D Hz-, and that the ? >I, pointing techniques utilize gaze information only once for each new target, probably immediately after a saccade. *ur filtering algorithm was designed to pick a fi!ation with minimum delay by means of selecting two ad.acent points over two samples.

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3.' EXPERIMENT
'mpirical studies, are relatively rare in eye tracking-based interaction research, although they are particularly needed in this field. Human behavior and processes at the perceptual motor level often do not conform to conscious-level reasoning. *ne usually cannot correctly describe how to make a turn on a bicycle. Hypotheses on novel interaction techniques can only be validated by empirical data. However, it is also particularly difficult to conduct empirical research on gaze-based interaction techniques, due to the comple!ity of eye movement and the lack of reliability in eye tracking equipment. (atisfactory results only come when Keverything is going right.L ;hen results are not as e!pected, it is difficult to find the true reason among many possible reasons4 Is it because a sub.ect6s particular eye property fooled the eye trackerJ ;as there a calibration errorJ *r random noise in the imaging systemJ *r is the hypothesis in fact invalidJ ;e are still at a very early stage of e!ploring the ? >I, pointing techniques. ?ore refined or even very different techniques may be designed in the future. ;e are by no means ready to conduct the definitive empirical studies on ? >I, pointing. However, we also feel that it is important to sub.ect our work to empirical evaluations early so that quantitative observations can be made and fed back to the iterative design-evaluation-design cycle. ;e therefore decided to conduct a small-scale pilot study to take an initial peek at the use of ? >I, pointing, however unrefined.

3.( EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

#he two ? >I, pointing techniques described earlier were put to test using a set of parameters such as the filter6s temporal and spatial thresholds, the minimum cursor warping distance, and the amount of Kintelligent biasL +sub.ectively selected by the authors without e!tensive user testing-. &ltimately the ? >I, pointing techniques should be evaluated with an array of manual input devices, against both pure manual and pure gaze-operated pointing methods.

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(ince this is an early pilot study, we decided to limit ourselves to one manual input device. standard mouse was first considered to be the manual input device in the e!periment. However, it was soon realized not to be the most suitable device for ? >I, pointing, especially when a user decides to use the push-upwards strategy with the intelligent offset. $ecause in such a case the user always moves in one direction, the mouse tends to be moved off the pad, forcing the user ad.ust the mouse position, often during a pointing trial. ;e hence decided to use a miniature isometric pointing stick +I$? #rack /oint IN, commercially used in the I$? #hink/ad IDD and 33D series notebook computers-. nother device suitable for ? >I, pointing is a touchpad4 the user can choose one convenient gesture and to take advantage of the intelligent offset. #he e!perimental task was essentially a 0itts6 pointing task. (ub.ects were asked to point and click at targets appearing in random order. If the sub.ect clicked off-target, a miss was logged but the trial continued until a target was clicked. n e!tra trial was added to make up for the missed trial. *nly trials with no misses were collected for time performance analyses. (ub.ects were asked to complete the task as quickly as possible and as accurately as possible. #o serve as a motivator, a O9D cash prize was set for the sub.ect with the shortest mean session completion time with any technique.

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#he task was presented on a 9D inch ,"# color monitor, with a )E by )) inch viewable area set at resolution of )9CD by )D9@ pi!els. (ub.ects sat from the screen at a distance of 9E inches. #he following factors were manipulated in the e!periments4 two target sizes4 9D pi!els +D.9= in or D.E= degree of viewing angle at 9E in distanceand ID pi!els in diameter +D.3 in, ).I) degree three target distances4 9DD pi!els +9.=@ in, E.=3 degree-, EDD pi!els +E.CE in, )=.=3 degree-, and CDD pi!els +2.=C in, 9).9@ degree three pointing directions4 horizontal, vertical and diagonal within-sub.ect design was used. 'ach sub.ect performed the task with all three techniques4 +)- (tandard, pure manual pointing with no gaze tracking +5o >aze-F +9- #he conservative ? >I, pointing method with intelligent offset +>aze)-F +=- #he liberal ? >I, pointing method +>aze9-. 5ine sub.ects, seven male and two female, completed the e!periment. #he order of techniques was balanced by a %atin square pattern. (even sub.ects were e!perienced #rack /oint users, while two had little or no e!perience. ;ith each technique, a =I-trial practice session was first given, during which sub.ects were encouraged to e!plore and to find the most suitable strategies +aggressive, gentle, etc.-. #he practice session was followed by two data collection sessions. minimize instrumental error. lthough our eye tracking system allows head motion, at least for those users who do not wear glasses, we decided to use a chin rest to

3.) EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS

>iven the pilot nature and the small scale of the e!periment, we e!pected the statistical power of the results to be on the weaker side. In other words, while the significant effects revealed are important, suggestive trends that are statistically non-significant are still worth noting for future research. 0irst, we found that sub.ects6 trial completion time significantly varied with techniques4 F+9, )I- G I.=I, p H D.D).

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#he total average completion time was ).@ seconds with the standard manual control technique ).E9 seconds with the conservative ? >I, pointing technique +>aze)-, and ).== seconds with the liberal ? >I, pointing technique +>aze9-. 5ote that the >aze) #echnique had the greatest improvement from the first to the second e!periment session, suggesting the possibility of matching the performance of the other two techniques with further practice. s e!pected, target size significantly influenced pointing time4 F+),C- G )3C, p H D.DD). #his was true for both the manual and the two ? >I, pointing techniques +0igure I-.

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/ointing amplitude also significantly affected completion time4 F+9, C- G 23.E, p H D.DD). However, the amount of influence varied with the technique used, as indicated by the significant interaction between technique and amplitude4 F+@, =9- G 3.E, p H D.DD) +0igure 3-.

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s pointing amplitude increased from 9DD pi!els to EDD pi!els and then to CDD pi!els, sub.ects6 completion time with the 5oP>aze condition increased in a non-linear, logarithmic-like pace as 0itts6 %aw predicts. #his is less true with the two ? >I, pointing techniques, particularly the >aze9 condition, which is definitely not logarithmic. 5onetheless, completion time with the ? >I, pointing techniques did increase as target distance increased. #his is intriguing because in ? >I, pointing techniques, the manual control portion of the movement should be the distance from the warped cursor position to the true target. (uch distance depends on eye tracking system accuracy, which is unrelated to the previous cursor position. In short, while completion time and target distance with the ? >I, pointing techniques did not completely follow 0itts6 %aw, they were not completely independent either. Indeed, when we lump target size and target distance according to the 0itts6 %aw Inde! of 7ifficulty I. G log9+A</ Q )- A)EB, we see a similar phenomenon. 0or the 5oP>aze condition4 0 G D.9C Q D.=) I. +rRGD.2)9#he particular settings of our e!periment were very different from those typically reported in a 0itts6 %aw e!periment4 to simulate more realistic tasks we used circular targets distributed in varied directions in a randomly shuffled order, instead of two vertical bars displaced only in the horizontal dimension. ;e also used an isometric pointing stick, not a mouse. ,onsidering these factors, the above equation is reasonable. #he inde! of performance +IP- was =.9 bits per second, in comparison to the @.E bits per second in a typical setting +repeated mouse clicks on two vertical bars- A)IB. 0or the >aze) condition4 0 G D.C Q D.99 I. +rRGD.3)IIP G @.EE bits per second 0or >aze94 0 G D.I Q D.9) I. +rRGD.CD@IP G @.3I bits per second

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5ote that the data from the two ? >I, pointing techniques fit the 0itts6 %aw model relatively poorly +as e!pected-, although the indices of performance +@.EE and @.3I bpswere much higher than the manual condition +=.9 bps-. 0inally, 0igure C shows that the angle at which the targets were presented had little influence on trial completion time4 F+9, )I- G ).E3, 5.(.

#he number of misses +clicked off target- was also analyzed. #he only significant factor to the number of misses is target size4 F+),C- G )E.I, p H D.D). &sers tended to have more misses with small targets. ?ore importantly, sub.ects made no more misses with the ? >I, pointing techniques than with the pure manual technique +5oP>aze S C.9 M, >aze) S3M, >aze9 S 3.EM-.

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' ARTI*ICIAL INTELLIGENT SPEECH RECOGNITION

It is important to consider the environment in which the speech recognition system has to work. #he grammar used by the speaker and accepted by the system, noise level, noise type, position of the microphone, and speed and manner of the user6s speech are some factors that may affect the quality of speech recognition .;hen you dial the telephone number of a big company, you are likely to hear the sonorous voice of a cultured lady who responds to your call with great courtesy saying K;elcome to company T. /lease give me the e!tension number you wantL. You pronounce the e!tension number, your name, and the name of person you want to contact. If the called person accepts the call, the connection is given quickly. #his is artificial intelligence where an automatic callhandling system is used without employing any telephone operator.

'.1 THE TECHNOLOGY

rtificial intelligence + I- involves two basic ideas. 0irst, it involves studying the thought processes of human beings. (econd, it deals with representing those processes via machines +like computers, robots, etc-. I is behavior of a machine, which, if performed by a human being, would be called intelligent. It makes machines smarter and more useful, and is less e!pensive than natural intelligence. 5atural language processing +5%/- refers to artificial intelligence methods of communicating with a computer in a natural language like 'nglish. #he main ob.ective of a 5%/ program is to understand input and initiate action. #he input words are scanned and matched against internally stored known words. Identification of a key word causes some action to be taken. In this way, one can communicate with the computer in one6s language. 5o special commands or computer language are required. #here is no need to enter programs in a special language for creating software.

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'.2 SPEECH RECOGNITION

#he user speaks to the computer through a microphone, which, in usedF a simple system may contain a minimum of three filters. #he more the number of filters used, the higher the probability of accurate recognition. /resently, switched capacitor digital filters are used because these can be custom-built in integrated circuit form. #hese are smaller and cheaper than active filters using operational amplifiers. #he filter output is then fed to the 7, to translate the analogue signal into digital word. #he 7, samples the filter outputs many times a second. 'ach sample represents different amplitude of the signal .'venly spaced vertical lines represent the amplitude of the audio filter output at the instant of sampling. 'ach value is then converted to a binary number proportional to the amplitude of the sample. are fed by the 7,(. central processor unit +,/&- controls the input circuits that large " ? +random access memory- stores all the digital values

in a buffer area. #his digital information, representing the spoken word, is now accessed by the ,/& to process it further. #he normal speech has a frequency range of 9DD Hz to 3 kHz. "ecognizing a telephone call is more difficult as it has bandwidth limitation of =DD Hz to=.= kHz. s e!plained earlier, the spoken words are processed by the filters and 7,s. #he binary representation of each of these words becomes a template or standard, against which the future words are compared. #hese templates are stored in the memory. *nce the storing process is completed, the system can go into its active mode and is capable of identifying spoken words. s each word is spoken, it is converted into binary equivalent and stored in " ?. #he computer then starts searching and compares the binary input pattern with the templates. t is to be noted that even if the same speaker talks the same te!t, there are always slight variations in amplitude or loudness of the signal, pitch, frequency difference, time gap, etc. 7ue to this reason, there is never a perfect match between the template and binary input word. #he pattern matching process therefore uses statistical techniques and is designed to look for the best fit.

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#he values of binary input words are subtracted from the corresponding values in the templates. If both the values are same, the difference is zero and there is perfect match. If not, the subtraction produces some difference or error. #he smaller the error, the better the match. ;hen the best match occurs, the word is identified and displayed on the screen or used in some other manner. #he search process takes a considerable amount of time, as the ,/& has to make many comparisons before recognition occurs. #his necessitates use of very high-speed processors. large " ? is also required as even though a spoken word may last only a few hundred milliseconds, but the same is translated into many thousands of digital words. It is important to note that alignment of words and templates are to be matched correctly in time, before computing the similarity score. #his process, termed as dynamic time warping, recognizes that different speakers pronounce the same words at different speeds as well as elongate different parts of the same word. #his is important for the speaker-independent recognizers.

'.3 APPLICATIONS

*ne of the main benefits of speech recognition system is that it lets user do other works simultaneously. #he user can concentrate on observation and manual operations, and still control the machinery by voice input commands. nother ma.or application of speech processing is in military operations. Noice control of weapons is an e!ample. ;ith reliable speech recognition equipment, pilots can give commands and information to the computers by simply speaking into their microphonesUthey don6t have to use their hands for this purpose. nother good e!ample is a radiologist scanning hundreds of Trays, ultrasonograms, ,# scans and simultaneously dictating conclusions to a speech recognition system connected to word processors. #he radiologist can focus his attention on the images rather than writing the te!t. Noice recognition could also be used on computers for making airline and hotel reservations. user requires simply to state his needs, to make reservation, cancel a reservation, or make enquiries about schedule.

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( THE SIMPLE USER INTERST TRAC&ER #SUITOR$

,omputers would have been much more powerful, had they gained perceptual and sensory abilities of the living beings on the earth. ;hat needs to be developed is an intimate relationship between the computer and the humans. nd the (imple &ser Interest #racker +(&I#*"- is a revolutionary approach in this direction. $y observing the ;ebpage a netizen is browsing, the (&I#*" can help by fetching more information at his desktop. $y simply noticing where the user6s eyes focus on the computer screen, the (&I#*" can be more precise in determining his topic of interest. It can even deliver relevant information to a handheld device. #he success lies in how much the suitor can be intimate to the user. I$?1s $lue'yes research pro.ect began with a simple question, according to ?yron 0lickner, a manager in lmaden1s &('" group4 ,an we e!ploit nonverbal cues to create more effective user interfacesJ *ne such cue is gazeUthe direction in which a person is looking. 0lickner and his colleagues have created some new techniques for tracking a person1s eyes and have incorporated this gaze-tracking technology into two prototypes. *ne, called (&I#*" +(imple &ser Interest #racker-, fills a scrolling ticker on a computer screen with information related to the user1s current task. (&I#*" knows where you are looking, what applications you are running, and what ;eb pages you may be browsing. VIf I1m reading a ;eb page about I$?, for instance,V says /aul ?aglio, the lmaden cognitive scientist who invented (&I#*", Vthe system presents the latest stock price or business news stories that could affect I$?. If I read the headline off the ticker, it pops up the story in a browser window. If I start to read the story, it adds related stories to the ticker. #hat1s the whole idea of an attentive systemUone that attends to what you are doing, typing, reading, so that it can attend to your information needs.V

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) CONCLUSION #he nineties witnessed quantum leaps interface designing for improved man machine interactions. #he $%&' 'Y'( technology ensures a convenient way of simplifying the life by providing more delicate and user friendly facilities in computing devices. 5ow that we have proven the method, the ne!t step is to improve the hardware. Instead of using cumbersome modules to gather information about the user, it will be better to use smaller and less intrusive units. #he day is not far when this technology will push its way into your house hold, making you more lazy. It may even reach your hand held mobile device. ny way this is only a technological forecast.

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