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Advancement of Energy Storage Devices and Applications in Electrical Power System

Steven C. Smith, P.K. Sen, Sr. Member IEEE and Benjamin Kroposki, Sr. Member IEEE

Abstract Overall structure of electrical power system is in the process of changing. For incremental growth, it is moving away from fossil fuel based operations to renewable energy resources that are more environmentally friendly and sustainable. At the same time it has to grow to meet the ever increasing need for more energy. These changes bring very unique opportunities and obstacles. Over the past few decades many new and innovative ideas have been explored in the broad area of energy storage. They range in size, capacity and complexity in design. Some of the systems are designed for applications in large scale power and others are performing short term energy storage ride through capabilities for critical manufacturing and technology systems. Energy storage technology has become an enabling technology for renewable energy applications and enhancing power quality in the transmission and distribution power systems. This paper will summarize all the advancements made and provide a composite picture of costs and trends in storage technologies. Index TermsEnergy storage, renewable energy, distributed resources, battery, compressed air, flywheel, pumped-hydro, supercapacitor, ultracapacitor, superconducting magnetic energy storage, renewable energy.

Fig. 1 depicts the principle of energy storage applications that can be applied to both the bulk power transmission grid as well as the distribution system. Some of the technologies are available for both applications. Currently distribution applications are receiving more attention due to the concept of micro-grid and distributed generation and other power quality issues. In addition the need to become less dependent on fossil fuels and foreign oil is also driving research into energy storage devices for the transportation industry. There are many things in common between these energy storage applications for the transportation and backup power systems industries since they utilize similar technologies. The concept of energy storage in the transmission grid is not new either. Large pumped hydro electric plants have been operating off this principle for many decades. Over the past two decades many other energy storage technologies have matured to the point that they have become viable options for selected applications in large scale power systems. Some have already seen small to medium scale applications.

I. INTRODUCTION Energy storage has been in existence for a long time and has been utilized in many forms and applications from a flashlight to the Space Shuttle. Now energy storage technology is used to make the electric power systems more reliable as well as making the broader use of renewable energy a reality. Currently many states have laws that require the utilities to increase the use of renewable energy in their portfolios. With these requirements come some very unique challenges. Renewable energy resources like solar, wind and tidal wave are not dispatchable. These are only available when there is adequate sun, wind and tide [29]. This is where energy storage systems become an enabling technology [30]. They provide the means to make the non-dispatchable resources into a dispatchable energy source.

Fig. 1. Energy Storage Diagram

The NSF IUCRC Power Systems Energy Research Center (PSerc) supported in the development of this paper. Steven C. Smith is with Lockheed Martin, Littleton, Colorado 80122 USA (e-mail: steve.c.smith@lmco.com). P.K. Sen is with Colorado School of Mines, Golden, Colorado 80401, USA(e-mail: psen@mines.edu) Benjamin Kroposki is with National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL), Golden, Colorado 80401, USA (Benjamin_Kroposki@NREL.gov)

Energy storage systems can provide a wide array of solutions to key issues that are affecting the power system. Depending on the technology selected they can provide spinning reserves, load leveling and shifting, load forecasting, frequency control, VAR support and voltage regulation, relief of overloaded transmission lines, release of system capacity, enhance power quality, and needless to say more effective and efficient use of capital resources. Being able to store the excess available energy that has not been consumed not only helps with the variety of issues previously mentioned it also increases the overall efficiency of the power system. For 2005 the Energy Information Agency reported that there was a capacity margin of 15.4%

2008 IEEE.

for the contiguous USA [25]. The majority of the power was created by units using fossil fuels. Using energy storage systems this margin could be taken and stored for later use. This not only helps with the overall energy efficiency of the system, but can also provide the array of services to the system previously mentioned. II. RENEWABLE RESOURCES Renewable resources offer many attractive solutions to the current energy needs. They are sustainable and environmentally friendly. Every region around the world has some form of renewable energy available. By combining these resources they can make an appreciable contribution to the total energy needs and security of the region [2]. However the major drawback of renewable energy is its weather dependent intermittent behavior and its inability to dispatch power when needed. Weather data from many resources including satellites are available to help understand weather patterns [22]. This data can intern be used to forecast renewable energy outputs, but there will always be some level of uncertainty in their forecast. For example figure 2 shows a typical daily load curve for a utility, the forecasted wind, and the actual wind production. When the wind is greater than the forecast, the utility must absorb or curtail the power. If the wind is less than the forecast, then the utility must supply power or reduce the load. The uncertainty of the renewable resource can be managed by the use of energy storage devices.
8000 Gross Load (MW) Wind Forcast (MW) Wind Actual (MW) 800

just injecting the power into the system when it is available. In order to accommodate the intermittent and variable behavior of the renewable resources the overall management of the power system must be altered. There are more than just technical issues involved when considering renewable energy resources. There are economic factors including tax and energy credit that must be considered in determining the application [23].

Fig. 3. Shell Sustained Growth Scenario [2]

Renewable energy is considered a large part of the solution to meet our energy needs in the future and maintain the sustainability. Fig. 3 depicts on such scenario. Energy storage is the means to make renewable energy a viable part of the power system in the future. III. ENERGY STORAGE OPTIONS There are a variety of energy storage options. They can be divided into two major categories as shown in Fig. 4. The first being large-scale storage devices that can be used in utility transmission applications. The second group includes small-scale storage devices located at the consumers site. An example of this type of unit would be an Uninterruptable Power Supply (UPS) unit using batteries. This paper primary addresses the utility applications of energy storage systems. Only a few large scale energy storage systems are in operation today. One of the biggest questions currently facing energy storage device technology is can it provide large scale energy services to the grid when needed? Discussed below are the status and scope of current technologies.

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Another issue with renewable resources is their time of energy generation. Wind generally has high production at night and solar is usually during the mid hours of the day, this often does not coincide with the peak loads between 5 to 9 PM. Energy storage could be used for time shifting these resources to periods when demand is high, but for current penetrations of renewable resources the key is to manage the suite of generation sources available to the utility. In addition, injecting power from renewable resources into the power grid when available can cause other power quality and reliability issues. Voltage swells and sags can occur by

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Fig. 4. Energy Storage Applications in the Power System

A. Batteries Batteries have been around for over one-hundred years and possess some very unique and desirable qualities. Battery systems are modular, quiet, and non-polluting [6]. They can be located almost anywhere and can be installed relatively quickly. The larger battery systems called Battery Energy Storage Systems (BESS) do not have the environmental challenges of other technologies. These systems can often be installed within a 12 month time frame. The BESS installations can be housed inside a building or some other facility close to the need and of very advantageous when the location is in a city or neighborhood [4]. Because a BESS uses a power converter to change the battery DC power to grid-compatible AC power the units can respond very quickly to load changes on the system. Their response times are about 20 milliseconds (little more than one cycle) and their round trip efficiency is in the range of 60 to 80% [6]. Batteries, however, have some very unique challenges also. Batteries store energy as an electro chemical process. During an electrical charge and discharge cycle the temperature change in the battery must be controlled or it can affect the batterys life expectancy. The type of battery being used will determine how resistant it is to life degradation due to temperature [4]. Another major concern is the batteries life-cycle. This is defined as the number of charge/discharge cycles that a battery can supply depending on the depth of discharge (DoD) [3]. The battery/cycle application may require the BESS to charge and discharge multiple times a day. As long as the DoD is relatively low the batteries cycle life will remain unaffected. However if the DoD is large then the battery life cycle can be degraded. If the desired cycle life of a Ni-Cd battery is 20,000 cycles then the DoD cannot be greater than approximately 15%, as seen from Fig. 5. The maximum discharge rate of the battery is also of concern because the battery can also be damaged by using to high of a discharge rate. Depending on the type of battery and its application the discharge rate maybe its capacity divide by 4, 6 or even 10. This limits the available current in the battery for immediate use. For power quality issues such as voltage regulation, frequency control, short term interrupts and VAR support these systems can be quite effective. They also maybe effectively used as spinning reserve to the short duration peak loads [3]. These daily peak demands usually only last about an hour or less [5]. However without the ability to deep cycle, the battery load leveling will be a challenge in the future There are a number of battery energy storage systems that currently exist including a 10 MW (40 MWh) facility in Chino, California and a 20 MW (5 MWh) facility in Puerto

Rico [4][6][7]. Southern California Edison and EPRI demonstrated the cost and benefits of a Lead Acid BESS for load leveling, voltage, VAR, frequency control, and spinning reserve duty [6]. The design of this system was to have daily discharges of 10 MW for 4 hours to a 70% DoD. The batteries where intended to last 2000 cycles. However after only 890 cycles they had shown significant deterioration. Until higher capacity batteries are developed that can handle the deep cycling capabilities required by load leveling then BESS will continue to have challenges in this area [3]. Some specific battery types like the Sodium Sulfur (NaS) battery have been specifically designed for utility energy storage applications. These batteries are designed to have a relatively long life (15 years) and come in blocks that can provide 1MW for 6-8 hours. There are many new battery technologies that are being developed to store more energy, last longer, and cost less than the Lead Acid battery. Some of these new battery technologies are Lithium Ion, Hydrogen Vanadium Redox, Regenesys Redox, Sodium Sulfur, Nickel Metal Hydride, Nickel Cadmium, and Zinc Bromide [3][8][31]. B. Supercapacitor or Ultracapacitor The super- or ultra-capacitor is not a new technology. It has been around since the 1960s [27][28]. The super- or ultra-capacitor is an electrochemical double layer capacitor (ECDL). The ultracapacitor is an electrochemical device. There are no chemical reactions involved in the ultracapacitors energy storage mechanism. This mechanism is highly reversible, and allows the ultracapacitor to be charged and discharged hundreds of thousands of times [26]. Some vendors advertise in the million plus cycle range [28]. The ultracapacitor is also temperature resistant with an operating range between -40C to +65C and is also shock and vibration resistant [27][28]. With these attributes the ultracapacitor can be a highly effective energy storage device. However it does have one large limitation. The ultracapacitor has a relatively low energy density compared to a battery. Its capability is usually on the order of a magnitude less energy density than an equivalent battery. The power density however is a much better in the ultracapacitor. The power density for an ultracapacitor is a magnitude better than that of a battery.

4 Fig. 5. Cycle Life of sintered/PBE Ni-Cd batteries [3]

Ultracapacitors are currently available in many sizes. There current voltage ratings are up to as high as 2.7V with a maximum string voltage of 1,500V [28]. In order to be a viable alternative in a large scale energy storage system they will need to be able to handle multiple kV. They can be use for short term ride through capabilities as well as voltage regulation, frequency control and other power quality issues. The ultracapacitor is currently being considered as a technology for the DOE Freedom Car 42V start-stop application. Current challenges are the low energy density and high cost of the system [24]. The ultracapacitor offers great promise because it has the great attributes of a battery without the undesirable traits and offers a round trip efficiency of 84-95% [8][28]. This combined with the ability of modular, quiet, non-polluting, quick charge and discharge capability, long life (10 to 12 years) and very high cycle life makes the ultracapacitor a very desirable energy storage device. There have been advances in the design of the ultracapacitors using nano-tube technology to improve the surface area of the capacitor. This nano-tube ultracapacitor would improve the ultracapacitors energy density to be compatible with that of a chemical battery [27]. C. Pumped Hydroelectric Pumped-hydro storage has been in worldwide use for more than 70 years. These large scale energy storage plants are the most wide spread energy storage technology in use today [6]. There are 150 pumped storage facilities in the United States and approximately 280 installations worldwide. They have a combined generation capacity of about 90GW, which is about 3% of the worlds generating capacity [6][9][25]. Pumped-hydro units operate off the same principles of a hydro-electric power plant. However their generator units serve also as motors. During off peak hours the surplus power water is pumped from a lower reservoir to a higher level reservoir. Then during the times of high electrical demand the water is released from the higher reservoir to turn the turbine and produce electrical energy. They can produce a large amount of energy for sustained periods of time. In addition, these plants have round trip efficiencies in the range of 70 to 80% [6][9]. Their storage capacity is dependent only on the size of the reservoir. So instead of having only a few hours of energy storage it could be days. The major drawback to this design is the significant amount of land required to create the reservoirs and the elevation needed between them. Many of the desirable sites are already in use and the others have encountered opposition from environmental groups. There is however an alternative to avoid the environmental impacts of the large reservoirs by placing them underground. The use of underground pumped hydro plants has been proven to be technically feasible, but with the high costs associated with placing them underground none currently exist today [6].

Pumped-hydro storage plants are costly and take a long time to plan and build. One recently constructed pumped hydro plant in the Alps took 30 years to plan and 7 years to construct. This plant however is rated for 1.06 GW of power and 8.5 GWh of energy storage capacity [9]. D. Compressed Air Energy Storage Compressed Air Energy Storage (CAES) systems use off peak electrical power generated from base load plants or renewable energy sources to compress air into underground reservoir or surface vessel. Then during times of high electrical demand this compressed air is combined with a one of a variety of fuels to drive a turbine generator set. The CAES plant uses two third less fuel compared to the conventional units and is able to start up within tens of minutes [10]. It does not require a lengthy startup time that other spinning reserve may require, such as thermal units. CAES plants require a large volume of compressed air to operate for extended periods of time. The principle of storing a gas underground is based off a proven method developed by the oil & gas industry. This technology has been proven to work in solution mined salt caverns, conventionally mined hard rock caverns and aquifers. As seen in Figure 6, in the United States over 75% of its area is favorable to underground storage [6][11][12]. There are currently two CAES plants in operation today. The first plant was built in Huntof, Germany in 1978. This plants capacity is 290MW for 4 hours. It has a very impressive performance record of 90% availability and 99% starting reliability. The second was built in McIntosh, Alabama in 1991. This plants capacity is 110MW for 26 hours. The round trip efficiency for the CAES plants accounting for both thermal and electrical inputs is about 85% [6][7][10][11][12][13][30]. The main key to a CAES system is the reservoir has to be air tight and very large. Smaller units using above ground storage tanks are usually limited in their energy storage capacity to only a few hours [6]. In order to get a greater efficiency or remove the need for an additional conventional fuel there are many new hybrid CAES technologies being developed. These new hybrid systems in development are use supercapacitors, oil-hydraulics and pneumatics to increase the efficiency of the design [14].

and Development Authority (NYSERDA). These systems use the Smart Energy Matrix (SEM) by Beacon Power in their design. The New York project is connected to an industrial site and the California project is connected to a transmission line at a substation. Both projects are to demonstrate the FESS capability to enhance power quality capabilities [17]. Not only is it more efficient to store existing power in the FESS for later use but there is also the added benefit of using it to improve system reliability and quality with its quick response to system anomalies. In addition, there is an added benefit of the release of system resources to produce power. F. Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage (SMES) systems use superconducting magnets cryogenically cooled to produce an essentially loss-less coil. The energy from the AC system is converted and stored as DC energy in a superconducting magnet. Upon needing power to be released from the system the process is reversed and the DC is converted to AC current through a Power Converter Module. The efficiencies of these SMES systems have been reported to be in the range of 95 to 98%. In addition, a large amount of energy can be supplied to the power system in a matter of milliseconds [6][7][18][19]. The superconducting magnet comes in two different physical arrangements that of a toroid or a solenoid. The original work of SMES system focused around large scale systems configuration with much of the work centered on designs in the range of 1,000 to 10,000 MWh [20]. The estimated size for utilities applications was determined to be 5,000 MWh at 1,000 MW [18]. When these large systems would be charged the superconducting coil expands under Lorentz forces and would require a large amount of structure to support the coil to offset these forces. In order to reduce the cost it was determined that placing the coil in an earth trench would be more cost effective [19]. The estimated cost to build such a system in 1985 was US $980,000,000 [18]. The first operating SMES system with a three phase converter was tested at Los Alamos National Laboratory (LANL) in 1974 [21]. Then in 1976 a team from Bonneville Power Authority (BPA) and LANL designed and constructed a 30 MJ (8.33 kWh), 10 MW SMES unit. This unit was installed in the BPAs Tacoma Washington substation to provide stability (damping of oscillations) to the Pacific Intertie [19][21]. It was installed in 1981 and only operated for a short period of time. During the time of construction it was determined that by phase controlling part of the converter on the DC link could also damp the oscillations [21]. Since that time there have been many installations of smaller SMES units in the range of 1-3 MJ (277.8-833.3 MWh), with power outputs as high as 2.5 MW [21]. These units not only provide energy storage for short-term power quality issues but they can also be sized to provide for longer durations of uninterrupted power. These larger designs can provide load leveling and spinning reserve for longer periods of time. They can respond to system variations within milliseconds. Other than very large pumped-hydro plants, the SMES large designs proposed are the only energy storage

Fig. 6. Shaded Areas Favorable for Underground Storage [11]

Many of the parts that are needed to build a CAES system are available off the shelf. The time to design and bring such a plant on line is on the order of two years. The McIntosh, Alabama plant took 2.5 years to build [6][12]. It also incorporates a recuperator, that the Huntorf plant does not have, that preheats the air prior to entering the turbine. This reduces the plants fuel consumption by 25% [12]. E. Flywheels Flywheels have had success in the commercial sector for small units in the range of 1kW for 3 hours to 100kW for 30 second [6]. Flywheels store energy as kinetic energy in a rotor that is spinning at extremely high velocities. The amount of energy stored in the rotor is proportional to the square of its angular momentum. As energy is needed the flywheel switches operational modes to produce the power needed [7]. This is done by using power electronics and a sophisticated control system. One such application is the Smart Energy Matrix which is composed of energy storage modules (ESM) and energy conversion modules (ECM) by Beacon Power [15]. With the advancement of technology in the rotor design as well as the control systems Flywheel Energy Storage System (FESS) have some useful qualities like the ability to respond quickly to tens of thousands of cycles per year with high durability [15]. This means they can respond to many power quality issues such as frequency deviation, temporary interruptions, voltage sags, and voltage swells [16]. By providing this type of stability to the system using recycled energy frees up other systems resources to provide power instead of using them for these functions. FESS has an overall round trip efficiency including the electronics, bearings, and flywheel drag of 80-85%. With the life expectancy of about 20 years [6][15], the current flywheel designs are modular and can range in size up to 10 plus MW systems, with the larger flywheels being approximately 250kW for 10 to 15 minutes [6][15]. Currently there are two pilot FESS projects under way by the Department of Energy (DOE), California Energy Commission (CEC) and the New York State Energy Research

device that can accommodate the large bulk power load leveling applications with high efficiency. Other storage devices cannot come close to the amount of power and duration that these systems can supply. G. Hydrogen Hydrogen is not an energy storage device but an energy carrier [32][34]. An energy carrier can be defined as a substance or phenomenon that can be charged to store energy. Hydrogen is such a substance and must be extracted from hydrocarbon compounds or water. Other than these two forms hydrogen is relatively rare on Earth. It is lighter than air and escapes our atmosphere. Hydrogen can be obtained by electrolysis or reforming processes. These processes however are costly and require the use of a primary energy source such as fossil fuels, nuclear energy, or renewable energy [32]. Hydrogen can be stored in storage tanks because its high mass energy density leakage from the storage tank is insignificant [33]. Hydrogens ability to be stored, transported and used as a fuel is what many call the Hydrogen Economy. A hydrogen-based storage system would include several basic system components, including an electrolyzer system to produced hydrogen via water electrolysis, a hydrogen storage system (steel tanks or geologic storage), and a system to convert hydrogen back into electricity (fuel cell or internal combustion engine). This system follows the traditional method of producing margin by having generators on line incase of need. In addition the hydrogen fuel cell system can not respond to emergency and momentary power needs without the use of energy storage devices [33][35]. IV. CONCLUSION It can be seen from Appendix I that there are numerous options to energy storage systems. Depending on the technology and application needs they can assist in spinning reserves, load leveling and shifting, load forecasting, frequency control, VAR support and voltage regulation, relief of overloaded transmission lines, release of system capacity, power quality issues, and more effective and efficient use of capital resources. By locating energy storage facilities appropriately throughout the transmission grid they can help stabilize the system by translating the power from the remote generation units closer to the load. They can provide many of the power quality and system regulation duties. By reinforcing the grid with energy storage devices at different levels it is possible to create a true infinite bus for a limited time so that the grid can continue to function effectively even through short-term emergencies. The volatility of the hourly forecasting of emergency power needs can also be curtailed by the use of energy storage. The pattern shown by the storage of natural gas in the natural gas market can be a template for the electrical market [11]. With the reserves allocated to storage, forecasting will be possible on a daily, weekly, or even monthly basis. Capital equipment such as base and intermediate units will be able to operate at their highest

efficiency levels. Any excess power will be captured by the energy storage devices for later use. Utilization of renewable energy such as solar, wind and tidal will become a reality due to the enabling technology of energy storage devices. No matter when or where it is needed in the system it could be made available for use. This evolutionary change of adding large, medium and small scale energy storage devices to the power system in key locations will be a major step in the solution to the use of renewable energy along with the current issues of reliability, stability, and power quality. V. REFERENCES
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [Online]. May 2007, Available: http://edison.rutgers.edu/battery.htm, Rutgers University. Stanley R. Bull, "Renewable Energy Today and Tomorrow," Proceedings of the IEEE, vol. 89, No. 8, pp. 1216-1226, Aug. 2001. Jim McDowall, "Nickel-Cadmium Batteries for Energy Storage Applications," in Proc. 1999 IEEE Battery Conference on Applications and Advances, pp. 303-308, 1999. W.R. Lachs and D. Sutanto, "Applications of Battery Energy Storage in Power Systems," IEEE Catalogue No. 95 TH8025, pp. 700-705, 1995. W.R. Lachs and H. Tabatabaei-Yazdi, Energy Storage in Power Systems, in Proc. IEEE 1999 International Conference on Power Electronics and Drive Systems, pp. 843-848, 1999. Robert B. Schainker, Executive Overview: Energy Storage Options For a Sustainable Energy Future, IEEE Power Engineering Society General Meeting, pp. 2309-2314, June 2004. Jason Makansi and Jeff Abboud, Energy Storage: The Missing Link in the Electricity Value Chain, Energy Storage Council, an ECS White Paper, May 2002. [Online]. Available: http://www.energystoragecouncil.org John P. Barton and David G. Infield, Energy Storage and Its Use With Intermittent Renewable Energy, IEEE Transactions on Energy Conversion, vol. 19, No. 2, pp.441-448, June 2004. W. Leonard and M. Grobe, Sustainable Electrical Energy Supply with Wind and Pumped Storage A Realistic Long-Term Strategy or Utopia, IEEE Power Engineering Society General Meeting, pp.1221-1225, June 2004. R. B. Schainker and M. Nakhamkin, Compressed Air Energy Storage (CAES); Overview, Performance and Cost Data for 25 MW to 220 MW Plants, IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, vol. PAS104, No. 4, pp.791-795, April 1985. Kermit Allen, CAES: The Underground Portion, IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, vol. PAS-104, No. 4, pp.809-812, April 1985. D. R. Mack, Something New in Power Technology, Potentials IEEE, vol. 12, Issue 2, pp.40-42, 1993. Derk J. Swider, Compressed Air Energy Storage in an Electricity System with Significant Wind, IEEE Transactions on Energy Conversion, vol. 22, No. 1, pp.95-102, March 2007. S. Lemofouet and A. Rufer, Hybrid Energy Storage Systems based on Compressed Air and Supercapacitors with Maximum Efficiency Point Tracking, IEEE Power Electronics and Applications, 2005 European Conference, Page(s): 10, 11-14 Sept. 2005. Matthew L. Lazarewicz and Alex Rojas, Grid Frequency Regulation by Recycling Electrical Energy in Flywheels, IEEE Power Engineering Society General Meeting, vol. 2, pp.2038-2042, June 2004. Roger C. Dugan, Mark F. McGranaghan, Surya Santoso and H. Wayne Beaty, Electrical Power Systems Quality, 2nd ed., New York: McGrawHill, 2003, pp. 31-39, 1996. Matthew L. Lazarewicz and James A. Arseneaux, Status of Pilot Projects Using Flywheels for Frequency Regulation, IEEE Power Engineering Society General Meeting, Page(s): 3, 18-22 June 2006. Chung-Shih Hus and Wei-Jen Lee, Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage for Power System Applications, IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications, vol. 29, No. 5, pp.990-996, September/October 1992.

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7 [19] Cesar A. Luongo, Superconducting Storage Systems: An Overview, IEEE Transactions on Magnetics, vol. 32, No. 4, pp.2214-2223, July 1996. [20] Robert J. Loyd, Susan M. Schoenung, Takashi Nakamura, William V. Hassenzahl, John D. Rogers, John R. Purcell, Dennis W. Lieurance and M. A. Hilal, Design Advances in Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage for Electric Utility Load Leveling, IEEE Transactions on Magnetics, vol. MAG-23, No. 2, pp.1323-1330, March 1987. [21] Warren Buckles and William V. Hassenzahl, Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage, IEEE Power Engineering Review, pp.16-20, May 2000. [22] Adeel Ghayur, Role of Satellites for Renewable Energy Generation Technologies in Urban Regional and Urban Settings, IEEE 2006 International Conference on Advances in Space Technologies, pp.157161, September 2006. [23] You Seok Son, Dispatchable Wind Power Valuation in Texas, IEEE Power Engineering Society General Meeting, vol. 2, Page(s): 1944-1947, June 2005. [24] FY 2006 Progress Report for Energy Storage Research and Development, Department of Energy, Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, January 2007 [25] [Online]. October 2007, Available: http://www.eia.doe.gov/, Energy Information Agency [26] [Online]. October 2007, Available:http://www.ultracapacitors.org/, Ultracapacitors.org. [27] [Online]. October 2007, Available: http://web.mit.edu/newsoffice/2006/batteries-0208.html, MIT Tech Talk, February [28] [Online].October 2007, Available: http://www.maxwell.com/ultracapacitors, Maxwell Technologies [29] S. Muthukumar, Sandeep Kakumanu, S. Sriram and V. Jayashankar, Energy Storage Considerations for a Stand-alone Wave Energy Plant, 2005 IEEE International Conference on Electric Machines and Drives, pp.193-198, May 2005. [30] Richard Baxter, Energy Storage in Todays Power Market, Commodities Now, September 2002. [Online]. Available: http://www.energystoragecouncil.org [31] Phillip C. Symons, Opportunities for Energy Storage in Stressed Electrical Supply Systems, IEEE Power Engineering Society Winter meeting, vol. 1, pp. 448-449, July 2001. [32] [Online].November 2007, Available: http://www.wikipdeia.org/wiki, Wikipedia Encyclopedia. [33] Kodjo Agbossou, Mohanlal Kolhe, Jean Hamelin, Tapan K. Bose, Performance of a Stand-Alone Renewable Energy System Based on Energy Storage as Hydrogen, IEEE Transactions on Energy Conversion, vol. 19, No. 3, September 2004. [34] Benjamin Kroposki, Johanna Levene, Kevin Harrison, P.K. Sen, Frank Novachek, Electrolysis: Opportunities for Electric Power Utilities in a Hydrogen Economy, IEEE 38th North American Power Symposium, September 2006 [35] Henry Louie, Kai Strunz, Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage (SMES) for Energy Cache Control in Modular Distributed HydrogenElectric Energy System, IEEE Transactions on Applied Superconductivity, vol. 17, No. 2, June 2007. professor of Engineering at the Colorado School of Mines, Golden, Colorado and the Site Director for Power Systems Engineering Research Center. Dr. Sen is a Registered Professional Engineer in Colorado. His research interests include application problems in electrical power systems, electrical safety and arc, machines, renewable energy and distributed generation and power engineering education.

Benjamin Kroposki (S90, M93, SM00) received his BS and MS in Electrical Engineering from Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA in 1990 and 1992 respectively and is pursuing a Ph.D. from the Colorado School of Mines. Mr. Kroposki is a senior engineer at the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) and leader of the Distributed Power Systems Integration Team. HE serves as Chairman for IEEE P1547.4 Guide for Design, Operation, and Integration of Distributed Resource Island Systems with Electrical Power Systems and is a Registered Professional Engineer in Colorado.

VI. BIOGRAPHIES
Steven C. Smith received his B.S. and M.S. degrees in Electrical Engineering from the University of Colorado at Boulder in 1991 and 2000 respectively. He is currently working on his PhD in Engineering Systems (Electrical) at the Colorado School of Mines. His research interests include energy storage, renewable energy, power generation and distribution systems, motors and power electronics. Mr. Smith is a Chief Systems Engineer with Lockheed Martin Corporation and is a Registered Professional Engineer in Oregon. P.K. Sen (SM90) received his Ph.D. in EE at the Technical University of Nova Scotia (Dalhousie University), Halifax, Canada. Dr. Sen is currently a

Appendix I

Comparison of Large Scale Energy Storage Devices