LAW OF LAND WARFARE

J. A. G. S. TEXT NO. 7

The Judge Advocate General's School

ANN ARBOR, MICHIGAN

LIST OF CURRENT TMTS

0 f

THE JUDGE ADVOCATE GENEBAL'S SCHOOL PPepared for instructional purposes only. JAGS TEXT No. 1 JAGS TEXT No. 2 MILITARY JUSTICE Procedural guide for staff Judge advocates. MILITARY JUSTICE Comments on common errors and irregularities in court-martial procedure. MILITARY AFFAIRS Selected materials in the bibliography, procedure and substantive law of military affairs.

JAGS TEXT No. 3

JAGS TEXT No.

WAR PObERS AND MILITARY JURISDICTION Introduction to military jurisdiction and an orientation in the field of military law.
GOVERNMENT CONTRACTS The principles and practice relating to go$-ernment contracts. CASEBOOK - GOVERNMENT CONTRACTS A companion volume to JAGS TEXT No. 5 containing edited cases on government contracts.

JAGS TEXT No. 5

*JAGS TEXT No. 6

JAGS TEXT'No. 7 JAGS TEXT No. 8

LAW OF LAND WARFARE

Commentary on the rules of land warfare. CLAIMS BY AND AGAINST THE GOVERNMENT Principles, statutory provisions and procedure relating to Army tort claims. SELECTED OPINIONS - MILITARY AFFAIRS Companion volume to JAGS TEXT No. 3, containing cur~entselected opinions of the Military Affairs Division, Office of The Jud%e Advocate General.

*JAGS TEXT No. 9

JAGS TEXT No. 10 Publication discontinued. JAGS TEXT No. 11 LAW OF BELLIGERENT OCCUPATION JAGS TEXT No. 12 GOVERNMENT CONTRACTS AND READJUSTMENT Legal, procedural and fiscal principles involved in the termination of government contracts. *Available only to students while in attendance.

This t e x t i s intended a s an a i d t o s t u d e n t s i n The Judge Advocate General's School i n t h e study of t h e Rules of Land Warfare, F i e l d Manual 27-10. The arrangement a s w e l l a s t h e paragraph numb e r s follow t h e F i e l d Manual. Fundamental p r i n c i p l e s r a t h e r than t h e more minute d e t a i l s a r e emphasized, although divergences of i n t e r p r e t a t i o n and p r a c t i c e a r e i n d i c a t e d . Topics i n t h e F i e l d Manual r e q u i r i n g no a d d i t i o n a l discussion a r e omitted. The scope of t h e t e x t i s l i m i t e d t o t h e following t o p i c s : b a s i c p r i n c i p l e s of land warfare, s t a t u s of persons i n war, t h e conduct of h o s t i l i t i e s , p r i s o n e r s of war, and t h e s i c k , wounded and dead. This t e x t was prepared i n t h e C i v i l A f f a i r s Department of The Judge Advocate General's School.

REGINALJI C MILLER, Colonel, J .A .G . D o , Commandant

The Judge Advocate General's School, United S t a t e s A r m y , Ann Arbor, Michigan, 1 September 1943, Reissued 1 J u l y 1945,

C O N T E N T S . . o o O o
0 .

PART I Chapter I Page

BASIC RULES AND PRINCIPLES General Conventional Rules Customary Rules Basic Principles Military Necessity Humanity Chivalry Force of R~lea.~..... Military Jurisdiction

........................................ ............................. ................................ ............................... ........................ .................................. .................................. .......................... ..........................

........... ............................ .................................. . ............................... ............................ .............. .....................................

I1

QUALIFICATIONS OF ARMED FORCE OF BELLIGERENTS General Division of Enemy Population Lawful Belligerents The Army Irre~lars Levee en Masse Combatants and Noncombatants Guerrillas HOSTILITIES

. Treatment of Alien Enemies .....................

.................... Means of Injur-ing the Enemy Limited ............ Hague Declaration No . XIV of October 18, 1907.. Poisons, Gases and Chemicals................... Treachery and Assassination.,.,.,~O Quarter .......................................; Employment of Arms, etc . , Causing Unnecessary Injury.................................... Subjects Not to be Compelled to Take Part in Operations Against Their Own Country ...... Stratwens.....................................
Commencement of Hostilities
0 0 0 0

Chapter

Page

I11

HOSTILITIES (~ontd) .. Bombardments. Assaults. and Sieges Assaults mdBombardments Seizure and Destruction of Property During Operations; Devastation .pillage Unanchored Submarine Mines

............. ................. .......... . .. ........................................ .....................

................ ........................ . ..............

40 40
43 4 6 46

IV

PRISONERS OF WAR Who May Become Prisoners of War Civilian Internees Civilians Following the Army Armed Forces Subjects of Neutral States Personal Safeguards Accorded Prisoners of War Reprisals Against Prisoners of Mar Persons and Honor to be R3~pected Duty of Maintenance Discrimination Must Give Name and Rank; Coercion to Obtain Military Information Prohibited Effects That May be Retained by Prisoners Evacuation; Notification of Capture Prisoners in Places of Danger Sick and Wounded Notification of Capture Internment Unhealthy Location Segregation of Nationalities Installation of Camps; Rations; Clothing Installation of Camps Rations Clothing Sanitation and Medical Care Sanitation Medical Care Religious Freedom Recreation Courtesy and Discipline Communication of Orders, etc

............................. ................ .. ........ ......... ....................... ............................ ........... ...... ............ ............. .......................... ................... ..................................... ........................ .............. ....... ..................... ................................... .................................. .................... ................................ .............................. .............................. ..................................... ........................ ..............

. iii .
Chapter Page

Pay and Maintenance of Officers and Assimiles Assimiles Officers Pay and Maintenance Authorized and Prohibited Work of Prisoners of War Officers and Assimiles Other Prisoners of War Unhealthful or Dangerous Work Kind of Work Prohibited Wages of Prisoners of War and Deductions for Maintenance Work Accidents Correspondence and Parcels Protecting Power and Complaints Relief Societies Official Information Bureau Crimes and Offenses General Disciplinary Punishment Judicial Proceedings Escape C~ncurrent Jurisdiction of Civil Courts over prisoners of war Release of Prisoners a d of war Return of Sick and Wounded Exchange Military Service After Repatriation or o o ~ o Exchame Parole Death in Captivity
. . . . . . . . . . . . O O O O O . O . . . . . . . . .

.............. 72 .................................... 75 .................... 75 .................... 76 ............. 78 ................... 80 ............................... 83 ............................ 86 ..................... 87 ................ 90 ............................... 92 .................... 93 94 ............. . . . ................. 94 ................... 96 ...................... 100 .................................... 102 ................ 106 ........................... 106 ................................ 106 ................ 109 .................................. 111 ................... ~112~ .................................... 113 ............................. 120
.................................. .................. .................. ......... ..........................
121 125 127 130

.. .................................

71 71

SICK. WOUNDED AND DEAD General Rules Treatment of Wounded and Dead Ownership of Personal Effects Sanitary Formations and Establishments Personnel of Sanitary Formations and Establishments.. Buildings and Materiel Sanitary Transportation Sanitary Aircraft The Distinctive Emblem of the Red Cross

......................... ........................ ..............................

........

134 138 142

145 149

LIST OF WORKS NOT REFERRED TO BY FULL TITLES

Air Power Am. J. Int. L. Baker and Crocker

- Spaight, Air Power and War Rightg, 2nd

ed. (1933)

- The American Journal of International

Law

- The Laws of Land Warfare Concerning The

Rights and Duties of Belligerents as Existing on August 1, 1914 (1918)

Baty and Morgan Bordwell Brierly Davis

- a : Its Conduct and Legal Results (1915) - The Law of War Between Belligerents (1908) - The Law of Nations, 2nd ed. (1936) - Davis, The Elements of International Law
With an Account of its Origin, Sources and Historical Development, 4th ed (1916) , by Gordon E. Sherman

Des Gouttes

La Convention De Geneve pour LfAmelioration DLI Sort Des Blesses et Des Malades Dans Les Armees En Campagne DU 27 Juillet 1929 (1930) Land Warfare, A n Exposition of the Laws and Usages of War on Land for the Guidance of Officers of His Majesty's Army (1912)

Edmonds and Oppenheim

Fenwick Flory Garner Grotius Society Hackworth Hall

- International Law (1924)

Prisoners of War, A Study in the Development of International Law (1942) International Law and the World War (1920) The Transactions of the Grotius Society Digest of International Law (1940)

- Hall, A Treatise on International Law, 7th

, by A. Pearce Higgins ed. (1917)

Holland
- Hyde

- ~ h .Laws & of War on Land (1908)

International-Law Chiefly as Interpreted and Applied by the United States (1922) Lawrence, The Principles of International Law, 7th ed. (1923), by Percy .H.Winfield 6th ed. (1940), by H. Lauterpacht

L a m ence Lauterpacht Moore Phillipson Raamussen

- L. Oppenheim, International Law, A Treatfse, - A Digest of ~nternationalLaw (1906) - International Law and The Great War (1915)

Code Des Prisonniers De Guerre, Commentaire De La Convention DU 27 Juillet 1929, Relative au Traitment Des Prisonniers De Guerre (1931) War Rights on Land (1911) the Chief of Staff. Rules of.LandWarfare, 1914, corrected to April 15, 1917, Washington, 19.17

Spaight U.S.R.L.W.

- United States, War Department, Office of

Walker We stlake Winf ield

Pitt Cobbett, Cases on International Law, 5th ed. (1937) , by Wyndham Legh Walker

- International Law (1907) - The Foundations and the Future of Inteynational Law (1941)

CHAPTER I BASIC RULES AND PRINCTPLES

1. General.--The laws of war are the rules respecting warfare with which, according to international law, belligerents and neutrals are bound to comply.' The rules of land warfare had

their origin in the practices and usages of war which gradually grew into customs or were embodied in conventions .2 Thus, the existing law is comprised of two branches--the conventional law and the customary law. In either case, its authoritativeness (i.e., its character as law) arises from the consent of nations. Express consent is given by 'treaties or conventions, tacit consent by habitual obseryance of certain rules (custom) between states.3 In dealing with customary law, two difficulties may present themselves in any given case-he difficulty of proving the par-

ticular custom and the difficulty in determining whether a particular practice has developed into a custom (i.e., has it been

1.

Edmonds and Oppenheim, par. I-.

The term "conventional" law is used to indicate those rules that have been embodied in treaties or conventions as distinguished from cus$omary internstimal law, i . ~ . , the unwritten rules. Lawrence, p , 95. See, however, Brierly, p. 40, where it is stated: "Implied consent is not a philosophically sound explanation of customary law, international or municipal; a customary rule is observed, not because it has been consented to, but because it is believed to be binding * , * *"

2.

3.

approved by the comon consent of civilized nations).

Whether

a particular usage has been agreed to is a matter of evidence.

The test for determining whether a usage has become an obligatory custom is that it must be approved by the common consent of civilized nations .5 All need hot necessarily consent to create cus-

tomary law if the practice be accepted generally. The dissent or assent of some states may be more authoritative than that of other states. The dissent of Switzerland with respect to an approved maritime practice would not be as important as the dissent
'

of the United States or Great Britain. The evidences of custom are found in:
(1) Historical documents,which contain the record of

international practice such as records of the foreign offices of the several states; diplomatic correspondence and state papers.
(2)

The "works of jurists and commentators, who by

years of labor, research, and experience, have made themselves peculiarly well acquainted with the subjects of which they treat. Such works are resorted to by judicial tribunals, not for the speculations of their authors concerning what the law ought to be, but for trustworthy evidence of what the ,law really is.11 6

The Scotia, 14 Wall. 170.

6. Paquete, Habana and The Lola, 175 U.S . 677.

(3) Decisions of international courts and courts of

arbitration.

(4) Decisions of national courts.7

2

Conventional Rules.--The conventional laws of war on

land include the following international agreements:

(1) The Geneva Conventions ( ~ e d cross) of 1864,

1906,

and 1929, which deal with the treatment of the sick and wounded.

The Geneva Convention of 1929 concerning the treat'

ment of prisoners of war.

(3) The Hague Convention of 1899 No. 11, relating to.

the laws and customs of war on land; the actual rules were contained in regulations annexed thereto.

(4) The Hague Convention of 1907 No. IV, relating to

the laws and customs of war on land; the actual rules were contained in regulations annexed thereto.

( 5 ) The Hague Convention of 1907 No. 111, relative to

the opening of hostilities.

(6) The Hague Convention of 1907 No. V, resyecting the

rights and duties of neutral powers and persons in case of .way on land.
-

7.
8.

Thirty Hogsheads of Sugar v, Boyle , 9 ~r&ch. 191, 198, The united States has ratified or adhered to all of these.

(7)

The Hague Convention of 1907 No. V I I I , r e l a t i v e t o

t h e laying of automatic submarine contact mines.

(8) The Hague Convention of 1907 No. I X , concerning

bombardment by naval f o r c e s i n time of war.

(9) The Hague Declaration of 1907 No. XIV, p r o h i b i t i n g

t h e discharge of p r o j e c t i l e s and explosives from balloons.
A l l of t h e s e agreements, with t h e exception of t h e l a s t ,

bind t h e powers t h a t accepted them9 i i t h o u t l i m i t of time. t h e above t r e a t i e s may be denounced a f t e r n o t i c e .

A l l of

The denunci-

a t i o n a f f e c t s t h e n o t i f y i n g power only and becomes o p e r a t i v e a f t e r one year f ~ o m t h e d a t e i n which t h e notice was given. lo The Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907? respecting t h e laws and customs of war on land provide t h a t t h e Convention s h a l l be binding upon t h e s i g n a t o r y powers only i f a l l t h e b e l l i g e r e n t s a r e p a r t i e s to the

on vent ion."

Thus, they cease t o be binding upon t h e

b e l l i g e r e n t s whenever a non-signatory s t a t e , however i n s i g n i f i c a n t , joins one of t h e b s l l i g e r e n t s . 1 2 The Geneva Conventions of

Sec. I , Giro 136, WD, May 7, 1942, s t a t e s t h a t t h e Hague Declaration of 1907 No. X I V , i s not binding and w i l l not be M 27-10, p a r . 27. observed. See a l s o F See F M 27-10, p a r . 5 . The Geneva Conventions of 1929 do not permit such denunciation t o take e f f e c t during a war i n which t h e denouncing p a r t y i s involved, 10.
11. This c l a u s e i s c a l l e d a "general p a r t i c i p a t i o n c l a u s e " .

9.

12.

Garner, Vol, I, p . 18.

1929 r e l a t i n g t o t h e treatment of s i c k and wounded and of p r i s oners of war provide t h a t i f a b e l l i g e r e n t i s n o t a p a r t y t o t h e Convention, i t s p r o v i s i o n s s h a l l n e v e r t h e l e s s be binding a s between a l l b e l l i g e r e n t s who a r e p a r t i e s t h e r e t o . 13

By t h e Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907, t h e p a r t i e s agree

t o i s s u e i n s t r u c t i o n s t o t h e i r land f o r c e s i n conformity with t h e r e g u l a t i o n s annexed t o t h e Conventions. 3.

14

Customary Rules.--The customary o r unwritten law s t i l l

p l a y s a n important p a r t notwithstanding t h e Hague and Geneva Conventions .. It i s expressly declared by t h e preamble t o t h e

Hague Convention of 1907 No. I V , t h a t t h e populations and b e l l i g e r e n t s remain under t h e p r o t e c t i o n of customary law i n cases n o t covered by t h e Convention. Again, where t h e Conventions o r

any p a r t i c u l a r provisions a r e n o t a p p l i c a b l e a s between t h e b e l l i g e r e n t s , t h e r u l e s of customary law apply. 1-5

4.

Basic P r i n c i p l e s . - - a . -

M i l i t a r y Necessity.

The l i m i t s

s e t by customary and conventional law w i t h i n which f o r c e may be used a r e governed by g e n e r a l p r i n c i p l e s and s p e c i f i c p r o h f b i t i o n s ,

13.

Lauterpacht, p . 186.

14. FM 27-10 i s issued p w s u a n t t o t h i s o b l i g a t i o n .

15. Those p r o v i s i o n s oi? a convention t h a t a r e d e c l a r a t o r y of
customary law do n o t l o s e t h e i r binding f o r c e by reason of t h e abrogation of t h e convention. Hackworth, Vol. I , p. 1 7 .

Military necessity permits a belligerent the right of using all forms of regulated violence which may bring about the complete submission of the enemy as soon as possible. The preamble of the Hague Conventions gives evidence that "military necessity has been taken into account in framing the regulations, and'has not been left outside to control and ltmit their application".l6 l l l e signatories expressly stated that the wording of the rules which were drawn up "has been inspired by the desire to diminish the evils of war so far as military necessity permits".17 Military necessity as understood by the United States does not purport to indicate circumstances when a belligerent commander is free from a duty to observe the law of nations .18 This view of military necessity is to be distinguished from the doctrkie of military necessity (Kriegsraison) propounded by certain German writers in which the rules of war cease to operate (i.e., measures in violation,of law are justifiable) when the necessity of the situation requires. This theory may be epitomized by the phrase "necessity knows no law".19

16. Westlake, Part 11, p. 57,

17. Westlake, Part 11, p a 57.

18. Hyde, Vol. 11, p. 301. 19. Garner, Vol. 11, p , 196.

Illustrative case.-A violation of the laws of war by a belligerent alone offers either a means of escape from extreme danger or the overpowering of the enemy. Military necessity, as understood by the overwhelming weight of opinion, does not justify such violation .20 The l @ s of war may be set aside in certain circumstances:

(1) Reprisals for breaches of the laws of war on the

21 part of the enemy.

(2) Where the prohibitory rule of law contains an

express provision that it may be abrogated because of the "necessity of war". For example, Article 23(g) of the Hague Regula-

tionsn forbids the destruction or seizure of enemy property, "unless such destruction or seizu~e be imperatively demanded by the necessities of wax-''

(3) Where the rule of conduct to which the belligerents

are to conform is subject to the implied'assumption that the necessities of war allow compliance, . : . e

, Article 46 of

the Hague

regulation^,^^ which prescribes respect for private property.

20. Lauterpacht, p . 184. 21. FM 27-10,pars. 346, 358. . 22. FM 27-10,par. 313.

23. FM 27-10,par. 323.

b -.

Humanity.

The duty of a commander i s t o seek o u t t h e This p r i n c i p l e i s modified by t h e claims

enemy and d e s t r o y him.

of humanity t o t h e e x t e n t of surrendering t h e "use of any engine of war whose m i l i t a r y e f f e c t i s disproportioned t o t h e s u f f e r i n g

it e n t a i l s " .24

The p r i n c i p l e of humanity l i m i t s t h e n a t u r e of

t h e f o r c e used, t h e manner i n which it s h a l l be employed, and excludes c e r t a i n persons and t h i n g s from i t s a p p l i c a t i o n . 2 5 c. c h i v a l r y i s Synonymous With M i l i t a r y Honor. The p r i n -

c i p l e of c h i v a l r y e n j o i n s good f a i t h and denounces bad f a i t h o r treachery. 26

5 . Force of Rules.--Circular 136, War Department,.May 7,

1942,' s t a t e s t h a t although a l l of t h e conventions s e t out on page VI of F i e l d Manual 27-10 a r e not binding on a l l of t h e c o u n t r i e s with which t h e United S t a t e s i s a t war, they w i l l be observed and enforced by t h e A r m y of t h e United S t a t e s , a s provided i n F i e l d Manual 27-10, exceptfng t h e " ~ a g u eDeclaration No. XIV, October

18, 1907, prohibit4ng t h e discharge of p r o j e c t i l e s and explosives

24. 25. 26.

Spaight, p . 75. Some examples of t h i s p r i n c i p l e may be found i n F M 27-10, p a r s . 28, 32, 33, 34, 45. Examples of t h i s p ~ i n c i p l e a r e found i n 31, 41, 233, 234.

F M 27-10, p a r s , 30,

- 9 -

from b a l l o o n s .

The l a t t e r i s n o t binding and w i l l . n o t be ob27

s e r v e d by t h e United S t a t e s .

7 . M i l i t a r y J u r i s d i c t i o n . - - 2 8 ~ e n e r a l c o u r t s - m a r t i a l have
c o n c u r r e n t j u r i s d i c t i o n w i t h m i l i t a r y commissions t o t r y persons s u b j e c t t o m i l i t a r y law f o r v i o l a t i o n s of t h e l a w s of warn2' The

f a c t t h a t v i o l a t i o n s of t h e laws of war a r e n o t s p e c i f i c a l l y l i s t e d i n t h e p u n i t i v e A r t i c l e s does n o t d e p r i v e c o u r t s - m a r t i a l of jurisdiction.30 O f f i c e r s , s o l d i e r s , and r e t a i n e r s and o t h e r s connected

w i t h t h e A r m y may b e t r i e d under A r t i c l e of War 96 f o r v i o l a t i o n s of t h e l a w s of war, e i t h e r a s ( a ) d i s o r d e r s and n e g l e c t s t o t h e p r e j u d i c e of good o r d e r and m i l i t a r y d i s c i p l i n e , ( b ) conduct of a n a t u r e t o b r i n g d i s c r e d i t upon t h e m i l i t a r y s e r v i c e , o r ( c ) "crimes and o f f e n s e s n o t c a p i t a l " . General c o u r t s - m a r t i a l have

power t o t r y "any o t h e r person" ( o t h e r t h a n t h o s e s u b j e c t t o

27. 28.

Cf

. FM 27-10,

p a r . 27.

T h i s paragraph i s l i m i t e d i n scope t o t h e r e s p e c t i v e j u r i s d i c t i o n of c o u r t s - m a r t i a l and m i l i t a r y commissions f o r v i o l a t i o n s of t h e laws of war. The s u b j e c t of m i l i t a r y commiss i o n s g e n e r a l l y i s d e a l t with i n "War Powers and M i l i t a r y J ' w i s d i c t i o n " by Colonel Edward H. Young, .-JAGD, JAGS Text No, 4, and "The Law of M a r t i a l Rule" by L t . Col. C h a r l e s Fairman, JAGD.

It must be remembered t h a t some w a r s crimes a r e a l s o common law crimes condemned b y A r t i c l e s of War 9 and 93, C f , Dig, Op. JAG, 1912, p . 1071, l a s t p a r .
30.

m i l i t a r y law) who by t h e law of war i s s u b j e c t t o t ~ i a by l mili t a r y t r i b u n a l . 31 However, t h e American f o r c e s i n Germany during

World W a r I e s t a b l i s h e d m i l i t a r y comrnissibns and provost c o u r t s f o r t h e t r i a l of i n h a b i t a n t s , No-members of t h e Amepican A r m y

were t r i e d by such c o u r t s ; they weye brought before c o u r t s m a r t i a l . 32 M i l i t a r y c o m i s s i o n s have by s t a t u t e concurrent j u r i s d i c t i o n with c o u r t s - m a r t i a l t o t r y persons s u b j e c t t o m i l i t a r y law. who r e l i e v e o r a i d t h e enemy,33 o r a r e spies,34 o r d e a l i n captured

or abandoned property. 35
M i l i t a r y offenses by persons s u b j e ---------c t t o mi1ita-u.y la'v -- .whi~:h by s t a t u t e a r e made punishable by c o w t s - m a r t i a l may not be t r i e d by a m i l i t a r y commission. 36

31.
32

AW 12',

See a l s o Colby,

17 Am., J , I n t , L o

109, 1x2,

Colby, 23 Mich, L o Rev, 482, 505, The Ter~itoncyof Hawaii, under m a r t f a l law s i n c e t h e a t t a c k on P e a r l H a r b o ~ , e s :. t a b l i s h e d provost c o u r t s . These c o u r t s t r i e d m i l i t a r y pe:rsom~el f o r t r a f f i c v i o l a t i o n s with t h e appro.vtll of t h e cosnrftlanding general and commandant of t h e naval d i s t r i c t ,

3 6 , Dig. Op. JAG, 1912, p , 1069, l a s t p a r ,

The A r t i c l e s of War, e s p e c i a l l y A r t i c l e of war

15, recognize

t h e j u r i s d i c t i o n of m i l i t a r y commissions t o t r y v i o l a t o r s of t h e laws of war.37 Thus, enemy perrions who entered t h e United S t a t e s

f o r t h e purpose of committing sabotage a r e unlawful b e l l i g e r e n t s t r i a b l e by m i l i t a r y commission. 38 P r i s o n e r s of war and enemy c i v i l i a n internees39 m y be t r i e d

by. general courts-ma-rtial f o r offenses punishable by our m i l i t a r y

law so f a r a s t h a t law may.be applied t o them.

The a u t h o r i t y of

g e n e r a l c o u r t s - m a r t i a l i s found i n A r t i c l e of Var 12, which provides i n substance t h a t such c o u r t s s h a l l have power t o t r y any person who by t h e law of war i s s u b j e c t t o t r i a l by r n i l i t ~ r y tri,-. bunals. The Prisoner of Flay Convention of 1929, A r t i c l e 40 45,
++ ++

providing t h a t "prisoners of war s h a l l be s u b j e c t t o the' laws i n f o r c e i n t h e armies of t h e d e t a i n i n g power" s u b j e c t s such

persons t o punishment f o r offenses which, on t h e p a r t of our oun

Apart from s t a t u t e t h e m i l i t a r y commission d e r i v e s i t s au tho.rity from t h e lzws of war, Dig, Op, J A G , 1912, p , 1066, l a s t par, 37. 38, 39. Ex p a r t e Quirfn, U,S. Sup, C t , ,

87 L o Ed,

3,

The u n i t e d S t a t e s , G e m n y , I t a l y , and Japan agreed through t h e Swiss government, a f t e r t h e outb'reak of t h e p:resent war, t h a t c i v i l i a n n a t i o n a l s of t h e r e s p e c t i v e b e l l i g e r e n t s s h a l l be t r e a t e d according t o t h e Geneva Convention of 1929, r e l a t i . v e t o t h e treatment of p r i s d n e r s of war i n s o f a r a s those provisions may be applied t o c i v i l i a n s , See, a l s o , p , 47, i n f r a , 40,

FM 27..210, p a r , 118,

m i l i t a r y personnel, a r e punishable under t h e A r t i c l e s of War, Regardless, then, of whether t h e p u n i t i v e A r t i c l e s of War extend by t h e i r own terms t o p r i s o n e r s bf w a r , they a r e by f o r c e of t h e Geneva Convention extended t o them, However, some of t h e p u n i t i v e

A r t i c l e s by t h e i r nature can have no a p p l i c a t i o n t o a p r i s o n e r of war o r a c i v i l i a n i n t e r n e e a s s i m i l a t e d t o a p r i s o n e r of war, ' F o r example, such persons a r e incapable of d e s e r t i n g t h e s e r v i c e of t h e United S t a t e s under k t i c l e of War 58. 4 1 Though a m i l i t a r y commission o r provost court would have j u r i s d i c t i o n t o t r y prfsoners of war o r enemy c i v i l i a n intel-nees f o r offenses committed by them,42 A r t i c l e s 63 and.64 o f t h e Geneva

c on vent ion^^ r e q u i r e

t h a t p r i s o n e r s of w a r be t r e a t e d on an equal

b a s i s a s members of oula armed f o r c e s wit'h r e s p e c t t o t h e forum, procedwe, and mode of review, These requirements make it ad-

v i s a b l e t h a t t h e g e n e r a l c o u r t - m a r t i a l be used i n preference t o t h e m i l i t a r y commission o r p r o i o s t c o u r t . 4 4 ~risoners of war

SPJGW 1943,/3029, February 26, 1943, where it w-as held t h a t a G e m n c i v i l i a n i n t e r n e e who a s s a u l t e d a comm.issioned of,f i c e r of t h e United S t a t e s wit'h a b a s e b a l l b a t may be charged with t h e offense o f a s s a u l t with i n t e n t t o do bodily harm with a dangerous weapon under AW 93 before a general c o u r t . - m a r t i a l , See a l s o p . 94, i n f r a . 42. 43.
JAG 250.4, June 12, 1918; Dig, Op, JAG, 1912-40, sec. 3 6 9 ( 5 ) .

41.

F M 27-10, p a r s , 136, 137.

44.

SF'JGV 194313029, February 26, 19113; see a l s o p , 99, e t seq., infra

who, prior to being captured, commit an act in violation of the laws of war, e,g., by torturing or murdering a prisoner, may be tried before a court-martial or mil'ftary comission. Such persons are war criminals and are not entitled to the privileges accorded prisoners.ofwar.45

CHAPTER I1 QUALIFICATIONS OF ARMED FORCES OF BELLIGERENTS

8. General Divi-sionof &emy Population.-.-Broadly speaking,

the peaceful inhabitants of the enemy are immune from warlike
1 attack so long as such inhabitants take no part in the fighting,

Thus, the law of war separates the population of the enemy into two classes: the combatants and the peacerul inhabitants, Illust~ativecase

--

Wellington told-theinhabitants of southern France in 1814 that he would not allow them to play with impunity

45,

26, y 1943; Colby , 23 Mich , L o Cf SPJGW 1943/3029, F e b ~ u a ~ Rev. 482 at 487.

Chapter I1 Spaight, p. 35. "The principle has been more and more ac; knowledged that the unarmed citizen is to be spared in person, property, and honor as much as the exigencies of war will admit,'' GOO. 100, art. 22.
1.

t h e p a r t of p e a c e f u l c i t i z e n s and of s o l d i e r s , and bade them go J o i n t h e ranks of the French a.mies 5f they wished t o f i g h t .2

9. Lawful B e l l i g e r e n t s . - - C i v i l i a n s (with t h e exception of

t h e levee en masse) who p a r t i c i p a t e i n t h e f i g h t i n g a r e under t h e Fighting i s laws of war l i a b l e t o punishment a s war c ~ i m i n a l s . ~ l e g i t i m a t e only f o r t h e combatant personnel of a country, timate combatant personnel, on surrender
OY

Legi-

c a p t w e , a r e en-

t i t l e d t o treatment a s p r i s o n e r s of way and i n c u r no l i a b i l i t y beyond d e t e n t i o n a 4 Spaight has spoken of t h i s a s b e " p r i n c i p l e of combatant trade-unionism" which confines t h e r i g h t t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n h o s t i l i t i e s t o t h e combatant personnel of a country, 5
A s a c o r o l l a r y t o t h i s r u l e , a s o l d i e r i s e n t i t l e d t o know when

he s e e s an enemy c i t i z e n and b e f o r e . t h a t c i t i z e n a t t a c k s him, whether t h a t person i s a lawful combatant o r n o t . lations The Hague Regu-

c l a s s i f y la.wf'ul b e l l i g e r e n t s i n t o t h e e groups:

(I) t h e

army, ( 2 ) t h e ' m i l f t i a and volunteer corps (not p a r t of the army, frequently called "irregulars" )
-

, and

(3) levee en m s s e ,

2.

Spaight, p a

350

3.

~~27-10 pz , r , 348. Hall, p .

4.

349.

5
6.

A i r P o w e ~ ,p , 360

F M 27-10, p a r , go

a. The Army. What forces constitute the regular army of a belligerent is a matter of municipal law. Thus, whether the militia or volunteer corps belong to the regular army is not a matter for international law but one of municipal lawO7 The ' quality of lawful belligerents attaches to all members of the regular army. The consensus seems,to be that an organization would hardly be recognized as a regular army unless it was uniformed or wore permanent distinguishing marks on the dress. Authorization by the belligerent government in some form is necessary in order that one be a member of the army of the belb ligerent, either by commission, enlistment,,conscription,or otherwise.

8
.

9 The uniform, "dog tags!' or discs, or identity cards

I, on

are all evidences of state authorization. In World

a few occasions, aviators went up in their planes without-wearing their uniforms. Suppose such a flier was separated frpm his machine, would he be entitled to recognition as a lawful belligerent if captured by the enemy? Spaight indicates that such persons in the few recorded instances were treated as lawful

7. Lauterpacht, p.

202.

8. Spaight; p. 110; Hall, p. 554.

9. SubJects of neutrals who are in the armed service of a belligerent are lawful combatants. Eiyde, Vol, IT, p . 295.

combatants and t h a t t h e i r i d e n t i t y a s m i l i t a r y p e r s o n n e l ' could be e s t a b l i s h e d by t h e i r d i s c s o r i d e n t i f i c a t i o n c a r d s . b. 10

Irregulars.

The Hague Regulations provide t h a t t h e

q u a l i t y of l a w f u l combatants a t t a c h e s t o members of m i l i t i a and voluntee; corps, even though t h e y do n o t form p a ~ o t f the regular
(1) t h e y a r e under t h e command of a r e s p o n s i b l e

army, provided: person,

( 2 ) t h e y p o s s e s s some d i s t i n c t i v e mark r e c o g n i z a b l e a t a

d i s t a n c e , (3) t h e y c a r r y arms openly, and customs of w m ,

(4) observe t h e laws and

The f i r s t c o n d i t i o n does n o t r e q u i r e t h a t such

o r g a n i z a t i o n b e connected w i t h t h e g e n e r a l m i l i t a r y comand o r
1 1 Such f o r c e s may be a u t h o r i z e d by t h e b e l l i g e r e n t government. 12 The requirement t h a t " t h e y b e be r a i s e d by l o c a l i n i t i a t i v e .

comanded by a person r e s p o n s i b l e f o r h i s s u b o r d i n a t e s " i n v o l v e s t h e i d e a of a u t h o r i t y and some o r g a n i z a t i o n . 13

The requirement f o r a d i s t i n c t i v e badge i s n e c e s s a r y i n o r d e r t o m a i n t a i n t h e d i s t i n c t i o n between combatants and p e a c e f u l i n habitants. The d i s t i n c t i v e badge need n o t b e a unifom; b u t i t

10.

A i r Power, p . 83, e t s e q .

11.' H a l l , p a 12. 13.

55Ge

Bordwell, p , 231.

Persons who commit h o s t i l e a c t s , i n d i v i d u a l l y and s e v e r a l l y , belonging t o no o r g a n i z a t i o n s , a r e war c r i m i n a l s . S p a i g h t , p . 52; s e e a l s o FM 27-10, pay. 348.

must be irremovable s o t h a t i t may n o t be assumed o r dropped a t

will.

14
The c o n d i t i o n r e s p e c t i w t h e c a r r y i n g of arms openly i s

imposed t o p r e v e n t "making u s e of arms f o r a c t i v e o p p o s i t i o n and a f t e r w a r d s d i s c a r d i n g o r concealing them on t h e approach of t h e enemy, and w i l l n o t 'as s a t i s f i e d by c a r r y i n g concealed weapons, su.ch a s p i s t o l s , daggers, sword s t i c k s , e t c . t t l 5 Thus, it h a s been r u l e d t h a t Home Guard a r e m i l i t i a o r v o l u n t e e r c o r p s under t h e Hague R e g u l a t i o n s i f t h e y comply w i t h t h e f o u r requirements s e t f o r t h i n A r t i c l e 1 of t h a t t r e a t y .

16

S i m i l a r l y , c i v i l i a n guards a t army depots may lawf-ully be used t o r e p e l an enemy f o r c e , such a s p a r a t r o o p s , i f t h e y conform t o t h e f o u r c o n d i t i o n s of t h e Hague R e g u l a t i o n s r e s p e c t i n g " i r ~ e g -

S p a i g h t , p 57; a cap o r removable badge .would n o t b e suf f f c i e n t , H a l l , p . 555. The d i s t a n c e t h a t t h e s i g n must be v i s i b l e i s undetermined. T h i s requirement w i l l 'be s a t i s f i e d c e r t a i n l y i f t h i s s i g n i s e a s i l y d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e 'by t h e naked eye of o r d i n a r y people a t a d i s t a n c e a t which t h e form of a n i n d i v i d u a l can be determined. U'.S,R,L.Wo, p a r , 3 3 0

14.

l o U.S.R.L,W,,

p a r . 34.

It i s d e s i r a b l e t h a t t h e y be f u r n i s h e d w i t h c e r t i f i c a t e s of i d e n t i t y and enrollment i n Lheir o p g a n i z a t i o n , JAG 324.5> March 9, 1942.,

16, SPJGbT, ~ u 3, l 1942; ~ c f . Winfield, p , 70, .who t a k e s t h e p o s i t i o n t h a t i f t h e Rome Guard h a s n o t y e t 'been i s s u e d a uniform and wears no i d e n t i f y i n g eniblem except an a m l e t with

17.

I l l u s t r a t i v e case.-A correspondent i n t h e Daily Mail of June 19,

1917, inquired whether, i f a "Hun airman'' with engine

t r o u b l e descended i n England, it would be l e g i t i m a t e f o r a c i v i l i a n t o shoot him, A b e l l i g e r e n t m i l i t a r y airman, l i k e every o t h e r member of a recognized b e l l i g e r e n t f o r c e , i s e n t i t l e d t o demand t h a t he s h a l l be s u b j e c t t o a t t a c k only by recognizable combatant p e r sonnel, He cannot be a t t h e mel-cy of amateur hedgerow f i g h t e r s . It i s on t h e assumption t h a t c i - v i l i a n s are, r e a l l y c i v i l i a n s t h a t they aye 'reliev-ed, a s f a r a s possi-ble, of l i a b i l i t y t o d i r e c t warl.i%e a t t a c k . Under domestic o r n a t i o n a l law, they m y be doing no wrong i n f i r i n g upon an eneIliy aiuman; under --- t h e laws of war they a r e committing an offense and a r e l i a b l e t o seveye p e n a l t i e s i f t h e t u r n of events p l a c e s them i n situa t i o n i n which they can be brought t o account,

18

I r r e g u l a r t r o o p s , complying with t h e f o u r conditions hel-e t o f o r e s t a t e d , may l a w f u l l y , even a s i n t h e case of r e g u l a r army troops, engage i n g u e r r i l l a t a c t i c s .19 They may operate e i t h e r

( ~ o n t d). "Home Guard" stamped on i t , t h i s would be s u f f i c i e n t , "Theye i s no reason t o suppose t h a t t h i s /Rague @onvention7 was an exhaustive c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of a l l l a w f u i combatants, T E ~ broad g e n e r a l p r i n c i p l e i s t h a t , where S t a t e s X and Y a r e a t war w'th each o t h e r , an X s o l d i e r i s e n t i t l e d t o know when he sees a Y c i t i z e n , and before t h a t c i t i z e n a t t a c k s h i m , whether he i s a lawful combatant o r n o t , So long a s t h e Y c i t i z e n s a t i s f i e s t h a t condition * * * he i s a lawful combatant, although he m y n o t p r e c i s e l y f i t i n t o t h e Hague c a t e g o r i e s , "

17.

18. A i r Power, p , 363.

G u e r r i l l a t a c t i c s during a way ape c a r r i e d out by small bodies of persons who make s u r - p ~ i s e a t t a c k s t o t h e r e a r of t h e enemy f o r t h e purpose of d e s t ~ o y i n g bridges, raa$lways, cornmunications, conv.oys, e t c The t a c t i c s a r e those of " f i g h t i n g and running away". Spaight, p . 61, 19.

i n unoccupied t e r r i t o r y , occupied t e r r i t o r y o r i n t h e t e r r i t o r y of t h e enemy. c, -

20
When o r d i n a r y i n h a b i t a n t s of a non-

Levee en Masse.

occupied t e r r i t o r y r i s e a t t h e approach of a n i n v a d e r , and e i t h e r a l o n e o r i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h t h e r e g u l a r army, a t t e m p t t o b e a t him o f f , a r e such persons t o be considered a s a l e v e e en masse

l

o r unlawful b e l l i g e r e n t s ?

The exception t o t h e r u l e f o r b i d d i n g

civilians f ~ o m engaging i n h o s t i l i t i e s i s t h e l e v e e en masse. I f , on t h e approach of t h e enemy, " t h e q a b i t a n t s of a t e r r i t o ~ y , spontaneously t a k e up arms t o r e s i s t t h e invading t r o o p s w i t h o u t having time t o o r g a n i z e themselves" i n accordance w i t h t h e r u l e s a p p l i c a b l e t o m i l i t i a and v o l u n t e e r Corces, t h e y a r e regarded a s b e l l i g e r e n t s i f t h e y c a r r y a m s openly and r e s p e c t t h e laws of war,

It must b e s t r e s s e d t h a t t h i s concession i s made t o a

21

massed r i s i n g ;

it i s n o t a p p l i c a b l e t o a few i n h a b i t a n t s who
22 A l e v e e en masse i s s a n c t i o n e d o n l y i n

commit h o s t i l e a c t s .

t e r r i t o r y n o t y e t invaded by t h e enemy; once t h e territol-y- i s

20. 21. Bordwell, p , 232. S p a i g h t , p . 52, " t h e c h a r a c t e r of b e l l i g e r e n t s r e s u l t s Tram t h e r e s i s t a n c e of a r e s p e c t a b l e numberss,

L a w e n c e , p . 494, s t a t e s : " I t was r i g h t l y considered t h a t masses of a popular l e v y extending a c o n s i d e r a b l e a r e a of c o u n t r y would b e s u f f i c i e n t evidence of t h e i r own h o s t i l e c h m - . a c t e r , even though no badges were worn by t h e i n d i - v i d u a l s of . w m m t h e y w e r e composed. " 22.

invaded, although it has not ripened into occupation, a levee en masse is no longer legitimate.23 A fortiori, if the territory 24 It has is occupied a levee en masse is no longer legitimate. been stated that a levee en masse cannot retain its combatant status if it acts on the offensive, i,e.; enters enemy soil; though to do so may be its only possible effective mode of de25 fense. d. Combatants and Noncombatants. The noncombatants dealt

with in this al-ticle are , members of the armed forces.

2 6

Non -

combatants are such whose function "is ancillary to that of the fighting men and do not themselves oppose the enemy, arms in 27 'Thus, "the personnel, medical, veterinary, legal, comhand" , missary, and pay corps, as well as chaplains" are noncombatants

23. Lauterpacht, p. 205. 'Territorymeans suchpart of the belligerent state as Is not yet invaded, There is no requirement that each separate town or village must abstain from action until actually threatened. Spaight, p o 58. 24. Bordwell, p. 233; see FM 27-10, pars, 271-274, for distinction between invasion and occupation, 25. Bordwell, p. 141; Spaight, p. 79, comments on this question . as follows: "This assumption is open to argument." 26. Sometimes the term "noncombatant" is used to refer to peaceful inhabitants of a belligerent. . .

27. Spaight, p . 58.

i n t h i s sense.

28

Such persons a r e s u b j e c t t o t h e same treatment

a s combatants except so f a r a s p r o t e c t e d by t h e Geneva Convention f o r t h e amelioration of t h e s i c k and wounded. 29 12. G u e r r i l l a s , - - G u e r r i l l a war e x i s t s where a f t e r t h e de-

f e a t and c a p t w e of t h e main p a r t of t h e enemy f o r c e s , t'he oc.cupation of t h e enemy t e r r i t o r y , and t h e downfall of t h e enemy government, t h e routed remnant of t h e defeated army c a r r y on t h e h o s t i l i t i e s by g u e r r i l l a t a c t i c s . not lawful b e l l i g e r e n t s . Technically, such persons a r e

T w o reasons a r e given f o r t h i s view:

(1,) t h e r e a r e no longer t h e f o r c e s of two s t a t e s i n t h e f i e l d ,

and (2) t h e r e ris no longer i n progress a contention between armed f ol-ces

.30

I l l u s t r a t i v e case.-O n t h e s u r ~ e n d e rof L e e ' s and J o h n s t o n ' s armies and t h e c o l l a p s e of t h e Confederacy, c e r t a i n of t h e Confederate comanders were believed t o be contemplating r e s i s t a n c e by g u e r r i l l a t a c t i c s , The F e d e r a l au.kho~i t i e s r e f u s e d , t o -regard su.ch g u e r r i l l a bands a s poss e s s i n g b e l l i g e r e n t s t a t u s , Grant wrote t o Sheridan: l 7 holds o u t , " I f Kirby Smith - Confederate g e n e r a-

'

/a

28, Hyde, Vol, 11, p . 299,

Lawrence, p , 375. Chaplains, t h e medical, nur-sing and ad-. m i n i s t r a t i v e s t a f f for t h e y e l i e f of t h e s i c k and wounded enjoy s p e c i a l exemptions. See FM 27:.10, p a r , 179, e t seq. Fop persons not d i r e c t l y attached t o t h e amny who follow i t , see FM 27-10, p a r . 76bd 30.. Baker and Crocker, p , 17, c i t i n g Oppenheim; Lawence, p , 493
0

29.

without even an ostensible government to receive orders from or to report to, he and his men are not entitled to th consideration due to an acknowledged belligerent.1 1 31

CHAPTER I11 HOSTILITIES

14-16. Commencement of Hostilities.--A failure by a party

to the Hague Convention to observe its provisions in beginning hostilities without a declaration of war or an ultimatum with conditional declaration of war, does not make the hostflities subsequently conducted any the less subject to the Hague Con1 ventions

The requirement that hostilities must not commence without previous and explicit warning, either in the form of a reasoned declaration of war or an ultimatum with a conditional declaration

31. Spaight, p 61. Though the Federal Government refused to recognize the existence of the Confederate Government OY its final disappearance under municipal law, belligerent rights were exercised both by the Federal Government and, after its recognition, by the Confederacy, over the subject and property of other states, according to the rules of war, The Federal Government also treated the members of the armed forces of the Confederacy as qualified belligerents. Moore, Vol. VII, p. 159:

Chapter I11

of war, i s based on t h e p r i n c i p l e t h s t b e l l i g e r e n t s should not be taken by s u r p r i s e , t r e a c h e r y , o r bad f a i t h .

It a l s o e s t a b l i s h e d

t h a t n e u t r a l s should not be h e l d r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e performance

,

of t h e i r d u t i e s of n e u t r a l i t y u n t i l t h e y have r e c e i v e d due n o t i c e of t h e e x i s t e n c e of a s t a t e of war o r a r e i n fact,a'ware of i t s existence, The d a t e of t h e beginning of t h e w a r may be i m p o ~ t a n t For

i n determining questions of i n t e r n a t i o n a l and domestic l a w .

example, t h e moment a s t a t e of war e x i s t s diplomatic r e l a t i o n s a r e broken, commercial t r a n s a c t i o n s cease t o be v a l i d between

i

enemy c i t i z e n s , warships of each b e l l i g e r e n t a r e e n t i t l e d t o v i s i t and' search v e s s e l s of any f l a g on t h e high geas, e t c o Likewise, t h e a p p l i c a b i l i t y of insurance c o n t r a c t s m A y depend on t h e d a t e of t h e beginning of war. 2 Where t h e r e i s a d e c l a r a t i o n of

war which s p e c i f i c a l l y . s t a t e s t h e d a t e of t h e beginning of war, The Pe&o, t h e c o u r t s accept t h a t d a t e a I n .

t h e Supreme Court

accepted t h e d a t e of A p r i l 21, 1898, a s t h e beginning of t h e Spanish-American War, t h f s d a t e having been s e t r e t r o a c t i v e l y b j Congress i n i t s r e s o l u t i o n of A p r i l 25, M e r e there i s a decla-

ati ion which does n o t s t a t e a d a t e f o r t h e beginning of t h e w a r ,

2,

Cf. 25 surer's s e r v i ce

West 8 , Palmetto S t a t e L i f e I n s , Co,, Sup, C t , ( N ~ C , ) , S ,E. (2) 4759 where a l i f e insu:rance p o l i c y lTlls.iLed i n l i a b i l i t y i f insured was engaged i n m i l i t a r y or. naval i n time of war.
=.

3.

175 U.S. 354.

courts have, for the purposes of.municipa1 law, considered the date of the approval of the declaration.

Under the same cir-

cumstances, courts tend to date the war from the first act of hostilities for international law purposes.

20-21, Treatment of Alien Enemies.--Internationalusage has long recognized the right of a belligerent to restrain, detain, or expel alien enemies found in his territory at the outbreak of way.

The rationale is that the legal allegiance to the

I

enemy owed by the alien enemymay cause him to assist the enemy

7 if not restrained.

American courts have held that the alien enemy has no rights other than those which the sovereign ch.ooses to grant.

In the

~nitedStates, the Act of July 6, 1 7 9 8 , ' places full control of enemy aliens in the hands of the President who, when war is declared or invasion threatened, may proclaim "the manner and degree

West v. Palmetto State Life Ins. Co., Sup. Ct. (N.c,), 25 S.E. (2) 47, where the court adopted t'he date of the 'ap,pl-oval of the joint resolution declaring war on Japan, December 8, 1941; Hudson, 39 H.L,R. 1020 at 1021,

4.

5. 6.

The Boedes Lust, 5 C . Robinson 233. Hyde, Vol. 11, p. 226.

7.- Garner, 12 Am. J , Int. L. 27.

8
DeLacey v. United States, 249 F, 625 at 626.

9.

R . S o 4067, amended by April 16, 1918, 40 Stat. 531,

of the restraint". On February 19, 1942, the President promulgated Executive Order No. 9066 authorizing the Secretary of War and military commanders designated by him to prescribe military areas from which "any or all persons1'might be excluded and within which any or all persons might be subjected to restrictions. Under the authority thus obtained, the Comnder of the Western Defense Area issued a public proclamation on March 2, 1942, and announced that he would proceed with the gradual evaci

uation of all persons of Japanese ancestry including native born persons. Congress inferentially approved the entire evacuation procedure by the Act of March 21, 1942,1 which makes violation of any restrictive orders promulgated for a military area by the Secretary of War or a military cormnander a misdemeanor. In 11 Hirabayashi v. United States the constitutionality of a curfew imposed against citizens of Japanese ancestry in the Western Defense Command was upheld in the face of an objection that the order was unconstitutional because it discriminated against citizens of Japanese ancestry in violation of the Fifth Amendment. The court ruled that such measwes were a legitimate ex12 ercise of the war powers of the National Government.

lo. Public Law 503, 56 Stat. 173.

11. No. 870, Oct. Term, 1942 (SUP. ~t.).

12. "The war power of the national government is the power to wage war successfully. It extends to every matter and

- 26 -

An enemy subject who is permitted to remain must not join the forces of his home state, or assist them in any way, if they occupy a part of the country in which he resides. If.hedoes so, 13 he is liable to be punished for treason after their withdrawal.

26. Means of Injuring the Enemy Limited.--The principle

that the right of injuring the enemy is not unlimited so far as concerns the means or instruments of destruction, resolves itself in practice into,two prohibited categories:
(1) those which des-

troy or disable by poisoning, (2) those which aggravate unnecessarily the sufferings of individuals.

14

Except for such means as

are expressly prohibited by conventional or customary law, a11 means of killing and wounding are lawful whether the instrument is designed for use against a single pepson or large g~oups.,

13

& r as substantially to af12, (~ontd,) activity so related to w fect its conduct m d progress * * * The adoption by Governof war and of threatened invasion, of lneasures ment, in the c~isis for the public safety based upon the recognition of facts and circumstances which indicate that a group of one national extra@,= tion may menace the safety more than others, is not wholly beyond the limits of the Constitution and is not to be condemned merely because in other and in most circumstances racial distinctions are irrelevant." WfPabByasH~Tv, United States, supra, 13. Lauterpacht, p, 248.

14. Air Power, p. 161.

l o Spaight, p. 77, "It is certain that the employment of a projectile capable of destroying an aymy at a blow would be legitimate under the actual principles of the law of war," The use of flame-throwers, etc,, is legitimate.

The weapons of war that may be used legitimately are not confined to those which are openly employed; thus mines, booby traps and pits are permissible.

1 6

Other modes of warfare are prohibited because of risk of injury to the peaceful population or neutrals, e.g,, scattering of loose mines on the high seas, or because of treachery, e.g., assassination. Illustrative case.--

- In the Russo-Japanese War, the Russians allegedly stretched live electric wire across one of their positions as a result of whfch an entire line of Japanese infan-t;ryassaulting the position was killed. This according to Spaight is legitimate.17
27. Hague Declaration No, XIY of October 18, 1907,--This
Convention with respect to discharging explosives from balloons has not been adhered to by any of the powers in the present war and was expressly denounced by the United States.

18

28-29. Poisons, Gases and Chemicals,.-TheConventions with respect to the use of poison gas are as follows: a. Declaration of The Hague, 1899, by which "the contracting Powers agree to abstain from the use of projectiles the sole

16. Baker and Crocker, p. 113, citing Ralleck,

17. Spaight, p. 77.

18. See Sec. I, Cir, 136, WD, May 7, 1942.

object of which is the diffusion of asphyxiating; or deleterious gasesr1 . ly It has been doubted whether this Convention forbids the emission of gas by other means than projectiles or by projectiles which produce damage through their explosive action 20 while at the same time emitting gases. b. - Article

5 of the Washington Treaty of 1922 for the

protection'of the lives of neutrals and noncombatants at sea in time of way and to prevent "the use in war of asphyxiating, poisonous and other gases, and all analogous liquids, materials 21 or devices". This treaty is not in force. c. The Geneva Protocol of 1925 contains a similar prohibi-

tion to that of the Washington Treaty and it expressly prohibits 22 bacteriological warfa~e, Some writers have contended that the use of pyison gas is forbidden by the rule of customary law which prohibits the use of poison.23 Article 23(a)24 prohibiting the employment of

19. The United States is not a party to this Convention.

20. Garner, Vol. I, p, 278. 21. France failed to ratify this treaty because of its-provisions relating to submarines, 22. The Unfted States has not ratified this treaty, 23. Walker, Vol. 11, p. 140; Lauterpacht, p o 273. 24. FM 27-10, par. 28.

"poison or poisoned" weapons has been the subject of conflicting interpretations. On the one hand it has been suggested that it 25 interdicts only pofsoned weapons and contrariwise that it covers not merely poisoned arms, but food poisoning, water poisoning, and all poison fumes or gas discharged in the air.

26

Poisoned

gases, it has been argued, like chlorine and phosgene, often cause a lingering and painful death or illness and are therefore obnoxious also to Article 23 (e)27 forbidding the use of materials, etc,, of a nature causing unnecessary injury. Whether the use of gas also offends against Article 23 (e) may depend on the nature of the gas used. It may be difficult to determine when a weapon 28 of war becomes needlessly cruel. In official statements, President Roosevelt has condemned "the use of poisonous or noxious gases" and has warned the Axis
29 that its use by them will bring prompt retaliation in kind,

25. Garner, Vol, I, p. 277.

26. Lawrence, p. 531.

27. FM 27-10,par. 34.

28. blalker, Vol. 11, p . 140, Cf . The Washington Treaty and

Geneva Protocol, condemn ."othergases and all analogous liquids, materials or devices", thus prohibiting not only lethal but also non-toxic or anaesthetic gases, Air Power, p . 164.

29. Time, June 21, 1943; Facts on File, 1942, i80 H.

The diversion of the water source from the armed forces of the enemy is not forbidden, Similarily, contamination of water by methods which are apparent, such as depositing carcasses of animals, is permissible.

30

Non-obvious poisoning of the water

supply is forbidden by this Convention. Is it lawful to poison drinking water if notice is posted informing the enemy that the water has been poisoned?

31

To poison all water supplies, whether

with or without notice, deprives not only the enemy forces but the civilian population of the necessities of life and is illegitimate, If no civilians can b ' e affected by the poisoning and notice is posted, Garner believes that the practice would be unobjectionable in that it would be tantamount to a diversion of the water sup-

32 P ~ Y
0

Bacteriological warfxre, i,e., infecting the enemy with germs or bacteria, is forbiddec, In addition to Article 23(a) of the Hague Regulations, the following reasons are suggested in suppo~t of such rule:

(I) if ci.v.ilians be affected, war is being made on

30. Spaight, p, 84.

31. The German Commander in Southwest Africa attempted to Justify
T a r I. See Lawrence, p, such a practice in World F

542,

32, Garner, Vol. I, p. 291. This view overlooks the unqualified prohibition of the Hague Convention against the use of poison Lawrence, p. 542.

t h e peaceful population,

( 2 ) if t h e m i l i t a r y f o r c e s of t h e enemy

be a f f e c t e d , m a t e r i a l i s being employed t h a t causes superfluous i n j u r y under A r t i c l e 23 ( e ) 30-31.

.33
i s t h e essence of

Treachery and Assassination.--"It

treachery t h a t t h e offender assumes a f a l s e c h a r a c t e r by which he deceives h i s enemy and thereby i s a b l e t o e f f e c t a h o s t i l e a c t , which, had he come under h i s t r u e colours, he could n o t have done." 34
A person who c r o s s e s i n t o t h e enemy l i n e i n d i s g u i s e

and k i l l s an enemy g e n e r a l i s an a s s a s s i n whereas an i n d i v i d u a l who comes a s an open enemy i n uniform and does t h e same a c t i s not.35

It i s treachery f o r a s g l d i e r t o throw up h i s hands i n

A

surrender and then take up h i s r i f l e and shoot h i s captor. 36

s o l d i e r who pretends t o be diaabled o r dead i s g u i l t y of treachery i f he then uses h i s r i f l e . 37 Spaight considers t h e following two
(1) t h a t i n which a sol die^

cases a s i l l e g i t i m a k e strategems:

33. 34.

FM 27-10, p a r . 34; see Lamence, p , 542.

Spaight, p. 87. I n a broad sense t h e d i f f e r e n c e between t r e a c h e r y and l e g i t i m a t e r u s e s and stratagems i s t h a t t h e l a t t e r involve no breach of f a i t h . P h i l l i p s o n , p . 206.

35.
36.

Lawrence, p. 541. Spaight, p

. 87.

37. Baty and Morgan, p . 193.

shoots behind t h e cover of a wounded man, and ( 2 ) t h a t . i n which troops i n t h e i r advance take s h e l t e r behind a screen of c i v i l i a n s driven before them. 38 I l l u s t r a t i v e case. -A p r e s s d i s p a t c h from China s t a t e d t h a t t h e Japanese had broadcast an o f f e r of reward of 10,000 yen f o r t h e capture "dead o r a l i v e " of any member of t h e United S t a t e s Medium Bombardment Group based i n China. I f t h i s r e p o r t be t r u e , it i s c o n t r a r y t o i n t e r n a t i o n a l law. The o f f e r i n g of a rewmd f o r an enemy dead or a l i v e i s f o r bidden by law39 and e s p e c i a l l y by A r t i c l e 23 ( b ) of t h e Hague Regulations t o which Japan i s a p a r t Such a reward i s an i n v i t a t i o n t o a s s a s s i n a t i o n . 46

..

32-33.

Quarter.--When an enemy combatant ceases t o f i g h t - a n d

asks f o r mercy, he i s s o l i c i t i n g quarter; when h i s l i f e i s spared

an6 he i s made p r i s o n e r , q u a r t e r i s granted t o h i m O 4 l Thus a

combatant who ceases t o f i g h t and i s w i l l i n g t o be captured may not be k i l l e d or S i m i l a r l y , combatants d i s a b l e d by Circumstances may e x i s t

sickneas o r wounds may not be k i l l e d .43

where t h e giving of q u a r t e r i s impracticable, f o r example; when

38.

A i r Power, p . 146.
See F M 27-10? p a r . 31. SPJGW 194316886, May 20, Lawrence, p .

39.
40.

41.
42. 43.

376.

Lauterpacht, p. 270. Lauterpacht, p. 270.

it i s impossible t o d i s t i n g u i s h between thos'e who wish t o s u r r e n d e r and those who continue t o f i g h t

.44

M i l i t a r y nebessi t y

w i l l n o t j u s t i f y a declakation t h a t no q u a r t e r w i l l be given. 45
However, q u a r t e r may be refused by way of r e p r i s a l i n kind f o r t h e r e f u s a l of q u a r t e r by t h e enemy. I l l u s t r a t i v e case.-A n enemy airman whose engine has s t a l l e d o r h i s machine gun jammed, i n d i c a t e s t h a t he d e s i r e s t o surrender. MuQt t h e opposi a i m n r e f r a i n from shooting t h e enemy down? Spaight answers i n t h e negative s t a t i n g t h a t no~.mallyi t ' i s hnpossible t o accept surrender i n t h e a i r .

46

eei

A n enemy whose a i r c r a f t has landed on t e r r i t o r y held by t h e

opponent may n o t be a t t a c k e d i f he does not continue t o r e s i s t o r t r y t o escape f o r he w i l l be captured i n any event.

48 He may

Spaight, p , 91, When t h e enemy continues t o r e s i s t u n t i l t h e l a s t moment and t h e g r a n t i n g of q u a r t e r would endanger t h e success of t h e a t t a c k i n g element, q u a r t e r may be refused. P h i l l i p s o n , p . 204,

44.

Bordwell, p . 283, s t a t e s : "The need of t h i s p r o v i s i o n a g a i n s t t h e d e c l a r a t i o n of no q u a r t e r i s even g r e a t e r than a g a i n s t t h e r e f u s a l of q u a r t e r , a s i n s t a n c e s of t h r e a t s t o gfve no q u a r t e r have been more numberous than t h e a c t u a l r e f u s a l t o give it."

45.

46. 47.
48.

G O O . 100, a r t .

61; Lauterpacht, p. 271.

e t seq.

A i r Power, p

. 117,

A i r Power, p . l 2 5 .

be a t t a c k e d i f he continues t o r e s i s t .49

It i s not forbidden t o

f i r e on an enemy whose machine has crashed on enemy ground. 5 0

enemy

personnel descending i n parachutes from a i r c r a f t which

i s dfsabled or o u t o f ' c o n t r o l m a y not on g e n e r a l p r i n c i p l e be

shot i f t h e descent i s over ground held by f o r c e s h o s t i l e t o t h e p a r a c h u t i s t .51 N o e s t a b l i s h e d p r i n c i p l e o r c l e a r l y defined usage e x i s t s with r e s p e c t t o a t t a c k on an a v i a t o r who i s descending t o his o w n ground f o r t h e purpose of escaping d e s t r u ~ t i o n5.2 34. Employment of Amns, e t c . , Causing Unnecessary I n j u r y , - -

The Declaration of S t . Petersburg, 1868, p r o h i b i t e d t h e use of

any p r o j e c t i l e of a weight below 400 g r a m e s (about 1 4 oz , ) ,

which i s e i t h e y explosive o r charged wPth fulmination o r inflammable substances. The Hague Declaration of

1899 p r o h i b i t e d "the

use of b u l l e t s which expand o r f l a t t e n e a s i l y i n t h e human body,

49.
50,
1

A i r Power, p . 126, Resistance continues i f t h e ai'rman t r i e s t o burn h i s a i r p l % n e .

A i r Power, p . 124.

A i r Power, p . 140. Spaight says: "one 'cannot say t h a t t h e r e i s any d e f i n i t e r u l e of war upon t h e p o i n t , b u t i t may a t l e a s t be affirmed t h a t t o a t t a c k a p a r a c h u t i s t i n circums t a n c e s i n which he f s c e r t a i n i n any case t o be captured would be c o n t r a r y t o t h e p r i n c i p l e s of i n t e r n a t i o n a l law."
A i r Power, p 143. Cf A r t . 20, d r a f t code of 1 9 3 with r e s p e c t t o a i r warfare: "When an a i r c r a f t has been disabled t h e occupants, when endeavoring t o escape by means of pzrachute, must not be attacked i n t h e course of descent,"

such a s b u l l e t s with a hard envelope which does n o t e n t i r e l y cover t h e c o r e , o r i s pierced with i n c i s i o n s " . A r t i c l e 2 3 ( e ) of t h e

pr Hague Rules, 1 9 0 7 , ~ ~o h i b i t i n g t h e employment of "arms, proj e c t i l e s , o r m a t e r i a l c a l c u l a t e d t o c.ause unne@essary s u f f e r i n g "

i s an enactment i n more g e n e r a l terms of t h e Declaration of S t .

PetersburgO5' Though t h e United S t a t e s i s n o t

a party t o

either

t h e Declaration of 1868 o r 1899, t h e s e d e c l a r a t i o n s a r e accepted a s customary law independent of t h e t r e a t y p r o v i s i o n s .55 During

World F J w I , G e m y p r o t e s t e d a g a i n s t t h e use of shotguns by t h e American troops baaed on A r t i c l e 23(e)56 and t h s complaint was repudiated by t h e United S t a t e s . 57 b t i c l e 2 3 ( e ) of t h e Hague Regulations of 1907 does not pyohibit t h e use of explosives contained i n a r t i l l e r y s h e l l s o r hand w e n a d e s . The p r o h i b i t i o n a g a i n s t explosive and expanding

b u l l e t s r e f e r s t o small-arms munf ti on. 58

53. 54.

B P I 27-10, p a r . 34.

P h i l l i p s o n , p , 199=
A i r - Power, p 169; c f , SPJGW 1943/3186, The p r a c t f ce of na,= t i o n s i n d i c a t e s t h a t a l l unJacketed lead b u l l e t s a r e i l l e g a l . ,

55.
56. 57.

FM 27-10, p a r , 34.

Gamey,. Vol. I , p , 270. However, 'a shotgun s h e l l having a t i t s muzzle end a s i n g l e s l u g scored on t h e s i d e s , which, -when fi-x-ed i n t o a s o f t , t m g e t s t m i l a r t o human flesh, causes an e x i t 'wound a s b i g a s a saucer, would b e v i o l a t i v e of h t i c l e 2 3 ( e ) of t h e Hague Regulations, 58.
A i r Power, p , 168.

36. Subjects Not to be Compelled to Take Part in Operations Against Their Own Country. ag

he prohibition against

compelling

enemy subjects to take part in "operations of war" directed against their .own country unquestionably applies to the population of occupied territory.60 The terms of this article are broad enough

to apply to enemy subjects found in a belligerent's own territoiy.61 The acceptance of voluntary service on the part of Enemy nationals cannot

the enemy subject is not

be compelled to perform military service against their own country even if they have been in the service of the invader before the outbreak of war .63 The line between work permitted and work

59. See p. 80, infra, for additional information.

60. Holland, p. 44, where it is stated that'Article 23, last p a r . , was substituted for Article 44 of Hague Regulations of 1899; the latter expressly applied to the "population of occupied territoryvf

61. The fact that it does not appear in the body of the Convention but at the end of an mticle dealing with prohibited methods of conducting hostilities casts doubt on this view. Cf. Porter v. Freudenburg (1915), 1 K.B. 857.

62. Spaight, p. 144.

63. Holland, p, 44. A n enemy alien who is a member of the Enlisted Reserve Corps in the A m y of the United States cannot be compelled to serve in the armed forces of the United States (b)2, AR 615-.500, Sept 1, against his own country. Par. 7e (2) 1942, applies equally to enemy aiiens, members of the Enlfsted Reserve Corps, who are being called to active duty, and that such alfens who object in writing to service in the army may not be compelled to serve. SPJGId 1943/10738, July 28,

forbidden may be difficult to draw. A liberal construction would prohibit all acts directly and distinctly in aid of military In this view it would seem that the digging of trenches, construction of fortifications even at a distance from the front, the repairing of arms, making of munitions, the building of a road to be used exclusively for military purposes, and the construction of gun emplacements would be prohibited.65 Howl

ever, a belligerent may legitimately demand that the enemy nationals tend their wounded, bury their dead, repair and build roads and bridges of general utility,

66 ,Generally,the occupy-

ing army may utilize the services of enemy nationals for all its varied need except "operations of war".67 37-44. Stratagems.--"War is a conflfct of wits quite as much as a conflict of arms."68 Ruses are permissible provided they do not involve the violation of any express or implied

64. Phillipson, p. 197; Spaight, p. 152. Cf . Lauterpacht, p ,

345, who states that the practice of belligerents has been to distinguish between military operations and military preparations and that such work as const~uctionof military roads, fortifications and the like behind the front is not fu~bidden in preparation for military operations.

65. Cf Phillipson, p. 197

66. Phillipson, p. 197. 1f'the community benefits generally

from the construction, the fact that the military also benefits would not be violative of this article. Spaight, p .

68. Lawrence, p. 538.

p r o h i b i t i o n of t h e Hague Convention such a s t h e p r o h i b i t i o n a g a i n s t treachery6' o r t h e improper use of t h e n a t i o n a l f l a g

of t h e enemy, e t c . 70 A r t i c l e 24 p e m i t s reconnaissance work and spying. For ex-

ample, it i s permissible f o r a b e l l i g e r e n t t o send a s o l d i e r disguised a s a peasant i n t o t h e enemy l i n e s f o r t h e purpose of acquiring information, 71 Bribery of enemy commanders, high of -

f i c i a l s of government, persuading enemy s o l d i e r s o r t h e c i v i l i a n population of t h e enemy t o d e s e r t i o n o r i n s u r r e c t i o n a r e p e r m i s s i b l e stratagems when ,done openly by combatants i n uniform. 72 The Hague Regulations p r o h i b i t t h e improper use of t h e enemyPs n a t i o n a l f l a g and uniforms. P r a c t i c e and law agree

t h a t t h e s e ought not t o be used by a b e l l i g e r e n t during b a t t l e . 73 Whether t h e enemy f l a g o r uniform may be used f o r f a c i l i t a t i n g an approach o r withdrawal i s a m a t t e r of d i s p u t e . The American

69. F M 27-10, p a r . 3 0 ,
70.

F M 27-10, p a r s . 41-44; see p. 142, i n f r a , f o r f u r t h e r d t s cussf on.

Spaight, p . 210.

71. A spy who i s taken i n d e l i c t o by t h e enemy may be punished.

A i r Power, pp 292, 308, Howevep, such a c t s if engaged i n by a person i n d i s g u i s e , a r e i l l e g i t i m a t e and t h e perpetPator i s l i a b l e t o be p u t t o death a s a war t r a i t o r . SPJGW 1943/12516, Sept. 15.
72.

73.

Lauterpacht, p . 335.

view,74 and that of many writers on international law, is that such use is permissible if the flag or uniform be discarded beforeothe opening of fire.75 Soldiers lacking clothing who wear

captured enemy clothes must place some distinctive or distinguish,ing mark in a conspicuous place, otherwise they may lose the privileges of lawful combatants.76 Illustrative case.-It was reported in the New York Times, May 14, 1940, that Germany in invading Belgium dropped parachutists dressed in Belgian unlforms behind the Belgian l i n e s : If such parachutists engaged in combat while so dressed they would not be entitled to treatment as lawful belligerents .77

A flag~oftruce and the Red Cross of the Geneva Convention

may not be used for a stratagem.78 It is the common understanding that these signs shall be used for appropriate purposes ' only.79

74. FM 27-10,par, 43.

75. See 35 Am, J. Int. L o 435 for extended discussion,

76. Lawrence, p. 539.

77. Cf. FM 27-10, par. 347.
7 8 . Lawrence, p . 538; see FM 27-10, pars. 42, 44.

79.

Cf

. Spaight, p . 153

45-60. Assaults and Bombardments.--a. - ~ssault~'or bombardment, by any means whatever,81 of undefended places is prohibited by the Hague Regulations. An undefended place

82 is not synony-

mous with unfortified;83 for example, an unfortified place may be defended. A place occupied by combatant troops or through which such troops are passing84 or in which the inhabitants take up arms to defend themselves is a defended place .85 A fortified place is presumptively defended.

86 However, a fortified town

which makes no attempt to defend itself against occupation is The prohibition against bombarding immune from b~mbardrnent.~~ such a place, i.e., an undefended town, is based on the assumption that an army could occupy it without firing a shot,

88 However,

80. By assault is meant a surprise attack. Holland, p. 46.

81. This was intended to include discharge of projectiles from
balloons and,airplanesas well as by artillery, Air Powe~, P.

196.

82. Undefended is not defined by the regulation, 83. Lauterpacht, p. 325.

84. Spaight, p. 159.

' 8 5 . Hyde, Vol. 11, p. 305.

86. Cf, F M 27-10, par. 47; Spaight, p, 159, "No one can tell
today whether a town is seriously fortified or not."

87. Garner, Vol. I, p. 420, et seq.; Lawrence, p. 523.

88. Westlake, Part 11, p. 315, states,"The price of immunity
from bombardment is that the place shall be left open for the enemy to enter

."

by f i r e from where a m i l i t a r y f o r c e i s prevented from e n t e ~ i n g a nearby f o r t r e s s o r defended p l a c e , t h e town i t s e l f cannot be c a l i e d an undefended place .89 S i m i l a r l y , i f t h e m i l i t a r y ob-

j e c t i v e cannot be reached by any o t h e r means, bombardment of an undefended place i s permissible, I f an undefended town o f f e r s

t h e defender a s h e l t e r t o f a l l back on should a defended p l a c e prove untenable, t h e undefended town may be bombed on t h e p l e a of m i l i t a r y n e c e s s i t y .
A c o n t r o v e r s i a l p o i n t i s whethei. towns

a r e defended simply because they possess' ammunition, war m a t e r i e l , , depots, e t c . Some m i t e r s a s s e r t t h a t i f no s e r i o u s e f f o r t i s made t o safeguard them from a t t a c k , such p l a c e s would n o t be transformed i n t o defended p l a c e s . 91 Spaight contends t h a t m i l i t a r y

n e c e s s i t y w l l l j u s t i f y bombardment of undefended towns f o r t h e purpose of destroying m i l i t a ~ ys t o r e s , factol-ies, e t c . 92

A l l bel-,

l i g e r e n t s during World Var I bombarded such p l a c e s from t h e a i r , 93

89.
90. 91. 92. 93.

Spaight, p

. 161.

Spaight, p . 160. Wde, Vol. 11, p . 303; G a ~ n e r ,Vol. I, p , 422, Spaight, p 170.

Railway s t a t i o n s , barracks, munition and chemicalwor;ks, e t c . , were considered a s m i l i t a r y o b j e c t i v e s . A i r Power, p a 198, e t seq.; Lauterpacht, p , 3 2 5 , It i s c l e a r t h a t . a n otheywise undefended p l a c e l o s e s t h a t s t a t u s i f m i l i t a r y a i r p o r t s a r e located i n o r near such p l a c e ,

I n land and naval bombardment of defended p l a c e s no l e g a l

duty e x i s t s t o r e s t r i c t bombardment t o f o r t i f i c a t i o n s only; on t h e contrary, d e s t r u c t i o n of p u b l i c and p r i v a t e b u i l d i n g s i s considered-lawful a s one of t h e means of impressing upon t h e a u t h o r i t i e s t h e a d v i s a b i l i t y of surrender. 94 I n such c a s e s , t h e

commander must s o f a r a s p o s s i b l e spare b u i l d i n g s devoted t o r e l i g i o n , a r t , science and c h a r i t y , h o s p i t a l s and p l a c e s where t h e s i c k and'wounded a r e c o l l e c t e d , provided they a r e n o t used a t t h e same time f o r m i l i t a r y p&poses .%

A b e l l i g e r e n t s r i g h t t o bomb

l e g i t i m a t e m i l i t a r y t a r g e t s cannot be prejudiced by e s t a b l i s h i n g h o s p i t a l s , e t c . , i n dangerous proximity t o such t a r g e t s .

If

damage i s i n c i d e n t a l l y caused t o such a h o s p i t a l i t i s chargeable t o t h e b e l l i g e r e n t who located it i n a p o s i t i o n of danger. 96

TO

enable t h e a t t a c k i n g f o r c e t o spare such bufldings, s i g n s must be placed t o i n d i c a t e t h e i r presence and t h e besieger n o t i f i s d be-

7 forehand. 9

Lauterpacht, p . 328; cf A i r Power, p 206.. Some w r i t e r s i n s i s t t h a t d e l i b e r a t e bombardment of r e s i d e n t i a l q u a r t e r s i s i l l e g a l . See H a l l , p . 575, A r t i c l e 27 of t h e Hague Regulations, F M 27-10, p a r . 58, r e f e r s t o c i v i l i a n h o s p i t a l s and not m i l i t a r y h o s p i t a l s . For m i l i t a r y h o s p i t a l s . s e e p . 140, i n f r a .

94.

96.
97.

Spaight, p . 182.

F M 27-10, p a r a . 5 8 , 59.

A i r war has introduced a number of complicated and unsolved

problems with r e s p e c t t o bombardment. Few p o s i t i v e and s p e c i f i c Certain

r u l e s can be l a i d down with regard t o a i r h o s t i l i t i e s .

general p r i n c i p l e s of land waGf a r e may, however, be a p p l i e d , 98 Deliberate o r r e c k l e s s bombing of noncombatants i s forbidden a s i s bombardment f o r t e r r o r i z i n g t h e c i v i l i a n population. 99 The laws of humanity a r e a p p l i c a b l e t o a i r war, looDestruction a s an end i n i t s e l f o r f o r t h e s o l e purpose of i n f l i c t i n g monetary l o s s on t h e enemy i s forbidden. b. 101

Seizure and Destruction of Property During Opera- . A r t i c l e 23 (g)102 and A r t i c l e 4613 when

t i o n s ; Devastation.

98.

Cf

. Lauterpacht,

p.

414.

Lauterpacht, p . 414; P h i l l i p s o n , p . 177. The presence of c i v i l i a n s w i l l n o t p r o t e c t m i l i t a r y o b j e c t i v e s from a t t a c k merely because it i s impossible t o bombard them without i n d i r e c t l y i n j u r i n g c i v i l i a n s , Lauterpacht, p , 415,

99.-

100. See FM 27-10, p a r , 4b. Cf , A i r Power, p 195, e t s e q . , e s p e c i a l l y a t p . 208, where t h e author i n contending t h a t law a s w e l l a s p r a c t i c e i n World War I permitted a i r bombing of m i l i t a r y o b j e c t i v e s whether i n a defended place o r n o t , s t a t e s " t h a t i n some cases * * * t h e e x e r c i s e by t h e a t t a c k i n g b e l l i g e r e n t of h i s r i g h t w o u l d r e s u l t i n damage t o t h e c i v i l i a n populat i o n a l t o g e t h e r d i s p r o p o r t i o n a t e t o t h e m i l i t a r y r e s u l t s achieved, I n such cases, humanity demands t h a t t h e b e l l i g e r e n t should r e f r a i n from a t t a c k . " 101. Spaight, p . 131. 102. FM 27-10, p a r . 313. 103. FM 27-10> p a r . 323. This l a t t e r a r t i c l e though included i n t h e s e c t i o n of t h e r e g u l a t i o n s dealing with occupation ap-A 1 1 , p l i e s where t h e r e i s a s y e t no occupation, Spaight, p , 1

read together prohibit the destruction or seizure of enemy property, public or private, unless imperatively demanded by the necessities of war. All destruction to or seizure of enemy property, public or private, for the purpose of offense or defense is legitimate whether in preparation for battle or during battle.lo4 The term "necessities of war" or military necessity is an elastic term and is ultimately for the determination of the commander in the field.lo5 Destruction as an end in itself is
'

clearly outlawed.

106 There must be some reasonably close con-

nection.betweenthe seizwe or destruction of property and the overcoming of the enemy's army.107 Illustrative case.-The burning of public buildings in Washington by the British in 1814 has been condemned as contrary to international law ,lo8 The Hague Convention has made a distinction between the right of a belligerent to seize and destroy enemy property as an incident to operation^, movements, or combat of the army and the

104. Lauterpacht, p, 321. 105,. Lawrence, p 536.

106. FM 27-10, par. 324; Spaight, p. 111, et seq~

1 0 7 . Spaight, p. 112; FM 27-10, par. 324,

108. Spaight, p. 112; see also Garner, Vol. I, p . 323; Lauterpacht, p. 321,

limited right of an army of occupation to make use of enemy prop09 erty as an incident to the administration of enemy country. 1

In the former case, military necessity will excuse the seizure or destruction of public or private property11o such as railways, communications, war materiel, munitions factories, supplies and other property of direct military value to the enemy, shi-

larly, non-military property may be seized or destroyed for the

1 2 purposes of defense or attack.'

Thus, factories, private homes

or even a church, may be seized or destroyed if necessary for military operations.113 Military necessity may excuse the destruction of entire towns and cities. General Sherman in the Civil War burned Atlanta

logo See FM 27-10, pars. 324, 325; Fenwick, p.

483.

1 1 0 . Destruction of private dwellings in the line of fire is common.

111,Spaight, p. 113. 112. Lauterpaeht, p. 321; Spaight, p a 114, The only- exemption military necessity has made is the protection given by the Geneva Convention of 1959 to sanitarx and medical .units. FM 2710, par, 179; see p. 132, infra, for exceptional caseo

113. Lawrence, p. 535 Respect for private property does not interfere with the right of a belligerent to appropriate private property for temporary military use. FM 27-.lo,par, 325. The protection given to educational and religious institutions 'by Article 56, FM 27-10, par. 318, covers the period of military occupation and does not prevent destruction or seizure d-ming milrtary operations.

because he could not spare troops to hold the town and he could not afford to leave it standing in his rear to be seized by the enemy. The inhabitants were driven out of the city and it was burned to the ground.' I 4

A retreating force may destroy barracks,

arms, ammunition, factories and foundries, which would, if not rendered useless, supply the enemy with the means of carrying on war. However, it has been denied that such a force may destroy

provisions in the possession of private enemy inhabitants in order to prevent the enemy from using them in the future. The popu-

lation of an area may devastate its own land in order to -repelan enemy. International law does not forbid such destruction.117

61. Pillage.--See paragraph 329.

62-64. Unanchored Submarine Mines.--In World War I, the Germans scattered unanchored mines over the high seas indiscriminately.

In the present war, Germany used aircraft for the

purpose of layfng unanchored mines. Great Britain answered both

114. Spaight, p. 130.

115. Spaight, p. 132.

116. Lauterpacht, p. 322; contra, Spaight, p. 138.

117. For example, Dutch who cut their dykes and let in the sea
as a defense against the Spaniards. Lawrence, p. 537.

118. Garner, Vol. I, p. 329, et seq.

of t h e s e v i o l a t i o n s by r e p r i s a l s i n e s t a b l i s h i n g war zones and permanent mine . f i e l d s

.119
C H A P T E R IV PRISONERS O F WAR

70-72; 76-77 6

W h o May Become P r i s o n e r s of War. --The Con-

vention of 1929 r e l a t i n g t o t h e treatment of p r i s o n e r s of war has been signed by t h e United S t a t e s , Germany and ~ a ~ a n A l .l ~ c a t e g o r i e s of persons who a r e e n t i t l e d t o be t r e a t e d a s p r i s o n e r s of war a r e n o t enumerated i n t h e Hague Convention. The Conven-

t i o n does s p e c i f y c e r t a i n persons who a r e p r i s o n e r s of w a r O 3 Civilian internees. C i v i l i a n a l i e n s found i n a b e l l i g e y -

e n t ' s own t e r r i t o r y a t t h e outbreak of war may be i n t e r n e d .

Such persons a r e , under t h e American m d English p r a c t i c e a s

119. Lauterpacht, p

. 367.

Chapter I V

1.
2.

Referred t o h e r e a f t e r i n t h i s chapter aa t h e Convention.

A l l of t h e major powers a t war today have r a t i f i e d o r adhered t o t h e Convention except Japan and Russia. Japan, though f a i l i n g t o r a t i f y t h i s Convention, has through t h e Swiss government agreed with t h e United S t a t e s t o apply i t s provisions on a r e c i p r o c a l b a s i s .

See F ~ I 2 7-10, p a r s , 72, 76. See p . 24, supra.

4.

well as by the weight of authority under international law,3 treated as prisoners of warm6 The United State? and the enemy governments, namely, Germany, Italy and Japan have agreed through the Swiss government to treat interned civilian alien enemies, on a reciprocal basis, at least as favorably as prisoners of war.7 The internees receive food, lodging, clothing and medical care. They may not be compelled to do work other than the care of the camp without their consent. If they elect to work they receive the same pay as prisoners of war.8 When a belligerent invades enemy territory, civilian enemies generally are not subject to being interned or captured.9 Under the same circumstances, civilians who assist the enemy as drivers or laborers in the construction of fortifications or as clerks in

5.

JAG 014.311, June 28, 1938; SFJGW 1943/8113, June 16.

"Every individual who is deprived of his liberty not for a crime, but for mtlitary peasons, has a claim to be treated as a prisoner of war." Lauterpacht, p, 299; cf, FM 27-10, par. 70. See for extended discussion, 37 Am. J. Int, L. 30,

6.

7.
8. 9.

See for details, United States Dept, of State Bull., Vol. VI, No. 152, p. 446, May 23, 1942. 37 Am. J, Int. L. 30.

Cf. FM 27-10, par. 299, enjoipiw respect for "family honor and rights, the lives of persons", etc. See also Spaight, p . 306.

an army i n s t a l l a t i o n should not be made p r i s o n e r s of war. lo This p r i n c i p l e i s s u b j e c t t o t h e q u a l i f i c a t i o n t h a t t h e invader may t a k e a s p r i s o n e r s of war a l l c i v i l i a n s who a r e separated from other c i v i l i a n s by t h e i r importance i n t h e enemy state1' t h e i r usefulness t o i t . 12 o r by

C i v i l i a n s following t h e army. There a r e persons who "follow an army without d i r e c t l y belonging" t o it and A r t i c l e 8113 ment i o n s "correspondents, newspaper r e p o r t e r s , s u t l e r s , c o n t r a c t o r s " . However, t h e persons enumerated i n t h e a r t i c l e a r e not a complete l i s t b u t only examples.14 within t h i s a r t i c l e : Spaight l i s t s t h e following a s f a l l i n g

persons not commissioned o r e n l i s t e d , b u t

employed permanently by a n army a s pay-clerks, telegraph o p e r a t o r s , engine d r i v e r s , o r , g e n e r a l l y , in' any c i v i l i a n c a p a c i t y with an army i n t h e f i e l d and such a s a r e not o f f i c i a l l y employed by a n

Lauterpacht, p . 278. The enemy may d e t a i n them temporarily, r e q u i s i t i o n t h e i r s e r v i c e s , o r ' r e l e a s e them, b u t they a r e n o t t o be detained a s p r i s o n e r s of warc Edmonds and Oppenheim, par, 58, f o o t n o t e ( a ) , The case of c i v i l i a n s accompanying t h e army i n the f i e l d i s d e a l t with h e r e a f t e r ,
1 1 .

10.

FM 27-10, p a r . 76e, f. - -

12. H a l l , p .
13.

425; c f . FM

27-10, p a r .

7%.

FM 27-10, p a r , 76b. Lawrence, p . 349,

14.

army, but follow it for their own.purposes,such as press-correspondents, sutlers, or contractors .15 The difference between an ordinary prisoner of war and a civilian who follows the armed forces without directly belonging to it is that the latter, when detained, is held Tor military reasons other than weakening the enemy, namely, immediate release may be inconvenient or return to the camp of the enemy may result in the disclosure of infor1 6 By reason of this difference such persons should not mation . be subject to forced labor as is true in the case of ordinary prisoners of war,17 Civilian employees of an aircraft company serving overseas with the army air fomes and supervising air mechanics are entitled to be treated as prisoners of war if in possession of a certificate .18 Similarly, civil servants of a belligerent government

Spaight, p. 304. Bordwell, p. 245; Spaight, p. 310,

17. Spaight, p 310; cf . SPJGW 194317418, June 10, where it was 21 and 22 (FM 27-.lO, pars. 94, 95) of the held that A.~ticles
Geneva Convention relating to "assirniles" permit the tlaeatment and classification of civilians attached to the armed forces in the field, performing work of a character equivalent to that of officers, as officers; that the list of classifications should be communicated to the enemy.

18. SPJGW 1943/7809, June 9; cf. Cir. 33, WD, Jan. 30, 1943, which provides that individuals included in FM 27-10, par, 76b, namely civilians attached to the armed forces, will be pro.
vided with a certificate, by the local commanding officer, identifying them as noncombatants, See also sec, 111, Cir, 9, WD, Jan. 14, 1942.

accompanying t h e armed f o r c e s i n t o t h e f i e l d , such a s Treasury Department a g e n t s , would be e n t i t l e d t o be t r e a t e d a s p r i s o n e r s of war.19 A c e r t i f i c a t e of i d e n t i f i c a t i o n i s necessary t o prevent

t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of a combatant escaping i n t h e g u i s e of a noncomb a t a n t O e 0 The f a i l u r e of such a c i v i l i a n t o produce a c e r t i f i c a t e

w i l l n o t deprive him of t h e r i g h t t o be t r e a t e d with humanity i f

he be detained. 21

It must be remembered t h a t t h e c i v i l i a n i s a

noncombatant and i f he c o m i t s a c t s of violence cannot claim t o be t r e a t e d a s a p r i s o n e r of war when c a p t w e d . Armed f o r c e s . 22

The combatant members of a b e l l i g e r e n t ' s a r e en-

a d 3 a s w e l l a s t h e noncombatant members of t h e army2' t i t l e d t o be t r e a t e d a s p r i s o n e r s of war when captured,

Members of t h e volunteer corps25 and of a levee en masse26 a r e e n t i t l e d t o be t r e a t e d a s p r i s o n e r s of war, The Geneva Convention

19. SPJGW 1943/73359 May 26; Hyde,

20. 21. 22. Bordwell, p 245.

Val,

11, p . 345,

Lawrence, p . 350.
e

Qde, Vol, 11, p . ,344; Spaight, p , 38; SPJG 383.6, Mwch 21, 1942. See p .

'

23. 24. 25. 26.

1 4 , supra.
\

See p. 20, supra. See p . 16, supra. See p . 19, supra,

a p p l i e s t o persons who a r e captured on sea o r a i r .

The condi-

t i o n s of capture i n such cases may render necessary d e p a r t u r e s from t h e Convention which must cease on a r r i v a l a t a p r i s o n e r s P camp 27
0

S u b j e c t s of n e u t r a l s t a t e s .

A c i t i z e n of a n e u t r a l s t a t e

who i s a member of t h e armed f o r c e s of a b e l l i g e r e n t , a member

of a volunteer corps, 0 r . a c i v i l i a n a t t a c h e d t o t h e army i n t h e f i e l d 2 8 i s e n t i t l e d t o treatment a s a p r i s o n e r of war. 29

73-75. P e r s o n a l Safeguards Accorded P r i s o n e r s of War.--The

o b l i g a t i o n t o g r a n t treatment accorded p r i s o n e r s of war t o enemy i n d i v i d u a l s does n o t begin u n t i l r e s i s t a n c e has ended. 30 P r i s o n e r s of w a r a r e i n t h e power of t h e enemy s t a t e and n o t t h e i n d i v i d u a l s o r t r o o p s who c a p t u r e them, Thus, t h e primary

r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r t h e proper treatment of p r i s o n e r s of war i s upon t h e s t a t e .

-

--

27.
28. 29:

A i r Power, p . 312,

SPJGW 1943/9501, J u l y 2.

Cf. Spaight, p . 4970 A s u b j e c t of a b e l l i g e r e n t found s e r v , i ing i n t h e enemy f o r c e s i s g u i l t y of t r e a s o n and, according t o Edmonds and Oppenheim, p a r . 36, "cannot be regarded a s enemies 3 i i i n t h e m i l i t a r y sense of t h e term and cannot claim t h e p r i v i l e g e s Y of t h e members of t h e armed f o r c e s of the enemy". FM 27-10, pay. 1 1 . F,lory, p , 39. The r u l e i s t h e same f o r t h e s i c k and wounded, t h a t i s t o say, t h e s i c k and wounded have ceased t o r e s i s t . \ Spaight, p . 421,
30.

II

The Convention modified t h e e a r l i e r Hague Convention by providing t h a t p r i s o n e r s of war must be t r e a t e d humanely, prot e c t e d a g a i n s t violence, i n s u l t s and p u b l i c c u r i o s i t y . Events

of T~lorldWar I i n d i c a t e t h e need of p r o t e c t i n g a p r i s o n e r from personal violence and abuse. I n c i d e n t s a r e recorded where i n

t h e course of t r a n s p o r t i n g p r i s o n e r s t o internment camps they were subjected t o conduct tending t o render them despicable i n t h e eyes o f t h e c i v i l p o p u l a t i o n . 31 The p u b l i c a t i o n o f photo-

graphs of p r i s o n e r s of war i s n o t forbidden by t h i s a r t i c l e merely because i n d i v i d u a l s may be i d e n t i f i e d . 32 However, t h e guiding

p r i n c i p l e t h a t p r i s o n e r s be humanely t r e a t e d r e q u i r e s t h a t a photograph be n o t of such a n a t u r e a s t o defame t h e p r i s o n e r s o r invade t h e i r r i g h t of privacy. 33 ~eprisal'in t h e law

R e p r i s a l s a g a i n s t p r i s o n e r s of war.

of warfare s i g n i f i e s t h e commission by one b e l l i g e r e n t of what would otherwise be i l l e g a l a c t s of warfare i n order t o compel the o t h e r t o r e f r a i n from breaches of t h e law of war.

34

Reprisals

Hyde, Vol. 11, p . 333; c f . Boer p r o t e s t a g a i n s t B r i t i s h s a i l o r s who sang p a t r i o t i c songs while Boer p r i s o n e r s weye betng t r a n s p o r t e d t o S t . Helena. F l o r y , p . 40. 31. 32. 33.

FM 27-10, p a r . 73.
SPJGW 1943111228, Aug

. 7.
"Reprisals a r e a s u r an eye f o r a n eye, e t c , "

34.. Lawrence, p. 543; Spaight, p . 462:

v i v a l of t h e l e x t a l i o n i s

are not prohibited by customary law.35 The Hague Conventions do 36 However, the Convention not deal with or prohibit reprisals. of 1929 prohibits reprisals against prisoners of war.37 In the Geneva Conference of 199 it was proposed that though reprisals against prisoners of war be prohibited, the legality of reprisals should be recognized in case an enemy state should mistreat the prisoners of the other side. This proposal was not 38 adopted. Illustrative cases.-a. Duping the Franco-German War, the Germans by way oT reprisal bomba~dedand fired undefended open towns where their soldiers had been killed by civilian enemies who did not belong to the armed forces.39 b. Several instances were reported in World War I where Germany reputedly established prisoner of war camps in areas exposed to afr attacks in reprisal for allegedly illegal acts on the part of the allies. Reprisals

35. Lauterpacht, p. 111. 36. Lauterpacht, p.

449.

37. FM 27-10,par. 73. The language of the Convention does not preclude measures of reprisal in behalf of prisoners of war. Rasmussen, p. 19, I 38. Flory, p.

44.

39. Lauterpacht, p. 447,

against prisoners o war are now prohibited by the Convention of 1929.0 c. During a small raid by British Commandos on the cEannel island of Sark on October 3, 1942, a Nazi officer and four soldiers were taken during the raid and were trussed. The trussing was a precaution taken during operations behind enemy lines. Germany in reprisal orderad the manacling of over 1,000 British prisoners of war mostly Canadfan, German prisoner$ 1 in Canada were reported handcuffed in retaliation. These reprisals were violative of Article 2 of the Convention. Persons and honor to'be respected. Article 3 of the Con42 vention should be read in connection with the first paragraph of Article 9. 43 Prisoners of war are not criminals and must not

be confined except as an indispensable measure of safety.44 Of course, they are subject to confinement if they commit offenses or crimes

.45

Illustrative csse.-During the Anglo-Boer War, the British protested the imprisonment of its captured troops. The Boers

40. See Air Fower, p . 335, et seq.; cf . Art, 9 of the Convention, FM 27-10, par. 82, which was expressly enacted to prevent reprisals such as given in the illustration by providing that no prisoner of war may be sent to an area where he would be exposed to the-fireof the fighting zone,

41. Time, Oct, 19, 1942, p. 27; Nov. 2, 1942, p. 36,

42. FM 27-10, par. 74. 43. FM 27-10,pap. 82.

44. Spaight, p. 280; Bordwell, p. 238.,

45. This will be dealt with later in par. 118.

replied denying the fact, but admitted that a small number of prisoners who had committed offenses against the laws of war and were awaiting trial or had attempted escapes or were suspected of the intention of attempting to escape, had been confined in a common prison as a measure of safety, but apart from the ordinary criminals. Roberts expressed satisfaction with the explanation.

Lojrr

The use of dogs to maintain order and to prevent escapes in prison camps was the subject of protest by the Union to the Confederates and by the British to the German government in 1916 as subjecting prisoners of war to treatment as criminals.

47

A necessary incident to . t h e honorable status of a prisoner

of war is his freedom from compulsory political indoctrination by the captor state. Thus, it would be improper to compel the attendance of prisoners of war at lectures or similhr instructional activities in American history and government, democracy, etc. It is permissible to offer such instruction to prisoners of war if attendance is on a voluntary basis.

48

The duty of maintenance. The duty of maintenance of prisoners of war is on the detaining state. The Convention of 1929 drew a distinction between the captor state and the detaining

46. Spaight, p. 280.

prohibiting use of muzzled dogs. 13 Am. J. Int. L. 406 at 420.

47. Flory, p. 42; cf. American-German Berne Agreement, 1918,

48. SPJGW 194314248, March 29.

s t a t e and placed t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o maintenance ~ on t h e l a t ter.

49 Thus, where t h e captor s t a t e t r a n s f e r s p r i s o n e r s of war

t o an a l l i e d power, t h e t r a n s f e r e e ( d e t a i n i n g s t a t e ) i s under an o b l i g a t i o n t o conform t o t h e standards of t h e Convention. 50

captor s t a t e does n o t d i v e s t i t s e l f of i t s primary o b l i g a t i o n s under t r e a t y o r i n t e r n a t i o n a l law by a t r a n s f e r .

51 I t remains

responsible t o t h e power whom t h e p r i s o n e r s served f o r whatever treatment t h e p r i s o n e r s may r e c e i v e from t h e t r a n s f e r e e power. 52

The power i n whose s e r v i c e a p r i s o n e r of war was a t t h e time

of capture i s t h e power e n t i t , l e d t o p r o t e c t such p r i s o n e r ,

For

example, Americans serving i n t h e B r i t i s h armed f o r c e s captured by t h e Germans would be considered B r i t i s h p r i s o n e r s .

53

49; Rasmussen, p . 14; Flory,

50.

p . 45.

I n t h e absence of a t r e a t y provision t o t h e contrary, it i s lawful f o r a captor s t a t e t o t r a n s f e r p r i s o n e r s t o an a l l y , The pay of a p r i s o n e r becomes f i x e d a t t h e time of capture and would not be a l t e r e d by a subsequent t r a n s f e r , SPJGW .1942/3183, July 20.
51. SPJG'EJ 1943/7203, May 21. Theore t i c a l l y , every captor s t a t e i s a l s o a d e t a i n i n g power so long a s t h e p r i s o n e r i s within i t s c o n t r o l . ti he e f f e c t of t h e Geneva Convention i s t o r e q u i r e a d e t a i n i n g s t a t e t h a t i s not a l s o a captor s t a t e t o conform t o t h e standards of t h e Convention. SPJGW 1943/7203, May 21. Flory, p

52. 53.

. 35;

cf , SPJGW 1942/6035~, December 21.

Discrimination,

Differences of treatment of p r i s o n e r s of

w a r a r e lawful onlg i f based on m i l i t a r y rank, s t a t e of p h y s i c a l

o r <mentalh e a l t h , p r o f e s s i o n a l q u a l i f i c a t i o n s , o r t h e sex of t h e
prisoner.

gard t o t h e i r sex.

54 Women p r i s o n e r s of w a r must be t r e a t e d with due r e 55

I l l u s t r a t i v e case.--

It would be improper f o r t h e captor s t a t e t o a c cord d i f f e r e n t treatment t o some p r i s o n e r s of war on t h e b a s i s of t h e w i l l i n g n e s s of such p r i s o n e r s t o a t tend l e c t e s h e l d by t h e captor s t a t e on p o l i t i c a l sub Sects.

78.

Must Give Name and Rank; Coercion t o Obtain M i l i t a r y

Information Prohibited,-,-A p r i s o n e r of war i s bound t o g i v e , i f questioned, h i s t r u e name and rank o r h i s s e r i a l number, The

only punishment f o r r e f u s a l t o supply such information o r giving f a l s e information t h a t may be imposed i s t h e l o s s of p r i v i l e g e s accorded t o p r i s o n e r s of h i s c l a s s , 57

'A p r i s o n e r may n o t be

54.

F M 27-10, p a r , 75.

F M 27-10, p a r . 74; c f , The Berne Agreement D oS o - Germany, 19187, A r t . 31, which provided t h a t female personnel, i f tured; should be given every p o s s i b l e p r o t e c t i o n a g a i n s t harsh treatment o r i n s u l t ; they were t o be s u i t a b l y and decently quay-. t e r e d , and p ~ o v i d e dwith l a v a t o r i e s , bathing f a c i l i t i e s s e p a r a t e from male p r i s o n e r s . 13 Am. J I n t L o 406 a t 421.

56.
57,

Cf. SPJGW 194314248, March 29,

A r t , 9 of t h e Hague Convention of 1907 required t h a t t h e p r i s o n e r give only h i s name and rank, Spaight, p o 289, s t a t e s with r e s p e c t t o t h e 19?Convention, "No mention i s made

deprived of o t h e r p r i v i l e g e s because he r e f u s e s t o g i v e o t h e r information. He may be questioned on any s u b j e c t b u t h e need

n o t answer n o r may he b e coerced i n t o g i v i n g such i n f o r m a t i o n .

58

It would be c o n t r a r y t o i n t e r n a t i o n a l law t o f o r c e a , p r i s o n e r t o 59 g i v e m i l i t a r y information about h i s own f o r c e s .

79. E f f e c t s That, May be Retained by P r i s o n e r s .

60

--The Con-

vention s p e c i f i c a l l y provides t h a t a p r i s o n e r of war s h a l l remain i n p o s s e s s i o n of " a l l e f f e c t s and o b j e c t s of p e r s o n a l use" although t h e o b j e c t may belong t o h i s s t a t e , I n practice 61 o b j e c t s of p e r -

sonal u s e a r e understood t o i n c l u d e g a s mask, helmet, m i l i t a r y . uniforms, c l o t h i n g , and k i t r e q u i r e d f o r p e r s o n a l u s e , although t e c h n i c a l l y t h e y may belong t o h i s g ~ v e r n m e n t , Objects of v a l u e , which may n o t b e taken from a p r i s o n e r , i n c l u d e such a r t i c l e s a s

57.

( ~ o n t d . ) of d i s c i p l i n a r y punishment b e i n g i n f l i c t e d i f he d e c l i n e s t o do s o , and presumably t h e e f f e c t of A r t i c l e I X i s t o p u t o f f i c e r s and non-comaissfoned o f f i c e r s who r e f u s e t o s t a t e t h e i r names and r a n k on t h e same f o o t i n g a s a pl-ivate."

58.
59.

A i r Power, p

340.

The captor. may employ a l l humane means t o o b t a i n information from a p r i s o n e r of war. See A i r Power, p . 341, e t s e q " , f o r various n o n - f o r c i b l e d e v i c e s used i n World War I f o r o b t a i n i n g information such a s microphones, bogus-fellow p r i s o n e r s , e t c . See p . 127, i n f r a . Baker and Crocker, p , monds and Oppenheim.

60.

61.

44, c i t i n g U.S,R.L.W.,

1914, and Ed-

r i n g s , watches, c i g a r e t t e cases, and e x t r a c l o t h i n g .

62

Arms,

h o r s e s , m i l i t a r y equipment and m i l i t a r y papers may be taken from p r i s o n e r s of war. Property f a l l i n g within t h e category of "arms,

h o r s e s , m i l i t a r y equipment and m f l i t a r y papers" may be c o n f i s cate'& though p r i v a t e property, f o r example, a r e v o l v e r .

63 Per -

sonal property not f a l l i n g w i t h i n t h e category of arms, e t c . ,

may be taken from a p r i s o n e r of war, though it would remain h i s

property, i f i t s possession would f a c i l i t a t e escape o r espionage. Thus f i e l d g l a s s e s owned by a p r i s o n e r of war could be taken from him u n t i l h i s r e l e a s e from c a p t i v i t y .

64

The sane r u l e would apply

with r e s p e c t t o any money i n possession of t h e p r i s o n e r , t h a t i s , money taken from him must be c r e d i t e d t o h i s account and a r e c e i p t given.

65

On t h e o t h e r hand, a l l property belonging t o t h e

enemy s t a t e (except o b j e c t s of personal use) may be confiscated by t h e captor s t a t e . Thus, f i e l d g l a s s e s belonging t o t h e enemy

A r t . 72, G.O, 100 1i8637. -

68 ,.
64.

see, F M 27-10, p a r . 326; A i r P o w . e ~ ,p , 329.

A i r Power, p . 329,

* .

6 5 . A l a r g e sum of money i n t h e p r i s o n e r q s possession might

f a c i l i t a t e h i s escape. Unless t h e p r i s o n e r g i v e s h i s cons e n t , t h e money may not be converted i n t o . f o r e i g n cumency. F M D , J a n , 5 , 1942. 27-10, p a r . 97; see a l s o p a r , 2i ( 2 ) , C i r , 10, F

state could be confiscated by the captor. of Article

66

The broad language

6 permitting a prisoner to retain "all effects and

objects of personal use" is subject to the necessary practical limitation of available transportation facilities as well as housing facilities.

67

No statutory provisions exist at this time for the settlement of claims against the United States for damages to prop,erty belonging to prisoners of war or interned enemy aliens. In case

of loss o~ damage in such cases; the prisoner or interned alien

would present his claim through diplomatic channels or petition Congress.

68

80-81. Evacuation; Notification of Capture.--a, - Prisoners

in Places of Danger. Reprisals in advance, that is, the placing

66. Such articles would be permissible booty and would belong

to the government of the captor. See FM 27-10, par, 327; Phillipson, p. 220.

67. Thus it was held that prisoners of war need not be allowed
to bring in excessive baggage. The baggage allowed under transport regulations to United States personnel affords an adequate basis for allowances to prisoners of war as a general rule. When transportation of excessive baggage is refused, an opportunity should be given to the prisoner to sell the property or to store it privately or with the axmy. SPJGW 1943/6501, May 12,

68. SPJGbT 1942/6165, December 28, where it was also stated that
"the Government is not an insurer of the property of prisoners of war or interned enemy aliens."

of p r i s o n e r s of war i n l o c a l i t i e s where they were p e c u l i a r l y s u b j e c t t o being i n j u r e d by h o s t i l e a c t s undertaken by t h e i r compatriots, were of .frequent occurrence i n p a s t wars. 69 p r a c t i s e i s now d e f i n i t e l y forbidden by A r t i c l e l a s t paragraph. 70 This

7 and A r t i c l e 9,

The former en j o i n s evacuation fPom t h e combat

zone w i t h i n t h e s h o r t e s t p o s s i b l e time and t h e l a t t e r f o r b i d s t h e sending back of p r i s o n e r s i n t o a r e g i o n where they might be ex-posed t o f i r e of a combat zone o r used t o g i v e p r o t e c t i o n from bombardment t o c e r t a i n p o i n t s by t h e i r presence.

b.

S i c k and lounded.

An exception t o evacuation of p r i s -

oners from t h e combat zone i s made by A r t i c l e 7 i n those c a s e s where by reason of s i c k n e s s o r wounds t h e p r i s o n e r s cannot be immediately evacuated. Article

25 of t h e

onv vent ion^^

i s in-

s p i r e d by t h e same motive a s A r t i c l e 7 i n providing t h a t t h e s i c k and wounded s h a l l n o t be t r a n s f e r r e d a s long a s t h e i r recovery might be endangered by t h e journey. c. N o t i f i c a t i o n of Capture. A r t i c l e 8 requir-es b e l l i g e r -

e n t s through their- information bureaus t o n o t i f y each o t h e r a s soon a s p o s s i b l e of a l l captures of p r i s o n e r s a s w e l l a s t h e o f f i c i a l addresses t o which l e t t e r s may be s e n t t o such p r i s o n e r s .

69. 70.

A i r Power, p . 333. F M 27-10, p a r s . 80, 27-10, p a r .

82.

71. FM

98,

In case of prisoners being transferred from one camp to another, the detaining power is required to make arrangements for the forwarding of correspondence and packages to their new destination.72 Under the terms of an Executive agreement between the United States and ~ermany, 73 the German Armed Forces Information Service supplies information regarding captured members of the United States armed forces to the Swiss Legation, designated by the United States as protecting power as well as to the central information office for prisoners of war at Geneva., The Prisoners of War Information Bureau in the Office of the Provost Marshal General furnishes a like service with regard to German prisoners taken by the United States.74 82. Internment.--Prisonersof war are not criminals and must not be confined except as an indispensable measure of safety or sanitation. It is improper to place them in irons, bind them or otherwise restrain the use of their limbs.75
-

The distinction

72. FM 27-10, par. 99. 73. Executive Agreement series 2559 56 Stat, 1507.
'

74. See FM 29-5, par. 826. 75. Cf. Treaty between Prussia and United States, 1799, Art. XXIV; Baker and Crocker, p. 47.

between internment and confinement is the difference between 'restrictionto a specified -localityand close confinement.76 a. Unhealthy Location. There is no rule of international

law which forbids the transfer of prisoners of war to places far removed from their states of origin or the place of capture.77 However, the Convention does impose a duty of removing prisoners from areas where the climate is injurious for persons coming from temperate regions.78
b. -

Segregation of Nationalities, During World War I fre-

quent complaints were made by the British against the German practice of mixing prisoners of war of different states of origin and races in a single camp and even in the same barracks.79 The convention merely provides that belligerents should avoid so far as possible mixing prisoners of different Paces or nationalities in a single camp.

83-85.

Installation of Camps; Rations; Clothing .--a. - In-

stallation of Camps. In World War I prisoners were at times

76. Holland, p. 21.

7 8 . See Moore's Digest, Vol. VII, p. 225, for protest by United

States to Great Britain for removing American citizens, prisoners of war temporarily serving in the armies of the South African Republic, to such a "notoriously insalubrious a place as the Island of Ceylon".

7 9 . Garner, Vol, 11, p. 2 3 .

p l a c e d i n empty b a r r a c k s , d i s u s e d f a c t o r i e s and s h i p s ; t e n t s , boarded and warmed, were a l s o usedO8O The Convention r e l a t i n g t o camp i n s t a l l a t i o n s a p p a r e n t l y r e f e r s t o p'ermanent camps. r e q u i r e s t h a t p r i s o n e r s of war be lodged " i n b u i l d i n g s o r i n b a r r a c k s a f f o r d i n g a l l p o s s i b l e s a f e g u a r d s a s t o hygiene and h e a l t h f u l n e s s " .81 The must be p r o t e c t e d from dampness, More d e f i n i t e s t a n d a r d s a r e

It

s u f f i c i e n t l y heated and l i g h t e d .

l a i d down by t h e Convention w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e t o t a l a r e a and minimum a i r space of t h e d o r m i t o r i e s and t h e bedding t h e r e i n ; t h e s e a r e t o be t h e same a s t h o s e provided f o r t h e t r o o p s a t base camps of t h e d e t a i n i n g power. b -. Rations, 82

The Convention r e q u i r e s t h a t p r i s o n e r s of

war b e s u p p l i e d w i t h food e q u a l i n q u a n t i t y and q u a l i t y t o t h a t of t r o o p s of t h e d e t a i n i n g power a t b a s e camps. 83 I n addition

t h e Convention makes it mandatory f o r t h e d e t a i n i n g power t o e s t a b l i s h c a n t e e n s i n c a p s whelae p r i s o n e r s may o b t a i n food p r o d u c t s

80.

Treatment of P r i s o n e r s of War, L t , Gen, B e l f i e l d , S o c i e t y 1 3 1 a t 139; Garner, Vol, 11, p . 13.

9 Grotius

81.
82.

Seemingly, permanent internment aboard p r i s o n s h i p s o r i n t e n t s would b e c o n t r a r y t o t h & Convention.

The term t r o o p s a t base camps means s o l d i e r s i n b a r r a c k s OF depots l o c a t e d i n t h e i n t e r i o r o u t s i d e of t h e combat a r e a . Rasmussen, p . 14.

83.

See f o o t n o t e 82 f o r d e f i n i t i o n of b a s e camp,

and articles in ordinary use at market price. There iS no obligation dn the detaining power to permit prisoners to manage their own kitchens or prepare their own food, except-insofaras the detaining power is required to furnish facilities to prisoners so that they may prepare for themselves food in addition to that furnished by the detaining power .84 The Convention expressly permits the employment of prisoners in the kitchen if the detaining power so desires. Prisoners are permitted to receive individually postal parcels containing food and other articles .85 An obligation exists on the detaining state to provide so far as possible food customarily eaten by the prisoners, The prohibition of the

86

c on vent ion^? against collective dis-

ciplinary measures affecting food is but part of the more general rule prohibiting collective punishment of prisoners for individual

84. See FM 27-10, par, B, which provides that the management of the mess by the officers (prisoners of war) themselves should
be facilitkted in every way.

8 5 FM 27-10, par. 110, See Treatment of Prisoners of War, Lt, Gen. Belfield, 9 Grotious Society 131 at 138, who in speaking of rations given to prisoners in Wo~ldPTar I stated: "Owing to the inadequacy of the food and clothing issued by Enemy Powers, a very large amount was sent to British prisoners from this country and without this their lot would indeed have been lamentable."

86. Flory, p'. 68; Spaight, p, 277.

acts.88

I n World War I , where i n d i v i d u a l p r i s o n e r s attempted t o

escape, t h e Germans punished t h e e n t i r e camp by d e p r i v i n g a l l p r i s o n e r s of p r i v i l e g e s and, sometimes, t h e e n t i r e camp was dep r i v e d of food f o r twenty-four h?urs. 89 c -

Clothing.

The Convention of 1929 p l a c e s t h e d u t y of

f u r n i s h i n g c l o t h i n g and footwear on t h e d e t a i n i n g s t a t e and r e q u i r e s it t o f u r n i s h replacement and r e p a i r s of such a r t i c l e s regulmly. I n a d d i t i o n , t h e p r i s o n e r of war must r e c e i v e work The Hague Con-

c l o t h e s whenever t h e n a t u r e of work r e q u i r e s i t , ventions of

,

1899 and 1907~' r e q u i r e t h e d e t a i n i n g power t o f u r -

n i s h c l o t h i n g t o p r i s o n e r s on a n e o u a l b a s i s w i t h i t s own t r o o p s , The Convention of 1929 m k e s no p r o v i s i o n f o r a s t a n d a r d , \:%ether

e q u a l i t y w i t h t h e d e t a i n i n g power's own t r o o p s o r one of r e a s o n '

a b l e need i s t h e proper s t a n d a r d i s u n c e r t a i n , 91.. - 86-88, ' s a n i t a t i o n and Medical Care. a, -

Sanitation.

t i c l e 13 requires the detaining s t a t e t o take a l l s a n i t a t i o n measures n e c e s s a r y t o a s s u r e h e a l t h f u l n e s s of camps, t o pro-vide

88.
89.

See FM 27-10, p a r

119,

Garner, Vol. 11, p . 47,

F l o r y , p . 62, s t a t e s t h a t p r a c t i c e i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e s t a n d M 2 9 r 5 9 p a r , 83 ( 2 ) ~ (3). ~ See a r d i s r e a s o n a b l e need; c f , F PP. 73, e t s e q . , i n f r a , and p , 83, i n f r a , f o r d f s c u s s i o n of d e - duction of c o s t of maintenance from -wages o r pay,

91,

camps w i t h b a t h s and s'howers so f a r a s p o s s i b l e , t o f u r n i s h s u f f i c i e n t water f o r t h e b o d i l y c l e a n l i r i e s s of p r i s o n e r s , and i n s t a l l a t i o n s , a v a i l a b l e day and night,- conformiag t o s a n i t a r y r u l e s . 92 I n a d d i t i o n , p r i s o n e r s of war must be p e r m i t t e d p h y s i c a l There i s no duty on

e x e r c i s e s and allowed t o enjoy t h e open a i r ,

t h e d e t a i n i n g s t a t e t o p e r m i t p r i s o n e r s t o walk o u t s i d e t h e camp. Y3 b, Medical Care. I n addition t o the general injunction

t h a t t h e s i c k and wounded a r e t o b e cared f o r w i t h o u t d i s t i n c t i o n

of s i d e o r n a t i o n a l i t y , 9 4 A r t i c l e 14 r e q u i r e s t h a t each camp have

an i n f i r m a r y where p r i s o n e r s a r e t o r e c e i v e every a t t e n t i o n t h e y need; p r i s o n e r s who a r e s e r i o u s l y 4 1 1 o r r e q u i r e major s u r g i c a l

o p e r a t i o n s a r e t o be h o s p i t a l i z e d i n a c i v i l o r m i l i t a r y e s t a b l f s h ment; expenses of t r e a t m e n t and h o s p i t a l i z a t i o n a r e t o b e borne by t h e d e t a i n i n g powero I t i s t o be observed t h a t two s t a n d a r d s of c a r e a r e s t a t e d :

D

(1) e q u a l i t y with d e t a i n i n g pd-wer's own

troops,95 and, ( 2 ) t h e need -- of t h e p r i s o n e r of war. These a r e

C f , Garner, Vol. 11, p . 1, e t s e q , , ~ O F account of "plague" camps a t Wittenberg, Gardelegen and Ruheleben d u r i n g 1,$70rld War I . Cf. Berne Agreement, 1918, A r t . 60, between United S t a t e s and Germany which p e r m i t t e d o u t s i d e - , o f .the-camp e x e r c i s e , t o g e t t h e p r i s o n e r s away from t h e barbed ire. 1 3 Am, d o I n t o L o 406 a t 430, 93.
M 27-10, p a r , 174, t h i s a r t i c l e h a s been i n p r a c t i c e i n t e r 94. F

92.

p r e t e d t o mean e q u a l i t y of t r e a t m e n t with t h e f o r c e s of det a i n i n g power. C f , FM 29-5, p a r . 8 3 ( 3 ) d 3

FM 27-10, p a r , 174.

not incompatible so long as the higher of the two standards in a given case is applied by the detaining power.96

89. Religious Freedom.--This article guarantees a prisoner

freedom of worship including the right to attend religious services within camp. Inversely,it impliedly prohibits the detaining gower from compelling prisoners to attend the religious services this article forbids of any churchOg7 It has been stated that. the detaining state from engaging in relXgious propaganda which has as its aim the dissemination of ideas contrary to the prisoner's religion.98 Ministers of re;igion, prisoners of war, are permitted to minister to their coreligionists.99 the Civil War and in World War I, p b Recreation,.=-During the belligerents provided recreation grounds for prisoners of war, organized classes, reading materials and other forms of recreation .lOO The Convention reasserts the customary rule of

96. c f . Flory, p , 96. 97. See Spaight, p. 31.6, who states that "Article XVIII /of the
Hague Regulations, which fs identical with the firstparagraph of this article7 - guarantees freedom of conscience * * *"

98. Flory, p. 86, quotes a delegate at the Conference of 1929

to this effect,

99. Although the Convention does not permit chaplaiqs to be

detained as prisoners of war but contemplates their return as soon as military exigency permits, they may in fact remain in rthe prison camps and minister to their comrades. 100,Flory, p, 85,

international law that belligerents shall encourage as much as possible intellectual recreation and sports organized by prisoners of w m . Individual shipments of books to prisoners, subJect
*

to censorship by the detaining power, are permitted by the Convention.lol According to a neutral YMCA Secretary who visited a prison camp in Germany, some prisoners of war are studying languages. He also stated that 50 or more prisoners at the camp
-

were preparing for examinations; some for the University of Lon102 don, the rest in commerce and law, 91-93. Courtesy and Discipline.--Prisoners of war must salute all officers of the detaining power. Officers who are

prisoners are bound to salute officers of equal or higher rank of the detaining power,lo3 The second paragraph'of Article 18 indicates. that prisoners of war must also observe "the external marks of respect provided by the regulations in force in their

101. FM 27-10, par, 112, Shipments of books by representatfves of the protecting power and authorized aid societies may not be delayed on the pretext of censorship, The character of the sender is a guarantee against abuse. Rasmussen, p, 31.

102. N.Y, Times, 4-1-43., 103 See SPJGW 1943/6093, April 23, where it was stated that the detaining power could try by court-martial an officer of the United States for failing to salute a superior officer of the detain'ing power,

world war I armies with regard to their nationals".lo4 ~uring the British maintained discipline among prisoners of war by utilizing the authority of the prisonervsown senior officers and noncomissioned officers in their respective camps.105 Communication of orders,etc, Regulations, orders, etc,, must be communicated to prisoners of war in a language which they can understand. The text of the Geneva Convention of 1929 relating to prisoners shall be posted, in the camp, in the mother tongue of the prisoners whenever possible

.106

94-96. Pay and Maintenance of Officers and Assimileso--a. "Assimiles". Article 21 of the Convention, which provides that "officers and assimiles" shall be treated with regard to their

rank and age, does not define "assimilesl'. Civilians who follow
theamed forces without directly belonging to it107 are "asshiles". Thus, such civilians performing work of a character or

104. Sp~ight, p. 286, states the German pactice in the FrancoGerman War of 1870 as follows: "Obedience and military honours were required from prisoners, and any insubordination o~ want of respect,. even among themselves, was punished by arrest,'' 105. The two grades were never detained together, Treatment of Prisoners of War, Lt. Gen, Belfield, 9 Grotius Society 131 at 143.

106. FM 27-10, par, 168.

107. FM 27-10,par. 76b. -

grade equivalent to that of officers may.be treated as officers,

108

The practice of nations in this and the last world war is in conformity with this interpretation. Thus, war correspondents with the armed forces of the United States haye been assigned .the rank of second lieutenant in the event of capture, lo9 Article 21 requires the belligerents to .. furnish each other a list of the titles and ranks used in their respective armies and a similar list for assimiles. Certificates issued to civilians attached to the army1l0 state whether the bearer in the event of capture will be given the rights and privileges of an officer or enlisted man. Warrant officers would come within the definition of assimiles
111 and be entitled to treatment as officers.
b. -

Officers Pay and Maintenance. Subject to special ar-

rangements between belligerents, officers and assimiles are entitled to receive from the detaining power the same pay as officers of their rank in the service of the detaining power if not

108. Where the natme of the work performed corresponds more

nearly with that perfomned by noncommissioned personnel, the civilian may be classified as such: SPJGW 1943/10138, July

8.
109. See SPJGV 1943/7418, June 10, for extended discussion, See
p a 136, infra, footnote 72.
I)

110. See sec. VI, Cir. 33, WD, Jan, 30, 1943.
111. Cf Rasmussen, p, 14.

in excess of the rate in their own servicei112 Customary law

Y

placed no such duty on the detaining state.

An bfficer prisoner

of war is entitled to a continuation of his pay notwithstanding any'subsequent confinement under conviction by a civil court for a,crime committed before the war,' 1 4 Officers are charged for

the cost of maintenance which,is debited against the pay they receiye. Presumably Article 22 of the Convention limits the items of maintenance which may be deducted from an officer's pay to food and clothing. In World War I, Britain protested the German practice of requiring officers to purchase their own cutlery and drinking vessels and everything making for reasonable comfort. In some Turkish camps officers were called on to pay for their accommodations; the practice was stopped after protest. The British view was that everything really necessary should be provided by the detaining state and every luxury excluded; that these

112. Cf , SPJGW 194317418, June 10. Contra, Air Power, p , 418, where it is stated that civilians taken prisoners of war would not come under Article 23 of the Convention under which "assimilesfs are entitled to receive pay. Civilian enemy alieis interned in the belligerentq s own territory at the outbreak of war receive no pay except for work. See pap. 4, Cir, 10, WD, Jan,..?,1943, 113. Flory, p. 83.

'

, .

114. Dig. Op, JAG, 1918, Vol, 11, p. 1060, The detaining state . is not bound to recognize the promotion of a prisoner of made after his captwe. SPJGW 1943/10705, Au@st 2

should be furnished without expense-tothe officer except for food, uniform and laundry.115 Administrative provisions for facilitating the application of the rules with respect to pay are included in the Convention. Thus, the belligerents are to exchange lists of ranks in order that equivalents be established; and in the absence of special agreement, the exchange rate to be adopted for pay purposes is the rate in force at the outbreak of hostilities. In the present war the enemy belligerents by agreement, made through the Swiss government as neutral intermediary, have fixed an allowance for officers and assimiles In lieu of the pay required by the Convention. Generally this allowance is much lower than the standard of pay fixed in the,Convention.
\

Officers and

assimiles are not charged for food and clothing, both items being 116 furnished them as part of the arrangement, The practice of nations has been to provide separate acoommodations for offfcers apart from enlisted personnel. 7 ' I 1n

Germany and Great Britain during World War I, officers were gen-

118 erally placed in different camps from enlisted personnel.

115. Lt. Gen. Belfield, 9 Grotius Society 131 at 138.

116. See par. 5; Cir. 10, FID, Jan. 5, 1943, for monthly allowance to officers. 117. Garner, Vol. 11, p. 12. 118. Cf. FM 29-5, par. 742(3). Differences in maintenance may 5 be based on rank. FM 27-10, par. 7

All disbursements of pay made to prisoners of war must be reimbursed at the end of hostilities by the state in whose army they served.119
100, 102-105. Authorized and Prohibited Prork of Prisoners

120 of War.--a. - Officers and Assimiles. Officers and assimiles receive their pay even though they do not work,1 2 ' The donven-

tion incorporates the customary rule of international law that officers and assimiles cannot he comp-elled to work, although they may request work compatible with their status.122 A literal reading of Article 27123 df the Convention would justify the conclusion that civilian prisoners except those ass5milated in rank to officers may be compelled to w o ~ k . A contrary opinion has been expressed by Spaight who states that this Article is applicable only to prisoners who are members of the armed forces. In this view, civilians who are of the status of

119,The Treaty of Versailles and the Treaty of Berlin, Aug. 1921, waived reciprocally all repayments due for maintenance of Prisoners of war. 120. See p, 71, supra, for definition of "assimiles". 121; See p

. 72, supra.
. 71.

122. Flory , p

123. FM 27-10, par. 100.

noncommissioned officers or soldiers cannot be compelled to work.124 b. Other Prisoners of War. Prisoners of war other than

officers and assimiles may be compelled to work by the detaining state.125 The Convention states that able-bodied prisoners of war may be employed according to their rank and aptitude. Ar126 ticle 29 of the Convention prohibits the employment of prisoners at work for which they are physically unfit. It would seem that these provisions were intended to protect prisoners from being assigned to work for which they are neither fitted in aptitude nor in physical strength.127

124. Air Power, p. 418, citing Mr. Temant, Under-Secretary of State for War, who stated in the House of Commons on March 1, 1916: "Civilian prisoners cannot be forced to work otherwise than in the maintenance of their camps * * * I ' Mr. Hope stated, again, in the House on March 20, 1917: "According to international usage compulsion LTo work7 could not be applied to civilians as .in the case of combatant pr~soners, "
125. Spaight, p. 281; see p. ficers. 126. FM 27-10, par, 102.

77; infra, for noncommissioned of-

127, Cf. 13 Am. J. Int L. 406 at 424, where the Berne Agreement, 1918, contained substantially the same provisions the h e r ican member of that conference said: "It is notorious that in the employment of prisoners of war at physical labor the G e m n authorities had either purposely or carelessly put many a round peg into a square hole. Men of professional or clerical life had been forced to perform hard physical labor'forwhich they were fitted neither in aptitude nor in muscular strength. It was to correct this abuse that we insisted on the inclusion of these words bptitude and physical ability7. - "
I

Prisoners of war who belong to the armed forces may not be compelled to do work humiliating to their military rank or degradim in character.128 For example, the employment of prisoners of war as garbage collectors for cantonments would be objectionable as work of a menial nature.129 The article of the Convention providing that noncommisf3ioned officers shall.only be required to do supervisory work unless they request remunerative work is a recognition of the practice of belligerents that noncommisiioned officers shall not be required to perform manual labor in the same way as privates. In World War I an attempt was made by Germany to evade this principle by establishing separate noncommissioned officers camps and then under the guise of necessary camp work compelling these noncom130 missioned officers to perform all manner of manual labor, Seemingly, noncommissioned offi-cersmay be required to do supervisory work in connection with the operation and administration

128. Baker and Crocker, p. 51, citiri Article 25, "Declaration of Brussels, and Oxford Institute". 129. SPJGW 194213836, Sept , 15; see also Flory, p 72. However, prisoners of war could engage in varfous tasks necessary for the upkeep of their o m camp including garbage collection, 130. 13 Am, J. Int. L. 4b6 at 423,

of t h e camp b u t may n o t be compelled t o do o t h e r work except a t t h e i r r e q u e s t . 131 The ~ o n v e n t i o n ' ~ pr ~o h i b i t s "excessive" work being demanded of p r i s o n e r s of war and f i x e s a maximum l i m i t of hours beyond which p r i s o n e r s may n o t work, namely, t h e working hours of t h e c i v i l i a n population i n t h e sanie m e a doing t h e same work,
r

The

time occupied i n going t o , and r e t u r n i n g from work i s included i n t h e working day. Whether t h e lunch hour would be excluded o r

included i n ~ A l c u l a t i n gt h e work day would depend upon t h e pract i c e of t h e c i v i l population i n t h e same work i n t h e same a r e a , The Convention a l s o provides t h a t p r i s o n e r s s h a l l be given

24 hours r e s t p e r week, p r e f e r a b l y on Sunday.

c; Unhealthful o r Dangerous Work. I n World War I frequent

p r o t e s t s were made by t h e b e l l i g e r e n t s t h a t p r i s o n e r s of war were being compelled t o perform dange'rous w o ~ ko r engage i n unhealthy occupations, 133 B r i t a i n used p r i s o n e r s f o r a v a r i e t y of work
,
'

including work i n r a i l r o a d q u a r r i e s and road making.

B r f t a i n , did

n o t employ p r i s o n e r s i n mines o r swamp d r a i n i n g , France employed p r i s o n e r s t o work i n q u a r r i e s and c u t timber, Strong p r o t e s t s

were made by t h e French government t o Germany of t h e use of p r f s - . oners i n c o a l , s a l t and potash mines where t h e sickness, a c c i d e n t ,

131, SPJGW 1943/11081, August 12. 132, F M 27-=lo, p a r , 103, 133. Garner, Vol, 1 1 , p. 40, Thus Germany used l a r g e numbers of p r i s o n e r s i n d r a i n i n g swamps i n northern Germany,

and death rate were high.134

The Berne Agreement between the

, ~ ~ ~ either party from United States and Germany, ~ 9 1 8 prohibited

working prisoners of war in mines, marshes or blasting work in quarries 136 The ~ o n v e n t i o n l expressly ~~ prohibits unhealthful or dangerous work. Work in open pit mines,13' underground coal rnin-

1 3 ' 'and employment in logging'and sawrnilling140 are dangerous ing, work prohibited by the Convention according to'the view of the United States. Dangerous work has been defined to be work where the prospect of disabling injury is substantially more than average.1 4 ' Whether a particular employment is dangerous or unhealth\

ful is a question of fact and reliable statistical information

134. Garner, Vol. 11, p.

41, et seqo

135. See comment by Ame~icandelegate, 13 Am, J

42k.

. Int

Lo

406 at

136. The American Delegation took the position that these were dangerous occupations, 137. FM 27-10, par, 105.
C

138, Open pit mining is open to sunlight as contrasted with underground mining. 139. SPJGW 1943/7350, June 18. 140. SPJGW 1943/99489 July 3, where it was heid that non-dangerous work connected with the logging and sawmill industry was per,.. missible. "Work" refers to the particular job not the industry, SPJGW 1943/1098, August 11. 141. SPJGW 1943/10908, Au@;ust 11.

with respect to the incidence of accident, occupational disease, 142 etc., are persuasive in determining the question. d . Kind of Work Prohibited. The Conventionlh3 enunciates a general rule'that work done by prisoners shall have "no direct relation with war operations". The Convention specifically prohibits:
(1) employment of prisoners in the manufacturing and

transportation of arms or munitions of any kind, and, (2) their employment for transporting materiel intended for combatant units. This article has to some extent given rise to conflicting interpretations as was the 6ase with the corresponding article of the Hague Convention. It is evfdent that the term "direct relation with war operations" does not refer to the physical or geographical distance of the work from the combat zone. Articles
I

7144 and 9145 already provide that prisoners ought not to be kept
in the zone of combat.lh6 A strict interpretation of this article

142. Cf SPJGLI 1943/7350, June 18, and SPJGW 194319948, July 3, where Department of Labor statistics on accident rates were used to determine whether open pit mining and logging were danQeYOUS. 143. FM 27-10, par. 104.

144. FM 27-10, par. 80.

145. FM 27-10, par. 82.

146. Rasmussen, p.. 33.

would distinguish between war operations and war preparations and only the former would be forbidden. Thus, under this view prisoners of war may be compelled to render assistance in the construction of military roads, fortifications and the like in the zone of the interior since this is only in preparation for military operations.147

A literal application of the Convention would not

exclude the employment of prisoners in the manufacture of.war materiel other than arms and ammunition if it has no direct connection with military operations.148 Thus, it has been stated that it would be permissible to employ prisoners in forests to cut trees destined for the front.149 Similarly, the prohibition against employing prisoners of war for transporting materiel intended for combatant units does not prevent the transpo?t of materiel (other than a m s or ammunition) intended for noncombatants in the fighting zone.150

A more liberal interpretation would forbid all acts directly

and distinctly in aid of military operations (i.e., assist in the work of attack or defense). Thus the digging of trenches, the

147. Lauterpacht, p. 344; Rasmussen, p. 34..

148. Lauterpacht, p. 298; Rasmussen, p . 34..

149. Rasmussen, p. 34.

150.

asm mu is en,

p. 34.

construction of fortifications even at a distance from the front, the building of roads to be used exclusively for milltary pupposes, the construction of gun emplacements, the making of camouflage nets to be used for camouflaging military installations, and the digging of coal in mines which supply military needs are prohibited,1 5 ' If the community benefits generally from the work

done by.the prisoners, the fact that the military also secures a benefit will not be violative of the Convention. Thus prisoners may be employed in 'the construction of roads of general utility although the military also uses the road.152 similarly, *$isoners may be employed in the manufacture of wood pulp though a minor part of the production is used for the making of munitions.153 The employment of prisoners in soil conservation pro-

jects, agricultural work, forestr~,"~or in a quartermaster9 s laundry is permissible.155

151. See Phillipson, p. 197; Spaight, p . 152; SPJGW 194211746, May 1.

152. Phillipson, p. 197. 153. SPJGW 1943/7234, June 17.

154. Flory, p . 76.

155. SPJGW 1943/10831, July 27.

This article is directed against compulsory labor of prisoners of war in the prohibited ac'tivities; the acceptance of voluntary service is not prohibited.156

107. Wages of Prisoners of War and Deductions for Maintenance. --157~nderthe

onv vent ion,''^ prisoners of war,must be

supplied with food and clothing, and since prisoners (other than officers) receive no pay except for work done, these items are furnished without charge to the prisoners. Prisoners receive no wages for work connected with the administration, management, and maintenance of camps.159 In the absence of agreement between the belligerents, work done for the state shall be paid for at the same rates as those in force for members of the detaining state's a q e d forces engaged in the same work, or, if none exists, according to a rate

156. See Spaight, p. 144. The voluntary service of a prisoner

of war in a prohiljited activity is undesirable as a matter of policy. If prisoners of wax= are allowed to perfom such work, charges may be made by the state of origin that they are doing so under duress and reprisals may be taken for such supposed violation of international law, SPJGW 1942/190, May 9,

157. See p. 72, supra, for officer prisoners,

158. See FM 27-10,pars, 84, 85.
159, Cf

. Dig, Op. JAG, 1912-40,Const. 11, 2(4), 383 "6,July 20, 1918, where Tt was held that under customary internatfonal

law prisoners employed in the construction of barracks to be occupied by themselves must be paid.

i n harmony with t h e work performed.

The conditi-ons of work done

f o r o t h e r s than t h e s t a t e , are' r e g u l a t e d by agreement with t h e m i l i t a r y a u t h o r i t y of t h e d e t a i n i n g s t a t e . 160

Where t h e p r i s o n e r works f o r t h e s t a t e which pays him t h e r a t e i n f o r c e f o r m i l i t a r y personnel of i t s armed f o r c e s , t h e duty o f t h e d e t a i n i n g s t a t e has been f u l l y discharged. 1 6 ' 1n

cases where t h e p r i s o n e r works f o r t h e s t a t e , - no deductions f o r t h e c o s t of maintenance a r e made from t h e earnings s i n c e p r i s oners a r e t o be t r e a t e d l i k e s o l d i e r s of t h e d e t a i n i n g s t a t e and g e n e r a l l y no such deductions would be made from t h e l a t t e r ' s Pay
a

Subject t o t h e r u l e of e q u a l i t y of treatment with s o l -

d i e r s of t h e d e t a i n i n g s t a t e , t h e c o s t of maintenance of a p r i s oner of war may be deducted from h i s wages. 163

160. This provision r e q u i r e s no more than t h a t t h e conditions of

work should meet with t h e approval of t h e m i l i t a r y authori t i e s r a t h e r than a s p e c i f i c agreement by t h e m i l i t a r y authori t i e s and t h e employer of t h e p r i s o n e r s . SPeTGW 1943/9801, J u l y 7.

161. Thus, a p r i s o n e r of war would n o t be e n t i t l e d t o t h e d i f ference between t h e 80# p e r day 'received by them i n working f o r t h e s t a t e and t h e higher r a t e a t which such l a b o r i s valued f o r accounting purposes, SPJGW 1943/10831, J u l y 27; see p a r . 4, C i r . 10, 10, J a n . 5 , 1943, f o r wage allowance and money allowanceo 162. Spaight, p. 284.

163. . A r t . 6 of t h e Hague Regulations of 1907. The Convention of 1929 d i d n o t r e p e a t , t h i s r u l e , b u t it i s i m p l i c i t i n A r t i c l e 34. F ~ O Y Y , p . 81.

Where t h e p r i s o n e r works f o r o t h e r s than t h e s t a t e , t h e Convention contains no provision specifying how much of t h e value of h i s l a b o r must be given t o t h e p r i s o n e r . The t o t a l amount

earned by t h e p r i s o n e r need not be paid t o him; t h e s t a t e may deduct t h e c o s t of maintenance from t h e wages earned by t h e p r i s oner. 164 S i m i l a r l y , t h e s t a t e may r e c e i v e t h e payments f o r t h e

l a b o r of t h e p r i s o n e r s , pay t h e p r i s o n e r s a n amount equivalent t o t h a t paid p r i s o n e r s working f o r t h e s t a t e (804 p e r d a y ) , and r e t a i n t h e - b a l a n c e t o defray t h e c o s t of maintenance of prf.soners. 1-65 There i s no o b l i g a t i o n on t h e d e t a i n i n g s t a t e t o place a t t h e d i s p o s a l of a prfsoner a l l of t h e wages belonging t o him. The
b

s t a t e may withhold from t h e p r i s o n e r p a r t of h i s earnings and c r e d i t them t o h i s account t o be paid a t t h e end of c a p t i v i t y . Surplus wages so withheld a r e considered p a r t of t h e f i n a n c i a l resources of a p r i s o n e r and he may t r a n s f e r those funds t o banks o r p r i v a t e persons i n h i s country of o r i g i n . 167

166

165. SPJGW 1943/9801, J u l y 7. 166, FM 27-10, p a r , 97,

,

167. FM '27-10, p a r . 97; MS. Comp. Gen, B-29149, Oct. 19, 1942, See, however, Trading with t h e Enemy Act, Oct. 6 , 1917, a s amended, 55 S t a t . 389, and E.O. 9193, J u l y 6, 1942, requfrfng t h e issuance of a s p e c i a l l i c e n s e .

If the prisoner of war works for a private individual, he

remains under the protection of the detaining state and the state may not relieve itself of the obligations of the Convention with respect to the prisoner, though in fact the employer may be maintaining the prisoner.168 The pay of a prisoner of war accrues from the date of captureL6' or if 'the prisoner be captured by an ally and turned over

to the detaining state from the' date of actual delivery of the prisoner to the detaining state.1 . 7 0 provides that the detainWork ac6idents. The ~onvention'~~ ing power shall allow prisoners of way who are victims of accib

dents in connection with their work, the same benefits extended to its own natfonals doing the same kind of work according to the legislation of the detaining power, At the American delegate's suggestion that the federal nature of some governments mfght make the application of this provision difficult, the article was amended to provide that such governments recommend to their

168. FM 27-10, par. 101.

169. Par. 4, Cir. 10, WD, Jan. 5, 1943.

170. SPJGW 1943/6491, Apri 1 26.
171. FM 27-10, par. 100.

l e g i s l a t u r e a l l proper measures f o r t h e e q u i t a b l e compensatfon of t h e victims. 172

P r i s o n e r s of war who a r e i n j u r e d i n t h e employ of t h e United S t a t e s would be e l i g i b l e t o r e c e i v e b e n e f i t s under t h e Federal Employers Compensation in. t h e absence of t h e payment of I f t h e p r i s o n e r be

equivalent b e n e f i t s by t h e government. 174

n o t employed by t h e f e d e r a l government b u t by a s t a t e , subdivis i o n t h e r e o f , o r p r i v a t e person, t h e f e d e r a l government may i t s e l f undertake t o make payments a r i s i n g from work a c c i d e n t s or expressl y s t i p u l a t e with t h e employer of t h e p r i s o n e r s f o r conformance with t h e Workmen's Compensation Law of t h e j u r i s d i c t i o n where t h e p r i s o n e r s a r e employed. 108-114. 175

Correspondence and Parcels.--FTithin a period of , n6t more than one week a f t e r h i s a r r i v a l a t a camp every p r i s o n e r must be enabled t o corres,pond with h i s family. 176 The d e t a i n i n g

172. 173. 174.

F l o r y , p . 80.

.
.

S e p t . 7 , 1916, a s amended, 39 S t a t . 742.

SFJGFr 1942/412, Feb 7. The Convention would not r e q u i r e payments t o h e i r s i n case of a f a t a l a c c i d e n t s i n c e by i t s terms t h e b e n e f i t s a r e t o be paid t o t h e p r i s o n e r durfng c a p t i v i t y . SPJGW 1943/9602, J u l y 10.

Of course, t h e o b l i g a t i o n s imposed on t h e d e t a i n i n g power by t h e Convention may not be s h i f t e d by c o n t r a c t i f i n f a c t they a r e n o t performed. 175. 176. F M 27-10, p a r . 109.

s t a t e may l i m i t t h e number of l e t t e r s and p o s t cards p r i s o n e r s of w a r may send. Such l e t t e r s and cards may not be delayed o r

r e t a i n e d f o r d i s c i p l i n a r y purposes' even though t h e laws of t h e d e t a i n i n g power so provide. 177 O f course m i l i t a r y n e c e s s i t y

w i l l permit t h e temporary p r o h i b i t i o n of correspondence by p r i s -

oners of war b u t t h e p r o h i b i t i o n must be of .,the " s h o r t e s t d u r a t i o n p o s s i b l e " . 178 L e t t e r s t o and from p r i s o n e r s a r e l i a b l e t o censor1-79 The Convention s p e c i f i c a l l y provides t h a t

ship a s a r e books.

l e t t e r s , money o r d e r s , and packages s e n t t o o r from p r i s o n e r s of war a r e exempt from p o s t a l charges i n t h e country of o r i g i n , d e s t i n a t i o n , and i n c o u n t r i e s en r o u t e . G i f t s and r e l i e f i n kind

f o r p r i s o n e r s a r e exempt from customs and o t h e r d u t i e s a s w e l l a s railway charges on s t a t e operated railways. Information bu180.

reaus enjoy s i m i l a r franking p r i v i l e g e s a s p r i s o n e r s of war.

A i r m a i l l e t t e r s and c . 0 . d . packages t o or from p r i s o n e r s of war

a r e not e n t i t l e d t o t h e franking p r i v i l e g e .

181

Rasmussen, p 36; cf J A G Ops., 1918, Vol, 11, p 572, where it was h e l d t h a t a p r i s o n e r of war i n a c i v i l p r i s o n undergoing punishment f o r c i v i l crimes should have no o t h e r p r i v i l e g e s of correspondence than allowed o t h e r c i v i l i a n p r i s o n e r s . 177. 178. 179.

FM 27-10, p a r . 113.

Books s e n t by protecting'power and recognized a i d s o c i e t i e s may not be delayed on t h e p r e t e x t of censorship. FM 27-10, p a r . 112. 180.

FM 27-10, p a r . 166,
'

181. 35 Am. J . I n t . L. 365 a t 368.

Mail o r i g i n a t i n g i n o r d e s t i n e d t o n e u t r a l t e r r i t o r y t o o r from a p r i s o n e r of war i s e n t i t l e d t o t h e f r a n k i n g p r i v i x e g e . The p r a c t i c e i n hrorld War I i n d i c a t e s t h a t no l i m i t was p l a c e d by d e t a i n i n g power on t h e number of l e t t e r s o r packages a p r i s o n e r could r e c e i v e . 182

183 G e n e r a l l y , none of t h e b e l l i g e r e n t s
184

. ,

p e r m i t t e d newspapers t o b'e s e n t o r r e c e i v e d b y m a i l .

It i s

i n t e r e s t i n g t o n o t e t h a t t h e French government i n World War I p r o t e s t e d t h e r e f u s a l of t h e German government t o cash money o r d e r s s e n t t o p r i s o n e r s of war a s a v i o l a t i o n of t h e Hague convention. 186 The Convention specifically requires t h a t the detaining s t a t e s h a l l p r o v i d e f a c i l i t i e s f o r t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n . o f instruments' i n tended f o r o r signed by p r i s o n e r s of war p a r t i c u l a r l y w i l l s and powers of a t t o r n e y , and a s s u r e , i n c a s e of n e c e s s i t y , t h e aut h e n t i c a t i o n of p r i s o n e r ' s s i g n a t u r e s . 187

185

182. 183.

35 Am. J. I n t . L o 365 a t 368.

See Garner, Vol 11, p 36; .Flory , p 104. I t would seem, ' however, t h a t a d e t a i n i n g s t a t e could l i m i t t h e nwnber of packages s e n t t o p r i s o n e r s i f it unduly burdened t r a n s p o r t f a c i l i t i e s needed f o r m i l i t a r y purposes.

184. Garner, Vol. 11, p . 36.

185. Garner, VoP. 11, p . 40,

186. FM 27-10, p a r . 114.

187. F M 27-10, p a r . 114.

115-117; 169-170. Protecting Power and Complaints.--It is customary for neutral governments to extend their good offices in protecting the interests of a belligerent government in the enemy state especially with respect to the inspection and supervision of relief of prisoners.

188

The Convention recognizes the

protecting power as an important agency for securing compliance with its terms. The protecting power may in fulfilling its duties
s

utilize its diplomatic or consular officials or may appoint, subject to approval of the belligerent in question, delegates from its own nationals or other neutral powers.

189

Representatives of the protecting power or its approved delegates must be permitted to go any place, without exception, where prisoners are interned and converse with them, as a general rule without witnesses, personally or through interpreters.190 The provision allowing the representatives of the protecting power to go any place would permit such representatives to visit prisons, camps, fortresses, or even the combat zone if prisoners of war are
in such places.1 9 '

The implied qualification in the statement

189. FM 27-,lo, par. 169. Non-diplomatic delegates are subject to approval of the detaining state. Rasmussen, p. 61.
190. FM 27-10, par. 169.
191. Rasmussen, p. 60, Military autho~ities are to be informed of such visits.

that the representative of the protecting power may as a general rule hold conversation without witnesses was intended to prevent

an abuse of the private interview for purposes of espionage.

192

Persons of the same nationality as the prisoners of war may take part in inspection trips made by the representative of the protecting power only by special agreement between the belligerents.

193

The Convention also provides machinery for the settlement of disputes between belligerents regarding the application of the Convention.

194

The protecting power may suggest a meeting of

1

representatives of the belligerents on neutral territory, The belligerents are bound to accede to proposals made to them with this object. The functions of the detaining power do not derogate from the humanitarian activities of the International Red Cross 195 in the interest of prisoners of war. Articles 42, 43 and

196 44 confer the right on prisoners to

make complaints and requests with regard to their treatment to

192. Rasmussen, p.

60.

193. Rasmussen, p. 61.

194. FM 27-10, par, 170.

1%.

FM 27-10,' par. 171,

196. FM 27-10, pars. 115-117.

I

the military authorities in whose.hands they are and to the representatives of the protecting power. These requests and complaints must be transmitted immediately. Prisoners must be permitted to appoint agents, subject to approval by the detaining power, to represent them before the,militaryauthorities and the protecting power. In officer camps, the senior officer prisoner

of highest rank is to be'recognized as the intermediary between the camp authorities and the officers.197 . The Convention protects prisoners who avail themselves of the procedure by prqhibiting punishment for complaints even if found to be groundless.

164-165,171. Relief Societies.--Belligerents are required

to grant relief societies for prisoners of war every facility for the performance of their work.

198 Such societies must be con-

stituted in accordance with the law of their country and their representatives must give an undertaking in writing to comply with all military and administrative measures. It must be noted that the admission of representatives of relief organizations to prison camps,,etc., is subordinated to military necessity and a personal permit from the military authorities must be secured,

199

197. The senior officer of the line is recognized as spokesman.

SPJGW 1943/10679, July 21.

198.

F'M 27-10, par.

,164.

199. Cf. p. 90, supra, relating,to inspections by the "protecting power". Article 86, FM 27-10, par. 169, dealing with this
matter contains no reference to military necessity. Rasmussen, p. 54. The provision relating to admission to camps of relief societies appears to carry no legal obligation. Flory, p. 102.

Throughout t h e Convention

200

t h e r e i s implied permission

given t o t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l Red Cross t o c a r r y out i t s humanitarian a c t i v i t i e s with r e s p e c t t o p r i s o n e r s of war with t h e consent of the belligerents. 163, 20 1

166. O f f i c i a l Information Bureau. --Every b e l l i g e r e n t

and n e u t r a l s t a t e (which d e t a i n s members of t h e armed f o r c e s ) must e s t a b l i s h a t t h e outbreak of h o s t i l i t i e s , an o f f i c i a l i n formation bureau regarding p r i s o n e r s of war i n t h e i r t e r r i t o r y . This bureau i s required t o f u r n i s h a l i s t of p r i s o n e r s t o t h e i n t e r e s t e d powers through t h e p r o t e c t i n g powers and thg c e n t r a l agency. 203 202

It i s charged with t h e duty of r e p l y i n g t o a l l i n The bureau must keep

q u i r i e s with r e s p e c t t o p r i s o n e r s of war,

up t o d a t e a separate record f o r each p r i s o n e r showing i n t e r n ments, t r a n s f e r s , p a r o l e s , r e p a t r i a t i o n , escapes, h o s p i t a l i z a t i o n , deaths, and o t h e r information. The bureau must forward t o p r i s I n a d d i t i o n it must r e c e i v e

oners a l l l e t t e r s , packages and money,

200. 201.

F M 27-10? p a r s . 165,

171,

The Convention of 1 9 9 does not mention t h e Red Cross and s i m i l a r organizations with r e s p e c t t o i n v e s t i g a t i n g condit i o n s i n camps and hearing complaints of p r i s o n e r s , b u t it does not preclude t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of such a c t i v i t i e s . F l o r y , p . 107. 202. 203.

F M 27-10, p a r . 163.
See FM 27-10, p a r .

165, f o r t h e c e n t r a l agency,

and c o l l e c t a l l o b j e c t s of personal use, valuables, l e t t e r s , e t c . , l e f t by p r i s o n e r s who have been r e l e a s e d on p a r o l e o r r e p a t r i a t e d , o r who have escaped, o r d i e d , and transmit t h e s e a r t i c l e s t o t h e interested countries. These bureaus a r e e n t i t l e d t o franking 204 General. P r i s o n e r s of

p r i v i l e g e s and f r e e t r a n s p o r t . 118-140.

Crimes and Offenses.--a.

w a r a r e s u b j e c t t o t h e laws and r e g u l a t i o n s of t h e armed f o r c e s

of t h e d e t a i n i n g power. 205

P r i s o n e r s must not be subjected t o

punishment o t h e r than those prescribed f o r t h e same a c t s by memb e r s of the.armed f o r c e s of t h e d e t a i n i n g power. 206 Generally,

p r i s o n e r s of w a r must be t r e a t e d l i k e t h e s o l d i e r s of t h e d e t a i n ing s t a t e , no b e t t e r and no worse. 207 Despite t h i s g e n e r a l r u l e

of p a r i t y between p r i s o n e r s of war arid t h e s o l d i e r s of t h e det a i n i n g s t a t e , c e r t a i n punishments a r e a b s o l u t e l y forbidden though permissible under t h e laws of t h e d e t a i n i n g power. For example,

any corporal punishment, imprisonment i n q u a r t e r s without dayl i g h t , c r u e l t y , c o l l e c t i v e punishment f o r i n d i v i d u a l a c t s , a r e a b s o l u t e l y forbidden. 208 Again, no prisoner of war may be de209

prived of h i s rank by t h e d e t a i n i n g power.

204. 205. 206. 207. 208. 209.

FM 27-10, p a r . 166; s e e a l s o 'p. 88, supra. FM 27-10) p a r , 118.

FM 27-10, p a r . 119.
See Spaight, p . 286, quoting from t h e German o f f i c i a l manual.

FM 27-10, p a r . 119; Rasmussen, p . 36.

FM 27-10, p a r . 122.

A member of the armed forces of the detaining state may be guilty of military offenses which have no application to a prisoner of war. For example, a prisoner of war is incapable of "deserting the service of the United States" under Article of Tar 210 58 since he is not in the service of the United States. Similarly, it has been doubted whether a prisoner of war who threatens a commissioned officer of the united States with a baseball bat could be convicted under Article of War

64 for "assaulting a

superior officer" since the gravamen of the offense of insubordination is defiance of the military hierarchy to which the pris211 oner of war is a stranger. 212 The Convention distinguishes between "disciplinary" Punishment and punishment resulting from "judicial" proceedings.213 "Disciplinary" offenses comprehend minor offenses or derelictions 214 not involving moral turpitude. "Judicial" proceedings relate

210. AW 92 and 93, denouncing comon law crimes, are universally applicable.- SPJGW 1943/3029, February 26.
'

211. Dicta, SPJGTb? 1943/3029, February 26; contra,. Spaight, p. 286. 212. FM 27-10 uses the word "summary" interchangeably with "disciplinary"

213. See FM 27-10, par. 120. 214. SPJGW 1943/3029, February 26.

215 to criminal, offenses punishable by military or civil tribunals.

The detaining power is enjoined to "exercise the greatest leniency" in deciding whether an infraction committed by a prisoner of war should be punished by disciplinary action or judicial proceed21 6 ings A prisoner may not be punished more than once for the

same offense or charge.217 Prisoners of war who have satisfied the penalty imposed on them, whether judicial punishment or dis218 ciplinary, must not be treated differently from other prisoners. b. Disciplinary Punishment. The Convention provides that

the maximum single sentence for a disciplinary offense or offenses 219 may not exceed 30 days. When a new summary punishment is imposed, a period of at least three days must intervene between each

2 . Flory, p. ' 9 1 . See also FM 27-10,pars, 124 and 161, respectively, where the terms "crimes or offenses" and "crime or an offense of municipal law" are used in connection with judicial proceedings.
216. FM 27-10, par. 125. 217. See Ramussen, p. 37. 218. Prisoners who have been punished as a result of attempted escape may be subjected to special surveillance. FM 27-10, par. 121.

219. See p. 98, infra, for further discussion. A prisoner sentenced at the same time to disciplinary punishment for several acts, connected or not, may not be sentenced to more than 30 days. FM 27-10, par. 127.

of the punishments, if 'one of them is ten days or more.220 "Arrest" is the most severe disciplinary punishment which may be 221 imposed on a prisoner 04 war. "Arrest" is used in its most general sense and in contradistinction to "judicial" imprisonment. It i s the equivalent of "disciplinary detention"222 and 223 is broad enough to comprehend solitary confinement in a cell. Any aggravation of working conditions is forbidden as a disciplinary measure.224 Prisoners of yar undergoing disciplinary punishment shall not receive less favorable treatment than those of equal rank in the armed forces of the detaining state under the 225 same circumstances. 226 Article 56 provides that in'no case shall a prisoner of war be transferred to a penitentiary to undergo disciplinary punishment.227 Prisoners undergoing disciplinary punishnient must

220. FM 27-10) par. 127. 221. FM 27-10, par. 127. 222. Rasmussen, p. 37. 223. Compliance with FM 27-10) par. 129, would be necessary, SPJGFl 1943/4445, April 3. Solitary confinement will not be imposed as punishment by courts-martial, Par. 102, MCM (1928)

224. FM 27-10, par, 105. 225. FM 27-10, par. 119. 226. FM 27-10, par. 129. 227. See AW 42, which prohibits confinement in a penitentiary unless the sentence is more than one year.

be permitted to read and write, and to send and receive letters, but money and parcels may be withheld until the expiration of the sentence.228 Food restrictions as additional disciplinary punishment are allowed under the following conditions: If such restrictions are applicable to the detaining power's own soldiers229 of equal rank230 for the same act and thenonly if the healti of the prisoner permits. Collective disciplinary measures affecting the food of prisoners are prohibited.231 Prisoners given disciplinary punishment may not be deprived ' 2 3 2 of the prerogatives attached to their rank. The opinion has been expressed that disciplinary punishment may be imposed upon prisoners 'of war in United States custody

only under Article of War 104. In this view the limitations of punishment prescribed by Article of War 104 would be applicable to prisoners of war. Thus, Article of War 104 would limit

228. If the packages not delivered contain perishables, these shall be turned over to the camp infirmary or kitchen. FM 27-10,par. 130. 229. FM 27-10, par. 128. 230. FM 27-10, par. 119. 2

FM 27-10, par. 84.

232. FM 27-10,par. 122.

disciplinary punishment to one week's duration without confine233 ment. . According to the British view, the tribunals which have power to impose disciplinary punishment are courts-martial and commanders of a camp or detachment.234 In World War I, the British, in order to accord prisoners equal treatment with members of its own armed forces, imposed disciplinary punishment on officer prisoners by a military court composed of at least four officers.235

SPJGW 1943/11081, August 12, 1943, where it is stated that "disciplinary punishment" as used in the Convention designates any form of punishment not imposed by a court-martial, i.e., "company punishment"
233.

234. FM 27-10, pars. 118, 132; see Administration of Justice Among Prisoners of War by Military Courts, 1 Proceedings Australian-New Zealand Society of Int. Law 143 at 154. 235. See 9 Grotius Society 131 at 141 (1924), where General Belfield stated the difficulties encountered by the British in applying disciplinary punishment under their military code to prisoners of war in the following language: "Here, however, a fresh difficulty intervened, as the British military code admits of summary punishment of private soldiers only, whereas in foreign armies this may be inflicted on men of any rank, including officers. Summary punishments are also restricted in our service to an award of twenty-eight days' detention. The extension of our power of summary punishment of prisoners of war so as to make it conform to continental practice was out of the question, as this would have been a violatfon of the rule laid down in the 8 that prisoners 'shall be first paragraph of this article / subject to the laws, regulationsand orders in force in the Army of the State in the power of which they are:. In fact, we could comply with the second paragraph bmposing disciplinary punishment for escape7 only by committing a breach of the first * ++ * A military coGt, of which the President might not be under field rank, and three members, all of whom had held a commission for not less than three years, had to be assembled for the trial of anyone of higher grade /Than a prfvate7.11 -

~udicial Proceedings. The Convention contains specific

prohibitions which, unless confined by its terms to disciplinary 236 punishment, are equally applicable to judicial proceedings. For example, the prohibition against corporal punishment or cruelty in any form.237 Several general principles are laid down with respect to judicial proceedings such as the right of a prisoner to be heard in his defense,238 and his right to assistance of counsel of his ~ h , o i c e . No ~ ~prisoner ~ may be compelled to 240 admit his guilt. The Convention places a prisoner on a parity with a member of the detaining power's armed forces by providing that sentence may be pronounced only by the same courts and according to the same procedure.241 This principle of equality implies that the

236. Rasmussen, p. 39. 237. FM 27-10,par. 119; cf. AW 41 prohibiting cruel and unusual punishments, including flogging, branding, marking, or tattooing on the body. 238. FM 27-10, par. 134. 239. . The detaining power is required to deliver to the protecting power, on request, a list of persons qualified to present the defense. FM 27-10,par. 135. 240. FM 27-10, par. 134. 241. FM 27-10,par. 136; cf. SPJGW 194313029, February 26, where it was stated prisoners of war and interned enemy aliens who are assimilated to them should be tried by general courts-martial rather than military commissions or provost courts since the latter two may depart in the rules of evidence and the mode of review from general courts-martial.

punishment of p r i s o n e r s s h a l l not be more severe than t h a t app l i c a b l e t o t h e members of t h e armed f o r c e s of t h e d e t a i n i n g 242 The p r i s o n e r i s given t h e same r i g h t s t a t e f o r similar acts. of appeal from a sentence a s i n d i v i d u a l s belonging t o t h e armed f o r c e s of t h e d e t a i n i n g power. 243 Other safeguards include n o t i -

f i c a t i o n of t r i a l t o t h e p r o t e c t i n g power a t t h e l a t e s t a t l e a s t 244 threeweeksbeforetheopeningofthetrial, t h e r i g h t of r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of t h e p r o t e c t i n g power t o a t t e n d t h e t r i a l , 245

and t h e communication of the'sentence t o t h e p r o t e c t t n g power 246 A death sentence must n o t be c a r r i e d out before .immediately. t h e e x p i r a t i o n of a period of a t l e a s t t h r e e months a f t e r t h e r e c e i p t by t h e p r o t e c t i n g power of a communication s e t t i n g f o r t h i n d e t a i l t h e n a t u r e and cfrcumstances of t h e o f f e n s e . N o pris-

oner of war may be deprived of h i s r i g h t t o complain t o t h e

Thus, t h e maximum t a b l e i n t h e MCM, p a r . 104, being a p p l i cable t o e n l i s t e d men i n t h e &my of t h e United S t a t e s should govern t h e sentence imposed on e n l i s t e d men held a s p r i s o n e r s of war. SPJGW 1943/3029, February 26. 242. 243. 244. 245. 246. F M 27-10, p a r . 137. F M 27-10, p a r . 133. The exception i s t h e case where t h e t r i a l must be s e c r e t i n M 27-10, p a r , 135. t h e i n t e r e s t of t h e s e f e t y of t h e s t a t e . F F M 27-10, p a r . 138.

r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of t h e p r o t e c t i n g power under A r t i c l e 42247 by a sentence of a t r i b u n a l o r otherwise. 248

A person who, p r i o r t o being captured, commits an a c t i n

v i o l a t i o n of t h e laws of war, i s not e n t i t l e d t o t h e p r i v i l e g e s and safeguards accorded t o a p r i s o n e r of war. 249 However, even

a captured war c r i m i n a l i s e n t i t l e d t o a t r i a l by a competent tribunal d. -

.250
Escape. Escape i s a very n a t u r a l a c t which i s n o t cont h e laws of morality. 251

t r a r y e i t h e r t o m i l i t a r y honor

Some w r i t e r s have a s s e r t e d t h a t it i s t h e duty of a p r i s o n e r of 252 war t o escape i f a favorable opportunity p r e s e n t s i t s e l f . Es cape has been defined a s t h e s t a t e of a p r i s o n e r s s having placed himself beyond t h e immediate c o n t r o l of public 6 u t h o r i t i e s of t h e d e t a i n i n g s t a t e without t h e i r consent. 253

247. 248. 249, 250. 251. 252. 253.

F M 27-10, p a r . 115.

FM 27-10, p a r . 140.
Colby, 23 Mich. L. Rev. 482 a t 487; cP. SPJGW 1943/3029, February 26.

FM 27-10, p a r . 356.
Baker and Crocker, p Guerre Continentale". Davis, p . 315. Cf. German view t h a t t h e p r i s o n e r ' s i n t e n t must be \to avoid permanently t h e enemy c o n t r o l . Flory, p . 149.

. 66,

c i t i n g Jacomet "Les Lois de l a

If an escape is successful, it is not punishable even if the prisoner be recaptured sub'sequently by the detaining power. A successful escape is one in which the prisoner succeeds in rejoining his army or leaves the territory occupied by the detain254 ing army.

An attempt to escape or an escape (which is not successful)

is an infraction of the disciplinary regulations of the detaining power and may be punished. The terms ",escape" or "attemp't to escape" are not defined by the Convention. By analogy to AngloAmerican military law an attempt may 'be defined aa an overt act other than mere preparation towards accomplishing the purpose to escape.

a55

An attempt does not ripen into an escape until the

prisoner has, momentarily at least, freed himself from the restrain6 of the camp authorities, so, if the movement toward escape is opposed, or before it is completed an immediate pursuit ensues, there will be no escape until opposition is overcome or pursuit shaken off.256 Unsuccessful escapes or attempts are

254. FM 27-10, par. 123.

. An attempt to escape was found 255. Cf. par. 130b, MCM (1928)
where a prisoner began constructing a tunnel to be used for effecting an escape. Op. JAG, 1918, Vol. 11, p. 576. 256. Cf par. 139b, MCM (1928)

punishably only by disciplinary sentences not to exceed 30 days.257

A prisoner of war may be fired upon 'and, if necessary, killed to

prevent his escape.258 Military necessity may justify preventive measures such as temporary confinement to frustrate a conspiracy to effect an escape.259 After an attempted or accomplished escape, the prisoner's co-conspirators who assisted in the escape 260 may incur disciplinary punishment only. A prisoner who has escaped or attempted to escape may be subjected to special surveillance but not deprived of other rights (guaranties) granted 261 Collective punishment for individual him by the Convention. 262 Where a prisoner commits a crime or offense acts is forbidden. in the course of an escape, the escape is not considered an ag263 gravating circumstance. However, the crime or offense is punishable on the same basis as if committed by a member of the armed

257. FM 27-10,pars. 124, 127; Flory, p. 153. The penalty for an attempt to escape is disciplinary punishment only. Op. JAG, 1918, Vol. 11, p. 576; see p. 98, supra, for tribunals which may impose punishment.

258. Spaight, p. 287.

259. FM 27-10, par. 82; Spaight, p. 280. 260. FM 27-10, par. 124; Rasmussen, p. 261. FM 27-10, par. 121. 262. FM 27-10, par. 119. 263. FM 27-10,par. 124.

41.

f o r c e s of t h e d e t a i n i n g power.

264

Thus, a p r i s o n e r %ofwar who

s t e a l s c l o t h i n g t o e f f e c t h i s escape i s g u i l t y of larceny i f t h e escape i s not s u c c e s s f u l . 265

Some doubt has been expressed with r e s p e c t t o t h e l i a b i l i t y of a p r i s o n e r of war t o punishment f o r a crime c o m i t t e d i n connection with a s u c c e s s f u l escape. Some w r i t e r s have viewed such

crime a s being p a r t and p a r c e l of t h e escape and s i n c e t h e e s cape i s not punishable n e i t h e r i s t h e i n c i d e n t a l crime. 266 The

c o n t r a r y opinion i s t h a t a successful escape does n o t wipe out t h e i n c i d e n t a l crime. I f t h e l a t t e r p o s i t i o n i s adopted, t h e

k i l l i n g of a camp guard i n t h e course of a s u c c e s s f u l escape may be murder.

,

267

The question has a l s o a r i s e n whether t h e s t a t u s of a p r i s o n e r

of war ends when t h e p r i s o n e r has l e f t t h e c o n t r o l of t h e camp a u t h o r i t i e s and thrown off immediate p u r s u i t , o r whether it cont i n u e s u n t i l he has q u i t t e d t h e t e r r i t o r y of t h e d e t a i n i n g s t a t e . I f t h e l a t t e r view be adopted, he would be g u i l t y of murder i f

264. 265.

Rasmussen, p . 41. B o l l s , The Peace Conference a t t h e Hague, P P. 155. See discussion, F l o r y , p . 1-36. Flory, p.

. 147;

Flor~,

266. 267.

157.

he should kill a member of the armed forces while still in the 268 territory of that state. Prisoners of war who escape in civilian clothes or dressed in the uniform of the detaining power are not spies if 'captured 269 before the escape becomes successful.

A prisoner of war may not' be tried under Article of War 69

for "escaping from confinement" since escape for him is not un270 lawful and subjects him to no more than disciplinary punishment. e. Concurrent Jurisdiction of Civil Courts of Criminal

Jurisdiction Over Prisoriers of War. Interned enemy civilians and prisoners of war who commit offenses against the.criminal law of . . the state where they are interned may, at the discretion of the 271 military, be turned over to the civil courts for trial. 141-161. Release of Prisoners.--a. - End of War. Article
*

75272 directs belligerents to include provisions with respect to

268. .SeeFlory, p

. 157.

269. Air Power, p. 84. If there are special circumstances indicating that the prisoner was engaged in espionage he could be tried as a spy. 270. SPJGW 1943/3029, February 26. 271. Schaffenius v. Goldberg (1916), 1 K.B 1912, p. 1075. 272. FM 27-10, par. 161.
C

. 284; Dig. Op . JAG,

repatriation (i.e., the restoration of persons held as prisoners of war to the state to whom they belong) in general armistice agreements and if this be not possible, then they shall come to an agreement as soon as possible. The terms of the Armistice in World War I required the Central Powers to release allied pris273 German prisoners held by oners at once without reciprocity. the Allies were released at the latest on the ratification of the peace treaties.274 The conclusion of a treaty of peace by belligerents technically terminates the status of a prisoner of war as such. However, neither customary nor Article 7 5 of the Convention

requires immediate repatrTation. The Conven-f;ion simply requires that repatriation be effected with the least possible delay after the conclusion of peace.' Until the return of the prisoner 'ismade he rema-insunder the discipline and supervision of the detaining 276 Mo prisoner of war on whom disciplinary punishment has power. been imposed may be kept from repatriation because he has not undergone punishment.

277

273. 13 Am. J. Int. L. Supp. 99.

274. Flory, p . 136.

275. Hall, p. 598. 276. Lauterpacht, p. 478; Hall,
p.

598,

277. Cf. FM 27-10,par. 126; Rasmussen, p. 49.

Prisoners of war against whom proceedings for comrnission'of ordinary crimes or offenses (i.e., crimes which in their nature are violations of municipal law) are pending or who are serving sentences for such crimes need not be repatriated but may be detained until the expiration of their sentences.278 ~risonersof war undergoing judicial punishment

279

,ofpurely military offenses

not also constituting an ordinary crime or offense may not be 280 detained after peace. Thus, a prisoner of war whobhasbeen punished judicially for failure to salute a superior officer of the detaining power should not be retained after peace to complete 281 his sentence. However, it must be remembered that many vio"

lation; of military law are essentially violations of municipal law, as for example, a conviction by a court-martial of a prisoner of war for stealing. Persons serving sentences for war -

278. Rasmussen, p. 50; cf FM 27-10, par. 126.

-279. FM 27-10, par. 126, relates to repatriation during the continuance of hostilities. 280. Rasmussen, p 5 2 , Other interpretations are possible and it may well be that a detaining power would not release a prisoner who had committed a serious military offense. At the termination of the Franco-German War in 1871 Germany held that the pace did not operate in favor of offenders against military law. Phillipson, Termination of War and Treaties of Peace, p . 240. 2 8 1 ' .

Cf Rasmussen, p

. 52.

crimes (i. e . , v i o l a t i o n s of t h e laws of war) need not be r e p a t r i a t e d on t h e signing of peace. A l l war crimes a r e punishable by

death and t h e b e l l i g e r e n t by being more l e n i e n t and imposing a l e s s e r sentence may c a r r y it beyond t h e d u r a t i o n of war. 282 This

r u l e i s e s p e c i a l l y a p p l i c a b l e where t h e war crime i s a l s o a v i o l a t i o n of t h e ordinary law of a l l c o u n t r i e s , such a s burglary, rape, etc. 283
b -.

Return of Sick and Wounded.

An o b l i g a t i o n i s imposed

284 on t h e d e t a i n i n g power t o send by A r t i c l e 68 of t h e Convention back p r i s o n e r s of war, who a r e s e r i o u s l y s i c k and s e v e r e l y wounded, ' t o t h e i r own c o m t r y r e g a r d l e s s of ranks and numbers. The nature

of t h e sickness r e q u i r i n g d i r e c t r e p a t r i a t i o n o r h o s p i t a l i z a t i o n i n a n e u t r a l country a r e t o be agreed upon by t h e b e l l i g e r e n t s .

I n t h e absence of an agreement, t h e d e t a i n i n g s t a t e may - follow t h e 286 The Convention model agreement285 annexed t o t h e Convention.

Lauterpacht, p . 459; contra.,. H a l l , p . 437. P r i s o n e r s of w a r charged with war crimes but n o t y e t t r i e d - a n d sentenced must be r e l e a s e d u n l e s s express provisions t o t h e c o n t r a r y r e b u t t h e u s u a l amnesty provision implied i n a peace t r e a t y . Lauterpacht, p . 476. 282. 283. 284. Cf. Garner,

14 Am. J . I n t L . 70 a t 74.

F M 27-10, p a r . 141.

285.
286.

FM 27-10, p a r . 172.

The model agreement d e f i n e s those who may be considered . s e r i o u s l y s i c k or wounded. However, t h e r e i s no duty on a d e t a i n i n g s t a t e , i n t h e absence of agreement, t o follow it. SPJGW 1943/7668, June 1.

contemplates t h e c r e a t i o n of a mixed medical

by

agreement of t h e b e l l i g e r e n t s t o examine p r i s o n e r s of war t o determine whether they ought t o be r e p a t r i a t e d . 288 I n t h e absence

of a n agreement between b e l l i g e r e n t s c r e a t i n g such a commission, t h e g e n e r a l duty imposed' on each d e t a i n i n g s t a t e t o r e p a t r i a t e t h e s e r i o u s l y s i c k and wounded remains and presumably may be d i s charged by a u n i l a t e r a l s e l e c t i o n and r e p a t r i a t i o n by t h e d e t a i n ing s t a t e . 28 9

I n World War I t h e b e l l i g e r e n t s reached agreements whereby s i c k and wounded p r i s o n e r s were t r a n s f e r r e t l t o n e u t r a l c o u n t r i e s and interned t h e r e . The p r i s o n e r s were s e l e c t e d by medical com'

missions composed of medical men from n e u t r a l c o u n t r i e s . 290

Agree-

ments were a l s o reached f o r t h e r e p a t r i a t i o n of p r i s o n e r s who had been i n c a p t i v i t y n o t l e s s than eighteen .months and were a t l e a s t f o r t y years of age. 2 91 These r e p a t r i a t i o n s were r e c i p r o c a l and 2 9

r e g a r d l e s s of rank o r number.

287. 288. 289. 290. 2 292.

FM 27-10, p a r . 142.
SPJGFT 194317668) June 1. P r i s o n e r s who a r e victims of work acci dent; enjoy t h e same M 27-10, p a r . 144. pr'ivileges of r e p a t r i a t i o n . F Garner, Vol. 11, p

. 55.
55.

Garner, Vol. 11, p . Flory, p . 134.

c. -

Exchange.- Exchange i s not expressly mentioned i n t h e

2 93

Convent ion.

A n exchange r e s u l t s from an agreement between t h e

b e l l i g e r e n t s whereby one of t h e p a r t i e s r e l e a s e s p r i s o n e r s of war i n consideration of t h e r e l e a s e by t h e o t h e r . 294 The general

r u l e f o r such an exchange i s man f o r man, rank f o r rank, wounded f o r wounded, e t c . 2 95 However, t h e exchange may be on t h e b a s i s

of s u b s t i t u t e d values, t h a t i s , such a number of persons of i n f e r i o r rank may be s u b s t i t u t e d a s equivalent f o r one of. s u p e r i o r rank a s may be agreed upon. 2 96 A r t i c l e 72 of t h e Convention
2 97

contemplates t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of d i r e c t r e p a t r i a t i o n o r i n t e r ment i n a n e u t r a l country of p r i s o n e r s who a r e able-bodied b u t have been i n c a p t i v f t y f o r a long time. The ship which conveys p r i s o n e r s of war from one b e l l i g e r e n t p p r t t o another i n pursuance of an exchange i s known a s a c a r t e l s h i p . 298
A c a r t e l s h i p while engaged i n i t s s p e d i a l serv-

i c e i s deemed a n e u t r a l ship and i s exempt from enemy c a p t u r e .

2 99

293. 294. 293. 296. 297. 298. 299.

It was not expressly d e a l t with by t h e Hague Regulations.

H a l l , p . 434. The agreement i s c a l l e d a C a r t e l ,

F M 27-10, p a r . 158. F M 27-10, p a r . 159. F M 27-10, p a r .

145.

Moore's Digest, Vol. VII, p . 226. Hyde, Vol. 2, p . 528.

Such a s h i p may not c a r r y cargo, engage i n trade o r c a r r y guns o r munitions. 300

A c a r t e l ship i s e n t i t l e d t o p r o t e c t i o n both

i n c a r r y i n g p r i s o n e r s and i n r e t u r n i n g from such s e r v i c e . d. t i c l e 74 M i l i t a r y Service A f t e r R e p a t r i a t i o n o r Exchange.

301
Ar-

302 provides t h a t "no r e p a t r i a t e d person may be u t i l i z e d Seemingly, t h e language i s broad

i n a c t i v e m i l i t a r y service".

enough t o include p r i s o n e r s of war who a r e r e p a t r i a t e d by exchange agreement. This i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i s open t o doubt s i n c e t h e ConSpaight h a s

vention does n o t expressly d e a l with exchanges.

s t a t e d t h a t " t h e r e seems t o be no ground i n custom o r l o g i c t o

/T.e., read such a condition t h e agreement". 303

n o t t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n t h e war7 - into .304 seemingly supports Spaight ' s The F i e l d Manual

view i n providing t h a t t h e condition not t o serve f o r a c e r t a i n period may o r may n o t be expressed i n an exchange agreement.
AT-

t i c l e 74 would undoubtedly apply t o t h e s e r i o u s l y s i c k and wounded

,

300.
301. 302. 303.

Hyde, v o l . 2 , p . 529. Hyde, Vol. 2 , p . 329; F l o r y , p . 133.

FM 27-10, p a r . 147.

Spaight, p . 304. However, t h e Hague Regulations which were i n f o r c e when Spaight commented upon t h e question contained no p a r a l l e l a r t i c l e . 304.

FM 27-10, p a r . 158.
I

r e p a t r i a t e d under t h e o b l i g a t i o n imposed by t h e perhaps t o able-bodied p r i s o n e r s held i n c a p t i v i t y f o r a long period. 306 T h i s a r t i c l e does n o t p r o h i b i t a l l m i l i t a r y s e r v i c e

and

b u t only a c t i v e m i l i t a r y s e r v i c e .

Thus, t h e use of a r e p a t r i a t e d

p r i s o n e r i n purely noncombatant s e r v i c e of a humanitarian n a t u r e would not be forbidden. e. Parole. 307

A p a r o l e i s a promise, e i t h e r w r i t t e n o r o r a l ,

made by a p r i s o n e r of war

308

t o t h e d e t a i n i n g s t a t e by which i n

consideration of c e r t a i n p r i v i l e g e s and advantages, he v o l u n t a r i l y pledges on h i s honor t o pursue or f e f r a i n from pursuing a p a r t i c u l a r course of conduct. 309 Though it i s d e s i r a b l e t h a t a p a r o l e 'should be i n w r i t i n g 31.0 an o r a l p a r o l e i s equally v a l i d . 311

p r i s o n e r may be paroled f o r t h e purpose of r e t u r n i n g t o h i s s t a t e

305. 306.

F M 27-10, p a r . 141.

F M 27-10, p a r . 145; Lauterpacht, p . 305, footnote ? , - i n commenting on t h e r e p a t r i a t i o n of t h e able-bodied held i n capt i v i t y f o r a long period s t a t e s t h a t such persons must n o t be employed on a c t i v e m i l i t a r y s e r v i c e . 307. 308. SPJGIJ 194318113, June 16.

A c i v i l i a n enemy i n t e r n e e i s a s s i m i l a t e d t o a p r i s o n e r of war. C f SPJGW 1943/8113, June 1 6 .

309. 310. 311.

H a l l , p . 431; Spaight, p . 290; F l o r y , p . 119. F M 27-10, p a r . Davis, p. 318.

149.

of o r i g i n on a pledge not t o t a k e up arms a g a i n s t t h e d e t a i n i n g power 312

orhemaybepermittedtoremainoutside o f a campwith-

out guard on h i s promise n o t t o leave a s p e c i f i e d p o r t i o n of t h e detaining s t a t e . Other types of p a r o l e s have been used, f o r ex-

ample, l i b e r t y t o take e x e r c i s e o u t s i d e , o f t h e camp without guard on t h e promise n o t t o escape. 313

The Hague Regulation314 provides t h a t t h e . d e t a i n i n g s t a t e i s n o t required t o a s s e n t t o a p r i s o n e r s s r e q u e s t t o be r e l e a s e d on parole lease. 315 and no p r i s o n e r may be compelled t o accept such a r e -

I f t h e law of t h e p r i s o n e r ' s country allows him t o do s o ,

and i f h e , a c c e p t s , any p r i s o n e r may be r e l e a s e d on p a r o l e .

In

such case, both t h e p r i s o n e r of war and h i s government a r e under

a duty t o r e s p e c t t h e terms of t h e p a r o l e .

316

312. 313. 314.

Edmonds and Oppenheim, p a r . 99, quoting form of pledge used by Japanese i n Russo-Japanese War, Flory, p

..U1.

FM 27-10, p a r . 154. The Geneva Convention of 1929 does not

d e a l with r e l e a s e on p a r o l e .
A n o f f i c e r may n o t r e l e a s e a p r i s o n e r on p a r o l e without aut h o r i t y from h i s government. F l o ~ y ,p . 120.

315. 316.

SPJGW 1943/8113, June 16. The Hague Regulation s p e c i f i c a l l y provides t h e p a r o l e e ' s own government " i s bound n e i t h e r t o r e q u i r e of nor accept * * * any s e r v i c e incompatible with t h e p a r o l e given". FM 27-10, p a r . 148.

It is essential to the validity of a parole that the prisoner voluntarily consents or agrees to its conditions. Thus, the detaining state has no right to order to free itself of prisoners to send them back on condition of not serving again if they do 317 Similarly, no paroling on the not agree to the condition. battlefield is .permitted'or of any value

318

since prisoners do

not have sufficient freedom of mind dwing action to contract 31 9 such a pledge validly. The regulations and laws of some countries do not permit 320 captured members of their armed forces to give their paroles or the law of the prisoner's country may be silent on the subject. In the latter case, if the prisoner gives his parole, his In such circumstances,

country may subsequently disapprove of it.

the prisonergs own country is bound to permit the prisoner to return'to captivity. If the former detaining state refuses to

321 take him back, he is released from his parole.

317. FM 27-10,paro 152, provides in part: "No dismissal of large

numbers of prisoners, with a general declaration that they are paroled is permitted or of any value".

318. FM 27-10,, par. 152.

319. Baker and Crocker, p. 76, citing Jacomet.

320. The policy of the United States is to prohibit the giving of paroles by captured members of its armed forces. Sec. 111, Cir. 400, WD, Dec. 10, 1942. 321. Davis, p. 3-18; Bordwell, p, 243; see Moore9s Digest, Vol. VII, p. 229, quoting Art. 131, G.O. 100 /i8637: "If the government does not approve of the parole, theparoled officer

I f t h e laws of a p r i s o n e r ' s government f o r b i d t h e g i v i n g of a p a r o l e , h f s government i s not required t o recognize t h e parole

.322

Several courses a r e open t o t h e p r i s o n e r ' s s t a t e : r e 323 punish-

t u r n i n g t h e paroled p r i s o n e r t o t h e d e t a i n i n g s t a t e ,

i n g t h e p r i s o n e r who has given h i s p a r o l e contrary t o n a t i o n a l law, 324 or disregarding t h e p a r o l e . 325 So f a r a s t h e r e l e a s e d

p r i s o n e r i s concerned, he has given h i s personal pledge and i s bound t o observe i t . 326 I f he i s captured by t h e d e t a i n i n g s t a t e

he may be punished and i t i s no excuse t h a t h i s own government prevented him from complying with t h e p a r o l e . 327

Noncomissioned o f f i c e r s and p r i v a t e s a r e not sllowed t o pledge themselves, except through an o f f i c e r , and even o f f i c e r s ,

The Hague Regulation s t a t e s t h a t " p r i s o n e r s of war may be s e t a t l i b e r t y on parole i f t h e laws of t h e i r country allow". M 27-10, p a r . 148; s e e Spaight, p . 296. I f t h e d e t a i n i n g s t a t e r e f u s e s t o accept t h e r e t u r n e d p r i s oner, he would be discharged s i n c e t h e d e t a i n i n g s t a t e i s bound t o a a t i s f y i t s e l f t h a t t h e p r i s o n e r has a u t h o r i t y t o g i v e h i s p a r o l e . S p a i g h t , . ~ .296. 324. 325. 326. Flory, p 323.

322.

. 127. .

Bordwell, p . 243; Spaight, p . 296; F l o r y , p . 126.

A p a r o l e given by a minor i s v a l i d and binding. United S t a t e s ex r e 1 Henderson v. Wright, 28 F . Cas No. 16777.

327.

Spaight, p

. 296;

Bordwell, p

. 243.

so long a s a superior i s within reach, can only pledge themselves with h i s permission. 328 Thus, i n World War I two German noncom-

missioned o f f i c e r s , who had given t h e i r p a r o l e , escaped from Norway, where they were i n t e r n e d , i n breach of t h e i r p a r o l e and Germany declined t o r e t u r n them on t h e ground t h a t , not being o f f i c e r s , they could not v a l i d l y give t h e i r p a r o l e , and t h a t t h e n e u t r a l a u t h o r i t i e s were a t f a u l t i n asking f o r , and accepting, t h s i r parole. 32 9 O n t h e o t h e r hand, some a u t h o r i t i e s contend

t h a t t h i s r u l e i s n o t one of f n t e r n a t i o n a l law b u t a matter f o r cognizance of municipal law only. 330

1f

t h e l a t t e r view i s

adopted, seemingly t h e p a r o l e must be respected though t h e r e leased p r i s o n e r may be punished f o r v i o l a t i n g t h e municipal law. 331 Whether a commander of troops would have a u t h o r i t y t o g i v e h i s p a r o l e on behalf of himself and h i s troops so a s t o bind t h e s t a t e and t h s men under h i s command (without t h e i r consent) i s

F M 27-10, p a r s . 150, 151; H a l l , p 431. A r t . 127, G.O. 100 /i8637, characterized such p a r o l e s a s void and subjected t h e in&viduals giving them t o punishment a s d e s e r t e r s . M ~ o r e ' ~ s Digest, Vol. VII, p . 228. 328. 329. 330. 331. A i r Power, p . 346. F l o r y , p . 125.

I f t h e r e l e a s e d p r i s o n e r ' s government does not approve of t h e p a r o l e , i t may r e t u r n t h e p r i s o n e r i n t o c a p t i v i t y , See / i8637. Moore ' s Digest, Vol. VII, p 229;' A r t . 131, G .O 100 -

not clear.

General Halleck s t a t e d t h a t p a r o l e s given by a com332

mander f o r h i s t r o o p s were v a l i d and w i t h i n h i s implied powers.

Some w r i t e r s have held such p a r o l e s . i n v a l i d i n i n t e r n a t i o n a l law on t h e ground t h a t t h e g i v i n g of .a. p a r o l e i s a p e r s o n a l a c t i n which t h e i n d i v i d u a l p r i s o n e r must concur. 333

Spaight s t a t e s t h a t every p a r o l e implies t h e o b l i g a t i o n n o t t o assume any f u n c t i o n which has a connection with m i l i t a r y operations.

334

The work i n which a p r i s o n e r r e l e a s e d on p a r o l e m y The

be employed depends on t h e form of t h e promise he has given.

u s u a l promise i s . n o t t o bear arms a g a i n s t t h e government r e l e a s i n g him. The promise exacted from t h e p r i s o n e r may be n o t only t o

a b s t a i n from a c t s connected with t h e war b u t from engaging i n any p u b l i c employment. 335 The promise "not t o serve during t h e ex-

i s t i n g war u n l e s s exchanged" r e f e r s only t o a c t i v e servi,ce i n t h e f i e l d a g a i n s t t h e d e t a i n i n g power o r h i s a l l i e s . The pledge does

n o t r e f e r t o s e r v i c e i n t h e zone of i n t e r z o r such a s r e c r u i t i n g , d r i l l i n g r e c r u i t s , f o r t i f y i n g p l a c e s n o t besieged, q u e l l i n g c i v i l

332,

Of course it i s assumed t h a t t h e p r i s o n e r ' s s t a t e does n o t f o r b i d t h e g i v i n g of p a r o l e s o r expressly deny t h e commander such power. Baker and Crocker, p . 71, c i t i n g Halleck.

333. 33b.

See d i s c u s s i o n , F l o r y , p . 130.

Spaight, p . 291. B r i t i s h o f f i c e r s who were paroled by t h e Boers, o r a l l y and i n vague terms, were employed i n t e c h n i c a l o r a d m i n i s t r a t i v e d u t i e s i n t h e m i l i t a r y s e r v i c e a t home. Spaight, Pa 292. 333. H a l l , p . 432; Spaight, p . 291.

commotions, o r t o c i v i l o r diplomatic s e r v i c e .
h

336

The pledge

"not t o bear arms" does not prevent noncombatant m i l i t a r y s e r v i c e i n t h e zone of i n t e r i o r . 337

Paroles l o s e t h e i r binding e f f e c t upon t h e conclusion of peace. Thus, a p a r o l e given t h a t t h e p r i s o n e r w i l l never f i g h t

again a g a i n s t t h e d e t a i n i n g s t a t e i s i n e f f e c t i v e a f t e r t h e peace. 338

A p r i s o n e r on p a r o l e without guard under a promise n o t

t o escape may terminate t h e p a r o l e by surrendering with a . r e q u e s t f o r reinternment. 339

A p a r o l e i s a l s o terminated by a formal ex-

change of t h e paroled p r i s o n e r .

340

A p r i s o n e r of war who has given h i s p a r o l e n o t t o bear arms

a g a i n s t t h e d e t a i n i n g s t a t e and i s subsequently recaptured bearing arms a g a i n s t t h e d e t a i n i n g s t a t e or i t s a l l i e s f o r f e i t s h i s r i g h t t o be t r e a t e d a s a p r i s o n e r of war. 341 The death p e n a l t y

336. 337. 338. 339. 340. 341.

n863 H a l l , p . 432; A r c . 130, G . O . 100 -7 , Moore's Digest, Vol. V I I , p . 228.

SPJGW 1943/8113, June 16.

H a l l , p . 432. F l o r y , p . 128. FLory, p . 128.

FM 27-10, p a r . 155.

342 may be i n f l i c t e d on him b u t he cannot be punished without a t r i a l ' by a c o u r t . 343 The Hague Regulation does n o t d e a l with

violatoGs of p a r o l e s o t h e r than those recaptured bearing arms. However, a breach of p a r o l e i s an offense a g a i n s t t h e laws of war and would be t r i a b l e by a m i l i t a r y c o u r t . The punishment i n f l i c t e d 344

would depend upon t h e n a t u r e of t h e promise breached. 162-163.

Death i n Captivity,. --The Convention345 o b l i g e s t h e

d e t a i n i n g s t a t e t o honorably bury a p r i s o n e r of war dying i n capt i v i t y , t o properly mark h i s grave', and t o r e s p e c t and m a i n t a i n ,

it.

346

A p r i s o n e r ' s w i l l i s t o be received and drawn up by t h e

a u t h o r i t i e s of t h e d e t a i n i n g power i n t h e same way a s f o r i t s own soldiers. The same r u l e i s t o be observed with r e s p e c t t o death 348 Article 4 1 and A r t i c l e

c e r t i f i c a t e s . 347

76349 when read t o 4

g e t h e r seemingly -place a duty on t h e d e t a i n i n g power t o t r a n s m i t

342. 343. 344. 345. 346.

Lauterpacht, p . 302. Bordwell, p . 244; Davis, p . 318.

~ i ~ p . 123. i ~ ,

FM 27-10, p a r . 162.

The Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907 required t h a t p r i s oners of war should be buried i n t h e same way a s s o l d i e r s of t h e d e t a i n i n g s t a t e , due regard being p a i d t o rank and grade. Baker and Crocker p 102.

347. 348. 349.

FM 27-10, p a r . 162.

FM 27-10, p a r . 114.
F'M 27-10, p a r . 162.

a p r i s o n e r ' s w i l l t o i t s proper d.estination immediately r a t h e r than a f t e r death a s was t h e case under t h e Hague Convention. 350 The Bureau of Information of t h e d e t a i n i n g s t a t e i s charged with t h e duty of caring f o r t h e p r i s o n e r ' s personal e f f e c t s and of t r a n s m i t t i n g them upon t h e conclusion of peace t o t h e country interested. 351 The balance of wages remaining t o t h e c r e d i t of

a deceased prisoner s h a l l be forwarded through diplomatic channels t o h i s h e i r s . 352 The provisions of A r t i c l e of War 112 with

r e s p e c t t o t h e d i s p o s i t i o n of t h e e f f e c t s of deceased persons have been a p p l i e d , so f a r a s p e r t i n e n t , t o t h e e f f e c t s of deceased p r i s o n e r s of war and interned a l i e n enemies. 353

CHAPTER V
SJCK, W O U N D E D AND DEAD 173-178. Sick, Wounded and Dead.--a. 1

General Rules.

The

Geneva Convention of

1929 r e l a t i n g t o t h e amelioration of t h e

350.

C f . Rasmussen, p . 48; F l o r y , p . 141; cf Dig. Op. J A G , 191240, Const. 11, ( 4 ) , 383.7, J u l y 29, 1919.

3
352. 353.

F M 27-10, p a r . 163.
F M 27-10, p a r . 107. Dig. Op-. JAG, 1912-40, Const. 11, ( I t ) , 383.7, J u l y 29, 1919.

Chapter V
1.

FM 27-10, p a r s . 173-201.

condition of the sick and wounded will be referred to hereafter in this chapter as the Convention. This Convention deals primarily with the sick and wounded during the period of active combat as distinguished from their'treatment during internment.
2

The latter phase is the subject-matter of the Geneva Convention 3 of 1929 relative to the treatment of prisoners of war. The sick or wounded military personnel and other persons officially attached to the armies of the enemy must be respected, protected, and cared for, under ill circumstances, without distinction of nationality, by the belligerent in whose power they are.

It is for the sick and wounded who have ceased to resist

that the Convention requires respect, protection, and care-. The Convention would not extend to inhabitants or other persons not officially attached to the armies who pay be accidentally wounded.

Its privileges would apply to members of a volunteer

corps, members of a levee en masse, and persons who follow the

2. Des Gouttes, p. 23.

3. FM 27-10,par, 70, et seq.

4. FM 27-10, par. 174.

5. Spaight, p. 421.

6. Hyde, Vol. 11, p. 353, quoting U.S.R.L.W.,

1917.

7. FM 27-10, par. 95.

8. FM 27-10,par. 92.

army without d i r e c t l y belonging t o i t . means t h a t t h e wounded injured or attacked. 10

The word "respected"

s h a l l not be maltreated, i n t e n t i o n a l l y

"Protected" implies an a f f i r m a t i v e obliga-

t i o n t o render a i d and it includes t h e duty of s h i e l d i n g t h e 1 1 wounded from i n s u l t s and public c u r i o s i t y . The b e l l i g e r e n t i n whose power t h e wounded a r e must c a r e f o r them on an equal b a s i s 12 with i t s own wounded.
A n o b l i g a t i o n i s imposed on a b e l l i g e r e n t , who i s compelled

t o abandon h i s wounded t o t h e enemy, of leaving behind with them a p o r t i o n of h i s medical personnel and necessary m a t e r i e l t o a s s i s t i n c a r i n g f o r them.

13

This duty i s n o t an a b s o l u t e one

It

but i s t o be discharged "so f a r a s m i l i t a r y exigencies p e r m i t . o I f a b e l l i g e r e n t should improperly abandon h i s wounded without

14

9.
-

FM 27-10, p a r . 76~; see Sordwell,, p . 249.

Whenever "wounded" i s used i t includes " s i c k " .

10.

1 1 . Des Gouttes, p . 12.

12. 13.

Des Gouttes, p . 13.

FM 27-10, p a r . 174.

"Necessarily t h e commander of t h e army * * * must determine what t h e p r e c i s e exigencies of t h e s i t u a t i o n permit him t o R .L.We, do with regard t o leaving h i s medical personnel * * * I 1 , U .S . 1917, quoted i n Hyde, Vol. 11, p. 353. See, however, Des Gouttes, p. 16, who contends t h a t a commander cannot withhold h i s medical personnel f o r f u t u r e use; t h a t i f he should run out of such p e r sonnel, he should appeal t o t h e c h a r i t a b l e z e a l of t h e i n h a b i t a n t s .

14.

medical assistance, the captor would not be discharged from his duty of rendering care and treatment.

15

The sick and wounded of an army who have fallen into the hands of the enemy are prisoners of war, and, subject to the care that must be given them, are entitled to all the privileges of
-

that status.

1 6

The Convention further providgs that belligerents

may make such arrangements beyond existing obligations for the benefit of wounded prisoners as they may see fit.

17

After every engagement the commander in possession of the field must have search made for the wqunded and dead and must take measures to protect them against robbery and ill-treatment. This article imposes a duty to search for, collect, and protect

1 8

15. Des Gouttes, p. 17, The retreating army is to blame 'if it has abandoned such large numbers of the wounded without adequate medical personnel that all efforts of the adversary cannot provide sufficiently for their treatment. Spaight, p. 426.

16. FM 27-10,par. 175. A wounded prisoner of war may be placed

under surveillance. Des Gouttes, p. 21.

17. See p. 109, supra, for the obligation imposed on a belligerent to repatriate the seriously sick and wounded, The report of the United States Delegation stated with respect to a, substantially similar clause in the 1906 Convention that the "commanding generals" of the opposing armies could enter into cartels for the return of the wounded to their own lines at the close of the battle. Foreign Relations of the United States, 1906, Part 11, 1548 at 1557.
,

18. FM 27-10,par. 176a. - The former Convention did not include

the term "dead".

t h e wounded and dead, thou@;h it does n o t make t h e occupant an i n s u r e r a g a i n s t a l l crimes on t h e b a t t l e f i e l d .

19

The customary

r u l e a l s o p l a c e s t h e d u t y of burying t h e dead on t h e b e l l i g e r e n t i n p o s s e s s i o n of t h e f i e l d . " Marauders of t h e dead and wounded,

whether c i v i l i a n s o r of t h e armed f o r c e , a r e t o b e promptly apprehended and punished by m i l i t a r y t r t b u n a l f o r t h e i r o f f e n s e s . There a r e times when t h e wounded and dead who have f a l l e n between t h e opposing l i n e s cannot b e removed because t a c t i c a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s r e q u i r e t h e c o n t i n u a t i o n of f i r e o r t h e p r e v e n t i o n of enemy s e a r c h p a r t i e s from approaching t h e a d v e r s a r y ' s l i n e and determining t h e s t a t e of h i s defense. provides
23

21

22

Hence, t h e Convention

"whenever circumstances permit", a l o c a l a r m i s t i c e o r

c e s s a t i o n of f i r e s h a l l be arranged t o permit t h e r e c i p r o c a l s e a r c h and removal of t h e wounded remaining between t h e l i n e s . b. vention Treatment of Wounded and Dead. 25 A r t i c l e 4 of t h e Con24

enumerates i n d e t a i l . t h e o b l i g a t i o n s t h a t b e l l i g e r e n t s

19. Bordwell, p . 252.

20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. S p a i g h t , p . 431.

FM 27-10, p a r . 176b. S p a i g h t , p . 428.

FM 27-10, p a r . 176.
Des Gouttes, p . 29.

FM 27-10, p a r . 177:.

have with r e s p e c t t o enemy dead or wounded found on t h e b a t t l e field. 26 They a r e r e q u i r e d t o inform each o t h e r of t h e s i c k ,

wounded, o r dead c o l l e c t e d o r discovered, together w i t h informat i o n which may serve a s i d e n t i f i c a t i o n . I n World War I , t h e

B r i t i s h Brisoners of ).Jar Information Bureau i n London received from i t s s e c t i o n s a t base p o i n t s a r e t u r n s t a t i n g a s completely a s * p o s s i b l e , tfie name, rank, regiment, d a t e , p l a c e , and cause of death, and any p e r s o n a l e f f e c t s o r belongings found i n possession of t h e enemy dead. The r e t u r n was.accompanied i f p o s s i b l e by t h e The l i s t s of t h e dead were then f o r O n t h e o t h e r hand, t h e p e r s o n a l

a c t u a l d i s c s and e f f e c t s .

warded -to t h e enemy government.

e f f e c t s of t h e enemy wounded o r dead found on t h e b a t t l e f i e l d were n o t t r a n s m i t t e d by t h e Bureau t o t h e enemy government u n t i l t h e conclusion of t h e war. 27

B e l l i g e r e n t s a r e under a duty t o make honorable d i s p o s i t i o n

of t h e enemy dead w i t h i n t h e i r l i n e s . 'such d i s p o s i t i o n should

normally be by b u r i a l , and t h e graves should be marked s o t h a t they may be l o c a t e d again and should be respected. Cremation i s

permissible i f t h a t i s t h e method of d i s p o s i t i o n of t h e dead i n

26.

M 27-10, p a r s . 162, 163, f o r s i m i l a r p r o v i s i o n s f o r See F p r i s o n e r s of war dying during internment.

p r i s o n e r s of War Information Bureau i n London, Rosborough, P * 23.

27.

use in the enemy's country or if necessary for sanitary reasons. In the Russo-Japanese War, the Japanese buried the Russian dead as was the Russian custom though its own practice was to cremate the dead.
28

A careful examination is required prior to intern-

ment or cremation in order to verify identity and death. One half of the identity tag, or if duplicate tags are worn, one of them, is to remain attached to the body of the dead so that it may be identified if later exhumation is necessary. Burial of the dead should be in individual graves if possible..
29

Internment in a

common grave is permissible when military exigencies require, provided the bodies are properly marked by tags or otherwise. Grave registration services are to'be officially established, and belligerents shall exchange lists of graves and of the dead in their cemeteries and elsewhere at the end of hostilities. c. Ownership of Personal Effects. By customary internation-

a1 law, all enemy property, public or private, which a belligerent seized on the battlefield was booty and became the property of the 30 captor. According to a modern authority this rule has been

28.

Spaight, p. 431. Cremation may be required for reasons of hygiene. See Spaight, p. 432, for historical example.

29. Takahashi, International Law Applied to the Russo-Japanese War, p . 149; cf. Des Gouttes, p. 34.
30 Lauterpacht, p

. 310,

changed with r e s p e c t t o p r i v a t e enemy property by A r t i c l e 6 of t h e Prisoner o f War Convention of 192g31 and A r t i c l e Cross Convention of 1929. 32

of t h e Red

Under t h i s view, a l l e f f e c t s and

obJects of personal use found upon t h e dead, wounded, and p r i s oners of war a r e not l e g i t i m a t e booty and may not be confiscated unless they f a l l within t h e exceptions h e r e i n a f t e r s t a t e d . "Arms,

horses, m i l i t a r y equipment and m i l i t a r y papers"33 may be c o n f i s .cated though t h e y a r e p r i v a t e property. 34 Similarly, private

means of .transpoyt used by an enemy on t h e b a t t l e f i e l d such a s c a r t s and o t h e r vehiclks may be ~ o n f i s c a t e d . This ~ ~ interpretation limits Article

of t h e Red Cross Convention of 1929, which

places on b e l l i g e r e n t s t h e duty o f . c o l l e c t i n g and sending t o each other a l l a r t i c l e s of personal use found on t h e f i e l d of b a t t l e o r t h e dead, b y t h e exceptions s t a t e d i n A r t i c l e 6 of t h e P r i s o n e r s of War Convention of 1929 with r e s p e c t t o "arms, h o r s e s , m i l i t a r y equipment and m i l i t a r y papers"

.36

31.

F M 27-10, p a r . 79.

32. F M 27-10, p a r . 177; Lauterpach-b, p . 310.

33. F M 27.-lO, p a r , 79, enumerates only "arms, e t c ," b u t saddles

and s t i r r u p s and t h e l i k e go with t h e horses, a s ammunition goes with t h e arms, Lauterpacht, p . 314.

34.
35.
36.

A i r Power, p . 329.

Lauterpacht, p . 314. see p.

59, supra.

I l l u s t r a t i v e case. -I n 1918, s B r i t i s h o f f i c e r i n France possessed a s h i s own property a l e a t h e r bag of unusual shape, design and marking. I n t h e course of m i l i t a r y operations i n France, t h e B r i t i s h f o r c e s with which t h e o f f i c e r served, h a s t i l y abandoned a p o s i t i o n i n which they were promptly succeeded by German f o r c e s . The bag of t h e o f f i c e r was l e f t behind and seized by t h e German f o r c e s , The bag was sold t o Y, a commercial t r a v e l e r , who bought it i n B e r l i n . Several years a f t e r t h e war t h e e x - o f f i c e r recognized. h i s bag on a boat from N e w Haven t o Dieppe The e x - o f f i c e r could maintain a possessory a c t i o n f o r , t h e bag s i n c e he had not l o s t h i s property i n it. A c o n t r a r y conclusion would be j u s t i f i e d i f t h e bag were " m i l i t a r y equipment". 37

Public enemy property found o r seized on t h e b a t t l e f i e l d i s s t i l l l e g i t i m a t e booty. 38 Legitimate booty belongs t o t h e capturing 39

s t a t e and n o t t o t h e i n d i v i d u a l s o l d i e r .

It is.assumed t h a t no d i f f i c u l t i e s with r e s p e c t t o t h e e f f e c t of a bona f i d e purchase o r of t h e s t a t u t e of l i m i t a t i o n s e x i s t . Manley 0 . Hudson, who r e l a t e s t h e f a c t s i n 26 Am. J . I n t . L. 340, reaches an opposite r e s u l t . He p o i n t s out t h a t Arts. 4 and 1 4 of t h e Hague Regulations of 1899 and 1907 a r e l i m i t e d t o t h e p r o t e c t i o n of p r i s o n e r s of war and t h a t A r t . 53 of those r e g u l a t i o n s does not apply t o t h e conduct of an army engaged i n combat but only t o an army of occupation, Judge Rudsonfs discussion did not purport t o cover t h e Red Cross Convention of 1929, e s p e c i a l l y A r t . 4.

37.

The r e s t r i c t i o n i n A r t . 53 of t h e Hague Regulations t h a t only c e r t a i n enumerated movable property belonging t o t h e s t a t e and such o t h e r s t a t e property a s may be used f o r m i l i t a r y operations may be confiscated, does n o t apply ,to s t a t e property found o r seized on t h e b a t t l e f i e l d , but only t o occupied t e r ritory. 39. SPJGW 1943/6501, May 12.

38.

179-181. Sanitary Formations and Establishments.-.-Sanitary

formations are establishments, whether fixed or movable, which are provided by public appropriation or private charity for the treatment of the sick and wounded in time of warO4O Article the Convention

6 of

41

requires that both mobile sanitary formations

and fixed establishments belonging.to the sanitary service are to be "respected", i.e,, not to be fired upon; and "protected1'afterwards in the discharge of their duties.

42

The Convention dis-

tinguishes between "fixed establishment~"and "mobile sanitary units". The distinction is of importance as will be shown later. Two conditions must coalesce in order that a sanitary unit be considered mobile: (1) it must be susceptible of being moved,

43

and, (2) it must accompany troops in the field,

44

The words "mo(1)

bile sanitary formations" include by way of illustration:

40. Report of American Delegation to Second Geneva Conference, Foreign Relations, 1906, Part 11, 1548 at 1555. Holland,
p. 309 used the term "mobile medical units" in preference to "movable sanitary fomnations"

41. FM 27-10,par, 179.

42. Holland, p. 30.

43. Des Gouttes, p . . 39.

The test, says Spaight, is whether the hospitals or ambulances actually accompany the troops, whether they move as part and parcel of the moving fighting body, Spaight, p 437. Cf, par. 4b, AR 40-580,June 29, 1929, which states'that "mobile hospitals are provided to meet the needs of troops in the field or in campaign where it is impracticable to establish fixed has,. pitals. They also serve as relay points in the evacuation of patients to fixed hospitals."

44.

regimental equipment;
\

( 2 ) ambulance u n i t s ; (3) h o s p i t a l t r a i n s ; 45 The United

(4) h o s p i t a l boats; (5) Red Cross 'transport c o l m s .

S t a t e s army h o s p i t a l organization i s .divided i n t o two c a t e g o r i e s :

(1) t h e mobile h o s p i t a l (mobile s a n i t a r y formation) located i n

t h e combat zone, and, ( 2 ) t h e f i x e d h o s p i t a l ( f i x e d establishment) l o c a t e d i n t h e zone of communications o r a t a base. of mobile h o q p i t a l s a r e :

46

The types

clearing hospitals, surgical hospitals,

evacuation h o s p i t a l s , and convalescent h o s p i t a l s .

47

The f i x e d

establishments a r e t h e s t a t i o n h o s p i t a l s and g e n e r a l h o s p i t a l s .
A s t a t i o n o r general h o s p i t a l , although a c t u a l l y movable, i s a

48

f i x e d establishment.

49

Conversely, a h o s p i t a l opened permanently immovable, would be

and i n a s o l i d l y constructed b u i l d i n g , i . e . ,

a f i x e d establishment though located i n t h e zone of combat.

50

.The

45.
46.

Hyde, 'Vol. 11, p 355, quoting U .S .R .L .W., 1917 n o t an exhaustive l f s t .

This ' i s

See p a r . 4a, - AR 40-580, June 2.9, 1929; c f , Spafght, p See p a r . 2b ( 2 ) , AR 40-580, June 29, 1929. P a r . 2b, - AR 40-580, June 29, 1929.

438.

47.
48.
49.

Hyde, Vol. 11, p . 355, quoting U.S.R.L.Wa, 1917; see a l s o Holland, p . 30. Des Gouttes, p . 39.

50.

"respect" and "protection" afforded sanitary formations and establishments do not cease merely because no sick and wounded are in them at the particular time. Thus, empty ambulances which have completed their duty and are returning to their troops are to be respected and protected.

51

Sanitary establishments do not have an absolute immunity under all conditions. Such establishments cannot claim immunity where they are so numerous or located in such a ms,nner as ta interfere with legitimate military Thus, in the Russo-

Turkish War, the Turks complained that Russian gunners shelled hospitals in Rustchuk in 1877. This was considered unavoidable because the hospitals were located in the center of town, so that, 53 Simi-' to spare the hospitals, would mean foregoing hostilities.
'

larly, locating a hospital near munition dumps, gun batteries or in buildings of military importance such as a railway station, would deprive the establishment of immunity against the demands of military necessity.

54 The use of a sanitary formation for

51. Holland, p. 30; Des Gouttes, p a 40; see p . 138, infra,

52. Hyde, Vol. 11, p. 355.

53. Spaight, p . 182.

54. Cf. Air Power, p. 264; Spaight, p. 183.

m i l i t a r y purposes i s improper,

55

Such a c t s a s s h e l t e r i n g combat-

a n t s , c a r r y i n g on espionage, s t o r i n g arms and ammunition, maint a i n i n g w i r e l e s s apparatus. o r s e a r c h l i g h t b a t t e r i e s , a r e i n 3 w i o u s t o t h e enemy and deprive t h e s a n i t a r y formation of immunity, 56 57

However, a s a n i t a r y f o m t i o n does n o t f o r f e i t i t s p r o t e c t i o n :

(1)because t h e personnel of t h e formation i s armed and uses i t s

arms i n s e l f defense, o r i n defense of t h e wounded;

58

( 2 ) because,

i n t h e absence of armed h o s p i t a l a t t e n d a n t s t h e formation i s guarded by an armed detachment or by s e n t i n e l s ;

59

(3) because,

hand arms and munition taken f ~ o m t h e s i c k and wounded and n o t y e t turned over t o t h e proper s e r v i c e a r e found, and ( 4 ) because t h e r e i s found i n t h e formation personnel o r m a t e r i e l of t h e 60 v e t e r i n a r y s e r v i c e which does n o t i n t e g r a l l y belong t o it.

55.

FM 27-10, p a r . 180.
A i r Power, p , 265; Des Gouttes, p

56.

44,

58.

The arms may not be used a g a i n s t l e g i t i m a t e combatants, b u t only a g a i n s t marauders and t h e l i k e , FM 27-.lo, p a r , 181, 4b. I f such detachment engaged i n combat using t h e s a n i t a r y e s tablishment a s cover, t h e exemption would be fol-feited.

59.
60.

This was introduced by %he United S t a t e s Delegation inasmuch a s t h e v e t e r i n a r y s e r v i c e i s under t h e c o n t r o l of t h e Medical Department i n t h e United S t a t e s Army, Des Gouttes, p . 46.

ments.--The personnel engaged exclusively

182-187. Personnel of Sanitary Formations and Establish61

in the removal, trans-

portation and treatment of the sick and wounded as well as with the administration of sanitary formations and establishments are entitled to be respected and protected.

62

The respect and pro-

tection accorded them means that they must not knowingly be attacked, fired upon, or unnecessarily prevented from discharging 63 their proper functions. Such personnel do not have complete freedom of movement in the combat zone for the purpose of collecting or removing sick and wounded. Thus, a belligerent'desiring to conceal the state of his defenses from the enemy, may command approaching sanitary personnel to halt, and if they persist in approaching despite the comand, may lawfully fire upon them as an extreme measure.
64

Chaplains attached to the army are similarly entitled to be respected and protected.

65 Soldiers -from other branches employed

61. The term "exclusively" is used,in contradistinction to "occasionally". Des Gouttes, p. 49. 62. FM 27-10,par. 182a. Soldiers permanently attached to sanitary formations o r fixed sanitary establishments as admin.istrators,accountants, cooks, domestics, or drivers, are entitled to the same privileges as nursks and medical officers. Des Gouttes, p. 49; cf. Edmonds and Oppenheim, par. 185, footnote (b). 63. FM 27-10,par, 182b.

64. Spaight, p. 457; Edmonds and Oppenheim, par. 199.

65. FM 27-10,par. 182a. Ministers not officially attached to
the army are not entitled to the benefit of this article. Des Gouttes, p. 49.

as guards for saniltary units are treated as sanitary personnel, if they have written orders of competent authority showing such status and have not during such status acted as combatants,

66

Similarly, a soldier temporarily attached as an auxiliary attendant or litter-bearer in the removal, transportation, and treatment of the wounded is treated as part of the sanitary personnel if three conditions concur:
(1) prior and special instruction

has been given him for the task;67 (2) he has identification documents,

68

and, (3) he is performing sanitary functions at the

time of capture.

69

If sanitary personnel and those assimilated to them fall into the hands of the enemy, they are not to be treated as prisoners of war. Article 12 places a duty on the enemy not to detain themo

7 0

66, FM 27-10, par, 181, 4c, The lack of written orders from competent authorities wiil subject the soldier to treatment as a prf soner of way. Cf Spaight, p 440,

See, however, Des Gouttes, ppo 44, 112, 117, who contends that the deletion of Art. 9, par, 2, of the Geneva Convention of 1906, which expressly assimilated such guards to sanitary personnel, changed the former rule; that such guards when captured are prisoners of war, No definite period of instruction is required though there must be special preparation for the temporary rolea Des Gouttes, p. 54.

67.

68. This is to prevent fraud from being perpetrated on the captor state. Des Gouttes, p, 53.

69. FM 27-10, par, 182. Soldiers from other branches employed

as orderlies for sanitary units are treated as sanitary personnel if they have written orders of,competentauthority showing such status. FM 27-10, par, 181, he, -

I n t h e absence of an agreement t o t h e contrary, they a r e t o be s e n t back t o t h e b e l l i g e r e n t t o whose s e r v i c e they a r e a t t a c h e d a s soon a s a way i s open f o r t h e i r r e t u r n and m i l i t a r y exigencies permit. There may be m i l i t a r y o b j e c t i o n s t o allowing such p e r -

sonnel t o r e t u r n t o t h e i r army i m e d i a t e 1 y ; f o r example, they may

have acquired information which would be of value t o t h e adversary.

71

U n t i l r e t u r n e d , they a r e t o continue t o c a r r y bn t h e i r

d u t i e s under t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e captor, p r e f e r a b l y t o c a r e f o r t h e wounded of t h e i r own army. So long a s they a r e detained,

they must be given t h e same maintenance, q u a r t e r s , pay and a l lowances a s t h e corresponding personnel i n t h e army of t h e enemy. 72

O n t h e i r d e p a r t u r e they must be allowed t o takk with them t h e e f f e c t s , instruments, arms, and means of t r a n s p o r t belonging t o them. 73

Reasonable measwes may be taken t o prevent such personnel from acquiring m i l i t a r y info-tion by r e s t r i c t i n g t h e i r activities. F M 27-10, p a r . 186b. 71. 72. F M 27-10, p a r , 187. The personnel of volunteer a i d s o c i e t f e s ' a r e e n t i t l e d t o maintenance, q u a r t e r s , pay and allowances.

The e f f e c t s , instruments, e t c . , which they must be allowed t o take with them a r e such a s belong t o them p e r s o n a l l y and n o t t o t h e s t a t e . Des Gouttes, p a 85. S a n i t a r y personnel a t tached t o a mobile s a n i t a r y formation would a l s o t a k e with them t h e m a t e r i e l of t h e formation whfch was being returned a t t h e same time. See p. 138, i n f r a .

73.

The personnel of volunteer a i d s o c i e t i e s , duly recognized and authorized by t h e i r government, 74 employed i n t h e same func-

t i o n s a s t h e s a n i t a r y personnel a r e p r i v i l e g e d t o t h e same extent a s t h e permanent s a n i t a r y personnel,

s u b j e c t t o m i l i t a r y law and r e g u l a t i o n s .

75 provided such pel-sonnel a r e 76

Each b e l l i g e r e n t must

n o t i f y t h e o t h e r , -before employing them, t h e names of t h e soc i e t i e s which it has authorized t o render a s s i s t a n c e t o t h e o f f i c i a l s a n i t a r y s e r v i c e of i t s armies.

77

S a n i t a r y personnel and those a s s i m i l a t e d t o them while temp o r a r i l y detained by t h e enemy a r e , a c c o ~ d i n gt o Spaight, s u b j e c t t o c o n t r o l of t h e enemy f o r t h e purposes of d i s c i p l i n e . 78 Though

t h e problem i s n o t f r e e from doubt, it would seem t h a t such

The American National Red Cross i s t h e only such volunteer s o c i e t y authorized by t h e United S t a t e s . See FM 27-10, p a r . 184.

74.

75. 76.

FM 27-10, p a r . 183.

Personnel of t h e American National Red Cross a r e s u b j e c t t o m i l i t a r y law when accompanying o r serving with t h e armies of t h e United S t a t e s i n t h e f i e l d i n time of war. AW 2; Dig. Op. JAG,.1912-40, s e c . 359(14).

F M 27-10, p a r . 183 See F M 27-10, p a r 185, a s t o volunteer s o c i e t i e s of n e u t r a l s who with t h e p r i o r consent of t h e i r own government and t h e b e l l i g e r e n t they a r e s e r v i n g , a r e placed i n t h e same s t a t u s a s a b e l l i g e r e n t ' s own voluntary s o c i e t i e s .
77.

78.

Spaight, p .

446.

personnel ought to be subject to the laws and orders in force in the armies of the enemy state.79 The protection and special status given sanitary personnel are conditioned on their not acting in a hostile manner toward the enemy. A medical officer or chaplain who participates in the hostilities by leading an attack or participating in one, forfeits his imunities. Thus, if before participating in such hostilities a medical officer removed his Red Cross brassard, he would be a combatant and, if captured, a prisoner of war. However, if he engaged in hostilities while wegring the Red Cross brassard, he would be guilty of a misuse of the Red Cross emblem and could be punished as a war criminal.

8 0

81 188-190. Buildings and Materiel.--Article 14 states that

82 mobile sanitary formations that fall into the power of the enemy shall not be deprived of their:
(1)materiel,

83

(2) their means

7 9 . Cf. FM 27-10, par, 118. In the Russo-Japanese War, Russian

sanitary personnel were tried bx the Japanese under the Russian code and, at times, under their own code. Spaight, p.

446.
80. Edmonds and oppenheim, pars, 186, 441-442; ske also FM 27-10,
par.

347.

81.-FM 27-,lo, par, 188.

82. It is the mobile sanitary formation of the army that is referred to here. 83.. Movable sanitary formations generally contain tents, bedding, ambulances, surgical instruments, medical and hospital supplies.

of transportation, and., (3) their conducting personnel (drivers)

.84

These units are to retain their materiel and means of transportation "whatever may be their nature", i.e., although portions of it have been borrowed from military units or obtained by requisi85 tion from the inhabitants of the country. Military vehicles not part of thk sanitar; service, i.e., not specially fitted for hospital uses, and civilian means of transport, the temporary use of which were obtained by requisition, are aubject to special rules when used in the evacuation of the sick and wounded. This will be dealt with later.

86

Competent.military authority is authorized to make use of 87 88 the mobile sanitary unit .inthe care of the sick and wounded. The personnel, materiel and means of transport are, so far as possible,,to be returned at the same time. They must be returned to the adversary as soon as the route for their return is open

84. Des Gouttes, p. 9.

85.
Holland, p, 33; Des Gouttes, p'. B.

86. See p. 142, et seq., infra,

87. Materiel, means of transportation and the drivers are all on the same footing. Des Gouttes, p. 55. 88. In case of necessity, the capturing commander may use some
of the materiel for the benefit of his own wounded. Holland, p. 33.

and military considerations permit.

89 Circumstances may arise

in which the immediate return of the personnel is feasible but the materiel cannot be dispatched because of physical or other difficulties, e.g., heavy equipment and poor roads.

90

It must be observed that the fixed establishment dealt with in this Convention is the military hospital and not a civilian hospital owned by the state. The civilian hospital is the subject matter of the Hague Regulations, Articles 27 and 56.
f

91

Fixed establishments, unlike mobile sanitary formations, are unable to pack up and accompany the army they are attached to and follow it.

92 When the enemy occupies the territory, the fixed

establishment and its materiel are under his control and are "subJect to the laws of Specifically, if the establishment

houses no sick and wounded, it may be seized and its materiel confiscated.

wounded, it may not be diverted from itsamedicalpurpose.

94 So long as the establishment contains sick and 95

The

demands of "urgent military necessity" will permit the use of

89. FM 27-10, par. 186. 9. Des Gouttes, p. 97; cf. Spaight,.~. 448.
91. FM 27-10? pars. 58, 318; Des Gouttes, p . 99

2,

Spaight, p. 448.

93. FM 27-10, par. 189. 94, Des Gouttes, p, 100,

Des. Gouttes, p

. 100.

t h e establishment t o be d i v e r t e d from medical purposes only i f p r i o r arrangements a r e made f o r t h e s i c k and wounded. Such a case

of urgent m i l i t a r y n e c e s s i t y would a r i s e i f t h e occupied t e r \

r i t o r y were attacked and it became necessary t o u t i l i z e t h e b u i l d ing f o r purposes of defense.

96

The b u i l d i n g s and m a t e r i e l of a i d s o c i e t i e s a r e p r i v a t e property 97 and, a s such, m h t be respected. 98

It may be r e q u i -

s i t i o n e d only i n case of urgent n e c e s s i t y and only a f t e r arrangements have been made f o r t h e s i c k and wounded. If r e q u i s i t i o n e d ,

payment must be made i n cash o r a r e c e i p t given, and t h e payment of t h e amount due i s t o be made a s soon a s p o s s i b l e . 99 Some

doubt e x i s t s with r e s p e c t t o t h e treatment t o be accorded m a t e r i e l of a i d s o c i e t i e s found i n mobile s a n i t a r y formations. One view

i s t h a t such m a t e r i e l i s p a r t of t h e s a n i t a r y formations and under 100 A r t i c l e 14 must be d e a l t ' w i t h on t h e same b a s i s a s m a t e r i e l of 101 t h e s t a t e i n such a formation, t h a t i s , r e t u r n e d o The BritFsh

96.

Des Gouttes, p . 100. F M 27-10, p a r . 190.

97.
98. 99. 100. 101.

FM 27-10, p a r , 323.
F M 27-10, p a r . 335. F M 27-10, p a r , 188. Des Gouttes, pp.

94, 103; Renault quoted f n Spaight, p . 4490

f i e l d manual i n World War I viewed such m a t e r i e l a s p r i v a t e prope r t y and s u b j e c t t o r e q u i s i t i o n . 102 103 d e a l s 'with

191. S a n i t a r y Transportation. - - A r t i c l e 1 7

v e h i c l e s equipped f o r evacuation, t h a t i s , s i c k and wounded " i n 104 t h e course of conveyance". Such v e h i c l e s , whether proceeding s i n g l y o r i n convoy must be t r e a t e d i n t h e same way a s mobile sanitary u n i t s , subject t o the r u l e s stated hereafter.
f

The enemy

i n t e r c e p t i n g such v e h i c l e s t r a v e l i n g s i n g l y or i n convoy may stop them and break up t h e convoy i f required by m i l i t a r y n e c e s s i t y , provided he t a k e s charge i n a l l cases of t h e s i c k and wounded who are in it. The enemy may use i n t e r c e p t e d v e h i c l e s f o r s a n i t a r y

needs exclusively and then only i n t h e lector where they were intercepted. As soon a s t h e s e v e h i c l e s a r e no longer required

f o r t h e i r l o c a l mission they a r e t o be returned i n accordance with t h e c o n d i t i o n s s t i p u l a t e d f o r t h e r e t u r n of mobile s a n i t a r y formations. 105

A mixed convoy made up of t h e s i c k and wounded

and troops i s n o t an evacuation convoy b u t a troop t r a i n .

Such

102. 103. 104. 105.

Edmonds and Oppenheim, p a r . 209.

FM 27-10, p a r . 191.
Holland, p . 35. See p . 139, e t s e q . , supra.

a group i s n o t p r i v i l e g e d t o f l y t h e Bed Cross f l a g nor i s it e n t i t l e d t o t h e p r o t e c t i o n of t h e Convention.

,

106

The personnel of t h e evacuation convoy may belong t o s a n i t a r y i n both cases they a r e t o be 108 Military per-

u n i t s o r volunteer a i d societies;107

r e t u r n e d and n o t t r e a t e d a s p r i s o n e r s of war.

sonnel l e n t f o r t r a n s p o r t purposes ( i , e . , n o t belonging t o t h e s a n i t a r y s e r v i c e ) a r e e n t i t l e d t o be returned under t h e same cond i t i o n s a s s a n i t a r y personnel provided they a r e i n possession of a r e g u l a r order d e t a i l i n g them t o t h i s duty. 109 C i v i l personnel

whose s e r v i c e s have been r e q u i s i t i o n e d f o r t h e convoy a r e t o be 110 r e l e a s e d u n l e s s r e q u i s i t i o n e d again by t h e c a p t o r . There i s t h e duty of r e s t o r i n g a l l means of t r a n s p o r t a t i o n which a r e esp e c i a l l y organized f o r evacuation and a t t a c h e d t o t h e s a n i t a r y s e r v i c e , f o r example, h o s p i t a l t r a i n s .
t

I n o t h e r words, i f t h e

means of t r a n s p o r t a t i o n belongs t o t h e s a n i t a r y s e r v i c e of t h e

It i s n o t a v i o l a t i o n of t h e Convention f o r a b e l l i g e r e n t t o p l a c e t h e s i c k and wounded i n a troop t r a i n ; b u t it i s a v i o l a t i o n f o r such a t r a i n t o f l y t h e Red Cross f l a g . Spaight, p . 452.

106. 107. 108. 109. F M 27-10) p a r s , 183, 185. Drivers permanently a t t a c h e d t o s a n i t a ~ y formations a r e ent i t l e d t o t h e same treatment. See p . 134, e t s e q . , supra.

I t must be noted t h a t t h i s i s a l f m i t a t i o n on A r t . 14, FM 27-10, p a r . 188, which r e q u i r e s t h e r e t u r n of t h e conducting personnel of mobile s a n i t a r y formations. Des Gouttes, p . 112.
110. Holland, p . 35; see a l s o Des Gouttes, p .

115; p . 48, supra.

111 Similarly, materiel belonging to enemy it should be returned.

the yanitary service for fitting up ordinary vehicles, trains and bther means of transport for the evacuation of the sick and
,

wounded, is'exempt. Military means of transportation not belonging to the sanitary service but borrowed from military units are 112 subject to capture as booty. Generally, this latter m o u p would comprehend means of transportation belonging to a belliger113 ent but not especially fitted for sanitary use. All means of transportation obtained by requisition and used
.

for the evacuationof the sick and wounded such as ordinary railway trains and river boats, or commercial vessels temporarily utilized for the conveyance of the sick and wounded, are sutject to the general rules of international law.

114

~hus, by way of

illustration, if the belligdrent intercepting such a convoy is in occupation of enemy territory, then these means of transport 115 or requisitioned under may be seized by him under Article 53

111. Holland, p , 35; for vehicles belonging to volunteer aid societies, p . 141, supra.

1 1 Cf. Hyde, Val, 11, p. 385.

114 FM 27-10,par. 191; Report of United States ~elegationto the Geneva Conference of 1906, Foreign Relations, 1906, Part 2 , P. 1557.
,

115

FM .27-10, par. 331.

of the Hague Convention, or, in default of either 117 of these methods, returned to the owners. Medical stores, drugs, etc., except those held by a mobile sanitary unit or a convoy of evacuation, are not protected by the Convention and are subject to confiscation as legitimate 118 booty. The Convention makes no specific provision with respect to the evacuation of the sick and wounded from besieged places or forfr?sses. A commander of a besieged place has no war right to relieve the pressure on his resources by sending out his wounded nor does it entitle the besieger to increase that pressure by sending a convoy of wounded into the place which he is besieging

Article 52

1 1 6

119
1 2 Sanitary Aircraft.--Airc~aftused as a means of sani-

tary transportation enjoy the protection of the Convention during such time as they are reserved exclusively for the evacuation of sick and wounded and for the transportation of personnel and

116. FM 27-10,par. 335.

117. Des Gouttes, p.115,
.

11.9. Spaight, p. 449; Edmonds and Oppenheim, par. 208, Stores,

drugs, etc., part of a "fixed establishment" and necessary for the treatment of the wounded would be protected. Des Gouttes, p 100; see also p. 140, supra.

119. Holland, p . 35.

120 materiel. Sanitary aircraft must, in order to enjoy this protection be painted white and bear the distinctive sign of the Red Cross alongside of the national colors, on its upper and lower surfaces. The aircraft need not be specially designed or constructed for sanitary use. Thus, ordinary aircraft, properly. painted and bearing the appropriate insignia would be entitled 121 to protection. Conversely, sanitary aircrafz may be converted by a belligerent at a subsequent time into military aircraft by removing the distinctive markings and coloring required by the 122 Convention. In order to prevent sanitary aircraft from collecting intelligence, the Convention provides that in the absence of special and express permission, such aircraft may not fly over the firing line, over the zone situated in front of the major medical collecting stations, and in general over any territory under the control of the enemy. Sanitary aircraft must comply with the enemy sumons to land.

A failure to comply with such a summons results in a forfeiture

123 of the protection accorded such aircraft and its personnel.

120. FM 27-10, par. 192. 121. Des Gouttes, p. 125. 122. Des Gouttes, p. 125. 123. Des Gouttes, p. 132. Thus, it may be fired upon by the enemy and in case of a forced landing, its personnel may be held as prisoners of war.

I f s a n i t a r y a i r c r a f t lands on enemy t e r r i t o r y e i t h e r i n compliance

with a s m o n s by t h e enemy o r a c c i d e n t a l l y , t h e s a n i t a r y p e r sonnel, t h e m a t e r i e l , t h e s i c k and wounded, and t h e a i r c r a f t a r e e n t i t l e d t o t h e b e n e f i t s of t h e Convention. I n effect sanitary

a i r c r a f t and i t s personnel a r e t r e a t e d on t h e same b a s i s a s con124 voys of evacuation. However, a s ha3 been s t a t e d , t h e s a n i t a r y a i r c r a f t need n o t b e ' s p e c i a l l y designed f o r s a n i t a r y use a s i s t h e case i n convoys of evacuation. 125 The s a n i t a r y personnel, t h e

personnel of voluntary a i d s o c i e t i e s , t h e m i l i t a r y personnel charged with t r a n s p o r t a t i o n and provided with a r e g u l a r order, c i v i l personnel obtained by r e q u i s i t i o n , s a n i t a r y m a t e r i e l and a i r c r a f t a r e s u b j e c t t o t h e r u l e s a p p l i c a b l e t o convoys.of evacuation. 126

127

Thus, t h e s a n i t a r y personnel and t h e personnel of

voluntary a i d s o c i e t i e s a r e e n t i t l e d t o be r e t u r n e d . S p e c i a l provision i s made f o r p i l o t s , mechanics, and wirel e s s o p e r a t o r s of s a n i t a r y a i r c r a f t .

A s a condition precedent

t o t h e i r r e t u r n , they must give an undertaking t o serye only i n

124. 125. 126. 127.

Des Gouttes, p . 133. See p

. 145,

supra.

P i l o t s , mechanics, and w i r e l e s s op erators a r e s p e c i a l l y t r e a t e d i n A r t . 18, F M 27-10, p a r . 192, Des Gouttes, p . 133

the sanitary service until the termination of hostilities. If a pilot, mechanic or wireless operator violated such an undertakin~ he, like the prisoner of war who breaches a parole, would be sub1 2 8 ject to punishment. Except for persons who have given their pledge, there is no prohibition in the Convention against a pilot 129 Of serving alternately in military and sanitary aircraft course, a pilot may not be both a sanitary pilot and a military pilot in the same flight. In the latter case, ioe., where his duties are of a mixed nature, the aircraft is not entitled to the 130 protection of the Convention. Where sanitary aircraft has landed either involuntarily or in compliance with an enemy summons to l m d , the sick and wounded are pri,soners of war as is the case when a convoy of evacuation 131 is intercepted. The sanitary materiel and the sanitary air132 craft mu& be returned in accordance,withArticle 14.
a

128. See p, 120, supra.

129. Des Gouttes, p. 1360

130. Des Gouttes, p a 137. If such an aircraft carried the Red Cross markings it would be an abuse of the Red Cross emblem, Des Gouttes, p. 125. 131. Des Gouttes, p, 134. 132. FM 27-10, par, 188.

respect to Switzerland, the heraldic emblem

193-198. The Distinctive Emblem of the Red ---- Cross.. -Out of 133

of Switzerland of

the red cross on a white ground, fomned by reversing the federal colors, is adopted as the emblem of thk Red Cross.

134

The Con-

vention permits the use of the red crescent, or the red lion and sun on a white field as a distinctive emblem in countries which already use these emblems. Turkey uses a red crescent and Iran the red sun. The Red Cross emblem must be shown on flags, materiel, and brassards belonging to the sanitary service with the permission 135 of competent military authorities, The Red Cross flag protects hospitals and 'ambulances; the brassard protects individ136 137 uals. specifically states that the Red Cross Article 22 flag "may only be displayed over the sanitary formations and establishments which the convention provides shall be respected". This would exclude civil hospitals or any other buildings or

133. "Heraldic" is used in describing the insignia to indicate . that it has no religious association, Bor&weTl, p. 263.

134

FM 27-10, par 193.

, '

135. FM 27-10, par. 194. The permission is signified either by a written authorization, or by an official stamp on the sign. Edmonds and Oppenheim, par, 210.

1-36. Spaight, p. 457.

137. FM 27-10, par ,.

196.

ambulances than referred to in the Convention.138 The Red Cross flag must in the case of fixed sanitary establishment be accompanied by the national flag of the belligerent, whereas in the case of the mobile formations it is optional with the belligerent to display its national flag. The sanitary formations of neutral countries139 must fly with the Red Cross flag, the national flag of the belligerent to which they are att~ched. Such formations may also fly their own national flag during the time 140 Sanitary units, they are rendering service to a belligerent. belligerent or neutral, fly only the Red Cross flag while-in the 141 power of the enemy. The personnel entitled to wear the Red Cross brassard are the following: (1)the personnel charged exclusively with the

removal, transportation, and treatment of the sick and wounded as well as with the ailministration of sanitary formations and 142 (2) the personnel of establishments, and army chaplains;

138. Spaight, p. 456; see also p, 140, supra, 139. FM 27-10, par. 185,

140, FM 27-10, par. 197. In auch case three flags would be flown: s the Red Cross flag, the belligerent7 s flag, and the neutralP flag, Dee Gouttes, p, 171. 141. FM 27-10, par. 196.
1 2 Par. 1, Art. 9; FM 27-10,par. 182.

volunteer a i d s o c i e t i e s ;

143

s o c i e t i e s of a n e u t r a l country.

(3) t h e p e r s o n n e l of v o l u n t e e r a i d 144
According t o some w r i t e r s ,

t h e b r a s s a r d s a r e f o r t h e s a n i t a r y p e r s o n n e l p r o p e r and n o t f o r t h o s e t e m p o r a r i l y i n t h e s e r v i c e of t h e s i c k and wounded such a s litter-bearers or auxiliary attendants.

145 However, t h e g e n e r a l l y

a c c e p t e d p r a c t i c e h a s been f o r t h o s e permanently a s s i g n e d t o s a n i t a ~ y f ormations o r a s c h a p l a i n s t o wear t h e Red Cross b r a s s a r d a t a l l t i m e s w h i l e i n t h e t h e a t e r of o p e r a t i o n s , and f o r t h o s e temp o r a r i l y s e r v i n e a s l i t t e r - b e a r e r s o r a u x i l i a r y a t t e n d a n t s upon t h e s i c k and wounded t o wear it o n l y w h i l e s o s e r v i n g . .The b r a s s a r d i s t o b e a t t a c h e d t o , and n o t merely s l i p p e d over t h e l e f t arm.
'

It i s important t h a t t h e c h a r a c t e r of s a n i t a r y p e r s o n n e l

s h a l l n o t b e p u t on and o f f a t . p l e a s u r e .

146

Both t h e permanent

s a n i t a r y perkonnel and t h o s e employed t e m p o r a r i l y a s l i t t e r bearers, eto

.,147

must be f u r n i s h e d w i t h proof of i d e n t i t y e n t e r e d

e i t h e r i n t h e i r m i l i t a r y handbook o r by a s p e c i a l document.

148

143.
\

F M 27-10, p a r , 183. F M 27-10, p a r . 185.

'

144.

145. P a r . 2, A r t . 9; F M 27-10, p a r , 182; p a r . 1, A r t , 21; FM 271 0 , p a r . 195; Des G o u t t e s , p . 154; Bordwell, p . 264.
146. Bordwell, p . 264; Des Gouttes, p .

155,

147. F M 27-10, p a r . 182.

148.

FM 27-10? p a r . 185.

Personnel of volunteer a i d s o c i e t i e s , e i t h e r of t h e b e l l i g e r e n t o r of a n e u t r a l s t a t e , n o t wearing m i l i t a r y uniforms must be f w nished by competent m i l i t a r y a u t h o r i t y with a c e r t i f i c a t e of i d e n t i t y containing t h e i r photograph and a t t e s t i n g t o t h e i r s a n i tary status. 149 I d e n t i f i c a t i o n documents must be uniform and of 150 I n no case may t h e s a n i t a r y p e r -

t h e same type i n each army.

sonnel be deprived of t h e i r i n s i g n i a nor of t h e i r own i d e n t i f i c a t i o n papers.

151

The s i z e of t h e d i s t i n c t i v e emblem i s n o t l a i d down by t h e Convention except i n a g e n e r a l statement t h a t t h e markings s h a l l be p l a i n l y v i s i b l e t o t h e land, a i r , and s e a f o r c e s of t h e enemy i n s o f a r a s m i l i t a r y exigency allows. 152 The r e d c r o s s on a white

ground and t h e words "Red Cross" o r ,'',Geneva Cross" o r t h e o t h e r emblems mentioned i n A r t i c l e 19153 must n o t be used e i t h e r i n

Personnel of volunteer a i d s o c i e t i e s wearing m i l i t a r y uniforms a r e r e q u i r e d t o have a c e r t i f f c a t e of i d e n t i t y ; a photograph would n o t be necessary. Des Gouttes, p , 160. 149. 150. 5 2 153. .

FM 27-10, p a r , 195; see p . 149, supra, f o o t n o t e 135.

FM 27-10, p a r . 1%.
This i s t o p r e v e n t . a capturing power from evading t h e duty of r e t u r n i n g s a n i t a r y personnel. Des Gouttes, p . 162, M 27-10, p a r .

196.

FM 27-10, p a r . 193

peace or war, except to designate sanitary formations, establishments, the.personne1and materiel protected by the Convention. The Act incorporating the American National Red Cross

154

1.55

provided,

among other things, that it shall be unlawful for any person or corporation, etc., other than the American National Red Cross to use the sign or insignia in imitation of the Red Cross for the purpose of trade or as an advertisement to induce the sale of any article.

156

Voluntary aid societies

157 may, in conformity with their

national legislation, use the distinctive emblem in connection with their humanitarian activities in time of peace. As an exception and with the specific authority of one of the national societies of the Red Cross, use may be made of the emblem of the Convention in time of peace to designate stations exclusively reserved for free treatment of the sick or wounded.

158

154. FM 27-10,par. 198.

155. Sec, 4, 33 Stat. 600; 36 U,S.C. 4.

156 Persons, etc,, using the insignia for purposes of trade

prior to the date of the Act were excepted from its oper,. ation.

158

FM 27-10,par. 198.

A P P E N D I X INSTRUCTIONS FOR THE GOVERNMENT OF ARMIES OF TRE UNITED STATES IN THE FIELD General Orders, No. 100. WAR DEPARTMENT, ' s Office, Adjutant ~eneral Vashington, April 24, 1863. The following "Instructions for the Government of Armies of the United States in the Field," prepared by Francis Lieber, LL.D., and revised by a Board of Officers, of which Major General E. A. Hitchcock is president, having been approved by the President of the United States, he commands that they be published for the information of all concerned.

BY ORDER OF THE SECRETARY OF

WAR:

E. D. TOWNSEND, Assistant Adjutant General.

INSTRUCTIONS FOR THE GOVERNMENT OF ARMIES OF THE UNITED STATES IN THE FIELD Section I Martial Law--Military Jurisdictfon-.-Military Necessity-Retaliation

A place, district, or country occupied by an enemy stands, in consequence of the occupation, under the Martial Law of the invading or occupying army, whether any proclamation declaring Martial Law, or any public warning to the fnhabitants, has been issued or not. Martial Law is the immediate and direct effect and consequence of occupation or conquest. The presence of a hostile army proclaims its Martial Law.

Martial Law does-notcease during the hostile occupation, except by special proclamation, ordered by the commander in

chief; or by special mention in the treaty of peace concluding the war, when the occupation of a place or territo~ycontinues beyond the conclusion of peace as one of the conditions of the same.

Martial Law in a hostile country consists in the suspension, by the occupying military authority, of the criminal and civil law, and of the domestic administration and government in the occupied place or territory, and in the substitution of military rule and force for the same, as well as in the dictation of general laws, as far as military necessity requires this suspension, substitution, or dictation. The commander of the forces may proclaim that the administration of all civil and penal law shall continue either wholly or in part, as in times of peace, unless otherwise ordered by the military authority

4
Martial Law is simply military authority exercised in accordance with the laws and usages of war. Military oppression is not Martial Law; it is the abuse of the power which that law confers. As Martial Law is executed by military force, it is incumbent upon those who administer it to be strictly guided by the principles of justice, honor, and humanity--virtues adorning a soldier even more than other men, for the very reason that he possesses the power of his arms against the unarmed.

Martial Law should be less stringent in places and countries fully occupied and fairly conquered. Much greater severity may be exercised in places or regions where actual hostilTties exist, or are expected and must be prepared for, Its most complete sway is allowed--even in the commander's own country--.when face to face with the enemy, because of the absolute necessities of the case, and of the paramount duty to defend the country against invasion. To save the country is paramount to all other consideration.

All civil and penal law shall continue to take its usual . course in the enemy's places and territories under Martial Law, unless interrupted or stopped by order of the occupying military

power; but all the functions of the hostile government--legislative, executive, or administration--.whether of a general, provincial, or local character, cease under Martial Law, or continue only with the sa.nction, or, if deemed necessary, the participatfon 4 of the occupier or invader.

.MartialLaw extends to property, and'to persons, whether they are subjects of the enemy or aliens to that government.

Consuls, among American and European nations, are not diplomatic agents. Nevertheless, their offices and persons will be subjected to Martial Law in cases of urgent necessity only: their property and business are not exempted. Any delinquency they commit against the established military rule may be punished as in the case of any other inhabitant, and such punishment fwnfshes no reasonable ground for international complaint.

The functions of Ambassadors, Ministers, or other diplomatic agents, accredited by neutral powers to the hostile government, cease, so far as regards the displaced government; but the conquering or occupying power usually recognizes them as temporarily accredited to itself.

Martial Law affects chiefly the police and collection of public revenue and taxes, whether imposed by the expelled government or by the invader, and refers mainly to the support and efficlency of the army, its safety, and the safety of its operations

The law of war does not only disclafm all cruelty and bad faith concerning engagements concluded with the enemy during the war, but also the breaking of stipulations solemnly contracted by the belligerents in tfme of peace, and avowedly intended to remain in force in case of war between the contracting powers. It disclaims all extortions and other transactions for individual gain; all acts of private revenge, or connivance at such acts.

Offenses t o t h e c o n t r a r y s h a l l be s e v e r e l y punished, and e e p e c i a l l y s o i f committed by o f f i c e r s ,

Whenever f e a s i b l e , . M a r t i a l -Law i s c a r r i ed out i n cases of i n d i v i d u a l offenders by M i l i t a r y Courts; b u t sentences of death s h a l l be executed only with t h e approval of t h e chief executive, provided t h e urgency of t h e case does n o t r e q u i r e a speedier execution, and then only with t h e approval of t h e c h i e f cornmander

M i l i t a r y j u r i s d i c t i o n i s of two kinds: F i r s t , t h a t which i s conferred and defined by s t a t u t e ; second, t h a t which i s derived from t h e common law of war. M i l i t a r y offenses under t h e s t a t u t e law must be t r i e d i n t h e manner t h e r e i n d i r e c t e d ; b u t m i l i t a r y offenses which do n o t come w i t h i n t h e s t a t u t e must be t r i e d and punished under t h e comm.on law of war. The c h a r a c t e r of t h e c o u r t s which e x e r c i s e t h e s e j u r i s d i c t i o n s depends upon t h e l o c a l laws of each p a r t i c u l a r country, I n t h e armies of t h e United S t a t e s t h e f i r s t i s exercised by courts-.martial, while cases which do n o t come within t h e "Rules and A r t i c l e s of War," o r t h e j u r i s d i c t i o n conferred by s t a t u t e o r c o u r t s . - m a r t i a l , a r e t r i e d by m i l i t a r y commissi'ons. 14 Milita~y n e c e s s i t y , a s understood by modern c i v i l i z e d n a t i o n s , c o n s i s t s i n t h e n e c e s s i t y of those measures which a r e indispensable f o r secizring t h e ends of t h e war,-and whlch a r e lawful according t o t h e modern law and usages of ,war,

- . M i l i t a r y n e c e s s i t y admits of a l l d l r e c t d e s t r u c t i o n of l i f e o r limb of --.armed enemies, and of o t h e r persons whose d e s t r u c t i o n i s i n c i d e n t a l l y -unavoidable i n t h e armed c o n t e s t s of the way.; it . allows of t h e , c a p t w i n g of every armed enemy, and every enemy of importance t o t h e h o s t i l e government, o r of peculiay danger t o t h e captor; it allows of a l l d e s t r u c t i o n of property, and obs t m c t i o n of t h e ways Eind channels of t r a f f i c , t r a v e l , o r cornmunication, and of a l l withholding of sustenance - o r means of l i f e from t h e enemy; of t h e a p p r o p r i a t i o n of whatever an enemy's country a f f o r d s necessary f o r t h e subsistence and s a f e t y of t h e

army, and o f such deception d s does n o t involve t h e breaking of good f a i t h e i t h e r p o s i t i v e l y pledged, regarding agreements ent e r e d i n t o during t h e war, o r supposed by the-modern law of war t o e x i s t . Men who t a k e up arms a g a i n s t one another In public war do n o t cease on t h i s account t o be moral beings, r e s p o n s i b l e t o one m o t h e r and t o God,

M i l i t a r y n e c e s s i t y does n o t admit of c r u e l t y - - t h a t i s , t h e i n f l i c t i o n of s u f f e r i n g f o r t h e sake of s u f f e r i n g o r f o r revenge, nor of maimfng o r wounding except i n f i g h t , nor of t o r t m e t o e x t o r t confessions. It does n o t admit of t h e use of poison i n any way, nor t h e wanton d e v a s t a t i o n of a d i s t r i c t . It admits of deception, b u t disclaims a c t s of perfidy; and, i n g e n e r a l , m i l f t a r y n e c e s s i t y does n o t include any a c t of h o s t i l i t y which makes t h e r e t u r n t o peace u n n e c e s s a r i l y d i f f i c u l t .

War i s n o t c a r r i e d on by arms alone. It i s lawful t o s t a r v e t h e h o s t i l e b e l l i g e r e n t , armed o r unarmedj so t h a t it l e a d s t o t h e s p e e d i e r s u b j e c t i o n of t h e enemy.

When a commander of a besieged p l a c e expels t h e noncombata n t s , i n o r d e r t o l e s s e n t h e number of those who consume h i s s t o c k of p r o v i s i o n s , it i s lawful, though a n extreme measure, t o d r i v e them back, so a s t o h a s t e n on t h e s u r r e n d e r .

Commanders, whenever admissible, inform t h e enemy of t h e i r i n t e n t i o n t o bombard a p l a c e , so t h a t t h e noncombatants, and e s p e c i a l l y t h e women and c h i l d r e n , may be removed b e f o r e t h e bombardment commences. But it i s no i n f r a c t i o n of t h e common law of war t o omit t h u s t o inform t h e enemy, S u r p r i s e may be a n e c e s s i t y .

P u b l i c war i s a s t a t e of armed h o s t i l i t y betxeen sovereign n a t i o n s o r governments. It i s a law a n d . r e q u i s i t e of c i v i l i z e d e x i s t e n c e t h a t men l i v e i n p o l i t i c a l continuous s o c i e t i e s , forming organized u n i t s , c a l l e d s t a t e s o r n a t i o n s , whose ' c o n s t i t u e n t s b e a r , enjoy, and s u f f e r , advance and r e t r o g r a d e t o g e t h e r , i n peace and i n war. I

The c i t i z e n o r n a t i v e of a h o s t i l e country i s t h u s an enemy, a s one of t h e c o n s t i t u e n t s of t h e h o s t i l e s t a t e o r n a t i o n , and a s such i s subjected t o t h e hardships of t h e war.

Nevertheless, a s c i v i l i z a t i o n has advanced during t h e l a s t c e n t u r i e s , so h a s l i k e w i s e s t e a d i l y advanced, e s p e c i a l l y i n war on l a n d , t h e d i s t i n c t i o n between t h e p r i v a t e i n d i v i d u a l belonging t o a h o s t i l e country and t h e h o s t i l e country i t s e l f , with i t s men i n arms. The p r i n c i p l e has been more and more acknowledged t h a t t h e unarmed c i t i z e n i s t o be spared i n person, property, and honor as.much a s t h e exigencies of war w i l l admit.

P r i v a t e c i t i z e n s a r e no longer murdered, enslaved, o r c a r r i e d o f f t o d i s t a n t p a r t s , and t h e i n o f f e n s i v e i n d i v i d u a l i s a s l i t t l e d i s t u r b e d i n h i s p r i v a t e r e l a t i o n s a s the'commander of t h e h o s t i l e troops can a f f o r d t o g r a n t i n t h e o v e r m l i n g demands of a vigorous war.

The almost u n i v e r s a l m l e i n remote times was, and continues t o be with barbarous armies, t h a t t h e p r i v a t e i n d i v i d u a l of t h e h o s t i l e country i s d e s t i n e d t o s u f f e r every p r i v a t i o n of l i b e r t y and p r o t e c t i o n , and every d i s r u p t i o n of family t i e s . P r o t e c t i o n was, and s t i l l i s with u n c i v i l i z e d people, t h e exception.
*

25

I n modern r e g u l a r wars of t h e Europeans, and t h e i r descendants i n o t h e r p o r t i o n s of t h e globe, p r o t e c t i o n of t h e i n o f f e n s i v e c i t i z e n of t h e h o s t i l e country i s t h e r u l e ; p r i v a t i o n and d i s t u r bance of p r i v a t e r e l a t i o n s a r e t h e exceptions,

Commanding g e n e r a l s may cause t h e m a g i s t r a t e s and c i v i l o f f i c e r s of t h e h o s t i l e country t o t a k e t h e oath of temporary a l legiance o r an oath of f i d e l i t y t o t h e i r own v i c t o r i o u s government o r r u l e r s , and t h e y may expel every one who d e c l i n e s t o do so. But whether they do so o r n o t , t h e people and t h e i r c i v i l o f f i c e r s owe s t r ' i c t obedience t o them a s long a s they hold sway over t h e d i s t r i c t o r country, a t t h e p e r i l of t h e i r l i v e s .

The law of war can no more wholly dispense with r e t a l i a t i o n than can t h e law of n a t i o n s , of which it i s a branch. Yet c i v i - , l i z e d n a t i o n s ackflowledge r e t a l i a t i o n a s t h e s t e r n e s t f e a t u r e of war. A r e c k l e s s enemy o f t e n leaves t o h i s opponent no o t h e r means of securing himself a g a i n s t t h e r e p e t i t i o n of barbarous outrage.

R e t a l i a t i o n w i l l , t h e r e f o r e , never be r e s o r t e d t o a s a measu r e of mere revenge, b u t only a s a means of p r o t e c t i v e r e t r i b u t i o n , and moreover, c a u t i o u s l y and unavoidably; t h a t i s t o say, r e t a l i a t i o n s h a l l only be r e s o r t e d ts a f t e r c a r e f u l i n q u i r y i n t o t h e r e a l occurrence, and t h e c h a r a c t e r of t h e misdeeds t h a t may demand retribution. Unjust o r inconsiderate r e t a l i a t i o n removes t h e b e l l i g e r e n t ? f a r t h e r and f a r t h e r from t h e m i t i g a t i n g r u l e s of r e g u l a r war, and by r a p i d s t e p s l e a d s them n e a r e r t o t h e i n t e r n e c i n e wars of savages.

Modern times a r e distinguished from e a r l i e r ages by t h e e x i s t e n c e , a t one and t h e same time, of many n a t i o n s and g r e a t governments r e l a t e d t o one another i n c l o s e i n t e r c o u r s e . Peace i s t h e i r normal condition; war i s t h e exception. The u l t i m a t e o b j e c t of a l l modern war i s a renewed s t a t e of peace. The more vigorously wars a r e pursued, t h e b e t t e r i t i s f o r humanity. Sharp wars a r e b r i e f .

Ever s i n c e t h e formation and coexistence of modern n a t i o n s , and ever s i n c e wars have become g r e a t n a t i o n a l wars, war has come t o be acknowledged n o t t o be i t s own end, b u t t h e means t o o b t a i n g r e a t ends of s t a t e , o r t o c o n s i s t i n defense a g a i n s t wrong; and no conventional r e s t r i c t i o n of t h e modes adopted t o i n j u r e t h e enemy i s any longer admitted; b u t t h e law of war imposes many l i m i t a t i o n s and r e s t r i c t i o n s on p r i n c i p l e s of J u s t i c e , f a i t h , and honor.

SECTION I1 P u b l i c and P r i v a t e P r o p e r t y of t h e Enemy-.-Protection of Persons, * and E s p e c i a l l y of Women; of Religion, t h e A r t s and Sciences-Punishment of Crimes Against t h e I n h a b i t a n t s of H o s t i l e Countries

A v i c t o r i o u s army appro-priates a l l p u b l i c money, s e i z e s a l l public movable p r o p e r t y u n t i l f u r t h e r d i r e c t i o n by i t s government, and s e q u e s t e r s f o r i t s own b e n e f i t o r of t h a t of i t s government a l l t h e revenues of r e a l p r o p e r t y belonging t o t h e h o s t i l e government o r n a t i o n . The t i t l e t o such r e a l p r o p e r t y remains i n abeyance d w i n g m i l i t a r y occupation, and u n t i l t h e conquest i s made complete.

A v i c t o r i o u s army, by t h e m a r t i a l power i n h e r e n t i n t h e same, may suspend, change, o r a b o l i s h , a s f a r a s t h e m a r t i a l power extends, t h e r e l a t i o n s which a r i s e from t h e s e r v i c e s due, according t o t h e e x i s t i n g laws of t h e invaded country, from one c i t i z e n , s u b j e c t , o r n a t i v e of t h e same t o another. The commander of. t h e army must leave it t o t h e u l t i m a t e t r e a t y of peace t o s e t t l e t h e permanency of t h i s change.

It i s no longer considered lawful--on t h e c o n t r a r y , it i s h e l d t o be a s e r i o u s breach of t h e law of war--to f o r c e t h e subj e c t s of t h e enemy i n t o t h e s e r v i c e of t h e v i c t o r i o u s government, except t h e l a t t e r should proclaim, a f t e r a f a i r and complete conquest of t h e h o s t i l e country o r d i s t r i c t , t h a t it i s resolved t o keep t h e country, d i s t r i c t , o r p l a c e permanently a s i t s own and make it a p o r t i o n of i t s own country.

A s a g e n e r a l r u l e , t h e property. belonging t o churches, t o h o s p i t a l s , o r o t h e r establishments of a n e x c l u s i v e l y c h a r i t a b l e c h a r a c t e r , t o establishments of education, o r foundations f o r t h e promotion of knowledge, whether p u b l i c schools, u n i v e r s i t i e s , academies of l e a r n i n g o r o b s e r v a t o r i e s , museums of t h e f i n e a r t s , o r of a s c i e n t i f i c character--such p r o p e r t y i s n o t t o be considered p u b l i c p r o p e r t y i n t h e sense of paragraph 31; b u t it may be taxed o r used when t h e public s e r v i c e may r e q u i r e it.

Classical.works of art, libraries, scientific collections, or precious instruments, such as astronomical telescopes, as well as hospitals, must be secured against all avoidable injury, even when they are contained in fortified places whilst besieged or bombarded.

If such works of art, libraries, collections, or instruments belonging to a hostile nation or government, can be removed without injury, the ruler of the conquering state or nation may order them to be seized and removed for the benefit of the said nation. The ultimate ownership fs to be settled by the ensuing treaty of peace. In no case shall they be sold or given away, if captured by the armies of the United States, nor shall they ever be privately appropriated, or wantonly destroyed or injured.

The United States acknowledge and protect, in hostile countries occupied by them, religion and morality; strictly private property; the persons of the inhabitants, especially those of women; and the sacredness of domestic relations. Offenses to the contrary shall be rigorously punished. This rule does not interfere with the right of the victorious invader to tax the people or their property, to levy forced loans, to billet soldiers, or to appropriate property, especially houses, lands, boats or ships, and churches, for temporary and military uses.

~rivate'~ro~ert~, unless forfeited by crimes or by offenses of the owner, can be seized only by way of military necessity, for the support or other benefit of the army or of the United States. If the owner has not fled, the commanding officer will cause receipts be given, which may serve the spoliated owner to obtain indemnity

The salaries of civil officers of the hostile government w"no remain in the invaded territory, ahd continue the work of their

o f f i c e , and can continue it according t o t h e circumstances a r i s i n g o u t of t h e war--such a s judges, a d m i n i s t r a t i v e o r p o l i c e o f f i c e r s , o f f i c e r s of c i t y o r communal governments-.=are p a i d from t h e publ i c revenue of t h e invaded t e r r i t o r y , u n t i l t h e m i l i t a r y government h a s reason wholly OT p a r t i a l l y t o discontinue it. S a l a r i e s o r incomes connected w i t h purely honorary t i t l e s a r e always stopped,

, T h e r e e x i s t s no law o r body of a u t h o r i t a t i v e k l e s of a c t i o n .between h o s t i l e a m i e s , except t h a t branch of t h e l a w of n a t u r e and n a t i o n s which i s c a l l e d t h e law and usagks of war on l a n d ,

A l l municipal law of t h e p o u n d on which t h e a m i e s s t a n d , o r of t h e c o u n t r i e s t o which t h e y belong, i s s i l e n t and of no e f f e c t between'amnies i n t h e f i e l d .

Slavery, complicating and confounding t h e i d e a s of p r o p e r t y ( t h a t i s of a t h i n g ) , and of p e r s o n a l i t y ( t h a t i s of humanity), e x i s t s according t o municipal OT l o c a l law only. The law of n a t u r e and n a t i o n s h a s never acknowledged i t , The d i g e s t of t h e Roman law e n a c t s t h e e a r l y dictum of t h e pagan j u r i s t , t h a t "so f a r a s t h e law of n a t u r e i s c o n c e ~ n e d ,a l l men a r e equal." Fug i t i v e s escaping from a country i n which t h e y were s l a v e s , v i l l a i n s , o r s e r f s , i n t o another country, have, f o r c e n t u r i e s p a s t , been h e l d f r e e and acknowledged f r e e by j u d i c i a l d e c i s i o n s of European c o u n t r i e s , even though t h e municipal law of t h e country i n which t h e s l a v e had taken refuge acknowledged s l a v e r y w i t h i n i t s own dominions.

Therefore, i n a war between t h e United S t a t e s and a b e l l f g e r e n t which admits of s l a v e r y , i f a person h e l d i n bondage by t h a t b e l l i g e r e n t be captured by o r come a s a f u g i t i v e under t h e p r o t e c t i o n of t h e m i l i t a r y f o r c e s of t h e United S t a t e s , such person i s immediately e n t i t l e d t o t h e r i g h t s and p r i v i l e g e s of a freeman. To r e t u r n such perpon i n t o s l a v e r y would amount t o enslaving a f r e e person, and n e f t h e r t h e United S t a t e s nor any o f f i c e r under t h e i r a u t h o r i t y can enslave any human being. Moreover, a person so made f r e e by t h e law of war i s under t h e s h i e l d of t h e law of n a t i o n s , and t h e former owner o r S t a t e can have, by t h e law of postliminy, no b e l l i g e r e n t l i e n o r e k i m of s e r v f c e .

A l l wanton violence committed a g a i n s t persons i n t h e invaded country, a l l d e s t r u c t i o n of p r o p e r t y n o t commanded by t h e authori z e d o f f i c e r , a l l robbery, a l l p i l l a g e o r sacking, even a f t e r t a k i n g a p l a c e by main f o r c e , a l l rape, wounding, maiming, o r k i l l i n g of such i n h a b i t a n t s , a r e p r o h i b i t e d under t h e p e n a l t y of death, o r such o t h e r severe punishment a s may seem adequate f o r t h e g r a v i t y of t h e offense. A s o l d i e r , o f f i c e r o r p r i v a t e , i n t h e a c t of committing such violence, and disobeying a superior ordering him t o a b s t a i n from i t , may be l a w f u l l y k i l l e d on t h e s p o t by such s u p e r i o r .

A l l captures and booty belong, according t o t h e modern law of war, p r i m a r i l y t o t h e government of t h e c a p t o r .

P r i z e money, whether on sea o r land, can now only be claimed under l o c a l law.

Neither o f f i c e r s nor s o l d i e r s a r e allowed t o make use of t h e i r p o s i t i o n o r power i n t h e h o s t i l e country f o r p r i v a t e g a i n , n o t even f o r commercial t r a n s a c t i o n s otherwise l e g i t i m a t e . Off e n s e s t o t h e c o n t r a r y committed by commissioned o f f i c e r s w i l l be punished with c a s h i e r i n g o r such o t h e r punishment a s t h e n a t u r e of t h e o f f e n s e may r e q u i r e ; i f by s o l d i e r s , they s h a l l be punished according t o t h e n a t u r e of t h e offense.

Crimes punishable by a l l penal codes, such a s arson, murder, maiming, a s s a u l t s , highway robbery, t h e f t , burglary, f r a u d , f o r g e r y , and r a p e , i f committed by an American s o l d i e r f n a h o s t i l e country a g a i n s t i t s i n h a b i t a n t s , a r e n o t only punishable a s a t home, b u t i n a l l cases i n which death f s n o t i n f l i c t e d , t h e s e v e r e r punishment s h a l l be p r e f e r r e d .

SECTION I11
on t h e

Deserters--Prisoners of War--Hostages--Booty Battlefield

Deserters from t h e American Army, having entered t h e s e r v i c e of t h e enemy, s u f f e r death i f they f a l l again i n t o t h e hands of ' t h e United S t a t e s , whether by capture, o r being d e l i v e r e d up t o t h e American Army; and i f a d e s e r t e r from t h e enemy, having taken s e r v i c e i n t h e Army of t h e United S t a t e s i s captured by t h e enemy, and punished by them with death o r otherwise, it i s n o t a breach a g a i n s t t h e l a w and usages of war r e q u i r i n g r e d r e s s o r r e t a l i a t i o n .

'

49
/

A p r i s o n e r of war i s a p u b l i c enemy armed o r a t t a c h e d t o t h e h o s t i l e army f o r a c t i v e a i d , who h a s f a l l e n i n t o t h e hands of t h e c a p t o r , e i t h e r f i g h t f n g o r wounded, on t h e f i e l d o r i n t h e hos: p i t a l , by i n d i v i d u a l surrender, o r by c a p i t u l a t i o n o

A l l s o l d i e r s , of whatever s p e c i e s of arms; a l l men who belong t o t h e r i s i n g en masse of t h e h o s t i l e country; a l l those who a r e a t t a c h e d t o t h e army f o r i t s e f f i c i e n c y and promote d i r e c t l y t h e o b j e c t of t h e w a r , except such a s a r e h e r e i n a f t e r provided f o r ; a l l d i s a b l e d men o r o f f i c e r s on t h e f i e l d o r elsewhere, i f captured; a l l enemies who have thrown away t h e i r arms and a s k f o r q u a r t e r , a r e p r i s o n e r s of war, and a s such exposed t o t h e fnconveniences a s w e l l a s e n t i t l e d t o t h e p r i v i l e g e s of a p r i s o n e r of

war.

Moreover, c i t i z e n s who accompany an army f o r whatever purpose, such a s s u t l e r s , e d i t o r s , o r r e p o r t e r s of j o u r n a l s , o r cont r a c t o r s , i f .captured, may be made p r i s o n e r s of war, and be detained a s such. The monarch and members of t h e rgigning h o s t i l e family, male o r female, t h e c h i e f , and c h i e f o f f i c e r s of t h e h o s t i l e government, i t s diplomatic a g e n t s , and a l l persons who a r e of p a r t i c u l a r and s i n g u l a r use and b e n e f i t t o t h e h o s t i l e army o r i t s govern-, ment, a r e , i f captured, on b e l l i g e r e n t ground, a n d , i f unprovided with a s a f e conduct granted by t h e c a p t o r ' s government, p r i s o n e r s of war.

I f t h e people of t h a t p o r t i o n of an invaded country which i s n o t y e t occupied by t h e enemy, o r of t h e whole country, a t t h e approach of a h o s t i l e army, r i s e , under a duly authorized levy, en m s s e t o r e s i s t t h e invader, they a r e now t r e a t e d a s p u b l i c enemies, and, i f captured, a r e p r i s o n e r s of war,

N o bellig -e r e n t has t h e r i g -h t t o declare t h a t he w i l l t r e a t every captured man i n arms of a l e v y en masse a s a brigand o r bandi t

I f , however, t h e people of a country, o r any p o r t i o n of t h e same, a l r e a d y occupied by an army, r i s e a g a i n s t i t , t h e y a r e v i o l a t o r s of t h e laws of war, and a r e n o t e n t i t l e d t o t h e i r protection.

The enemy's chaplains, o f f i c e r s of t h e medical s t a f f , a p o t h e c a r i e s , h o s p i t a l nurses and s e r v a n t s , i f they f a l l i n t o t h e hands of t h e American Army, a r e n o t p r i s o n e r s of war, u n l e s s t h e commander has reasons t o r e t a i n them. I n t h i s l a t t e r case, o r i f , a t t h e i r own d e s i r e , they a r e allowed t o remain with t h e i r captured companions, t h e y a r e t r e a t e d a s p r i s o n e r s of war, and may be exchanged i f t h e comander sees f i t ,

A hostage i s a person accepted a s a pledge f o r t h e f u l f i l l ment of an agreement concluded between b e l l i g e r e n t s during t h e war, o r i n consequence of a war. Hostages a r e r a r e i n t h e p r e s e n t age.

I f a h o s t a g e i s accepted, he i s t r e a t e d l i k e a p r i s o n e r of war, according t o rank and condition, a s circumstances may a M t .

A g r i s o n e r of war i s s u b j e c t t o no punishment f o r being a p u b l i c enemy, nor i s any revenge wreaked upon hfm by t h e i n t e n t i o n a l i n f l i c t i o n of any s u f f e r i n g , o r d i s g r a c e , by c r u e l fmprisonment, want of food, by m u t i l a t i o n , d e a t h , o r any o t h e r b a r b a r i t y .

So soon a s a man i s armed by a sovereign government and t a k e s t h e s o l d i e r ' s oath of f i d e l i t y , he i s a b e l l i g e r e n t ; h i s k i l l i n g , wounding, o r o t h e r w a r l i k e a c t s a r e n o t i n d i v i d u a l crimes o r o b e l l i g e r e n t has a right t o d e c l a r e t h a t enemies of offenses. N a c e r t a i n c l a s s , c o l o r , o r condition, when p r o p e r l y organized a s s o l d i e r s , w i l l n o t be t r e a t e d by him a s p u b l i c enemies.

58
The law of n a t i o n s knows of no d i s t i n c t i o n of c o l o r , and if

an enemy of t h e United S t a t e s should enslave and s e l l any captured persons of t h e i r army, it would be a case f o r t h e s e v e r e s t r e t a l i a t i o n , i f n o t redressed upon complaint. The United S t a t e s cannot r e t a l i a t e by enslavement; t h e r e f o r e death must be t h e r e t a l i a t i o n f o r t h i s crime a g a i n s t t h e law of nations.

A p r i s o n e r of war remains answerable f o r h i s crimes commftted a g a i n s t t h e c a p t o r ' s army o r people, committed b e f o r e he was cap- ' t u r e d , and f o r which he has n o t been punished by h i s own a u t h o r i ties.

A l l p r i s o n e r s of-war a r e l i a b l e t o t h e i n f l i c t i o n of r e t a l i a t o r y measures.

I t i s a g a i n s t t h e usage of modern war t o r e s o l v e , i n h a t r e d o body of t r o o p s has t h e r i g h t and revenge, t o g i v e no q u a r t e r . N t o d e c l a r e t h a t it w i l l n o t g i v e , and t h e r e f o r e w i l l n o t expect, q u a r t e r ; but a commander i s permitted t o d i r e c t 11-48 troops t o g i v e no q u a r t e r , i n g r e a t s t r a i t s , when h i s owr.salvatfon.makes it im-p o s s i b l e t o cumber himself with p r i s o n e r s ,

Troops t h a t g i v e no q u a r t e r have no r i g h t t o k i l l enemies a l r e a d y d i s a b l e d on t h e ground, o r p r i s o n e r s captured by o t h e r troops.

A l l t r o o p s of t h e enemy known o r discovered t o g i v e no q u a r t e r i n g e n e r a l , o r t o any p o r t i o n of t h e army, r e c e i v e none.

Troops who fight in the uniform of their enemies, without any plaiq, striking, and uniform mark of distinction of their o m , can expect no quarter.

If American troops capture a train containing uniforms of the enemy, and the comander considers it advisable to distribute them fo~" use among his men, some striking mark or sign must be adopted to distinguish the American soldier from the enemy.

The use of the enemy's national standard, flag, or other emblem of nationality, for the purpose of deceiving the enemy in battle, is an act of perfidy by which they lose all claim to the protection of the laws of war.

Quarter having been given to an enemy by American troops, under a mishpprehension of his true character, he may, nevertheless, be ordered to suffer death if, within three days after the battle, it be discovered that he belongs to a corps which gives no quarter

The law of nations allows every sovereign government to make war upon another sovereign state, and, therefore, admits of no rules or laws different .from those of regular warfare, yegarding the treatment of prisoners of war, although they may belong to the army of a government which the captor may consfder as a wanton and unjust assailant,

Modern wars are not internecine wars, in whfch the killing of the enemy is the object, The destruction of the enemy in modern war, and, indeed, modern war itself, are means to obtain that object of the belligerent which lies beyond t ~ war. e
,
I

Unnecessary or revengeful destruction of life is not lawful,

Outposts, s e n t i n e l s , o r p i c k e t s a r e n o t t o be f i r e d upon, except t o &rive them i n , o r when positive order, special o r rdi g e n e r a l , has been issued t o t h a t e f f e c t . 70
Y

, .The use of poison i n any manner, be it t o poison w e l l s , o r food, o r arms, i s wholly excluded from modern warfare. He t h a t u s e s it p u t s himself out of t h e p a l e of t h e law and usages of w a r .

Whoever i n t e n t i o n a l l y i n f l i c t s a d d i t i o n a l wounds on an enemy a l r e a d y wholly d i s a b l e d , o r k i l l s such an enemy, o r who o r d e r s o r encowages s o l d i e r s t o do s o , s h a l l s u f f e r d e a t h , i f duly convicted, whether he belongs t o t h e A m y of t h e United S t a t e s , o r i s an enemy captured a f t e r having committed h i s m i s deed.

72

Money and o t h e r valuables on t h e person of a p r i s o n e r , such a s watches o r jewelry, a s w e l l a s e x t r a c l o t h i n g , ape regarded by t h e American Armyas t h e p r i v a t e p r o p e r t y of t h e p r i s o n e r , and t h e a p p r o p r i a t i o n of such valuables o r money i s considered d i s honorable, and i s p r o h i b i t e d . Nevertheless, i f l a r g e sums a r e found upon t h e p e r s o n s . o f p r i s o n e r s , o r i n t h e i r possession, they s h a l l be taken from them, and t h e s u r p l u s , a f t e r providing f o r t h e i r own support, approp r i a t e d f o r t h e use of t h e army, under t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e commander, u n l e s s otherwise ordered by t h e government, Nor c.an p r i s o n e r s claim, a s p r i v a t e p r o p e r t y , l a r g e sums found and capt u r e d i n t h e i r t r a i n , although t h e y have been placed i n t h e p r i v a t e luggage of t h e p r i s o n e r s .

A l l o f f i c e r s , when captured, must surrender t h e i r s i d e arms t o t h e c a p t o r . They: may be r e s t o r e d t o t h e p r i s o n e r i n marked c a s e s , by t h e commander, t o s i g n a l i z e admiration of h i s d i s t i n guished bravery o r approbation o f h i s humane treatment of p r i s oners before h i s c a p t u r e . The captured o f f i c e r t o whom they may be r e s t o r e d cannot wear them during c a p t i v i t y .

A prisoner of war, being a public enemy, is the prisoner of the government, and not of the captor, No ransom can be paid by a prisoner of w m to his individual captor or to any officer fn command. The government alone releases captives, according to rules prescribed by itself.

Prisoners bf war are subject to conffnement of imprisonment such as may be deemed necessary on account of safety, but they are to be subjected to no other intent9osial~$uffering, or indignity, The confinement and mode of treating a prisoner may be varied during his captivity according to the demands of safety.

Prisoners,ofwar shall be fed upon plain and wholesome food, whenever practicable, and treated with humanity. They may be required to work for the benefit of the captor's government, according to their rank and condition.
'

A prisoner of war who escapes may be shot or otherwise killed in his flight; but neither death nor any other punishment shall be inflicted upon him simply for- his attempt to escape, which the law of war does not consider a crime. Stricter means of security shall be used after an unsuccessful attempt to escape.
If, however, a conspiracy is discovered, the purpose of which is a united or general escape, the conspirators may be rfgorously punished, even with death; and capital punishment may also be inflicted upon prisoners of war discovered to h'ave plotted rebellion against the authorities of the captors, whether in union with fellow prisoners or other persons.

If prisoners of war, having given no pledge nor made any promise on their honor, forcibly or otherwise escape, and are captured again in battle 'afterhaving rejoined their own a m , they shall not be punished for thefr escape, but shall be treated as simple prisoners of war, although they will be subjected to stricter confinement.

'Every captured wounded enemy shall be medically treated, according to the ability of the medical staff.

Honorable men, when captured, will abstain from the enemy information concerning their own army, and law of war permits no longer the use of any violence prisoners in order to extort the desired information them for having given false information.

giving to the modern against or to punish

SECTION IV Partisans--Armed aemies not belonging to the Hostile Army--Scouts-Armed Prowlers- -War-rebels

Partisans are soldiers armed and wearing the uniform of their army, but belonging to a corps which acts detached from the main body for the purpose of making inroads into the territory occupied by the enemy, If captured, they are entitled to all the privileges of the prisoner of war.
.-

82

Men, or squads of men, who commit hostilities, whether by fighting, or inroads for destruction or plunder, or by raids of any kind, without commission, without being part and portion of the organized hostile army, and without shxring continuously in the war, but do so with intermitting returns to thefr homes and avocations, or with the occasional assumption of the semblance of peaceful pursuits, divesting themselves of the character OT appearance of soldiers--suchmen, or squads of men, are not public enemies, and, therefore, if captured, Ere not entitled to the privileges of prisoners of war, but shall be treated summarily as highway robbers or pirates.

Scouts, or single soldiers, if disguised in the dress of the country or in the uniform of the army hostile to their own, employed in obtaining information, if found within or lurking apout the lines of the captor, are treated as spies, and suffer death.

Armed prowlers, by whatever names they may be called, or persons of the enemy's territory, who steal within the line4 of the hostile army for the purpose of robbing, killing, or of destroying bridges, roads, or canals, or of robbing or destroying the mail, or of cutting the telegraph wires, are not entitled to the privileges of the prisoner of war.

War-rebels are persons within an occupied territory who rise in arms against the occupying or conquering army, or against the authorities established by the same. If captured, they may suffer death, whether they rise singly, in small or large bands, and whether called upon to do so by their own, but expelled, government or not. They are not prisoners of war; nor are they if discovered and secured before their conspiracy has matured to an actual rising or armed violence.

SECTION V Safe-conduct--Spies--War-traitors--Captured Messengers

All intercourse between the territories occupied by,belligerent armies, whether by traffic, by letter, by travel, or in any other way, ceases. This is the general rule, to be observed wfthout special proclamation. Exceptions to this rule, whether by safe-conduct, or permission'to trade on a small or large scale, or by exchanging mails, or,by travel.from one territory into the other, can take place only according to agreement approved by the government, or by highest military authority. Contraventions of this rule are highly punishable.

Ambassadors, and all other diplomatic agents of neutral powers, accredited to the enemy, may receive safe-conducts through the territories occupied by the belligerents, unless there are military reasons to the contxary, and unless they m y reach the place of their destination conveniently by another route. It

and not by subordinate officers.

A spy is a person who secretly, in disguise or under false pretense, seeks information with the intention of communicating it to the enemy.
The spy is punishable with death by hanging by the neck, whether' or not he succeed in obtaining the Tnformation or in conveying it to the enemy.

IT a citizen of the united States obtains information in a legitimate manner, and betrays it to the enemy, be he a military or civil officer, or a private citizen, he shall suffer death.

A traitor under the law of war, or a war-traitor, is a person in a place or district under martial law who, unauthorized by the military commander, gives information of any kind to the enemy, or holds intercourse with him.

The war-traitor is always severely punished. If his offense consists in betraying to the enemy anything concerning the condition, safety, operations, or plans of the troops holding or occupying the place or district, his punishment is death.

If the citizen or subject of a country or place invaded or conquered gives information to his own government, from which he is separated by the hostile army, or to the army of his governinent, he is a war-traitor, and death is the penalty of his offense.

All armies in the field stand in need of guides, and impress them if they cannot obtain them otherwise.

No person having.been forced,by the enemy to serve as guide is punishable for having done so.

If a citizen of a hostile and invaded district voluntarily serves as a guide to the enemy, or offers to do so, he is deemed a war-trai.tor,and shall suffer death.

A citizen serving voluntarily as a guide against his o h country commits treason, and will be dealt with according to the law of his country.

Guides, when it is clearly proved that they have misled- intentionally, may be put to death.

All unauthorized or secret communication with the enemy is considered treasonable by the law of war. Foreign residents in an invaded or occupied territory, or foreign visitors in the same, can claim no immunity from this law. They may cohunicate with foreign parts; or with the inhabitants of the hostile country, so far as the military authority permits, but no further. Instant expulsion from the occupied territory would be the very least punishment for the infraction of this rule.

A messenger carrying written dispatches or verbal messages from one portion of the'army, or from a besieged place, to another portion of the same army, or its government, if armed, and in the uniform of his army, and if captured, while doing so, in the territory occupied by the enemy, is treated by the captor as a prisoner of war. If not in uniform, nor a soldier, the circumstances connected with his capture must determine the disposition that shall be made of hfm.

A messenger or agent who *attemptsto steal through the territory occupied by the enemy, to further, in any manner, the interests of the enemy, if captured, is not entitled to the privileges of the prisoner of war, and may be dealt with according to the circumstances of the case.

While deception i n war i s admitted a s a j u s t and necessary means of h o s t i l i t y , and i s c o n s i s t e n t with honorable warfare, t h e common law of war allows even c a p i t a l punishment f o r ' c l a n d e s t i n e o r treacherous a t t e m p t s t o i n j u r e an enemy, because they a r e s o dangerous, and it i s so d i f f i c u l t t o guard a g a i n s t them.

The law of war, l i k e t h e c r i m i n a l law regarding o t h e r offenses, makes no d i f f e r e n c e on account of t h e d i f f e r e n c e of sexes, concerning t h e spy, t h e w a r - t r a i t o r , o r t h e war-rebel. 103 S p i e s , w a r - t r a i t o r s , and war-rebels a r e n o t exchanged according t o t h e common law of war. The exchange of such persons would r e q u i r e a s p e c i a l c a r t e l , authorized b,y t h e government, .or, a t a g r e a t d i s t a n c e from it, by t h e chief commander of t h e army i n the f i e l d .

ment f o r h i s a c t s a s a spy o r w a r - t r a i t o r , b u t he may be h e l d i n c l o s e r custody a s a person i n d i v i d u a l l y dangerous.

A s u c c e s s f u l epy o r w a r - t r a i t o r , s a f e l y r e t u r n e d t o h i s own army J and afterwards captured a s an enemy-, i s n o t s u b j e c t t o punish-

SECTION VI Exchange of Prisoners--Flags of Truce--Abuse of t h e F l a g of Truke--Flags of P r o t e c t i o n

Exchanges of p r i s o n e r s take place--number f o r number--rank f o r rank--wounded f o r wounded-.-with added condition f o r ad,ded condition--such, f o r i n s t a n c e , a s n o t t o serve f o r a c e r t a i n p e r i o d .

I n exchanging p r i s o n e r s of war, such numbers of persons of i n f e r i o r rank may be s u b s t i t u t e d a s an equivalent f o r one of s u p e r i o r rank a s may be agreed upon by c a r t e l , whfch r e q u i r e s t h e s a n c t i o n of t h e government, o r of t h e commander of t h e anny i n t h e f i e l d .

A p r i s o n e r of war i s i n honor bound t r u l y t o s t a t e t o t h e captor h i s rank; and he i s n o t t o assume a lower rank than belongs t o him, i n order t o cause a more advantageous exchange, nor a higher rank, f o r t h e purpose of obtaining b e t t e r treatment.

Offenses t o t h e c o n t r a r y have been j u s t l y punished by t h e commanders of r e l e a s e d p r i s o n e r s , and may be good cause f o r r e f u s i n g t o r e l e a s e such p r i s o n e r s .

The s u r p l u s number of p r i s o n e r s of war remaining a f t e r an exchange has taken p l a c e i s sometimes r e l e a s e d e i t h e r f o r t h e payment of a s t i p u l a t e d sum of money, or; i n urgent c a s e s , of provision, clothing, or other necessaries. Such arrangement, however, r e q u i r e s t h e s a n c t i o n of t h e highe s t authority.

The exchange of p r i s o n e r s of war i s an a c t of convenience t o both b e l l i g e r e n t s . I f no g e n e r a l c a r t e l has been concluded, it cannot be demanded by e i t h e r of them. N o b e l l i g e r e n t i s obliged t o exchange p r i s o n e r s of war.
A c a r t e l i s voidable a s soon a s e i t h e r p a r t y has v i o l a t e d it. .

N o exchange of p r i s o n e r s s h a l l be made except a f t e r complete c a p t u r e , and a f t e r an a c c u r a t e account of them, and a l i s t of t h e captured o f f i c e r s , has been taken.

The b e a r e r of s f l a g of t r u c e cannot i n s i s t upon being adm i t t e d . He must always be admitted with g r e a t c a u t i o n . Unnecess a r y frequency i s c a r e f u l l y t o be avoided.

I f t h e b e a r e r of a f l a g of t r u c e o f f e r himself during an engagement, he can be admitted a s a very r a r e exception only. It i s no breach of good f a i t h t o r e t a i n such f l a g of t r u c e , i f admitted during t h e engagement. F i r i n g i s n o t r e q u i r e d t o cease on t h e appearance of a f l a g of t r u c e i n b a t t l e .

I f t h e b e a r e r of a f l a g of t r u c e , p r e s e n t i n g himself during

an engagement, i s k i l l e d o r wohded., it f u r n i s h e s no ground of

complaint whatever.

I f it be discovered, and f a i r l y proved, t h a t a f l a g of t r u c e has been abusedfor s u r r e p t i t i o u s l y obtaining m i l i t a r y knowledge, t h e b e a r e r of t h e f l a g t h u s abusing h i s sacred c h a r a c t e r i s deemed a SPY. So sacred i s t h e c h a r a c t e r of a f l a g of t r u c e , and so necess a r y i s i t s sacredness, t h a t while i t s abuse i s an e s p e c i a l l y h e i nous o f f e n s e , g r e a t c a u t i o n i s r e q u i s i t e , on t h e o t h e r hand, i n convicting t h e b e a r e r of a f l a g of t r u c e a s a spy.

I t i s customary t o designate by c e r t a i n f l a g s ( u s u a l l y yellow) t h e h o s p i t a l s i n p l a c e s which a r e s h e l l e d , s o t h a t t h e besieging enemy may avoid f i r i n g on them. The same has been done i n b a t t l e s , when h o s p i t a l s a r e s i t u a t e d w i t h i n t h e f i e l d of t h e engagement.

Honorable b e l l i g e r e n t s o f t e n r e q u e s t t h a t t h e h o s p i t a l ~ ~ w i t h i n t h e t e r r i t o r y of t h e enemy may be designated, so t h a t t h e y may be spared. A n honorable b e l l i g e r e n t allows himself t o be guided by f l a g s o r s i g n a l s o r p r o t e c t i o n a s much a s t h e contingencies and t h e n e c e s s i t i e s of t h e f i g h t w i l l permit.

It i s j u s t l y considered a n a c t of bad f a i t h , of infamy o r f i e n d i s h n e s s , t o deceive t h e enemy by f l a g s of p r o t e c t i o n . Such a c t of bad f a i t h may be good cause f o r r e f u s i n g t o r e s p e c t such flags.

The besieging b e l l i g e r e n t has sometimes requested t h e besiegb ed t o d e s i g n a t e t h e b u i l d i n g s containing c o l l e c t i o n s of works of a r t , s c i e n t i f i c museums, astronomical o b s e r v a t o r i e s , o r precious

l i b r a r i e s , so t h a t t h e i r d e s t r u c t i o n may be avoided a s much a s possible.

I I SECTION V The P a r o l e

P r i s o n e r s of war may be r e l e a s e d from c a p t i v i t y by exchange, and, u n d e r . c e r t a i n circumstances, a l s o by p a r o l e .

The term "Parole" designates t h e pledge of i n d i v i d u a l good f a i t h and honor t o do, o r t o omit doing, c e r t a i n a c t s a f t e r h e who g i v e s h i s p a r o l e s h a l l have been dismissed, wholly o r p a r t i a l l y , from t h e power of t h e c a p t o r .

The pledge of t h e p a r o l e i s always a n i n d i v i d u a l , b u t n o t a private act.

The p a r o l e a p p l i e s c h i e f l y t o p r i s o n e r s of war whom t h e captor allows t o r e t u r n t o t h e i r country, o r t o l i v e i n g r e a t e r freedom w i t h i n t h e c a p t o r ' s country o r t e r r i t o r y , on conditions s t a t e d i n the parole.

Release of p r i s o n e r s of war by exchange i s t h e g e n e r a l r u l e ; r e l e a s e by p a r o l e i s t h e exception.

Breaking t h e p a r o l e i s punished with death when t h e person breaking t h e p a r o l e i s captured a g a i n . Accurate l i s t s , t h e r e f o r e , of t h e paroled persons must be kept by t h e b e l l i g e r e n t s .

When p a r o l e s a r e given and received t h e r e must be an exchange of two w r i t t e n d o c w e n t s , i n which t h e name and rank of t h e paroled i n d i v i d u q l s a r e a c c u r a t e l y and t r u t h f u l l y s t a t e d .

Commissioned o f f i c e r s only a r e allowed t o g i v e t h e i r p a r o l e , and they can g i v e it only with t h e permission of t h e i r s u p e r i o r , a s 'long a s a s u p e r i o r i n rank i s w i t h i n reach.

N o noncommissioned o f f i c e r o r p r i v a t e can g i v e h i s p a r o l e except through an o f f i c e r . I n d i v i d u a l p a r o l e s n o t given through an o f f i c e r a r e n o t only void, b u t s u b j e c t t h e i n d i v i d u a l s g i v i n g them t o t h e punishment of death a s d e s e r t e r s . The only admiss i b l e exception i s where i n d i v i d u a l s , properly separated from t h e i r commands, have s u f f e r e d long confinement without t h e poss i b i l i t y of being paroled through an o f f i c e r .

N o p a r o l i n g on t h e b a t t l e f i e l d ; no p a r o l i n g of e n t i r e bodies of troops a f t e r a b a t t l e ; and no d i s m i s s a l of l a r g e numbers of pr'isoners, with a g e n e r a l d e c l a r a t i o n t h a t they a r e paroled, i s permitted, o r of any value.

?n c a p i t u l a t i o n s f o r t h e surrender of s t r o n g p l a c e s o r f o r t i f i e d camps t h e commanding o f f i c e r , i n c.ases of urgent nec e s s i t y , may agree t h a t t h e troops under h i s command s h a l l n o t f i g h t again during t h e war, u n l e s s exchanged,

The u s u a l pledge given in' t h e p a r o l e i s n o t t o serve during t h e e x i s t i n g war, u n l e s s exchanged. This pledge r e f e r s only t o t h e a c t i v e s e r v i c e i n t h e f i e l d , a g a i n s t t h e p a r o l i n g b e l l i g e r e n t o r h i s a l l i e s a c t i v e l y engaged i n t h e same war. These cases of breaking %he p a r o l e a r e p a t e n t a c t s , and can be v i s i t e d with t h e punishment of death; b u t t h e pledge does n o t r e f e r t o i n t e r n a l s e r v i c e , such a s r e c r u i t i n g o r d r i l l i n g t h e r e c r u i t s , f o r t i f y i n g p l a c e s not besieged, q u e l l i n g c i v i l commotions, f i g h t i n g a g a i n s t b e l l i g e r e n t s unconnected with

t h e p a r o l i n g b e l l i g e r e n t s , o r t o c i v i l o r diplomatic s e r v i c e f o r which t h e paroled o f f i c e r may be employed.

I f t h e government does n o t approve t h e p a r o l e , t h e paroled o f f i c e r must r e t u r n i n t o c a p t i v i t y , and should t h e enemy r e f u s e t o r e c e i v e him, he i s f r e e of h i s p a r o l e .

A b e l l i g e r e n t government may d e c l a r e , by a g e n e r a l ' o r d e r , whether it w i l l allow p a r o l i n g , and on what c o n d i t i o n s it w i l l allow i t . Such order i s communicated t o t h e enemy.

N o p r i s o n e r of war can be forced by t h e h o s t i l e government t o p a r o l e himself, and no government i s obliged t o p a r o l e p r i s o n e r s of war, o r t o p a r o l e a l l captured o f f i c e r s , if it p a r o l e s any. A s t h e pledging of t h e p a r o l e i s an i n d i v i d u a l a c t , s o i s p a r o l i n g , on t h e o t h e r hand, an a c t of choice on t h e p a r t of t h e b e l l i g e r e n t .

The commander of an occupying army niay r e q u i r e of t h e c i v i l o f f i c e r s of t h e enemy, and of i t s c i t i z e n g , any pledge he may cons i d e r necessary f o r t h e s a f e t y o r s e c u r i t y of h i s army, and upon t h e i r f a i l u r e t o g i v e it he may a r r e s t , confine, o r d e t a i n them.

SECTION VIII

A n a r m i s t i c e i s t h e c e s s a t i o n of a c t i v e h o s t i l i t i e s f o r a p e r i o d agreed between b e l l i g e r e n t s . It must be agreed upon i n w r i t i n g , and duly r a t i f i e d by t h e h i g h e s t a u t h o r i t i e s of t h e contending p a r t i e s .

If an a r m i s t i c e be declared, without c o n d i t i o n s , it extends no f u r t h e r than t o r e q u i r e a t o t a l c e s s a t i o n of h o s t i l i t f e s along t h e f r o n t of both b e l l i g e r e n t s .

If c~nditionsbe agreed upon, they should be>clearly expressed, and must be rigidly adhered to by both parties. If either party vi,>lates any express condition, the armistice may be declared null and h i d by the other.

An armistice may be general, and valid for all points and lines of the belligerents; or special.,that is, referring to certain troops or certain localities onlx.
*

An armistice m y be concluded for a definite time; or for an indefinite time, during which either belligerent may resume hostilities on giving the notice agreed upon to the other.

The motives which induce the one or the other belligerent to conclude an armistice, whether it be expected to be preliminary to a treaty of peace, or to prepare during the armistice for a more vigorous prosecution of the war, does in no way affect the character of the armistice itself.

An armistice is binding upon the belligerents from the day of the agreed commencement; but the officers of the armies are responsible from the day only when they receive official information of its existence. 140 Commanding officers have the right to conclude armistices binding on the district over which their command extends, but such armistice is subject to the ratification of the superior authority, and ceases so soon as it is made known to the enemy that the armistice is not ratified, even if a certain time for the elapsing between giving notice of cessation and the resumption of hos-Lilitigs should have been stipulated for.

It is incumbent upon the contracting parties of an armistice to stipulate what intercourse of persons or traffic between the inhabitants of the territories occupied by the hostile armies shall be allowed, if any. If nothing is stipulated the intercourse remains suspended, as during actual hostilities.

An armistice is not a partial or a temporary peace; it is

only the suspension of military operations to the extent agreed upon by the parties.

When an armistice is concluded between a fortified place and the army besieging it, it is agreed by all the authorities on this subject that the besieger must cease all extension, perfection, or advance of his attacking works as much so as from attacks by main force

But as there is a difference of opinion among martial jurists, whether the besieged have the right to repair breaches or to erect new works of the defense within the place during an armistice, this point should be determined by express agreement between the parties.

So soon as a capitulation is signed, the capitulator has no right to demolish, destroy, or inJure the works, arms, stores, or ammunition, in his possession, during the time which elapses be.tween the signing and the exe2iikion of the capitulation, unless otherwise stipulated in the same.

Idhen an armistice is clearly broken by one of the parties, the other party is released from all obligation to observe it.

Prisoners taken in the act of breaking an treated as prisoners of war, the officer alone who gives the order for such a violation of an highest authority of the belligerent aggrieved for the infraction of an armistice.

armistice must be being responsible armistice. The may demand redress

Belligerents sometimes conclude an armistice while their plenipotkntiaries are met to discuss the conditions of a treaty of peace; but plenipotentiaries may meet without a preliminary armistice; in the latter case, the war is carried on without any abatement.

SECTION IX Assassination

The law of war does not allow proclaiming either an individual belonging to the hostile army, or a citizen, OF a subaect of the hostile government, an outlaw, who may be slain without trial by -any captor, any more than the modem law of peace allows such intentional outlawry; on the contrary, it abhors such outrage. The sternest retaliation should follow the murder committed in consequence of such proclamsltion, made by whatever authority. Civilized nations look with horror upon offers of rewards for the assassination of enemies as relapses into barbariam.

SECTION X

Insurrection is the rising of people in arms against their government, or a portion of it, or against one or more of its laws, or against an ofyicer or officers of the government. It may be confined to mere armed resistance, or it may have greater ends in view. 150 Civil war is war between two or more poytions of a country or state, each contending for the mastery of the whole, and each claiming to be the legitimate government. The term is also sometimes applied to war of rebellion, when the rebellious provinces or portion of the state are contiguous to those containing the seat of government.

The term "rebellion" is applied to an inswrection of large extent, and is usually a war between the legitimate government of a country and portions of provinces of the same who seek to throw off their allegiance to it and set up a government of their own.

When humanity induces t h e adoption of t h e r u l e s of r e g u l a r war toward r e b e l s , whether t h e adoption i s p a r t i a l o r e n t i r e , i t does i n no way whatever imply a p a r t i a l o r complete acknowledgement of t h e i r government, i f they have s e t up one, o r of them, a s an independent and sovereign power. Neutrals have no r i g h t t o make t h e adoption of t h e r u l e s of war by t h e a s s a i l e d government t o ward r e b e l s t h e ground of t h e i r own acknowledgement of t h e r e v o l t e d people a s an independent power.

T r e a t i n g captured r e b e l s a s p r i s o n e r s of war, exchanging them, concluding of c a r t e l s , c a p i t u l a t i o n s , o r o t h e r w a r l i k e agreements with them; addressing o f f i c e r s of a r e b e l army by t h e rank they may have i n t h e same; accepting f l a g s of t r u c e ; o r , on t h e o t h e r hand, proclaiming m a r t i a l law i n t h e i r t e r r i t o r y , o r levying wart a x e s o r forced l o a n s , o r doing any o t h e r a c t sanctioned o r demanded by t h e law and usages of p u b l i c war between sovereign b e l l i g e r e n t s n e i t h e r proves nor e s t a b l i s h e s an acknowledgment of t h e r e b e l l i o u s people, o r of t h e government which they may have e r e c t e d , a s a p u b l i c o r sovereign power. Nor does t h e adoption of t h e r u l e s of war toward r e b e l s imply an engagement w i t h them extending beyond t h e l i m i t s of t h e s e r u l e s . It i s v i c t o r y i n t h e f i e l d t h a t ends t h e s t r i f e and s e t t l e s t h e f u t u r e r e l a t i o n s between t h e contending parties.

154
T r e a t i n g , i n t h e f i e l d , t h e r e b e l l i o u s enemy according t o t h e law and usages of way ha? never prevented t h e l e g i t i m a t e government from t r y i n g t h e l e a d e r s of t h e r e b e l l i o n o r chief r e b e l s f o r high t r e a s o n , and from t ~ e a t i n gthem.accordingly, u n l e s s they a r e i n cluded i n a g e n e r a l amnesty.

A l l enemies i n r e g u l a r war a r e divided i n t o two g e n e r a l c l a s s e s - . - t h a t i s t o say, i n t o combatants and noncombatants, o r unarmed c i t i z e n s of t h e h o s t i l e government.

The m i l i t a r y commander of t h e l e g i t i m a t e government, i n a war of rebellion, d i s t i n g u i s h e s between t h e l o y a l c f t i z e n i n t h e . r e v o l t e d p o r t i o n of t h e country and t h e d i s l o y a l c i t i z e n , The d f s l o y a l c i t i z e n s may f u r t h e r be c l a s s i f i e d i n t o those c i t f z e n s known t o sympathize w i t h t h e r e b e l l i o n without p o s i t i v e l y a i d i n g i t , and t h o s e who, without taking up arms, g i v e p o s i t i v e a i d and comfort t o t h e r e b e l l i o u s enemy without being b o d i l y forced t h e r e t o .

Common j u s t i c e and ' p l a i n expediency r e q u i r e t h a t t h e m i l i t a r y comander p r o t e c t t h e m a n i f e s t l y l o y a l c i t i z e n s , i n r e v o l t e d t e r r i t o r i e s , a g a i n s t t h e hardships of t h e war a s much a s t h e common m i s f o r t u n e of a l l war admits. The commander w i l l throw t h e burden o f t h e war, as much a s l i e s w i t h i n h i s power, on t h e d i s l o y a l c i t i z e n s , o f t h e r e v o l t e d p o r t i o n o r province, s u b j e c t i n g them t o a s t r i c t e r p o l i c e than t h e noncombatant enemies have t o s u f f e r i n r e g u l a r war; and if he deems it a p p r o p r i a t e , o r i f h i s government demands of them t h a t every c i t i z e n s h a l l , by an o a t h of a l l e g i a n c e , o r by some o t h e r manifest a c t , d e c l a r e h i s f i d e l i t y t o t h e l e g i t i m a t e government, he may expel, t r a n s f e r , imprison, o r f i n e t h e r e v o l t e d c i t i z e n s who r e f u s e t o pledge themselves anew a s c i t i z e n s obedient t o t h e law and l o y a l t o t h e government. Whether i t i s expedient t o do so, and whether r e l i a n c e can be placed upon such o a t h s , t h e c o m n d e r o r h i s government h a s t h e r i g h t t o decide.

Armed o r unarmed r e s i s t a n c e by c i t i z e n s of t h e United S t a t e s a g a i n s t t h e lawful movements of t h e i r troops i s levying w a r a g a i n s t t h e United S t a t e s , and i s t h e r e f o r e t r e a s o n .