lectric systems lechnology Jostitute Electrical Transmission and Distribution Reference Book ah B ABB Power T&D Company Inc. PADPreface to the fifth edition Fifty-five years ago, the Central Station Engineering Group of Westinghouse Electric Company first published a book focused on the practical application of electrical engineering to the transportation and delivery of electric power. ‘The Electrical Transmission and Distribution Reference Book proved to be a simple, practical, and useful reference book for electric utility engineers aswell as electrical equipment designers. Three generations of power engineers have used what has become popularly known as the “T&D Book” both as a core technical reference and as a tutorial on the finer points of power delivery stem design and operation. In the five and one haif decades between its original publication and this latest edition, the T&D Book was revised and expanded three times. In many ways, the T&D book’s growth and evolution mirrored that of the electric power industry itself. The original book focused almost exclusively on transmission systems, addressing the higher voltages and longer lines then becoming common, as well as the rapidly growing complexity of transmissiot systems, particularly due to interconnection of individual electric utility systems into large power grids. The long-term trend, however, was toward an inereasing focus on distribution, that portion of the T&D system nearest the customer. Subsequent revisions of the T&D book added sections on power distribution systems, primary and secondary network design, capacitor application, and voltage flicker. This latest revision continues the trend of increasing attention to the levels of the T&D system nearest the customer. Chapter 24, Characteristics of Distribution Loads, focuses on consumer load requirements and how they imteract with distribution system economy and reliability. It presents detailed guidelines and design methods to identify the behavior of electric load on the distribution system, and to address it with respect to the “two Qs” — quantity and quality — that consumers of electric power have come fo expect the T&D system will provide.A more recent and accelerating trend in the power industry is the growth through mergers and acquisitions of both power companies and equipment supplicrs into international companies operating on a worldwide scale. Several enormous power companies operate large power grids on three or more continents. More directly associated with this book, what was once the Central Station Engineering Group of Westinghouse Electric Company has been absorbed into ABB ELECTRIC SYSTEMS TECHNOLOGY INSTITUTE, part of a global company with technical and business resources vastly beyond anything the original authors of the T&D book could have envisioned. ABB-ETI continues to maintain the traditional, practical focus of the T&D book’s creators, but has added research and development activities focused on meeting the needs of the 21" century with new equipment, designs, and technology This latest revision does more than just talk about new technologies. Electrical Transmission and Distribution Reference Book, fifth edition, is available in the traditional printed format as well as on computerized CD-ROM. The new format expands the book’s usefulness as a resource for modem power engineers. The material presented here is the result of research, investigation and practical application by many engineers and scientists, including cooperative studies with electric utilities, conductor and cable manufacturers, communications companies and industrial power users. It is not feasible to list here all of the names of the companies and individuals who have contributed to the body of knowledge covered in this book. — These acknowledgements are given in the individual chapters. The authors gratefully acknowledge the hearty cooperation of all those who worked to produce this book. In particular, we wish to thank Ms Kathy Hendricks, who tirelessly assisted in the preparation, editing, and formatting of this fifth edition. Enrique Santacana Vice-President and Director October 1, 1997CHAPTER | 6 10 Contents Original Author and Revising Author General Considerations of Transmission CA. Powel © CA. Powel Symmetrical Components LE. Hobson @ D. Le Whiteheud Characteristics of Aerial Lines Sherwin H, Wright and C.F Hall © D, E Shankle und RL. Tremaine Electrical Characteristics of Cables . LN, Maller, de @J.S, Williams Power Transformers and Reactors - JE. Hobson and R. L. Wircke WR. L. Witche and J. 8. Williams Machine Characteristics C.F Wagner © C.F Wagner Excitation Systems JE. Barkle, Jn Application of Capacitors to Power Systems AA Jolson Regulation and Losses of Transmission Lines GD. McCann @ RF Lawrence Steady-State Performance of Systems Including Methods of Network Solution : EL, Hanier ® EL, Marder Relay and Circuit Breaker Application EL, Hander and J. C. Cunningham @ EL Harder and IC. Canningham Power-Line Carrier Application R.C. Cheek Power-System Stability—Basic Elements of Theory and Application . RD. Evans cond 1.8. Muller Ir I. E. Burkle Ie and BL. Tremaine Power System Voltages and Currents During Abnormal Conditions RL Witche @ RL, Witcke page page - page page page page page 64 96 page page page = page page page 290 342 401 433 496CHAPTER 15 Original Author and Revising Author Wave Propagation on Transmission Lines. CE Wingner and GD. McCann @ C.F Wagner Lightning Phenomena . CP Wauner and GD. McCann @ CF Wagner and JM. Claxton Line Design Based on Direct Strokes A.C. Monteith © E, L, Harder und J. M. Clayton Insulation Coordination wee ALG Monteith cnn #. 8 Vaughan © A.A, Jolson Grounding of Power-System Neutrals SB. Griscom SB. Griscusn Distribution Systems Jolin 8. Parsons and HG. Barnet ® Jobn 8, Parsons and HG. Barnett Primary and Secondary Network Distribution Systems John S. Parsons and HG. Barnett ® John S, Parsons and H. G, Barnest Lamp Flicker on Power Systems . SB, Griscom MS, B. Griseoms Coordination of Power and Communication Systems RD. Evans @ RL, Wirske Characteristics of Distribution Loads HL, Willis Appendix Index + page page page + page page page page + page page + page » page page 923 542 578, 610 643 666 689 n9 741 784 809 838CHAPTER 1 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS OF TRANSMISSIO) Original Author: G. A. Powel plication, the engineer has made eleetrieity of eon tinually greuler use to mankind. ‘The invention of the dynamo firet made engine power man: effective in relieving the toil and increasing the opportu nities and comforts not only of industry but also of the home. Its scope, however, was limited fo relatively short, distances from the power station beeatise of the low voltage of the distribution vireuils. This tnitation, for economic reasons, kopt the goncral use of electricity confined to city areas where number of customers could be served from the same power station. ‘The next step in the development of the present-day eleetrie systems was the invention of the transformer, ‘This invention was revolutionary in its elfect fon the eleetrie industry because it made high voltage and Tong transmission distances possible, thus placing the engine power, through the medinm of the alternating- current generator, at the doorstep of practically everyone. ‘The first alternating current system in America using transformers was pnt in operation at Great Barrinuton in Massachusetts in 1886, Mr, William Staniey, Westing- house electrical expert who was responsible for the install tion, gives an acconnt of the plant, part of which reads: Teh ee invention, and engineering ap- times more “Before loaving Pittsiangh I designed several induction coil, for transformers ax we now eall them, For parallel cannestion ‘The original was designed in the early summer of 1885 and wound for £00 volts primary and 100 volts secondary en Several ther epils were consimucted for experimsatal purposes. “At the north onc of the village of Great Brvingtan wus an old , Dy De 42 og 224-2 tog 242 logo #2) | ‘ohms por mile. D. ‘GMR te De ne 40.001597 40. : at 5+ 40-004087f logs (GMR)'duoidad ohms per mile, 4)Chapter 3 ‘The ninth root in the denominator of the logarithmic term 4s the GME of the cireuit and is equal to an infinitely thin tube which woutd have the same inductance as the throo- ‘conductor system with earth return shown in Fig. 21. GOMRexeae= VG feet. GMReeae™ V(GMRY sonssewe (dando) fort, CMR yoni VEMRecearl Vdandvale)® ft By previous derivation (See Bq. (23)), GMDeouaite =Vdvtvden ‘Therefore GME eos = GMB eossoaarMD) epee, feet. “35) Substituting GMRyaus from equation (89) in equation G4), a= +o.001507 feet. p, i [ae +90 008657 lose TTT earalGMD) gaan ‘ohms per mile. (36) In equations (34) and (86), r, is the resistance per mile of one phase conductor. Zero-sequence self impedance of three parallel conductors with earth return Equation (90) gives the self impodance of three parallel conductors with earth return and was derived for @ total current of unity divided equally among the three con ductors. Since zero-sequence current consists of unit cur- rent in each conductor ora total of three times unit current for the group of throe conductors, the voltage drop for zoro-sequence currenta ia three tirmes as great. ‘Therefore Eq. (86) must be multiplied by three to obtain the zero- sequence self impedance of three paraliel conductors with earth return, ‘Therefore, zoe ne HO.008T7F 70.01307 loge HOON8OTY lots TaN GMD Ecsoncs en isthe GMRasaa de> mus tele? ‘ohms per phase per mile rived in equation (35) or Y(GMR) Zero-sequence mutual impettance between twzo cirouils with earth return Using a similar method of derivation the zero-sequence ‘mutual impedance between 2 three-phase circuits with common earth return is found to be 0.0047 7f +j0.01397/ login ohms yer phase por mile (33) where GMD isthe geometre mean distance between the 2 three-phase cireuita or the ninth root of the product of the nine possible distances between conductors in one group and eondustor in the ether group. Note the sine larity between Eq. (38) and Eq, (31) De Characteristics of Aerial Lines 43 Zero-sequence self impedance of tro identical parallel cir ‘its with ear return For the special ease where the two parallel three-phase circuits are identical, following the same method of derivation a= S404 j0.01397f logie = aa gt OOOTT/+I0 O1887F loBs ERR GMD) ‘ohms pee phase per mile (09) in which OMR, of one set of conductors, (¥ TD YFaguinn )» ancl GMD is the geometric mean distance between tho two sete of conductors or the ninth root, of the product of the nine possible distances between conductors in one cireuit and conductors in the other circuit. ‘Uhis equation is the same as 4(Zo+Z).m) where 29 is the zro-sequence self impedance of one circuit by equa- tion (37) and zn is the sero-sequence mutual impedance between two cireuits as given by Eg. (88). For none identical cireuits it is better to compute the mutual and self impedance for the individual eireuits, and using 4(2o+Zeam) compute the sere-sequence self impedance. Zero-ssquence mutual impedance between one circuit (with ‘earth return) and me ground wires (with earth velurn) Figure 22 shows a threo-phase eireuit with n ground 4 8 20 g 20 TOTTI ITTTETTTT TOTTI OTT Fig. 22—A three-conductor three-phase circuit (with earth, return) and t ground wires (with earth return ‘wires, Equation (61) gives the zero sequence mutual im= ppedanoo etwoon two conductors: 20) 0.00477f-+70.01397f logis Pe ‘ohms per phase por mile et ‘whore dis is the distance between the two conduetors. ‘This equation ean be applied to two groups of conductors if dys, is replaced by the GMD or geometric mean distance between the two groups. In Fig. 23, if the ground wires are ‘considered as one group of conduetors, and the phase con- ductors a, b, ¢, are considered as the second group of con- ductors, then the GMD between the two groups is GMD=Vddandar—dantlocde feet Substituting this quantity for dy, in Eq. (1) results in an equation for the zero-sequence mutual impedance between fone cireuit and n ground wires, This fio) 18 fom.4 Characteristics of Aerial Lines Chapter 3 Feqm = 0.00477 General Method for Zero-Sequence Calculations ‘ De —The preceding sections have derived the zero-sequence +40.01397 logs x self and mutual impedances for the more common circuit, Wager daa srrangements both with and without ground wires. For (40) Zero-sequence impedance of one circuit with m ground wires (and earth) return Referring to Fig. 20 the tero-soquence self impedance of f single conductor, and the sero-sequence mutual im- peilance between a single conductor and snother single conductor with the same earth retuen path was derived. ‘These valucs aro given in Eqs. (30) and (31). As stated bo- fore, these equations ean be applied to multi-cconductor tireuits by substituting the cireuit GMR for tho conductor GMR in Eq, (0) and the GMD between the two circuits in Bq. (3). First, consider the single-conductor, single-phase circuit with earth return and one ground wire with earth return Referring to Fig. 20 conductor « is considered as the single conductor of the single-phase circuit, and conductor 6 will be tsed as the ground wire. Writing the equations for &, and B,, we have: Eyslatmt Thin Bus Tetat Tit JF wo assume conductor b as a ground wire, then since both ends of this conductor are connected to ground, Therefore solving By. (13) for Ty and substituting this value of fy in Eq, (41), Bent(su-2), To obtain 2, divide E, by I., and the result is ‘ohms per phase per mile, a (43) Ant (43) ‘The rero-sequence impedance of a single-conductor, single- phase circuit with one ground wire (and earth) return is therefore defined by Eq. (43) when zero-sequence self im peddances of single-eonluctor, single-phase eireuits are sub stituted for za, and zu, and the ero-suquence mutual ime pedance between the two conductors it substituted for 2. Equation (43) can be expanded to give the zoro-seque impedence of a three-phase circuit, with n ground wires (and earth) return, Fem tan — an) Where 29=er0-sequence impedance of one circuit with n ground wires (and earth) return. 25) =rero-sequence self impedance of the three hase circuit. fxg toro-sequence self impedance of n ground Zoq)2ero-sequence mutual impedance between the Phase conductors as one group of conductors and the ground wire() as the other conduetor soup. Equation (44) results in the equivalent cireuit of Fig. 23, for determining the zero-sequence impedance of one citeuit with ground wires (and earth) return, more complex circuit and ground wire arrangements a moreno Fig. 28—Equivalent clrcutt for zero-sequence impedance of ‘one circule (with earth return} and n ground wires (with earth general method must be used to obtain the zero-sequence impedance of a particular cireuit in such arrangements, ‘The general method consists of writing the voltage drap for exch conduetor or each group of conductors in terms of equence self and mutual impedances with all con- 's or groups of conductors present. Ground wire conductors or groups of conduetors have their voltage drops equal to zero, Solving these simultaneous equations Ee for © of the dosived circuit gives the tero-soquence im pedance of that circuit in the presence of all the other nero- sequence eireuits ‘This general method i shown in detail in Chap. 2, Part X, ZoroSequence Reactances. Two circuits, one ‘with two overhond ground wires and one with asingle over- head ground wire are used to show the details of this more ‘general method. Practical Caleulation of Zero-Sequence Imped- ance of Aerial Lines—In the preveding discussion umber of equations have been derived for nero-secquenco self and mutual impedances of transmission lines taking into avcount overhesd ground wires. ‘These equations can be further simplified to make use of the already familiar quantities r,,x., and x4, To do this two additional quat tities, rand 1, are necessary that result from the use of the earth as @ return path for gero-sequence currents. ‘They are derived from Carson's formulas and can be defined as follows: 0.00477f ohms per phase per mile. 0.008985 f loge 4. 6655x105 ohms per phase per (as) Ivis now possible to write the previously derived equations for zero-sequence ~lf and mutual impedances in terms of Tay a 24; Yo, and te ‘The quantities ry za, 24 are given in the tables of Electrical Characteristies of Conductors and Inductive Reactance Spacing Factors. The quantities Pe atnl are are given in Table 7 a8 functions of earth resistivity, p, in meter ohms for 25, 50, and 60 eyeles por second. ‘The following derived equations are these mast, commonly used in the analysis of power system prob Jems, mile,Chapter 8 Zoro-sequence impedance—one circuit (with earth return) bul without ground wiree Foret O.OONTIS 1397f losses ONT TEST ogautn( GMD ope ‘ohms per phase per mile. 7) amet ret 0.006987 logis 4.0050 10% road t AW0.20E 1080 iT saseane -nans, 1ogi0 GMD pete) sonttrotilortre~Brs) dhs por phase perme (7) whore and y= Htannyttawobtucn) tasy) 4 from Table 6 for spacing @ to b, ote. Mutual zero-sequence impedance beéwren two circuits (with tcarth return) but without ground teirea een) O.0ATT + 0.01 5 obms per phase per mile Gs) 2 = FJ. 000985) los 4.66510" —70.006985f logy GMD* 2m) Tet j(te— 3x4) Ohms per phase per mile (48) where 29 8 bltaan + taut tae tate btn Paar F titer t Zach + Dicer) Zero-soquence self impedance—one ground wire (with earth relra) = Sr 0.00877f+70.01897/ log P= ‘ohms per phase per mile D. * EMR eae (30) 24q9 Brat ret 70.006985f logy 4.6656 oh +0.000988, lon artrebilzerb ea) ohms por phase per mile, (49) Ber segs sel ipalaneo—tea ground wire (ith ert return) tun 2 0.001777 +j0.01897F log V(GMR)erneniy ‘ohms per phase per mile, @2) 25) = re j0.006085f li 4 685631006 OND, 1 O8IS2 tr “SGMR 2 8 1 Br 38 fag Sit rebilect ine fee) ohms per phase per mile 0) where 4 from Table for spacing between ground Wires day. Characteristies of Aerial Lines rr Zevo-sequence self impedance—n growna wires (with earth eturn) =3re4 000877f+0.01397f lone 10°? 0.006985 log retj(to~ Sra) ohms per phase per mile foe (52) 1 where £1 3, unevbeaven tei Raceen) Pa coees FBAcen) + Zoro-cequenece impelance—One circuit with n ground wires (and earth return) Portus SHO as) tw where 2y;)=sere-sequence self impedance of the three- the eisai 2oqzorosequence elf impedance of » ground Zag) vero-sequence mutual impedance between the three-phase circuit as one group of conductors and the ground wire(s) as the other con~ ductor group.46 4. Positive-, Negative-, and Zero-sequence Shunt Capacitive Reactance ‘The capacitance of transmission lines is generally a negligible factor at the lower voltages under normal oper- ating conditions. However, it becomes an appreciable effect for higher voltage fines and must be taken into con- Sideration when determining efficiency, power factor, regulation, and voltage distribution under normal op ‘sting conditions. Use of capacitance in determining the performance of long high voltage lins is eovered in det in Chap. 9, *Regulation and Loses of ‘Transmission Lines” Capacitance effects of tranemisson lines are also useful in studying such problems as inductive interference, light- ring performance of lines, conona, and transients on power systoms auch as those that occur during faults or these reasons forimulie are given Tor the positive, negative, and reroseisience shunt capacitive reactance for the more common transmission line configurations, The case of a two-conductor, single-phase circuit is considered to show some of the fundamentals used to obtain these formulas. For a more detailed analysis of the eapacitance problem a number of references are availabe. ** Tn deriving capacitance formnlns the distribution of a charge, ¢, on the eonductor surface is assumed to be ut form, This is true because the sp: between conductors: inthe usta transmission cireut is Igrge and theretore the charges on surrounding conductors prodace negligible dis- tortion in the charge distribution on a particular con ductor. Also, in tho esse ofa single isolated charged con fuctor, the voltage between any tio points of distances & and y meters radially from the conductor can be defined as the work done in moving unit charge of one coulomb rom point Ps to point P, through the electric field produced by the charge on the conductor. (See Fig. 24.) This is given ‘conDUCTOR | conovcron 2 Fig. 2A (wo conductor single phase circult (capacitance). by Vay~ 18X10? g In ® volts (53) where 7 is the conductor charge in coulombs per meter. By use of this equation and the principle of superposi- tion, the capacitances of systems of parallel conductors ean be determined. Applying Ea. (53) and the principle of superposition to the two-conductor, single-phase cireuit of Fig. 24 assuming. ‘eonduetor 1 alone to have a charge q:, the voltage between conductors 2 and 2 is Vy= 18X10" gn 22 vols, (64) Characteristics of Aerial Lines ‘This equation shows the work done charge from conductor 2 a distance face of conductor 1 through the eleetrie field produced by 4. Now assuming only concluetor 2, having a charge ge, the voltage between conduetors 1 and 2 is Vis= 18X10 gy In ba volts, 65) This eqnation shows the work done in moving a unit ‘charge from the outer radius of conductor 2 to conductor 1 ‘a distance Dy meters away through the elecitie fiekd pro duced by ge With both charges q, and ge prosent, by tho principle of superposition the voltage Viv is the sum of the voltages resulting from g, and gs existing one ata time. Therefore Vis is the sum of Eqs. (54) and (55) when both charges ¢ and gz are prosent, Yam txio(a ta Booed 7) vt 68) Also if the charges on the two conduetors are equal and their sum is zero, act oe 0 oF gee a Substituting ~ for y in equation (56) volts. on ‘The capacitance between conductors 1 and 2s the ratio of the charge to the voltage ar 1 Y= In 2 farads per meter. Ts (68) 36310" In ‘Tho capacitance to noutral is twice that given in Eq. (58) because the voltage to neutral is half of Vx. 1 C= farads per meter. (3) 18x10" In Ps “The shunveapastve rictance to neutral (or per con- ductor) is 2.5 14 oF in more practical unite L 2afe logs 22 login 22 megubms per conductor per (60) 60 7.0 = 0.0683" f mile ‘This can be written as TOT popga®® yey, Pt 0 =006859 ogy 140,008 tog fob FOOBSSF losie ‘megohms per conductor per mile (on) hore Dis and + are in foot and f is eyeles per second Hag. (61) may be written za =2¢-trd megohins per conductor per mile. (62) ‘The derivation of shnnteapacitive reactance formulas brings about terms quite anslogous to those derived for inductive reactance, and as in the easo of induetive reuct- ance, those werms ean be resolved into components a8 shown in Eq. (62). ‘The term 24! accounts for the electro static flux within sone foot radius and is the termChapter 3 os oy Ein gD. 1 eno he coe ductor outside radius only. The term zy’ aceounts for the electric flux between a one foot radius and the distance Dato he other eondustor and isthe tom 00088 og Ps iy Be. Note at ue nde reetane where the conductor geametrie mean radius (GMR) is used, in eapacitanee ealeulations the only conductor radius Used is the actual physical radius of the conductor in fee. Zerosequence capacitive reactance is, hike inductive: reaetanee, divided into components 2. taking into account the electrostatic luc within a. one-foot radius, 24 taking into account the cleetrostatie fax extornal torn radius of one foot out to a radius D feet, and 2y’ taking into account the flax external to 4 radius of one foot and is a function of the spacing fo the imag conductor. (= 170 og 2h megohims per mile per f conductor (6s) there h= conductor height above ground, {= frequeney in ops. -2/ is given in the tables of Hlectrical Characteristics of conductors, 2/ is given in Table 8, Shunt-Capacitive Reactance Spacing Factor, and 2, is’ given in Table 9, ‘Zoro-Sequence Shunt-Capacitive Reactance Factor, ‘The following equations have been derived in a manner similar to those for the two-conduetor, single-phase ease, making use of the terms a, 2 and z/. They are sum- marized in the following tabula: Shunt wwacitive Reactanee, x», of Throo-Phase Cireuite (Conductors a, b, ¢) (6) Positive (and negative) sequence 2. +x{ megohmsper conductor per mile. (64) (sum of all three 2's for distances between all possible pairs) = led ttdactaded. See Table (8) (65) (b) Zero-Sequence 2, of one cireuit (and earth), td w= 2 +2) —2r4 megohms per conductor per mle. (66) e given in Iq. (65). Table (9) gives xd. quence x, of one ground wire (end earth) wartafay megohms per conductor per mile co) (@ evo Sequence 2 of around wires (and earth) Beto t la mille afevaly 3, 32 megohms por conductor per (6s) dase) for distance betwoon ground wires. (© toro Sequences, of ground wits (and earth). shgnnt tot 20D, ‘zi! megohms per conductor per (69) rile” Characterieticn of Aerial Lines ar where (sum of all 23's for all possible distances ween all possible pairs of ground wires) 4 sum of all z.'s for all possible distances “veo all ground wires). (f) Zero-Sequonce 7. between one cireuit (ond earth) and n grou ssires (and earth) 3a! megohms per conductor per mile. (70) telat nen beds ad ented cem), (a) Zero-Seu 10 ze of one vireuil with n ground wires ‘megohms per conduetor per mile. (71) Shunt Capacitive Reactance, ze, of Single-Phase Circuits (Conductors a and 6) (hy 2c of single-phase circuit of two identical conductors .e{-+r4) megohms per mile of eireuit. (72) 24 ~2¢ for spacing botweon conductors, () 2, of single-phase civenit of two non-identical cone auctors a and b. 2! ala + 2oy-bBed megohms per mile of circuit. (73) ) 2, of one conductor and earth. f= an/-+-Ees megohms per milo. (coy Tn using the equations it should be remembered that the shunt eapacitive rouetance in mogohme for more than one mile decrenses because the capacitance inereases, For more then one mile of line, therefore, the shunt-capacitive re- actance as given by the above equations should be divided by the number of miles of line 5. Conductor Temperature Rise and Current. Carrying Capacity In distribution- and transmission-line design the tom- perature rise of conductors above ambient while carrying current is important. While power loss, voltage regula tion, stability and other factors may determine the choice ‘of a conductor fore given line itis sometimes necessary 10 consider the maximum eontiuous current cxrzying eapa- city of @ conductor. ‘The maximum continuous eurrent rating is necessary because it is determined by the max- imum operating temperature of the conduetor. ‘This tem- perature affects the sag between towers or poles and de- termines the loss of conductor tensile strength due to annealing, For short tie lines or lines that must carry excessive Toads under emergency conditions, the maximura continuous current-carrying capacity may’ be important fn solecting the proper conduetor. ‘The following discussfon prevents the Schurig and Frick* formulas for caleulating the approximate current-carrying capacity of eonduetors under known conditions of ambient temperature, wind velocity, and limiting temperature 1 ‘The basis of this method is that the heat developed in the conductor by JR loss is dissipated (1) by convection43 in the surrounding sir, and (2) radiation to surrounding objects. This ean be expressed as follows: PR= (WoW ,)A watts, where J =conduetor current in amperes. R-=conduetor resixtanes por foot. W.e= watts per square inch slissipated by convection, w, 8 por sqjure incl dissipated by radiation A=conducior surfaee area in equare inches per foot of length, ‘The wabts por square inch dissipated by convection, Wy ean be determined from the following ectuation oo1sv Wen Tayi AE watts per square inch, (76) where p= pressure in atmospheres (p= 1.0 for atmo- spheric pressure). v= velocity in feet per second. Ty= (degrees Kelvin) average of absolute temper atures of eonduetor and ait outside diameter of conductor in inches. (degrees () temperature rise This formula is an approsimation applieable to con- ductor diameters ranging from 0.3 inch to 5 inehes or more when the velocity of air is higher than free eonveetion air 3 (02-055 ft/s), The watts per square inch dissipated by radiation, Wi, ‘ean be determined from the following equation: wenenstf (is) ~(iee) | ‘watts per squate inch At where H=relative emissivity of eonductor surface (£=10 for “bluck ody,” or 0.5 for average oxidized copper legrees Kelvin) absolute temperature of con- Auetar. Tom (degrees Kelvin) rounding. By caleulating (W.+W), A, and R, it is then possible to determing F from fq, G5). ‘The vahie of f to use is the ne rosistanco at the conductor temperature (ambient temperature plus temperature rise) taking into account skin effect as discussed proviously in the section on pos itive- and nogative-sequence resistances ‘This method is, in general, applicable to both copper and aluminum conductors. ‘Tests have shown that alum- jmum eonduetors dissipate heat at about the same rate as copper conductors of the same outside diameter when the temperature rs the samo, Whore tot dat ie available on conduetors, it should be used. ‘The above general method can be used when test data is not available, or to chook test results, ‘The effect of the sun upon condactor temperature rise is generally neglected, being some 8° to 8°C_ This stnall ‘effect is less important under conditions of high tempera- ture rise above ambient.¢ ‘The tables of Electrical Charactevisties of Conductors jnelude tabulations of the approsimate maximumn eutrent- Tr absolute temperature of Characteristics of Aerial Lines Chapter 3 3 $ APPROXIMATE. CONDUCTOR CURRENT a 70) ed 5 8 B08 a AMBIENT TEMPERATURE °C Fig. 25_-Copper conductor current carrying capacity in Am- prea VS. Ambient Temperature in'C. (Capper Conductors at "75°C, wind velocity at 2 fps.. g APPROXIMATE: CONDUCTOR, CURRENT Cr a [AMBIENT TEMPERATURE Fig. 26—Aluminum conductor current carrving capacity in ‘Amiperes VS. Ambient Temperature in "G. (Aluminum GonChapter 3 ‘TapLE 1—Cuaractertstics oF COPPER Conpuctors, Harp Drawn, 97.3 Percent CONDUCTIVITY Characteristics of Aerial Lines 2 lananin he a pete ‘Ohne isl haat ie Sg seo of : He : BOR ane a attic shut Gaga ver Bd at “ii | wea AEB Hiaine | REM » ve. ca2F3 vse zt levees fos gr ma Re HEB 2 ttt Su HAAR 8 math ah ook ag aS ae A aH bse ee 1a a Sie Bay / ae a b 2 teu ste EE carrying cupacity based on 50°C rise above an ambient of 25°C, (75°C total conductor tomporattire), tarnished sur- {noo ('=0.5), and an air velocity of 2 fot per second.’These conditions were used after diseussion and agreement. with the conductor manufacticers, ‘These thermal limitations aro bused on. continuous loading of the conductors. ‘The technical literature shows little variation from these conditions as line design limits” ‘The ambient air tera- perature is generally assumed to be 25°C to 40°C whereas the temperature sse is assumed to be 10°C 10 60°C. This ives a conductor total temperature range of 35°C to 100°C. For design purposcs copper or ASR conductor total temperature is usually assumed to be 75°C aa use of this value has given good candetor performance from sm standpoint, the limit. being about 100°C where ‘annealing of copper and aluminum begins Using Schurig and Frick's formulas, Fig. 25 and Fig. 26, have been calculated to show how ewreat-eurrying eapa- city of copper and aluminun conductors vaties with am bient temperature assuming conductor temperature of 75.C and wind velocity of 2 toot per second. These values are conservative and ean be used as 2 guide in normal line design, For those lines where a higher conductor tem perature may be obtained that approaches 100°C, the con~ ductor manufacturer should be conaulted for tost data or other more een information as to eonduetor tempera: ture limitations, Such data on copper eonduetors has been presented rather thoroughly in the technical litersture? II{ TABLES OF CONDUCTOR CHARACTERISTICS, The following tables contain data on eopper, ACSR, hollow copper, Copperweld-copper, and Copperweld con ductors, which along with the previously derived equations, permit the determination of positive-, nogative-, and zero” sequence impedances of conductors for use in the solution ‘of powersystem problems. Also tabulated ane such con- ductor characteristios as size, weight, and current-carrying capacity as limited by heating ‘The conductor data (r, 2,7) along with inductive and shunt-eapacitive reactance spacing factors (xg, ze") and zero-sequenee resistance, inductive and shunt-eapacitive reactance factors (r— 26, 2!) permit easy anbstitution in the previously derived equations for determining the syma- ruetrieal component sequence impedances of aerial circuits. ‘The cross-seotional inserts in the tables are for esse in50 Characteristics of Aerial Lines Chapter 3 & ‘Tape 2-A—Cuaractenistics oF ALUMINUM CABLE STEEL REINFORCED (Atisen Campany f Aare Pall 4 3 | Tosooges | i $9 oat ta JSUT 3b leg orit 9 sooseg Sat oo Tee conta tele ort i s00S0q {48 te as ge ‘Seat fig coe) Sf er o altos Hie = ian Boe 353 a we 8 ‘sso 00] 27 200 ae Pea ares 2512 a CERI Si we 2 5 ie 3 18 z Pn Bpw ee eubehs B Rag: : i i SES BS ps’ Cama eg Cpt ha atin apna th cea we lye SPC condo tng) ih IsTIcs OF “EXPANDED" ALUMINUM CABLE STEEL REINFORCED ct gate can SET | wt Bee Bret _| “Abner «thal tbat de oS ot (0) Bin Chars ot athe willlre meso rop,Chapter 8 Characteristics of Aerial Lines BL ‘Tasty 8-A—Cuaracrentstics oF ANACONDA HOLLOW COPPER Copuctors & 1 cabot, Be step Chri leg aren sia Rees | EE von wie | See EL ae | a = ibe hatte] 3 Bi ie Ga ae tee | oe oa SSR ee tae Be ead a Bagi gees ee ee Bea aa ae STG UR | PRS) BRU ER Rare Se sr ean] tau |izan | gaa (game | az. bade ume soue eu uel sloamh at SLE A GS TERRE ie Bie meen eee ue mae EGRESS iB Gen (SR) eee ee ee ao ies alga pan ee ee eee vagy | oi |aua | sm jem | se a frags oar gaa ng | BS HB lig iat tee) Be See ees | i CBE) EER Bg aed 1a | #8 SB) EBT HE) ter) BE Seca R ee wp) a8] e best ae | rae | eae / gent pales bau we |e |e age ce) ak |e oie SSSR A Ra th 3 | abby | RBS aR | aR |e Preteen #10 Beal ges | igh ae | age GRRE SACHS Foy tonto TEE RPT IECL Sad le por Tan Tl,reeney oT Go, averape raed wae ‘TABLE 3-B—CHaRACTERISTICS OF GENERAL asin TYPE HH HOLLOW COPPER Conpvcrors oO (Gane Cable Corporation) wee fe contre | oy Geo) EE one eee ete Inductive Reseanee EE" | Bu | wat leh) Boake | | ok ‘ie Fen Sis | tee eae) as we ja Tee tri || la [oe Bee bee ee ger ats sag sal ae bases oe saeleae haa Be) Ue bes ge SO Rea geen ae Bel is fase sa ee Hae Be Be) is pe a Eee Hee Bat eg nes B k epileasbems pamue ae 23 8 & b SSSR a He Set 88 es i Ren GRH Batis BS UE eS £ DNR ieee] 1att see eee ie zea ga @ te exe meats E eee ee Bel TH 6B 1s) f SUE Rae es aa 8 PRPS RE) oe SOE TGS |e eslie ahs ah attested 13 BM Eee | SERRE ae ~The a aa of gules sega, (Tisha unfor, raghat SUSE bitdig dot fee rane 00 Se#2 Chazactoristes of Aerial Lines Chapter & ® ‘TABLE 4-A—CHARACTERISTICS OF COPPERWELD-COPPER Conpucrors: cee gg Ra Reo ee ea ae bet baat ew ae Bs peso ie bibs ee ise levee | oes faze so he em eisbae aiees laze EREVERE 12) BB 8 PERR EERE BS Bae Me earig) o fe fev enter one alae moe EE EnE| oe 8 Pe aad 1 tet a am [ow iz lo az k sm fo x0 lo sao naee ERE EE| ba) Bs BRD Bac ah ace uae eaelzae| ial 4 he par on baa as bar pat ems oy ue 8 a he #5 ges es ps hae bw a be age x : le pes nay bo os om liom paw oan oe i i Ren CRS Ce ib aem eh aati HONE NS : Eiichi estas eat bse SR iabie Ho lewis j i ea haz wa aah eae siha eis if i Lae Bee e t i a tea at am ae < i i ee Se na Le & ; i BRST She) BENT a hy Se 8 eB) 8 PRE BRE I PERE SRPGa) f |ES)M) & PEER ES Ra at et BR les aan] 7 is) aime) a ba ea ba he as pankeen samba agus ae g asd 8 bake aa be ke bes mak | i 3 Ba pS ae EE RE pa oe tno [pow [rom] ein | we = lin fx on se be fs pio Re ea a earth eee Ep Aa eG Te ae aa gare eRe ta Ne A at ey ple finding the appropriste table for a particular conductor. Aluminum Cuble Stool Reinforced, represents stranded For these figures open circles, solid circles, and eres paper. hatched circles reprosent copper, stecl, and aluminum con- The authors wish to acknowledge the eooperation of the ductors respectively. ‘The double eruss hatched area in the conductor manufacturers in supplying the information for insert for Table 2-1, Characteristies of “EXPANDED” — connpiling these tables,Chapter 3 Characteristics of Aerial Lines 58 ‘TawLe 4-B—CHARACTHRISTICS OF COPPERWELD Conpuctors we f a usa Anat [oat a A cnr inen | omer Pitan S| Se eee PRESS] nab | eg? | elles | RE eR eal |g [adele ce Le becle La Lebel le lnta Lee ofa] [SF eS m] a | Raletalati & lal otal tll ota ote oS Resp ii bef bay a Ga AER Gl BEG a Re gag | 3 = a oa a bl TER es He ed ede ed IS aS re she a aes par ho a SE as J a Fs Pe a eB A oH] ge gh a fee a bat bas ae ae om) ES ae pi bees bap op isis ae ant he be bigear keener k aeh gy wc ie [ESE Re ®@ ke Eekepe pes Hie BEY a & Rk bs ed gd pret] one [es 0 no fo a0 ie as 48s Jo 50 23s Jo r2mn sora, FE 38 | BES B PERRIER SOE REG RRS Hed loag ealegl bepspst bss uiehe Hee gag ue] B lsheiehs Rega hae SRS] EH| R]53 REIS EN ES Be SS Ba PEGE | Hg] BRR RR Ra Pe sepa RRS TOSE aT a i dc pa rt hing eft ReneS mapa eae a i Ne Te eng Cagaty a 6 Cyc ‘Tapue 5—Semv Errecr Tass 00 1 c0000 10 1 o7si6 50 1 31800 on 1.0000 rr jt onszs st 135102 02 1.0601 12 {vies 52 1 soe 03 1.00008 Le 1onszo | 3000 33 Lato o4 0013 4 owe 11607 34 1assr0 08 1.00082 15 1ozss2 1 iiss 35 Favon 06 1 ann 18 oss | 1.20058 a6 1 soso 7 100124 17 105205 | vans 37 1.58597 os ani 18 105210 1202 | 38 Tose oo 100340 bs 106180 eer 30 1oa91Chapter 3 Characteristics of Aerial Lines "Tapts: O—-INDUCTIVE Reactance Sractno Factor (xq) Ons per Conpuctor Per Mie 3 ' z a8 i f 29 ah SSRE2888] 23 Eg oe i Saneceee| te gest 3 H 23 SS & |. H Pod 5 B al2 8 Ba fe 7 Bale Ht Bay 2ik Poa ae Bt a veh a ms Be i Gee ste gee are | | |= |SBSS88E Sek “st |= |geceseee a: | | = /zeiee a - | |2/§8scsccs Hy g 2 & a 2 BE |= |seeesece i F ~ eRe }igeooeee ~ BEgeaee? gecsccse + | SREEEERR [fescsece «| ESEESESE ea es | eRe feccsees Sscccoddsccesenscacsssccscscsadcdsesndcasadacess| 7 28h SARARARRRNSRRTBAABRRARGTIISSSTSCharacteristics of Aerial Lines cy Chapter 3 ‘Tasue 8~-SHUNT CAPACITIVE Reacrance Spacine Factor (z/) Mecomms rer Conpucror PER Mie EQUATIONS: wasn ted waltel—2ig 2 5 Es z x SSeSS0EE gecocces, gue SEPARATION Be82ce35 Sesccees Hine PRBDSESE sagesc: | ES G8 SRS SES EEE EEEESS EEESESER| c [ee g ‘Tapur 9—~Zeno-SequeNce SHUNT CAPACITIVE REACTANCE FACTOR Megohins per Conductor pet Mile FREQUENCY vo EEEESESSSERIENED TELS aag Geen cedar sau Sunaanecuee sccdssssacceacncaciseceiasesceesccousscessececes J [erroswonessnssonensaanhauaandasnaaxasnarsscavseeee56 IV CORONA With the iereasod use of high-voltage transmission tines and the probability of going to still higher operating volt- ‘ages, the common aspects of corona. (radio influence and corona loss) have become more important in the design of tronsmission lines, Tn the early days of high-voltage transmission, corona was something whieh had to be avoided, largely beeeuse of the energy loss associated with it. In recent years the TET (radio influence) aspect of corona has become more i Portant, In areus where RI must be considered, this factor ‘might establish the limit of acceptable corona performance. Under conditions where abnormally high voltages are present, corona ean affect system behavior. It ean raduce the overvoltage on long open-cireuited lines, Tt wil atten- uate lightning voltage surges (see See. 29 Chap. 15) and switching surges.” By increasing the electrostatic eou- pling between the shield wire and phase conductors, co- rrona at times of lightning strokes to tossers or shield. wires reduces the voltage across tha supporting string of inst Tators and thus, in turn, reduces the probability of flash- over and improves system performance. On high-voltage Tines grounded through a ground-fault neutralizer, the in- phase current due to corona loss ean prevent extinction of the are during a line to ground fault 6. Factors Affecting Corona At a given voltage, corona is determined by conductor diameter, Tine configuration, type of conductor, condition ofits surface, and weather.” Rain is by far the most im- portant aspect of weather in increasing corona. Hoarfrost ‘and fog have resulted in high values of corona loss on ex- perimental test lines, Horever, itis believed that these high losses were caused by sublimation or condensation of ‘water vapor, which are conditions not likely to oeeur on an operating line because the conductor temperature would normally be above ambient. For this reason, measnre- ments of loss made under conditions of fog and hoartrost might be unreliable unless the conductors were at operat- ing temperatures. Falling snow generally causes only a moderate inerease in corona, Also, relative humidity, tem perature, atmospheric pressure, and the earth’s electric field ean affect corona, but their effect is minor compared to thatof rain, There are apparently other unknown factors found under desert conditions which ean increase corona."? The effect of atmospheric pressure and temperature it generally considered to modify the critical disruptive volt- age of a conductor directly, or as the 34 power of the air density factor, 8, whichis given by: 9 iPr (78) where b=baromotrie pressure in inches of meroury P= temperature in degrees Fahrenheit, ‘The temperature to be used in the above equation i gen- erally considered to be the conductor temperature. Under Characteristics of Aerial Lines Chapter 3 ‘Tanus 10—Sraxpano Barowsretc Parssume a9 a FUNCTION o ALEITUDE “Ahitade, Proawre, | Alutade, | Prowur feet in. My feet ia He — 1000) 102 4000 25.88 = 500 aor | 5000 280 | 6.000 28.98 ° 29.92 8.000 22.92 row | Bae 10 000 200 a2 15 000 3000 26.81 20.000 standard conditions (20.92 in, of Hg. and 77°R) the air density factor equals 1.00. ‘The sir density factor should ‘be considered in the design of transmission lines to be built in areas of high altitucle or extreme temperatures. ‘Table 10 gives barometric pressures as a function of altitude. Corona in fair weather is negligible or moderate up to voltage near the disruptive voltage for a particular con- ductor. Above this voltage corona effects increase very rapidly. The calculated disruptive voltage is an indicator ‘of corona performance. A high value of eritieal disruptive voltage is not the only criterion of satisfactory corona performance, Consideration chould also bo given to the sensitivity of the conduetor to foul weather. Corona in- creases somewhat more rapidly on smooth eonductors than it does on stranded conductors. ‘Thus the relative corona characteristics of these two types of conductors might interchange between fair and foul weather. The equation for eritical disruptive voltage is: Eyng,3% 4m loge Dt ‘where: B,=critical dieeyptive voltage ia ky to neutral ‘g=etitieal gradient in ky per centimeter. (Ref. 10 ond 16 use Qe=2.1 Ky/em ems. Recont work indicates value given ia ‘Seo, 10 more aceurate.) radia of conductor in ocatimatere Dothe distance in centimciers butmeen conductors, for single- phase, oF the equivalent phase spacing, for three-phase voltages, jurfuce fastor (common yalues, O84 for stranded, 0.92 for egmentaleonductors) swair density factor aa) ‘The more closely the surfave of x conductor approuches ‘a emooth cylinder, the highor tho critical disruptivo volt age assuming constant diameter. For equal diameters, 3 stranded conductor is usually satisfactory for 80 to 85 per- cent of the voltage of a smooth conductor. Any distortion of the surface of a conductor such as raised strands, die burrs, and soratches will increase corona. Care in handling conductors should be exercised, and imperfections in the surface should be corrected, if it is desired to obtain the best corona performanee from a conduetor. Die burrs and die grease on a new conductor, particularly the segmental type, can appreciably increase corona effects when it is first placed in serviee. This condition improves with timo, aking some six months to become stable. Strigel* concluded that the material from which a cone ductor is made has no effect on its corona performance, InChapter 3 T 3s] Kw/3-PHASE MILE G00 industrial areas, foreign material deposited on the con ductor can, in some eases, seriously rediuee the corona per formance. ' Reference 28 gives some measurements made in an industrial area.) Corona is an extremely variable phenomenon, On a con- ductor energized ata voltage slightly above its fair weather corona-starting voltage, variations up to 10 to Lin earon loss and radio-influence fastor have been recorded during fair weather. ‘The presence of rain produees corona loss on 2 conductor at voltages as low as Gb percent of the voltage A which the suine loss is observed during fair-weather ‘Thus it ia not practical to design a high-voltage Tine such ‘that it will never be in corona. This also precludes ex: pressing a ratio between fair and foulsreather corona, Sinee the former might be negligibly small Ia conductors de-energized for more than about a d corona. is temporarily increased. This effect is moderate compared to that of rain. It ean be mitigated by re-ener- fing line daving ni weather where sich a choi po 7, Corona Loss Extensive work by a large number of investigators has ‘been done in determining corona loss on conductors oper ‘ted at various voltages. ‘This work has lead to the devel- Characteristics of Aerial Lines 8T Curve 11.4 in. HH copper. 3=088. Ref. 19. Corona loss test ‘hae in desert at a location where abnormally high corona loss it observed om the Hoover-Las Angoles 287 5-ke bo which i strung. ‘nith thie conductor. Measuroment raade in three phase test Line ‘This particular curve is plotted for 3~0.88 to show operating con- dition in desert, All other curves are for 6=1.00. (Curve 2—Kaine as curve 1, except eonverted to 81.00, Gurve 314 in. HH copper, Ref. 12 Corona lose test made in California. Comparison with eurve 2 shows effect of desert eondi- tion. Measurements made on three-phase test line, 80-foot at spacing, 16-(00t sag, 30-foot ground elearanco, 700 fest long. Curve 41.1 in, IU, Ref. 13, Measurements mae on throo-rhase test line, 22-f00% at spacing, 16-Foot sag, Moot ckarance to scaund, 700 feet Ioag. Curve 51.85 In. smoath, Ref. 12, This conductor had poor sur- face. Measurements made om theeephase tet Hine, $O-faot spac ing, 16-oot sag, 30-foot ground clearance, 700 fee long Curve 6-66 in, smooth aluminum, Ref. 7. Reference eurve ob- tained by converting perplasee measurement vo onsen three-phase line. Dimensions of Fine not given, Curve 704 jn. seaooth eylindes. Ref, 25. Ta reference this con- ‘ductor is referred to a8 having an fofinite number of strands, Plotted curve obtained hy conversion of per-phase measurements to three-phase values using an estimated value for charging kva, to give los ona line having 45-00 lat configuration. (Curse 81.96 in.¢mooth akuminum. ef, 28. Roferencs carve givet three-phaae lose, but ine dimensions are not given. Curve 91.57 in. smooth. Tel. 28. This conductor was sinooth and clean, Reference curve gives per-phase values. Plotted curve ia for 4-foot Sat spacing. Fig, 27—Fair-Weather Corona-Lots Curves for Smooth Con- “ductors; Alr Density Factor, $= ‘opment of thrce formulas®™1 generally used in this country (Reference 18 gives « large number of formulas). ‘The Carroll-Rockwell and the Peterson formulas are con sidered the most accurate especially in the important low loss region (below 5 kw per three-phase mile). ‘The Peter- son formula, when judiciously used, has proved to be a 1e- liable indicator of corona performance (ee See. 9) for transmission voltages in use up to this time. Recent, work ‘on corona loss has been directed toward the extrahigh- voliage range and indicates that more recent information should be used for these voltages. ‘air-weather corona-loss measurements made by a num- ber of different investigators are chown in Figs, 27, 28, and. 29. All curves are plotted in terms of kilowatts por throe- phase mile. The data presented in these curves has been corrected for air density factor, 5, by multiplying the test voltage by 1/6*2. Some error might have been introduced. in these curves because in most eases it was necessary to convert the original data from per-phase measurements. ‘The conversions were mate on the basis of voltage gradient, at the surface of each conductor. The curves should be used as an indicator of expected performance during fair weather. For a particular design, reference should be made to the original publications, and a conversion made for the design under consideration, ‘The relation between fair-88 35} E es} ——-} | = | gee + = 2 E as} « 5 o 108 “208-300 400-500 600. ue ‘and fontwenther corona loss and the variation which ean bbe expected during fair weather is shown in Fig. 30 for ‘one conductor. Corona Joss on a satisfactory line is primarily eaused by rain. This is shown by the fairly high degree of correlation between total rainfall and integrated corona loss whieh has been noted.#4#40 ‘The corona lass at certain points on a transmission tine can reach high values during bad storm. conditions. Hewever, such conditions are not likely to oc- cur simultaneously all along a line. Borgquist and Vre~ thom expoct only a variation from 1.6 to 16 kw per mile, with an average value of 6.5 kw per mile, on. their 380-kv lines now under construction in Sweden, ‘The measured loss on their experimental line varied from 1.6 to 81 lew per mile. The calculated fair-weather corona loss common in the U.S.A. is generally less than one kw per mile, based on caleulations using Reference 16. Where radio-influence must be considered, the annual corona loss will not be of much economic importance, and the maximum loss will not constitute a serious load, ‘Corona loss is characterized on linear coordinates by a rather gradual increase in loss with inereased voltage up to the so-called “knee” and above this voltage, a very rapid inerease in loss, ‘The knee of the fair-weether loss curve is ‘generally near tho critical disruptive voltage. A transmis- Characteristies of Aerial Lines Chapter 3 Curve 11.4 in, ACSR, Ret. 12. Conductor was washed with gxs0- live then toap and water, Test configuration: three-phase Tin, S0rfoot Hal spacing, 16 foot seg, 20foot ground clearance, 700 foot Jon (Curve 2-10 in. ACSR. Ref. 11. Conductor weathered by expacure to air without continuous energaation. Text oonfiguration: three- phase Fine, 2000 flat sparing, 700 fost long Curve 21.125 in, hollow copper. Ref. 1. Washed in ame manner ‘as for curve I. ‘Test configuration: theeo-phase line, 22-font fat spacing, Curve £1.49 in, hollow copper. Ref. 4. Washed in same manner ns for curve 1. Test configuration: three-phase line, 30fo0" flat spacing, U-foot sg, S0-fot ground clearance, 700 fest long. Curve $2.00 in, hollow aluminum. Ref. 14, Washed in ame man ‘ner as for carve 1, “Test configuration: three-phase Tine, 30-foot fiat spacing, 16-foct eag, 20-fo0t ground elearance, 700 fet fong. Curve ¢ 1.09 in, stecLalamingm. Ref, 22. Referenco carve i aver- ‘ake fair-weather corona loss cbteined by converting per phase imessarerpents t three-phase vals, fora Tine 22.8 Foot flat spac> ing, 32.8 fect high, ‘This conductor used ot 220-Ly lines in Sweden. ‘whieh have above dimensions Curve? 125 in. steebaluminuim, Ref. 22 App, A. Plotted urve ‘obtained by estimating average of « number of fairweather por phase curves given in reference snd eonverting to threephas loss for line having 22foot flat epacing, S0-foot average height. Curve 81.08 in. eterl-sluminur, 2tstrand, Ref. 23. Plotied curve ‘blaine by conversion of per-shase measurements to three-phase values, ating an estimated value for charging kva, to give os on & Tine having 4S-foot flat configuration Carve 90.1 in, Hollow Copper. Ref. 11. Conductor washed, "Test configuration: three-phase He, 20foot Gat spacing, 700 feet Tong. Fig. 26-—Fair-Weather Corona-Lose Curves for Stranded Con- ductors; Air Density Factor, ?= sion line should be operated at a voltage well below the voltage at which the loss begins to increase rapidly under fair-weather conditions. Operation at or above this point ean result in uneconomical corona loss. A very careful an alysis, weighing the annual energy cost and possibly the maximum demand against reduced capitalized line cost, must be made if operation at-s voltage near or above the knoe of tho fuir-weather loss eurve is contemplated. ‘Corona loss on a conductor is a function of the voltage ‘gradient at ils surface, Thus the effect of reduced con- ductor spacing and lowered height is to increase the corona Joss as a function of the increased gradient. On transmis sion lines using a flat conduetor configuration, the gradient at the surface of the middle phase conductor is higher than ‘on the outer conductor, This results in corona being moze prevalent on the middle conductor. 8, Radio Influence (RI) Radio influence is probably the factor limiting the choiee of a satisfactory conductor for a given voltage, The RI performance of transinission lines has not been as thor oughly investigated as corona loss. Recent publications (sce references) present most of the information available. RI plotted against voltage on linear graph paper Js characterized by a gradual increase in KI up toa vol-Chapter 8 35] lo 30] Kw/S-PHASE MILE Characteristics of Aerial Lines 69 Curve 1—4/0.985/15.7° Smooth) Ref. 25. dnot given, but assumed 1610, which is average value for Germany. Reference curve ob txinad by converting single-phase measurements to three-phase values on the basis of surface gradient. Dimensions of line usod ia making convarson aro not given Curve 2-4/0827/16.7" (teanded aluninum-steel), Ref. 25. 3 1.002. See discussion of Curve 1 (Curve $—3/0.985/11.8" (Smooth), Ref, 26, 41,002. Reference arve gives single-phase measirements verausline-onground volt= tage, bat It Ie pot clear whether actual test voltage or equivalent voltage at line height is given. Lattor was used in making th co version to thren-phase. If this ie wrong, curve is approximately 15 peroent low in voltage, Converted to flat configuration of 45 fect. Curve 4~2/1.00/17.7" (Steanded slumsioum-stel). 81.01, Ref.12, App. A. Reference curvo gives per-phase measurements vermis tradient, Converted to three-phase corona loss on ine of 42.f00t average height, 39.4-f00t flat conigurstion. Curve 52/1.25/17.7" Stranded sluminum-atel) Snot given, prob ably close to unity. ef. 12. Reference curve, whic gives three- ‘hase corona las, was converted from per phase measurements, ‘Dimensions 42.5 fest average height, 894 feet fat configuration, ‘This conductor was eelectad for use on the Swedish 880 kv stom, Original author probably selected a worse fair-weather condition than the writer did in plotting carve 4, which could seeount for thei closeness, ie 6-2/1 04/23.7" (Stranded aluminum stel). Fnot given, Ret 13. Plotted curvo is average of so single-phase frieweathor curves, converted to three-phase loss for 4foot flat soniguration, Bee Curve 7 Curve 7-2/1.04/15.7* (Stranded aluminum-etel). &n0t given. Ref. 13, Plotted curve is average of two single-phase fair-weather curves, converted to three;phise loa Tor 45-foot fat configuration Date for curves 6 and 7 were taken at same time in order to show ‘eet of sub-conductor reparation. “Bundie-conductor designation—uraber of eub-conductors/out- Fide diameter of each sub-oonducter in inches oeperation betwee adjacent sub-conductors in inches, Fig, 29—Fair-Weather Corona-Losa Curves for Two-, Three-, and Four-conductor Bundles; Air Density Factor, 3=1.00. tage slightly below the minimum voltage at which meas- turable corona loss is detected. Above this voltage, the imerease in the RI is very rapid. ‘The rate of inerense in RT is influenced by conductor surface and diameter, being, higher for smooth conduetors and large-diameter con= ductors. Above a certain voltage, the magnitude of the RI field begins to level off. For practical conductors, the leveling off value is much too high to be acceptable, and where EI isa factor, lines must be designed to operate be- low the voltage at which the rapid incroase starte during fair weather. Figures 32 and 33 are characteristic RI curves. ‘The relation between fair and foul-weather corona per- formanee is shown in Fig, 82. An evaluation of RI in the design of e high-voltage line ‘must consider not only its magnitude, but its effect on the various communication sorviees which require protection, Amplitude-modulated broadcasting and power-line earrier are the most common services encountered but other serv- ices such as aviation, marine, ship-to-shore SOS calls, po- fice and a number of government services might also have to be considered. In determining the RI performance of a proposed line, the magnitude of the RI factors for the entire frequency range of communication services likely to be encountered, should be known, An evaluation of these factors in terms of their effect on various communication services must take into consideration many things. These are available signal intensities along the line, setisiactory signal-to-noise ra- tios, effect of weather on the RI factors and on the imm- portance of particular communication services, number and type of receivers in vieinity of the line, proximity of articular receivers, transfer of RI to lower-voltage ci cits, the general importance of particular communication services, and means for improvement of reception at indi- ‘vidual receiver locations! For extea-high-voltage and double-cireuit high-voltage lines the tolerable limits of RI might be higher because the number of receivers affected, the coupling to lower voltage circuits, and the coupling to receiver antennas is reducesl. Also fewer lines are required for the sume power handling ability, and wider right-of- ‘ways are used which tend to reduce the RI problem, Although RI increases very rapidly with increased gradi- ent at the surface of a conductor, theoretical considerations of the radietion characteristics of a transmission line as spacing ie reduced, indicate that the RT froma transmission line will not be seriously affected by reduced epacing.®60 33 30 tee as - y | 5 | | ¥ | $20) Lt}. S | | | > po cvean e {ih ‘5 ‘veReaST, 1 Neatoy woanenost,—‘] poe | -pmouean , . | -cuekr ole aR ToS BS 800-4 BOT Bo0 We Fig. 30—Corona Loss on 1.09 Inch Stranded Aluminum-Steel Ing per-phase measurements to three hhaving 32-foot flat spacing, 50-foot average height. No cor- rection made for air density factor. Ret. 22, App. Ax ‘The conductor configuration, the number of cixeuits, and the presence of ground wites afivet the radiation from the line with a given RT voltage on the conductors. Very little is known about the radiation characteristics of transmis: sion lines and caution should be exercised in applying data not tuken on fine configuration elosely approximating the design under consideration, ‘The RI field from a transmission tine varies somewhat as the inverse of the radio frequeney measured. ‘Thus serv- ices in the higher-frequoney bands, (tolevision®, frequency- modulated broadcasting, microwave relay, radar, ete.) are less upt to be affected. Directional antennas which are gencrally used at these frequencies, on the average, in- crease the signal-to-noise ratio, The lower signal strengths, and wider bandawidths generally found ia the high-tre- queney bands ean alter this pieture somewhat. Frequency modulated broadcast is inherently less sensitive to RI because of its type of modulation, Characteristics of Aerial Lines Chapter 3 Standard radio-noise meters!#% ean measure the aver age, quasi-peak, and peak values of the RI field. The aver- age value is the amplitude of the RI field averaged continu ously over 3g second. For quasi-peak measurements, a cit- cuit having a short time constant (0.001-0.01 sec.) for charging and a long time constant (0.3 to 0.6 see.) for dis- charging is used, with the result that the meter indication car the peak value of the RI field. Aural tests of radio reception indieate that quasi-peak readings interpreted in terms of broadeast-station ficld strengths represent: more accurately the “nuisance” value of the RI field. ‘The peale value is the maximum instantaneous value during # given period. ‘The type of measurements made must be known before evaluating published RI information or misleading conclusions can be drawn. ‘The lateral attenuation of RI from # transmission line ‘depends on the line dimensions and is independent of volt- tgs. At distancos between 40 and 150 feot from the outer ‘conductor, the attenuation at 1000 ke varies from 0.1 00.3 db per foot, with the lower values applying generally to high-voltage lines. ‘Typical lateral attenuation eurves are shovn in Fig. 34, Lateral attenuation is affected by loeat conditions, Because of the rapid attenuation of RI Iater- ally from a line, a change of a few hundred feet in the loca tion of a right-of-way can materially aid in protecting a ‘communication serviee, 9, Selection of Conductor Tn the selection of « satisfactory conductor from the standpoint of its corona performance for voltages up to 230 kv, operating experience and current practice are the best guide. Experience in this country indicates that the corona performance of a transmission line will be satisfac- tory when a line is designed so that, the fair-weathor corona loss according to Peterson's formula, is less than fone kw per three-phase mile. Unsatisfactory corona per- formance in areas where RI must be considered has been reported for lines on whieh the calculated corona loss is in ‘excess of this value, or even less in the case of medium high- voltage lines. Figure 31 is based on Peterson's formula and indicates satisfactory conductors which can be used on high-voltage lines. For medium high-voltage lines (138 kv) considerably more margin below the one kw curve is neces sary Leciuse of Lhe increased probability of exposure of re ceivers to RI from the line, and a design approaching 0.1 Jw should be used. 10, Bundle Conductors A “bundle conductor’ is a conduetor made up of two or more “'sub-conduetors”, and is used a9 one phase conduc tor, Bundle conductors are also called duplex, triples, conductors, referring to the number of sub-conductors and are sometimes referred to as grouped or multiple con ductors. Considerable work on bundle conductors has bbeen done by the engineers of Siemens-Schuckertwerke™™ who concluded that bundle conductors were not economic eal al 220 ky, but for rated voltages of 400 kv or more, are ‘the best solution for overhead transtaission, Rusck and Rathsmoan'™ state that the inerease in transmitting eapac- ily justifies economically dhe use of two-conduetor bun des on 220-Kv lines.Chapter 8 409 see} a a ETT ewe eo sis sto sou —e stanos—~ Characteristics of Aerial Lines 61 ' CARROLL AND. ROCKWELL FOR SMOOTH SEGMENTAL I ie saggor Hon ona oursoe Laren Fig. $1—Quick-Bstimating Corona-Loss Gurves, Curves based on Peterson's formula with @ few check points from the Carrol and Rockwell paper for comparison. ‘The advantages of bundle conductors are higher disrup- tive voltage with conductors of reasonable dimensions, re- duced surge impedance and consequent higher power eapar bilities, and loss rapid increase of eorone loss and RI with increased voltage #2"#* These advantages must be weighed against increased cirouit cost, increased. charging kva if it ‘cannot be utilized, and such other considerations as the large amount of power whieh would be earried by one cir- cuit. Its possible with a two-conduetor bundle eomposed of conductors af practical size to obtain electrical charac~ ‘teristics, excepting corona, equivalent to single conductor up to eight inches in diameter. ‘Theoretically there is an optimum sub-conductor separa tion for bundle conductors that will give minimum crest gradient on the surfuee of a sub-conduetor and hence high est disruptive vollage. For a two-conduetor bundle, the separation is not very critical, and it is advantageous to ‘use a larger separation than the optimum which balances the reduced corona performance and slightly increased eit- cuit cost against the advantage of reduved reactance, Assuming isolated conductors whieh are far apart com- pared to their diameter and have # voltoge applied be- ‘tween them, the gradient at the surface of one conductor is given by: a (79) rlogD /r where the symbols have the same meaning #8 used in Eq, (79a). This equation is the same as equation (79a), except that surface factor, m, and air density factor, 6, have been omitted. ‘These factors should be added to Bas. 80 and 81 jor practical calculations. For a two-conduetor bundle, the equation for maximum gradient at the surface of sub- ‘conductor ist s(0-+2r/8) D. 0) Pees where: S=separation between sub-conductors in centimeters. Because of the effect of the sub-conductors on each other, she gradient at the surface of a sub-conductor is not ‘uniform, Tt varies in a cosinusoidal manner from a maxi- rum at a point on the ontside surface on the line-of-cen- ters, toa minimum at the corresponding point on the inside surface. ‘This effect modifies the corona performance of a Dundle conductor stich that its corona starting, point wor- responds to the voltage that would be expected from ealeu- lations, but the rate of inezoase of corona with inereased voltage is less than for a single conductor. ‘This effect can be seen by comparing eurve 6 of Fig, 28 with curve 2 of Fig. 29. Cahen and Pelissier™ concluded that the corona performance af a two-conductor bundle is more accurately indicated by the mean between the average62 Characteristics of Aerial Lines Chapter 8 200) |e00, el 00 | ca soo { { oof Be & || ee 209 bE ’ & Be + 0 23 E i 8 ES i t Beoo} | | & 409 t lo 8 : qty 7 5 RAIN * 304 1 i main 3 ! 2 Li] v0 rant —}}—fo 7] | 200} 60} # 10 “ |. 400 a 735 ie 300 a le fee eather Radiotnfuence Field from a Tran ‘Thintion ot Voteage: Measutements to wes Spvoste mid-opan om the 280K" Covington-Grand, Coulee ao PHEONS, {Sf he Boomestt Romer aati, rats KILOVOLTS Fig. 22—Radio influence snd corona loss measurements made ‘an an experimental teot Hine. Ref. 26. ‘and maximum gradient at the surface of a sub-conductor, which is given by: gett’) D ad If it is desired to determine the approximate disruptive voltage of a conductor, gonata(14 aor (st) ky per centi- vr meter rms can be substituted for g and the equations solved for 2 in kv rms. This value noglects air density Factor and surface factor, which can be as low as 0.80 (consult, references 10 and 16 for more accurate calculations). 380 kv Systems using bundle conductors are being built or under consideration in Sweden, Franee, and Germany. Curve 1—Avérnge lateral attenuation for a numberof francnision Tines from 188 to 460-kv. OX A Care plotted values which apply to this curve only. Test frequency 1000 ke, Ref. 21 (Curve 2—Lateral Attenuation from the 220-kv Eguiou-Caingy line {im Prunce. Tine has equilateral epscing, but diinensions not given. Distance messured from middle phase, Test frequency—S6S ke. Ref. 24, Curve 9~Lateral Attenuation from 220-kv Midway-Columbia Line ‘of the Boareville Power Administration. Coudustor height 4 Teel, text frequency 880 ko. Rel. 42. ‘are quasi-peak, 1.108 inch ACSR conductor, 27-foot fat spac ing, 4i-foot height, cast froquency’-800 ke. 100 “ ‘al “ ss 8 I : = 7 $ 30 7 1 B00 WORIZONTAL OISTANCE FROM OUTSIDE CONDUCTOR-FEET Fig, 24—Lateral Attenuation of Radio Influence in Vicinity of High-Voltage Transmission Lines.Chapter 8 17. Hy-Thorm Copper 10. a ry 12, uM. 1s a 2, REFERENCES: Line Conductors—Tidd 500-kw Tet Lines, by I. L, Peterson, 1D. M, Simmons, L, F, Hickeraell, M. E. Noyes, ATEE Papor 47-248, ‘Symonerical Components, (s book), by ©. F. Wagner and RD. Evens, MeGraw-HGl Book Company, 103, Rodusing Inductance om Adjacent Trazaraiaion Clreait, by: HB. Dwight, Hlecirieal World, Jan, 12, 1024, 0 80. Blaziic Poeer Transmission (a book), by LF. Woodruff. Joba Wiley and Sons, [n> 1838, 5. Eleirzal Tranemiesion of Per and Signae (a book), by Edward W. Kimbark, John Wiley and Sons, In, 1940. Heeating and Current Carrying Capacity of Bare Conductors for Outdoor Servive, by O. HE. Sehurig and C. W. Friek, Genet leciric Reviow Volunse 38, Number 3, March 1820, p12. An Improved Overhead-Line Conductor, by L.F, Hickernel, A.A, Jones, C.J. Saydor. AIEE Paper 40-3. Euecuioal Characteraica of Travamission Osrowits, (n B00k), by WW. Nesbit, Westinghouse Technical Night Schoo! Press, 1026. 1. Resistance and Reaclance of Cammerciat Sts Conducts, by Pool. H.B. Dwight, Bleric Journ, January 1819, page 26 Disletric Phenomena in High-Voltnge Enginosring. (Book) F. AW, Peck, Jr. MoCiraw-Hill Boole Co, Ine. New York, 1029, Coron Loss Measurements on e 220-KY G0-Cycle Throe-Phsso Experimental Ling J- 8. Carell, LH. Brown, D. P. Dinapoli, ALLER, Transactions Vol. 50, 1021, pages 35-18 Corona Lostes from Conductors {-inel Diainoter 8. Carrell, B. Cozzens, T. M. Blakedec, A.I.B.E, Transactions Vol. 8, 1884, pages 1727-38. Coren Lae at 230 KV with One Conductor Grounded, J. Carrol, DB. M, Simmons, AE.B. Transactions Vol. 8, 1985, ges 846-7. Eunpircal Method of Calculating Corona Loss from High-Volt- ‘ge Transtaission Lines, J. 8. Caroll, M.M, Rockwell, AEE. Tronaaetions Vol. 55, 1087, page 568. Corons Lace Measurements for tho Design of Transmission Lincs to Operate ot Voltages between 220V and 390-KV. J. 8. Caroll, B. Coxzens, A.J. Troncartions Vol. 52, 1988, ages 56 Development of Corona Loss Formula (discussion of ceference 15), W. 8. Petron, J RAE. Tranancions Vol. 5, pages 62 . New Teshaiques on the Anacom—Hleetrc-Analog Compater, E, L, Handler, JT. Carleton, ALE Tecknioal Paper 50-85. Bin nouse Verlustgents dae Weobaclepannvngskerons, H, Wing, Wise, Varoff, Siement Schuckertwerke A.G.—Vol. XIX, July 1040. Desert Mensuzemients of Corona Laws on Conductors for Opert= loa above 290 KV, W. 8, Peterson, B, Cossena, J. 8, Carrell presented ATEE Convention Pesariena, Calif, June 12-16, 1850, ‘Transmission of Eleteir Power at Extra Tigh Vollages, Philip Byonn, A.C. Monteith, A..F, Pranaactions, Val. 08, 1987 pages 1671-7, de. 1582 Progrees Report on 500-KY Test Project of the Ameriean Gas snd Electric Company—Coron, Radio Influence, and Other Frotors. Philip Sporn, A. C. Montcith, aa presented AIEE, Convention, Paendena, Calif, Jane 12-16, 1950. ‘The Swedish 380-KV System, W. Borgguist, A. Vrethem, 900 also Appeniis,. B. Henning, 8. Skagerlind, CIGRE paper 412, 1948 semion, Juve 2 to July 8, Conferoace Internationale des Grands Ressax Bloetriques # Haute Tension Infleener, say EMlet de Couronne, du Diametze et du Profit des Cables des Lignes Aerienes a'Tres Haute Tension, F-Cabea, Palision, Ress Gansrale de Electret, Vo. 88, pags 279-90, ‘Leinploi de Condustoare en Faisoeat pour I’ Armemont dos Lignen Trés Haute ‘Tension, F. Cahn, R. Pelisier. Bull Soe Frongaice deo Blectricion, 6th Seren, Vol. VITT, No. 70, 1048, Characteristics of Aerial Lines 6B 95. Recherches Rxperimentales mir le Comportement das Candee tours det Ligaes » 400 KY, F, Cahen, 1, Pelisier, Bull. Soo, Frangaiee des Blcriiens, 6th Seriee, Vol, IX. No. 99, Dec. 1940. Mecanisme de YEffet de Couronne aur les Lignes de Transport Energie en Courant. Alteroatf, R. Pelisier, D. Renaudia Bull Soe, Frangaite des Blesriciens, Oth Series, Vol. ©, Feb, 1949. Mundelleungen, W. ¥. Mangolat, F. Busemann, A. Buerklin, G. Marit, PT. Krome, Siamone Sehuelertmer, A. G. pam ‘phit, Berlin Siomenseiadt, 1942. 400-K'V ‘Transmission Lines with Special Referonce to Multiple Conductor Lines (Bundellitungen), British Intelligence Objec- tivos Sub-commitiee, Final Report No. 1883, Item No, 83, 80. Code--No, 51-8275-88, Technical Information snd Documents Unit 40, Cadogan Square, London 8.W.1 England. Drehstromfernuebertnyung ait Buaellelwer, G. Markt, B. Mengele, Eldirovehnit und Maschinenbau, 1982, page 298. Die Wirtschafticho Bemessung von Bundlliter-Leitungen, Bidrolechnis und Mosehinenba, 1985, page 410. 1 500-KV Experimental Station at Chovilly: Use of Bundle Con- ductors; Corona Effeota; Clearances, P, Aillere, F, Cahon, Coat. Tt, des Grands Res, Electr. a Haute Tension (CIGRE), 1948, paper No. 410. Relative Surface Voltage Gradients of Grouped Conductors, M. Temoshok, AEE, Transartions Vol. 7, Part Ul, pages 1389-8. Discussion of Reference 32 by C.F. Wagner, A.L8.E. Troneac toons Vol. 67, Part Tf, page 1500. ‘Thro Phase Motiple-Conduetor Cizeuits, E. Clarke, A.D-8-2. ‘Transactions, Vol. 1, 1982, page 803, Appoodis C by S. Crary. Methods of Measuring Radio Neive 1040-~A report of the Joint Coordination Committee on Radio Reception of EET, NEMA, snd RAMA, Proposed American Standard Specification for a Radio Noise Moter—O015 0 25 wegaeyeles. Oct. 1949 Published for one year trial us) "Television Interference Seldam Comes from Power Syaters, F. L. Greene, Klccreat Wer, San. 16, 1950, igen 85-2 Fitcet of Ravlio Frequencies of a Pawor Systain in Radio-Re- ceiving Systems, C. V. Aggers, W. B. Pakala, W. A. Sticke, A.TELE., Transaction, Vol. 62, 1984, pages 169-72. 3. Measurements Periaining to the Coordination of Radio Reoep- ‘don with Power Apparatus and Systems, C. M. Foust, C. W. Frick, 1 2.0, Transactions Vol 62,1943, pages284-01, can 458. adia Tnterference Suppression in Canada, Hf. O. Merriman, AIRE paper No. 47-140. Results of Tests Carvid out atthe 500-kv Experimental Station ‘of Chevilly (France), Especially on Corona Ushavior of Bundle Conductors, F. Caten, A.[WB.E, Transnetions, 1948, Vol. 87, Part TE, pages 1118-25. Restor Note Taflucace of 290-KV Lines, H.L, Rorden, 4.0.8.2, Transaction, Vol. 0, 1947, pages 377-8; dss, 082, Radio Infusnce from High Voltage Coron, G. Tt Slemon, ADSI paper No. 49-00, Comparative Invettigstion of D.C. and A.C-Carona on ‘Two- Conductor ‘Transmission Lines (In German), 1K. Strgsl, Wise orashafiohe Verocftonschingen Ase Don Stetone Werken, Vol. 15, Paet 2, 1986, pagoa 68-01. ‘Tho Swodish 880 KV System, A. Rusck, Bo G. Rethsmen, Hlec- sical Engineering, Dee. 2949, pages 1025-9. Series Capacitor and Dotle Conductors in the Swed Trans mission System, A. Rusek, Bo G. Rathsman, Electrical Kngincer- Sng, Jan. 1080, pages 53-7. Effect of Earthing on Corona Tastes, Conductor Diameter And Length of Totulator Strings, The frown Boueri Ieee, Vol DEXXV Nos 7/8, July/August, 1048, pages 102-201 The Transmission of Hlacrie Poser fa book), by Wo A. Lewis, (048 Lithoprinted Edition) Uinale Inativate of Technology. 26. 92, aa. me 8, a0. a. 40, aL 2 a 45 a7 48CHAPTER ¢ ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF CABLES Original Author: N. Muller, Jr. H ABLES are classified ascording to their insulation os paper, varnished-eambric, rubber, or asbestos, each of these materials having unique characteristies which render it suitable for particular applications. Be- ‘cause cables for powor transmission and distribution are composed of 20 many different types of insulation, con- ductors, and sheathing materials, the disonssion here must be limited to those eaisle designs most, commonly used. Reasonable estimates of electrical characteristics for cables not listed can be obtained in most, cases by reading from the cable for s cable having similar physical dimensions. Paper can be wound onto a conductor in succossive lay cers to achieves required dieleetrie strength, and this is the insulation generally used for eables operstingg at 10 000 volts and higher. Paper insulation is impregnated in dif- ferent ways, and aecordingly cables so insulated can be sub-divided into solid, oib‘illed, or yasfilled types, Solid paper-insulated cablee are built up of layers of paper tape wound onto the eonduetor and impregnated with @ viscous oil, over which is applied a tight-fitting, extruded lead sheath, Multi-conductor solid cables are also available, but the material shown here covers only single- and three-conductor types. ‘Three-conductor cables ‘re of either belted or shielded construction. The belted assembly consists of the three separately insulated con- ductors cabled together and wrapped with another layer of impregnated paper, or belt, before the sheath is applied. In the shielded construction each conductor is individually insulated and covered with a thin metallic non-magnetic shielding tape; the three conductors are then eabled to- gether, wrapped with a motallie binder tape, and sheathed with lead. ‘The purpose of the metallic shielding tape around each insulated conductor is to contrel the electro statie stress, reduce corona formation, und decrease the thermal rosistanoe. To: circulating eurront under normal operating conditions and thus limit the power loss, shialding tape only three mils in thickness is used. Solid single-conductor cables are standard for all voltages from. 1 to 69 ky; solid three-conductor eables are standard from 1 to46 kv. Sample sections of paperinsulated single-con- duotor, theeo-conductor belted, and three-conduetor shielded cables are shown in Fig. 1(2), (b), and (c) respectively. Cibfilled paper-insulated eables ace availuble in single- or three-conductor designs. Single-conductor oil-filled eable consists of a concentrie stranded conductor built around an. ‘open helical apring core, which serves as a channel for the flow of low-viseosity oil. ‘This eable is insulated and sheathed in the sarne manner as solid cables, ws a eompsr= ison of Figs, I(a) and 1(d) indicates. "Three-eonduetor oil- filled cables aro all of the shielded design, and have three oy Revived by: J. S. Williams © Throo-conditorshislded eompact-etor conductore (©) Thice-conductor ofhlled, compact-seetor conductors, Fig. 1 Paper-ineulated cables, oil channels composed of holfeal springs that. extend through the cable in spaces normally oceupied by filler material. ‘This construction is shown in Fig. 1(¢). Qik filled cables are relatively new and their application has become widespread in a comparatively short time, The oil used is only slightly more viscous than transformer oil, andChapter 4 remains fuid at all operating tomperatures. ‘Tho oll fn the cable and its connected roservoirs is maintained under moderate pressure so that duving loud eycles oil may flow beuxeen the eable and the reservoirs to prevent the devel- ‘opment of voids or excessive pressure in the cable. The prevention of void formation in paper insulation permits the use of greatly reduced insulation thickness for a given operating voltage, Another advantage of oil-filled cables is that oil will smep out through any’ ersek oF opening, which develope in the sheath, therchy preventing the entranee of water at the defective poiut. ‘This action prevents the ‘ocourrence of « fault eaused hy moisture in the insulation, and since operating econ show tht this eause aecounts for a significant poreontage ofall high-voltage cable faults, it is indeed a reel advantage. Single-conducior oilsiled cables aroused for voltages ranging from 69 to 230 kv; the usual range for three-conductor oil-filled cables is from 23 to 09 kv Gas-lied cables of the low-pressure type have recently become standard up to 45 kv. The single-conduotor type employs consteuetion generally similir to that of solid cables, except that longitudinal fates ar other channels re provided ab the inner surface of the sheath to conduct nitrogen along the cable. The three-eonductor design em ploy’ channels in the filer spaces among the conductors much like those provided in oilfiled. three-conductor cables. ‘The gus is normally maintained between 10 and 15 pounds per square inch gauge pressure, and serves to fil all cable voids and exclude moisture at faulty points in the shiealt or joins. Fig. 2--High-pressure pipe-type oll- fled cable, High-pressure cables, of either the oil- or gas-filled vari= ety, are being used widely for the higher range of voltages, ‘The physical and electrical characteristies are fairly well known, but their specifications are not yet standardized, ‘The ustal application calls for pressare of about 200 pounds per square inch, contained by a.stcc! pipe into whieh three single-gonductor cables are pulled. ‘The immediate pres- ence of the iron pipe makes difficult. the calculations of cireult impedance, particularly the zero-sequence quanti ties, Most high-pressure cables are designed so that the oil or gas filler comes into direct contact with the conductor insulation; in oil-filled pipe-type eables « temporary lead sheath can be strippod from the gable as i is pulled into the steel pipe; in gxs-filled pipe-type cables the lead sheath sure rounding each eonduetor remains in place, with nitrogen introduced both inside and outside the sheath so that no difforential pressure develops across the sheath, Examples of oil- and gas-filled pipe-type cables are shown in Fi and 3. Electrical Characteristics of Cables Coury of Gent Cabe Cogrtion 8—Grose-section of high-pressure pipe-type gas-filled led pipe-type cable may have a similar cross- Yomprostion cable is another high-pressure pipe-type cable in which oil or nitrogen gas at high pressure is intro- duced within a steel pipe containing lead-sheathed solid- type single-conductor cables; no high-prossure oil or gas is Lraduce directly inside the lead sheaths, but voids with- in the solid-type insulation sre prevented by pressure exerted externally on the sheaths. This construction is sketched im Fig. 4 ‘During recent years there bas been a trend toward the modification of cable conduetora to reduce cost and im- prove operating charaeteristies, particularly in multiccone ductor eables. Referring to Fig. 5, the first departure from concentrie round conductors was tho adoption of sector- shaped conductors in three-conductor cables. More r= cently # crushed stranding that results in x compacted sector has been developed end has found widespread use for conductor sizes of 1/0 A.W.G. and larger. Its use in smaller consuetors is not practical. ‘The principal advan- ayes of such a conduetor are: reduced ovorall diamoter for ‘a given copper cross-section; elimination of space between the conductor and the insulation, which results in higher Fig, 4—Croee-sectional sketch of compression cable.66 Electrical Characteristics of Cables a) Ptsgrophe in i fee fre yt Oo Caendn Cake Coma ig. 5—Cable conductors, () Standard concentric stranded, () Compact round, (@) Non-compact svete, (4) Compact sector. (©) Anuar stranded (rope oor), ) Segmental (@) Rope stranded, @) Hollow core. electrical breakdown; low a-c resistance due to minim oi proximity effect; retention ofthe close stranding during bending; und for solid eubles, elimination of many lon- situdinal channels along whieh imprognatingeompoundean migrate. While most single-conduetor eahles are of the Chapter 4 concentricstrand type, they may also be compact-round, annular-stranded, segmental, or hollow-core, I. FLEGTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS ‘The electrical characteristics of cables have been dix cussed comprehensively in 2 series of articles! upon which much of tle material presented hore has been based. ‘This chapter is primarily concerned with the determination of the electrical constants most commonly needed for power- system calculations, purticular emphasis being placed on quantities necessary Tor the application of symmetrical ‘eamponents.* A general rule is that regardiess of the com plexity of mutual inductive relations between component parts of individual phases, the method of symmetrical eompouents ean he applied rigorously whenever there is ‘mmetty amnong phases. All the three-conductor cables isfy this eondlition by the nature of their eon- struction; single-eonductoreablesmay ormay not, although usually the error is small in caleulating short-civeuit cur- rents. Unsymmotrieal spacing and change in permeability resulting from different phase currents when certain meth- ode of climinating sheath currents are uted, may produce disymmetry. ‘Those physical characteristies that are of general inter ‘est in elecirical application problems have been included along with electrical characteristics in the tables of this All finear dimensions of radins, diameter, separation, or istance to equivalent earth return are expressed in inches uations in this chapter. ‘This is unlike overhead. jon line theory where dimensions are in feet; the use of inches when dealing with eable construction seems appropriate. Many equations contain a factor for fre- queney, f, which is the circuit operating frequency in eycles [per second, 1. Geometry of Cables ‘Tho epace relationship among sheaths and conductors in cable cireuit. ix » major factor in determining reactance, ‘capacitance, charging current, insulation resistance, dieles- trie loss, and thermal resistance. ‘The symbols used in this chapter for various cable dimensions, both for single-con- ductor and three-conduetor types, are given in Figs, 6 and, 7. Several factors have come into universal use for defining. the cross-section geometry of a cable circuit, and some of these are covered in the following paragraphs. !* Geometric Mean Radius (GMR)—This factor is a property usually applied to the conductor alone, and de- pends on the material and stranding used in ite construe tion. One component of conductor reacianeo* is normally calculated by evaluating the integrated flux-tinkages both inside and outside the eonduetor within an overall twelve- ch radius. Considering a solid conduetor, some of the flux lines tie within the conductor and contribute to total fux- linkages even though they link only a portion of the total conductor current; if a tubular conductor having an infi- nitely thin wall were substituted for the solid eonduetor, it flux would necessarily all be external to the tube. A theo- retical tubular conductor, in order to be inductively equiv alent to a solid conductor, must have a smaller radius 20Chapter 4 LeaD SHEATH /- PLT INSULATION LEAD SHEATH GOWOUCTOR INSULATION (a) oy ‘soLe-cowDuovoR caaces a EQUILATERALLY sraceD' _ THREE"CONDUCTOR CABLE O—O WZ o * SINGLE-CONDLOTOR GABLES UNSYMMETRIGALLY SPACED, BUT PERFECTLY TRANSPOSED Fig. 6—Geometry of cab that the fux-linkages present. inside hesotid conductor but absent within the tube will be replaced by additional link- ages between the tube surface and the limiting eylinder of twelve-ineh radius. A solid capper conduetor of radius @/2 ean be replaced by a theoretical tubular conductor whose radius is 0.779 d/2. This equivalent radius is called the geo- ‘metric mean radius of the actual conductor, denoted herein by GMR,, whore the subseript denotes reference to only a single actual conductor. ‘This quantity ean be used in re- actance calculations without further relerenee to the shape ‘or make-up of the conductor, ‘The factor by whieh actual radius must be multiplied to obtain GM, varies with ° sector DEPTH ZZ Fig. 7—Typical sector shape of conductor used in three-con- ‘ductor cables. stranding or hollow-eore construction as shown in Chap. 3, Fig. 11. Sometimes in calculations involving zero-se- quence reactanees, simplification may result if the three conductors comprising a three-phase circuit are considered as a group and converted toa single equivalent conductor. ‘This requires the use of a new GMR, demoted here as Electrioat Characteristics of Cables 67 GMRz,, which applies to the group as though it were one complex conductor. ‘This procedure is illustrated later in Eq. (18). Geometric Mean Distance (GMD) Spacings among, conductors, or between conductors and sheaths, are impor tant in determining total circuit revetance. ‘The total flux- linkages surrounding conductor ean be divided into two components, one extending inward from a cylinder of 12- inch radiusis discussed in the preceding paragraph, and the other extending outward from this eylinder to the current, return path beyond which there are no net fluxclinkages? The flus-linkages per unit conductor current between the 124nch eylinder and the return path are a function of the separation between the conductor and its retwm, ‘The re- fun path can in many eases be a parallel group of wires, so ‘that a geometric mean of all the separations between the ‘eoniluetor and each of its returns must be used in calcula tions. Geometric mean distanee, therefore, is « term that can he used in the expression for external flux-linkages, not only in the simple ease of Lo adjacent. conductors where it sequal to the distance between conductor eenters, but also in the more complex ease where two circuits each composed of several eonductorsare separates! by an equivalent GMD. ‘The positive- or negative-sequence reactance of a three- phase circuit depends on separation among phase condu tors, If the condduetors areequilaterally spaced the distance from one conductor center to another is equal to the GMD among conductors for that eireuit. Using the terminology, in Fig. 6, MDs. S for an equilateral circuit, ‘The subscript here denotes that his GMD applies to sepa- rations among three conductors. If the conductors are arranged other than equilaterully, but transposed along their length to produce a balanced circuit, the equivalent separation may be ealeulated by deriving a goometrie mean distance from the cube root of three distance products (see Chap. 8): GMD, = YBa Bae a ‘The component of cireuit reactance caused by flux outside ‘a twelve inch radius is widely identified as “reactance spacing factor” (x) and ean be calculated direetly from the GMD} GMD. CAPE ohms per phase per mile. (2) a a r 0.2794 log ‘When the equivalent separation is less than twelve inches, fas can occur in cable cireuits, the reaclance spacing factor is negative s0 as to subtract from the component of con- ductor reactance due to flux out to a twelve-ineh radius, "The nero-sequence reaetance of a three-phase cireuit may depend on spacing among conductors and sheath as well ss among conductors. A distance that represents the equiv- alent spacing botween a conductor or group of conductors and the enclosing sheath can beexpressed asa GMD. Also, the equivalent separation between eable conductors and the sheath of a nearby cable, or the equivalent separation between twa nearby sheaths, can be expressed as 2 GMD, Because these and other versions? of geometric mean dist tanco may be used euecossively in « single problem, care68 Electrical Characteristics of Cables rust be taken to identify ond distinguish among them dur- ing calculations Geometric Factor—The relation in space between the cevlinders formed by sheath internal surface and conductor externa) surface in a single-eonduetor lead-sheathed cable ean be exprossed as 2 “geometric factor.” This factor is applicable to the calculation of such eable characteristics 8 capacitance, charging current, dilectrio loss, leakage current, and heat transfer, because these characteristics depend’on a field or flow pattern between conductor and sheath. ‘The mathematical expression for geometrie factor G in a single conduetor cable is = 2.308 log @ where: ‘> inside radius of cheath. d= outside diameter of conductor. Geometrie factors for single-conductor eables ean be read from Fig. 8. Geometrie factors for three-phase shielded ceables having round conductors are identical, except far heat flow calculations, to thase for single-conduetor cables. The shielding layer establishes an equipoloatial surface surrounding each conductor just as a lead sheath does for siugle-conductor cables. The heat conductivity of the three-mil shielding tape is not high enough to prevent. a temperature differential from developing around the shield cireumference during operation: this poses more complex problem than ean be solved by the simple geometio factors given here Chapter 4 Because of the various possible combinations of con ‘duetors and sheaths that can be taken in a three-conduetor belted cable, soveral goometriefastors are required for com~ plete definition. Two of these factors, the ones applicable to positive-nnd to zero-sequence electrical caleulations, are shown in Fig. 9. 2. Positive- and Negative-Sequence Resistance Skin Effect—tt is well known that the resistance of conductor toalternating current is larger than its resistance to direct current. ‘The direct-current resistance in eablos can be taken as the resistance of sotid rod of the same Tength and cross-section, but increased tavo peroent to take into account the effect of spiraling of the strands that cora- pose the conductor. When allemnating current flows in the conductor there is an unequal distribution of eurrent, with the outor filaments of the conductor carrying more current than the filaments closer to the center. This results in a higher resistance to alternating current than to direct cur- rent, and is commonly called skin effect. ‘The ratio of the two resistances is known as the skin-effeet ratio. In small conductors this ratio is entirely negligible, but for larger conductors it bevomes quite appreciable, and must be con- sidered when figuring the 60-oycle resistances of large cone ‘Tamtsr 1—Dnwewsions ann 60-C¥cLR SkIV-Resecr RATIO OF ‘STRANDED COPPER CONDUCTORS AT 65°C Tnner Diamoter of Annular Conductor Stranded Conduetor, inches Sine Round (Conoentrie Stranded oo | 0 : (Create ‘ is)” | Diameter Outer], Outer ameter) aig [OM natn OME Raia : 0.588 | 1.00 o's | Tous e ELL 0.530 | 100 | = ours | Lone Bo ose | Loe fou | io 8 ove | toa | toi] Le post | nore | te | 0a [naa Lei 2,4 Kase | Yoo [1185 | 03 | $20 | 100 5 tao | ang | rage | se | 09 | 169 | 1108 2 poonooo | test | tae | ira tir) t's | tae e 2800000 | 1.825 | 1.836 | 1.91 1.24 | 2.00) 1.20 of conan | Loa8 | 163.15 [120 “of OE (snievoeo) 0s as toe ratio @ Hig. $—Geometric factor for single-conductor cables, or three-conductor shielded cables having round conductors, ar NOTE: This is approximately correct for shiekled seetor-eonduntor cables if eurve is entered with the dimensiin of & round-eonductor fable having identical conductor ates and insulation thickness, ‘This geometric factor is not applicable for hostBow calealations ia shjelded oable, See Sees. 6 and 6. ductors, Some skin-effect ratios are tabulated in Table 1 for stranded and representative hollow conductors." Proximity Effect—The alternating magnetie flux in & conductor caused by the current flowing in a neighboring conductor gives rise to cireulating curzents, which eause an ‘apparent increase in the resistance of a conductor. ‘This phenomenon is ealled proximity effect. The increase in resistance is negligible except in very large conductors. Proximity effect can, however, become important under certain conditions of eable installation. When eables are laid parallel to metal beams, walls, etc., ass frequently the case in buildings or ships, proximity effect increases the apparent impedance of these eables appreciably. Booth, Hutchings and Whitehead have made eatensive tests oaChapter 4 Electrical Characteristics of Cables cy uw (OUGTOR QELTED GABLES CGEDMETRIC FACTORS (09) FOR THREE CONDUCTOR BELTED CABLES. i oe at or SECTOR CORR a3 Boo + t O08 aa 88 8 8 We 8 a Fig. 9-Geometric factor for three-conductor belted cables having round or sector conductors, NOTE: For eablea having sector conductors enter the curve with the dimensions of a round-eohductor eable having identical condustor ‘ara and ineuation thiclmesses, Multiply the resultant geometric factor by the asslar comestion factor givca above (G, is ealoulted for three-phase operation; Gy is caeulated for single-phase operation, with three conductors pavaleled end rex ‘turn in sheath. See Sees, 5 and 8.)70 the impedance and current-carrying capacity of cables, as they are affected by proximity to flat plates of conducting and magnetic material, Figures 11 and 12, taken from this work, illustrate foreefully that proximity effect can be significantly large. Although theso tests wore porformed at 50 eycles it is believed that the results serve to indicate cffects that would be experienced at 60 eyeles. ‘The results in an actual installation of esbles close to metal surfacesare influenced so greatly by the material involved, and by the Electrical Characteristics of Cables Chapter 4 — je ono} Hye spac erry esos “ smaeion serees Bean rescmce srg orate oe aM se 8 ‘ons PER Mie INCREMENT OF RESISTANCE AND REACTANCE 2s DISTANCE FROM STEEL PLATE ~ INCHES Fig. 11—Increase in cable resistance and reactance caused by proximity to ateel plate for single phase systems (cable ‘sheaths are insulated). torials will contribute lowest losses. Some practical pos- sibilities, drawn from experience im the design of switch- gear, transformers, and generators, are listed here: a, The magnetic plate can be shielded by an assembly of Iarninated punchings, plaged between the cables and the plate, so that flux is diverted from the plate and into tho laminations. ‘The laminations normally have low eddy-current losses and they must be designed so that flax density is not excessive, b. The magnetic plate ean he shielded with a shect of conducting material, such #s copper or aluminum, placed so that the magnetic field acts to build up T T T od | s © ool + ia 7 aan et Att ttt _ | Ratio F Fig. 10—Geometrle factor for three-conductor shielded cables hhaving sector conductors, in terms of insulation thickness T ‘and mean periphery P. structural shape of the surface, that calculation and pre- dietion is difficult, ‘The additional Losses caused by placing a metal plate or other structural shape close to a cable circuit arise from both hysteresis and eddy-current effects within the plate, Hysteresis losses are large if the flax density within theplate is high throughout a large proportion of the plate volume, A material having high permeability and very high re- sistivity would promote hysteresis loss, because flux devel- oped by cable currents could concentrate within the low- reluctance plate, and because the action of eddy-currents to counteract the incident flux would be comparatively small in a high-resistance material, Eddy-current losses depend on the magnetic feld strength at the plate, and also upon the resistance of the paths available for flow within the plate, Because the Iactors that affect. hysteresis loss and those that affect eddy-current loss are interdependent, itisseldom easy to theorize on which material or combination of ma- (el~6m, SexoING BETWEEN SHEATHS (O)=3M SPAGIG BETWEEN SHEATHS (o)~ ine SPACING BETWEEN SHEATHS RESSTANCE Ar 0 CVELES STANCE FROM STEEL PLATE INCHES Fig. 12—Increase in cable resistance and reactance caused by proximity to ateel plate for three-phase systems (cable sheaths are insulated).Chapter 4 counteracting circulating currents within the con~ ducting sheet: these currents considerably reduce the magnetic field strength at the plate. The conducting sheet must have sufficient erossseetional area to ae= commodate the currents developed. ©. The magnetic material can be interleaved with con~ ducting bars that are bonded at the ends so that cir- culating currents develop to counteract the incident magnetic field as in (b). 4. The magnetic plate can be repluced, either entirely 0 partially, by a non-magnetic steel. Non-megnetio steel has low permeability and high resistivity when compared with conventional steel plate: these char- acteristics do not act in all respects to reduce losses, Dut the net effect is often a.loss reduction. Non-mag- netie atee! is of particular benefit when the structare near the cable circuit: partially or enticely surrounds individual phase conductors. ‘The effect of parallel metal on reactance is much larger than on resistance as Figs. 1 and 12 indicate, These figures also show that the magnitude of the increase in im- pedanco is independent. of eonduetor size. Actually, when large eables approach verv close to steel, the resistance in- crements become higher and the reactance increments be- ‘come somewhat lower. ‘The curves of Figs. 11 and 12 aro based on tests perforined al approximately Lwo-thieds of maximum current density for each cable used. The incre ‘ments in resistance and reactance do not, however, change greatly with current density; the variation is only about 1 percent per 100 amperes, In three-phase systems the riddle cable of the throo is influenced less than the outer ‘ones by the presence of the parallel stce!, This variation again is less than variations in materials and has not. been, ‘accounted for in Figs, 11 and 12. ‘These curves cover only a fev specific cases, and give merely an indication of the im- portance and magnitude of proximity effect. More detailed information can be found in the reference listod.+ Proximity effect also has an important bearing on the current-carrying eapacity of eables when installed neat steel plates or structures. This aubjeot is discussed in the section on current-carrying capacity. Sheath Currents in Cables—Aiteroating current in the conductors of single-conductor cables induces alternat- ing voltages in the sheaths. When the sheaths are contin- ‘uous and bonded together at their ends so that sheath eur- rentsmay flow longitudinally, additional [*R losses develop ‘in thesheath. The common way to represent these losses is by ineroasing the resietence of the conductor involved. For single-eonductor eables operating in three-phase systems, this inerement in resistance can be ealeulated by the fole lowing equation, the derivation of whieh is given in refer- at nt Here zm is the mutual reactance between conductors and sheath in ohms por phase per mile, and 7, is the resistance of the sheath in ohms per phase per mile, These two quan- tities ean be determined from the following equations: f a= 0.2704 5 ohms per phase per mile @ ohms per phase per mile. (5) Electrical Characteristics of Cables 1 and rote cms per phase perme for ead sheath nea 6 in which ‘S=spacing between conductor centers in inches recouter radius of lead sheath in inchos. Pinner radius of lend sheath in inches, ‘Thus the total resistance (r4) to positive or negativer sequence current flow in single-eonductor cables, including the eet of sheath currents i +3575 ohms per phase per mile where r, is the alternating-current resistance of the con- ductor alone including skin effect at the operating fre- ‘quency. Eq. (7) applies rigorously only when the cables are in an equilateral triangular configuration. For other ar~ rangements the geometric mean distance among three conductors, GMDs. can be used instead of $ with results, sufficiently accurate for most prartieal purposes The sheath loss in a three-conductor cable is usually negligible except for very large cables and then it is im- portant only when making quite accurate calculations. In these largest vables the sheath losses are about $ to 5 per- feent of the conductor loss, and are of relatively little importance in most practical ealeulations. When desired the sheath loss in three-conductor cables ean be calculated from the equivalent resistance, += BEBS 0 nepr pat perm, a ®) where is sheath resistance from Ea. (8). Thand ry are sheath radii defined for Bg. (6). and is the distance between conductor center and sheath (9) center for three-conduetor ables made up of round con ductors, d= conductor diameter. ‘T=conduetor insulation thickness. For sector-shaped conductors an approximate figure can be had by using Eq. (8), except that d should be 82 to 86 percent of the diameter of a round conduetor having the same cross-sectional area, Example 1—-Find the resistancet 60cycles of 2750 000 cireular-mil, three-conductor belted cable having 158 mil ‘conductor insulation and 133 mil lead sheath. Tho overall diameter of the cable is 2.833 inches and the conductors are sector shaped. ‘From conductor tables (soe Table 10) the diameter of an ‘equivalent round conductor is 0.998 inches. From Eq. (9), sx Fyosnsinsy.+20.10) = 0.664 inches. Since the overall diameter is 2.833 inches, 417 inches 1 Saygeeen,2 Electrical Characteristics of Cables and 71.284 inches, From Eq. (6), [557 ohms per phase per mile, Substituting in Eq. (8), 155702701)" = 0.00479 olums per phase per mile From Table 6 itis found that 7. the conductor resistance, including skin effect is 0.091 ohms per phase per mile. ‘The ‘otal positive- and negative-sequence resistance is then, #4=-0.001-+.005 =0,006 ohms per phase per mile. Sheath currents obviously have little effect on the total alternating-eurrent resistance of this eable, Theoretically some allowance should be made for the Josses that occur in the metallic tape on the individual con- ductors of shelled cable, but actual measurements indicate that for all practical purposes these losses are negli h present designs and ean he ignored in most.eases. "The resistance to positive- and negative-sequence in shielded able can be calculated as though the shiclds were not resent. Three Conductors in Steel Pipe—Typical values for ve- and nogative-sequence resistance of large i pe cables have been established by test, and an empi ieal ealeulating method has been proposed by Wiseman? that checks the tests quite closely. Because the calcula tions are complex, only an estimating curve is presented. Ze ze PO a 3 al © 22 3 ttt QO A E #20) RESISTANCE” yl Sa i 2 3 a 7 : g woe LY i 8 ote toe 50 ran aS COKDUGTOR SIZE, MCM Fig. 13Poaltive-sequence reslatance of high-voltage cables in ateel pipe (estimating curve), Chapter 4 here. ‘The ratio of actual resistance as installed to the d-e resistance of the conductor itself based on data obtained in laboratory tests is shown in Fig. 13. Tho increased resist~ ance is due to conductor skin effeet, conductor proximity effect in the presence of steel pipe, and to 77 loss in the pipe itself. In preparing Fig. 13, the pipe size assumed for each cable size was such that 60 percent of the internal pipe cross-sectional aren would have been unoccupied by eahle material: choosing a nearest standard pipe size as a prac- tical expedient does not affect the result appreciably. ‘The conductor configuration for these tests was s triangular grouping, with the group lying at the bottom of the pipe. If, instead, the conduetors were to be laid in an approx- imately flat cradled arrangement, some change in resist ance would be expected. Actual tests on the flat arrange- ment produced variable results as conductor size was changed, somo tests giving higher losses and some lower than the triangular, Ifa maximum value is desired, an estimated inerease of 15 percent above the resistance for triangular configuration ean be used. Field tests have been made on low-voltage circuits by Brieger™, and these results are shown in Table 2. 3. Positive- and Negative-Sequence Reactances Single-Conductor Cables—The reactance of single conductor Iead-sheathed cables to positive-and negative- sequence currents can be calculated from the following equation, which takes into account the effect of sheath currents, ex noorea L tog, OMDa_ te? m= 7¢2 02794 55 low GRRE EET TE ohms per phase per mile, (10) ays tatty ‘ohms per phase per mile, (11) mere ‘The conductor component of reactance is Logie <2 = 0.2704 55 lone SR, aay where GMR,,—geometric mean radius of one conductor. ‘The separation component of reactance is 2708 £ loge OD 2794 6 lose 12 sat as) where GMDs.= geometric mean distance emong ‘three conductors (see Eq. 1). ‘Phe component to be subtracted’ because of the effect of sheath currents is composed of terme defined by Bqs. (8) and (6). Three-Conductor Cables—Becuuse negligible sheath ‘current effects are present in throe-conductor non-shielded cables, the reactance to positive- and negative-sequence currents can be ealculsted quite simply as: S og,, GMD ane 0.2704 J logChapter 4 Electrical Characterieties of Cobles cy ‘TABLE 2—IMPEDANCE OF THREE-PHASE 120/208 VouT CaBLE CIRCUITS IN FIBRE AND IN IRON CONDUITS. Pestive- and Negative-Sequence Imprdance, Ohrns per Phase por Mile at 60 Cyelos, Phase Conductor | ict Material Yable Sheath Resistance Resctance “ii [ones] OH [ocean | tae |S 500 MCM ‘Uneabled® ‘Fibre |___Noniewded | oss (1 per phase) Teal | 0.188 = ~ Non-ieadod | O20 ae wae —| pe [a Tren Roncteaded | Cubled* — Fibre |__Non-leaded — ‘000 AWG Tneabied™ Fibre ‘Noncleaded | S, = ‘Cabled* \~ ‘Zero-Sequenee Impedance, Ohms Por Phase Por Mie a 60 Cycles Paw Contac | Neutal Conductor | Cantucor | Duerrtvrat | SSH | pease | mexsnce ee = ‘omsty | Mecin | gfe | conneattsey| “Woams so McM | DOO AWG Uneabled® Fibre | Non-leaded os | Osis (1 por phase) | (1 conductor, bare} [Ted | ore 0.850 om bat 500 MCM Uneabled™ | ~ (Qeonduetar, bare) |" Gabled? | —“Fibre | —sNow-leaded | 0500 —*|~S=O.8GB | Nani | TARE cael Rie | oa (enn bt) Raia ears —|tino | “asec (per phase) | (4 coductos, bare) ‘0000 AWE acaba (2 conductor, bare) Boo MCM | Cable (1 eanductor, bare) 1 Mate taken rom “Tonpedance of Tn Phan Shondary Maio in Now Malic aden PRERG ES TESS cosnren meted ttn rand Se EES cg RAE? yc nanan pect sel, na ere geometric mean distance among three conductors, and the remaining values are as defined in Eqs. (12) and (13), For sectorshaped conductors no securate data on change in reactance because of conductor shape is available, but Dr. Simmons can be quoted as authorily for the statement that the resetance is from five to ten percent less than for round conductors of the same area end insulation thicke ness, EI seat sondesten sry of fur condo arangedrectangulay Inthe weyence eka) A-D-C-estra, mi ag pled into the ust ceptor ay Aste 4 r- I. wish thr ae taneous ied he pes codes ns igbauraton ny devo wie edo" For shielded three-conductor cables the reactance to positive- and negative-sequence eurrents ean be calculated tas though the shields were not present, making it similar to belted three-conductor cable. ‘This is true because the effect on resetanee of the circulating currents in the shielding tapes has been calculated by the method used for determining sheath effects in single-contluctor eables and proves to he negligible. Three Conductors in Steel Pipe—Conductor ski effect and proximity effects influence theapparent reactance of high-voltage eables in stool pipe. Because the detailed4 caleulation of these factors is complex, a curve is supplied in Fig. 14 that servos fr estimating resetance within about five percent accurasy. ‘The curve is drawn for triangular conductor grouping, with the group lying at the bottom of the pipe. TF the grouping is instead a flat eradled nrvango- sont, with the conductors lying side by-side at the bottom ‘of the pipe, the curve results should be increased by 16 percent. A‘esleulating method that accounts in detail for 2 a" & 30 ge 1000 = 500 é 00 $ 520 5888 ; 00 : g., z 3 z2 a g Tf [i/o —coetnrne sinanoeo| 2 2 j scorn sacs |B Bos] i ol Se a a i ‘CENTER TO CENTER SPACING BETWEEN CABLES, INCHES Positive-sequence reactance of high-voltage cables fn steel pipe (estimating curve) the variable factors in this problem has been presented by Del Mar’. ‘Table 2 contains information’ usoful in ast tating the impedance of low-voltage (120/208 volt) cables 4, Zero-Sequence Resistance and Reactance When zero-sequenee current flows along the phase con- ductors of # three-phase cable cireuit, it must return in either the ground, or the sheaths, or in the parallel combi- nation of both ground and sheaths? As rero-sequence eur- rent flows through each conductor it encounters the #-< resistance of that conductor, and asit retuens in the ground oor sheaths it encounters the resistance of those paths, The zero-sequenee current flowing in any ane phase encounters also the reactance arising from conductor self-inductance, from mutual inductance to the other twa phase conluetors, from mutual induetanee to the ground and sheath return paths, and from self-induetance of the return paths. Each Electricat Characteristics of Cables Chapter 4 of these inductive effects cannot always be identified in- ividually from the equations to be used for reactance cal- culations because the theory of earth return eireuits', and the use of one GMR to represent: a paralleled conductor group, present in combined form some of the fundamental cffeets contributing to total zero-sequence reactance. ‘The istance and reactance effects are interrelated 50 closely that they are best dealt with simultaneously. ‘Cable sheaths are frequently bonded and grounded at several points, which allows much of the zero-sequence return current to fiow in the sheath. On the other hand, ‘when any of the various devices used to limit sheath eurrent ‘are employed, much or all of the return current flows in the earth. ‘The method of bonding and grounding, Guerefore, thas an offcet upon the zoro-soquence itapedaneo of eables. ‘An actual cable installation should approach one of these three theoretical conditions: 1 Retarn current in sheath and ground in parallel. 2 All return current in sheath, none in ground. 3 All return current in ground, none in sheath, Three-Conductor Cables—Aciusl and equivalent ci cuits for a single-cireuit three-conduetor eable having a solidly bonded and grounded sheath are shown in Fig. 15 (a) und (c). ‘The impedance of the group of three paralleled conductors, considering the presence of the earth return but ignoring for the moment the presence of the sheath, is given in Hgs. (16) or (17) in terms of impedanee to zer0- sequence currents. ago £ D, brat jO8882 5 lose oar cobms per phase per mile a6) sgmrybret jae t~ 204) ‘ohms per phase per mile an ‘Tanun §—Eowrvauexr Det oF BARri RETURN (D,), AND BARTH IMPEDANCE {F, AND Z,), AT 60 CYCLES. Equivalent Equivalent | Equivalent Barth | Depth of th Earth Resistivity] Barth Return, D, | Resistance | Teactance (euterhm) ' s Inet feet. |fohmspermite)obmspermite) aamae | a0 | 08e 205 Tato aan | 0.286 238 10 | Locsi: | 880 0.286 2a 50 | 23000" | 2000] 0280 270 woo | asin | 28mm] o.2K 2n0 soo | rawaoe | 6200 | 02K6 a8 1000 | caceiot | sso | 0286 gat 5000 | 240.10 | 20000} o2R6 300 10.000 | S610 | 28000 | _ 0.256 3.78 where: resace resistance of one conductor, ohins per mile. ry=a-c resistance of earth return (Gee Table 3), ohms per mile, distance to equivalent earth return path, (See Table 3), inches. DyCag Pathag)* at Te 140 EE. ER (xe THREES CONBUETOR cae ‘ei Gagtlagh Teh C88 Eg) ACTUAL ciRoUT (TAREE. SINGLE-CONDUCTOR CABLES) a s tnernesens wher cmmecren |, | (OMPEDANCES EXPRESSED IN ZERO SEQUENCE TERMS) at (etm) ns (2yt—) Lo te eae Noirieo eauivatenr cincurt IMPEDANCES EXPRESSED IN ZERO” SEQUENCE TERMS) o Fig. 18—Actual and equivalent zero-sequence elreuite for three-conductor and single-conductor lead-eheathed cables. Electrical Characteristics of Cables % GMR,= geometric mean radius of the conducting. path made up of the three actual eonductors taken a8 a group, inches, = YGME,J(S) for round conductors. (18) geometric mean radius of an individual conduetor, inches. z,~reactance of an individual phase conductor at twelve inch spacing, ohms per mile. ‘aemreactance of earth return. GM. E tog 22 cbsos per mile 0.8982 F tog 72 ohms per mile. (Refer to Table 3) 9) cont. en (2D), ee GMD,.=geometric mean distance smong conductor centers, inches. S=(d421) for round conductors in three ‘conductor cables ‘The impedance of the cheath, considering the presence of the earth retum path but ignoring for the moment the presence of the canductor group, is ven in terms of im peddance to zero-sequence currents: 2D. Fetr Ohms Per 2) P £ Bret r+ 50.8382 55 loge phase por mile. a= 3retre+j(8ze+x) ohms per phase per (ty where: re=cheath resistance, ohms per mile. 0.200 = 0200 for tend sheaths, Getrag aay 1 ad sheaths inside radius of sheath, inches. outside radius of sheath, inches, 2,ereactance of sheath, ohms per mile, ot 24 sms per mil 0.2704 §, loge = chms per mile, 2) ‘The mutual impedance between conductors and sheath, considering the prosonco of the earth return path which is common to both sheath and conductors, in zero-sequence torms is 140.8382 4 lope 2» seer D SSS og lee Er, ohms per phase per mile. 23) or sqetetj(Bevt2) ohms per phase per mile, (24) ‘The equivalent circuit in Fig. 15(@) is a conversion from the one just above it, and combines the mutual impedance into a common serie element, Prom this circuit, when Doth ground and sheath reium paths exist, total zero soquenee impedance (en 2a) +See =2,—% ohms per phase per mile, (25)6 Electrical Characteristics of Cables If current returns in the sheath only, with none in the ‘ground 6) = ret 87908382 F loge TET chins por * 2GMRs) phase per mile en =rebSnebj(t—2eu— Bq) obuns per phase per mile 28) ‘If current returns in ground only with none in the sheath, 8 would be the case with non-sheathed eables or with insulating sleeves at closely spaced intervals, the zero- eequenes impedance becomes y= (etn) Hm =. ohms per phase per mile. (29) ‘The zero-sequence impedance of shielded cables can be esleulated as though the shielding tapes were not present because the impedance is affected only slightly by cir culating currents in the shields. The equivalent geometric mean radius (GMRx) for threo-conduetor eables having sector eonduetors is difficult, to calculate accurately. The method usad ta ealenlate values of GMR;, for the tables of characteristics is of practical accuracy, but is not considered to be appropriate forexplanation here. Asan alternate basis for estimations, it appears that the GMRs for three sector-eonductors is, roughly 90 percent of the GM, for three round condue- tors having the same eopper ares and the same insulation thickness. Example 2—Find the zoro-sequence impedance of a three-conduetor belied eable, No, 2 A.W.G, conductor (7 strands) with conductor diameter of 0.292 inches. Con- ductor insulation thickness is 156 mils, belt insulation is 78 mils, lead sheath thickness is 109’ mils, and overall cable diameter is 1.732 inches. Assume D,=2800 feet and resistance of one conductor =0.987 ohins per mile at 60 eycles. Distance between conductor centers is: ‘S$ =0,202-+42X0.156 =0.604 inches. GMR of one conductor is (see Chap. 3, Fig. LI): GMR,.=0.726%0.148=0.106 inches. GMR of three conductors is: GMReo= 10100) (0.60 338 inches. ‘The conductor component of impedance is (r9=0.987, r,=0.286): = 0.987 +0.286-+ 0.8382 logu =wO% 2800.19 0338 = 1.27-+4J4.18 4.37 ohms per mile This would represent total zero-sequence circuit impedance if all current returned in the ground, and none in the sheath, For the sheath component of impedance: ne 113 ohms per mile 2280012 Tae (1.623)(0-109) 2% =3X1.15-+0.286430 8982 logis =3.68-438.87 ohms per mile Chapter 4 ‘The mutual component of impedance i a= 0.286-4j8:87 If all current returned the sheath, and none in the ground, Lon L274 1843.68-453.87 -0.57—j7.74 =4.88+031 = 439 ohms per mile. If return current: may divide between the ground and sheath paths, Bs 127+ I4.18— m1artjtigy1eas a1 2180-41 87 =3.44 ohms per mile ‘The positive-sequence impedanco of this eablo ie: 2.=20,987 430 208 ohins per mile, ‘Therefore the rato of 2ero- to petitive-soquonce resitanee is 2.9, and the ratio of zero- to postive-sonwence reactance iso Zero-sequence impedance is often calculated for all return current in the sheath and none in the ground, be- ‘ange the mageitude of the answer is usualy close to that calculated cor ring a paralleled return. The actual petite ofa ground-return eireuit is usually indefinite, since it may be mixed up with water pipes and other conducting maierials, and also because low-resistance connections: between sheath snd earth are sometimes ditfeult to cntablish, Single-Conductor Cables—Fig, 15 also shows the actual and equivalent circuits for three single-conductor cables in a perfectly transposed three-phase circuit, where the sheath are solidly bonded and grounded. The im- pedance expressions applying to single-eonductor cables differ in some respects from those for three-phase cables: etnas Li senrctrot8360 Lg per phase per mile, (30) sreti(ect2.—224) ohms per phase per mile, @1) where: reac, resistance of one conductor, ohms per rile. re=a.e, resistance of earth (see Table 3), ohms per mile. istance to equivalent earth return path (see ‘able 3), inches. GMR,.~goometrie mean radius of the conducting path made up of the three actual eonduc- tors taken as a group, inches, /IGMR,)(GMDs)* a,=reactance of an individual phase conductor at Lwelve-inch spacing, chins per mile. y=reactance of earth return. f 0.8882 J, lone 75 ohms per mile (Bee Table 3.)Chapter 4 GMDi.=geometric mean distance among conductor centers, inches = VSue Sie Ree serctret 08382 & He caries per phase per mile @2) or seeretreti(aette—2e4) ohms por phase 3) where GMR,,=geometrc mean radius of the conducting ath nad up ofthe thre hee paral (2 \(aw.) reteviatanc of on sheath, chins por mile => 0. (rot rrr) rind rain of sheath inches, outside rive of shat, inches, fareaclane o oe sheath cae per mile ora f 24 0.2704 & loge A for lead sheaths, =r, i D. sam retJO.8882 5 log GAT my Ohms per phase per mile aa) -+ilte+z4—2ze) obms per phase per mile, (35) (Come. Garren From the equivalent circuit of Fig. 15, total sro- sequeneo impedance when both ground and sheath paths exist is: =! chime per phase per mile, (25) If current returns in the sheath only, with none in the ground zo= zett,—Beq ohms per phase per mile (20) OMRy s=rebre- 0.8382 logw xyye ohms per phase OMB per mile (36) rtretjla,—x) ohms per phase per mile, (37) If curvent returns in the ground only: fa (Gene) Hee ohms per phase per mile reo) Cables in Steel Pipes or Conduits—When eables are installed in iron eonduits or steel pipes, the zero-sequence resistance and reactance are affected by the magnetic material hecause it closely surrounds the phase eonductors tand forms a likely return path for zero-sequence current. No method of ealeulating this zero-sequence impedance is available, but some rather complete results are available from field tests on installed low-voltage cables, as shown Electrical Characteristics of Cables 1 in Table 2, Some special tests of Lhe sero-sequence im- pedance of high-voltage pipe type cable have been made Ihnt the results are not yet of a sufficiently wide scope to be genorally usable, 5. Shunt Capacitive Reactance Shunt capacitive reactances of several types of aze given in the Tables of Electrical Charactes dieetly in ohtas per mile. Tn addition, shunt caparitance and charging current can be derived from the curves of geometric factors shown in Pigs. 8 and 9, for any cable hose dimensions are known, The geometric factors give in these curves are identified by eymmetrical-component, terminclogy. The positive-, negative-, and zero-sequenee shunt eapac- itances for single-conductor metallic-sheathed cables are all equal, and ean be derived from the curves of Fig. 8. ‘Three-conductor shielded cables having round conductors are similar to single-conductor cable in that each phase conduetor is surrounded by a grounded metallie covering; therefore the positive-, negative-, and zere-sequence values are equal and are dependent upon the geometric factor relating & conductor to its own shielding luyer. The geometric factor for three-conductor shielded eableshaving sector-shaped conductors is approximately equal to the geometric factor, G, applying to round conductors. How= ever, if the sector shape of a shielded cable is known, then the curve in Fig. 10, based on insulation thickness and mean periphery of insulation, is recommended as giving more accurate values of goometrie factor. For single-conduetor and three-condu bles (soe Fig. 8), jor shielded ea Cnty 0 082! prt pe as pe mile. (38) my (39) t (40) ‘Three-conductor belted cables having no conductor shialding have zore-sequence values which differ from the positive: and negative-sequence; the appropriate geo etre factors are given in Fig. 95 2 cnc, nt OFF mierofarads per phase per mile an ‘microfarads per phase per mile. (42) <, megohms per phase per mile. (43) megohms per phase per mile, (44) Outs bok 0.47 amperes per phase per mile. (48) 0:308/-k I amperes per phase per mile, (46)8 ‘When three-conductor belted eables have sector-shaped conductors, the geometric factor must be corrected from the value which applies to round conductors. ‘This cor rection factor is plotted in Fig. 9, and its use is explained below the carve, In the foregoing equations, Gs, Cs, and G, are positive, negative, and zero- ‘sequence eapacitances, 2, 2¢ and ty aro positive-, negative-, and zero- Sequence capacitive reactances. Ty, Ty and Ty are positive, negatives, and zero- sequence charging currents. y= line-to-line system voltage, kilovolts. Eedielectrie constant, according to the values in Table 4 It is important to note that in converting shunt capaci- tive reactance from an “ohms per phase per mile” basis to a total “ohms per phaso" basis, it is necessary to divide by the circuit length: a T length in mil Xe ‘ohms per phase. (47) 6, Insulation Resistance. ‘The calculation of cable insulation resistance is difficult because the properties of the insulation are generally predictable only within a wide range. ‘The equations pre- sented below are therefore quite dependent upon an accurate knowledge of insulation power factor. For single-conductor and three-conductor shielded cables, mary: +10* obms per phase (48) TF ico S por mile, For three-conductor belted exbles, 0.5970 Fk-cos $ LM Fk-c08 } In these equations, ny Te, and ty are positive, negative, and zero~ sequence shunt resistan k=dielectric constant, (see Table 4). os ¢=power factor of insulation, in per unit. In Table 5 are listed maximam values of insulat power factor, taken from specifications of the Association of Edison Iluminating Companies". These standard values will very probably be several times larger than actual measured power factors on new cables. reser +10" ohms per phase per mile (49) 10* ohms por phase per mile. (60) ‘TapLe 4—Drexnemic Conaraas op Cabiat INSULATION Tasolation Range of k | Typical & Bold Paper soo) ae OLPilled 30-40 a5 Gae Filed 30-49 a7 Varnished Cambrie 4060 50 Rabbor 40-90 50 Electrical Characteristics of Cables Chapter 4 ‘Tanue 5—Maxnuva Power PactoRs* oF Casi [SsuLATION “Temperature oe ao. Cable | Sold Filet Filed (Deg) | F*P% | dowepresure) | dow-presmre) Be | 0.000 | 0.0000 0-000 0 oo | 0.007 =| ous 30 oo | 0.0000 0.018 8 0.0 | oon | ome 0 0.030 | _0.0108 omar "ie pore fst now ate nally alow the van iy wwe marin II. TABLES OF ELECTRICAL (CHARACTERISTICS The G0-cyele electrical characteristies of tho most usual sizes and voltage classes of paper insulated cable are con- tained in Tables 6 through 11. In each ease the positive-, rogative-, and zero-sequence resistances and reactances are tabulated, or else constants are given from which these Auantities can be esleulated, Also, included in these tables are other characteristies useful in cable work, euch as typical weights per 1000 feet, sheath thicknesses and resistances, conductor diameters and GMR's, and the type of conductors normally used in any particular cable. Incach of these tables the electrical characteristics have heen ealeulated by the equations and eueves presented in the foregoing pages. Where sector-ahaped conductors are used, some approximations are nevessary ax pointed out previously. In’Table 6 the positive- and negative-sequence reactance for sectored cables has arbitrarily been taken 7-5 peroont les than that of an equivalent round-conductor abl, in agvordanee with Dr. Simmons’ reraramenciations The equivalent GMR of three conductors in seetored cables is necessarily an approximation because the GMR of one sector eannot be determined accuratsly. This eondi- tion arses since the shape of sectors varies and vigorous calculation isnot justified. ‘The variation in sector shapes probably is greater than any error present in the approxi- mation given in the tables. The reactances calculated from these approximate GMR’s are sufficiently accurste for all practical calculations. ‘Table 7 for shielded cables is similar in forma to Table 6 and where seetored eables are listed the same approxima. tions in GMR and reactance apply. Table 8 for three- eouductor oiled cables is similar to both Tables 6 and 7 and the same considerations apply. In these tables for three-conductor eablos, the 2er0- sequence characteristics are calculated for the case of all return current in the shagth and none in the ground. Ax pointed out in the discussion of zero-sequence impedance, thisis usually sufficiently arcurate because of the indefinite nature of the ground return circuit. Where ground must be considered or where there are paralleled three-phase circuits, the impedance must be calculated as illustrated in the examples given, ‘From the quantities given in these tables of three-con- ducior cables, the overall diameter of any particular eable ‘ean he calculated. D=2.155(+27)+20+1) el)ance sues nee BEE aene gnav nace BIE 0 ww oralg | BREE 8888 SESE 9S pasa g08 R88 £98 £058 SEES S2E8 89% | SESS BEES E288 £28 | 29 S588 HERE REE B88 AGRE RSRR gary set way | BEER BRE H alt Sas ERO—SeQLENCE |peazanan nace ags| saan aura guns acs ene cece acta tes) a ease sane xe 2 at sa0 ABS BUS 9089 583 | 28 e988 B8NS BEE reooopng | 3202 BBE B | Grounded Neuteal Service Electrical Chavacteristiex of Cables ‘Tante 6—60-Cvcun CRARACTmRISTICS OF THREE-CONDUCTOR BELTED Parsr-INSULATED CABLES Sd | OOS | BSE ana 5089 2985 GREG RRS |B 2508 9858 SEE a | “apuaeng | E2 EE BNEE UE | SRR ES |pgazae sae ova | ¥ commoner | SHAR SES SAR ARE SRR RRS | BEE SEES SARE HE) EE SAR8 SAR AAG seago tBu | BAER GEES S| oh TOGS RES 2 gah URS EEE ES ob HERS RRZE REE | UE HESS EEL A2a ay | BRRB EES g5aE 589 2895 S858 35 | 2898 $209 S288 S55 ‘SREB RUSS SESE QER | ENRS ESET SE SEE S828 S588 955! Gas Bella fren S88 S885 5288 £25 EES HLB8 SOLE COL | SHEE FO8G G08B OBS | HESS ODT GEN 8 ait eee akc dria eam arctan Bete Ses enh fr won 886 888 BBE | °°" “SEQ BEES SER 58539382 3898 885 wa | nes naan aaae 2as) 9999 eaee ease see anespncy | 8288 S983 S888 SOE 1 eere ReRE PEER ERE FR ington ae sid desig he Sagan Chapter rm ore oat “ae80 Electrical Characteristics of Cables Chapter 4 ‘Tae 7—60-Cycie Cuaracteristics oF THREE-CONDUCTOR SHIELDED Parer-INSULATED CABLES. Grounded Neurel Serve 1 | POSITIVE & § 4 GRBEE | f | cxno seauesoe | sanare Pi. ala ile gle | le | Je i|e/ 8 afd lat) if i i | dk] & z| Ble # | Ble g lar] 3|B| & |al w Lae ELB LH a + | gg | oa lag | om [eee | ae | oa | cae | gag | me | we | ae id $] RR | HRB] SS | Soe | SHB | Bab | a | SBR | at | BBE | a | HB | Et Bl) @ |S) HR GEER) ER TER) Be Ig Ee Bleek al] BBB | Re) SSe | eet | nS) Be | ESE | EB | se | oe | IB | ok Fl me | mowe | oy | sae | ous | cam | oa | gies | gee | ewe | 2 | cz | om | ne | ogy HP] BB) | BERD) GR) RaR RE | BB) EER] ER | ee | Be | | Bee HBR) &] HS PE) SB SR Ye |] ER) 8 | EB) BB) | ae wo | wre [gee | cm | oar | pu | ae | ewe | 22 | oa | a Em | | iB | See | BBE | BSS | IB | es | See | ER | ao | BR i - Por) yee Goal aim | $2 | oe | ons ae | ge | ge 8 $i) S| se fogs | com | gut | gam] ome | gem | pe | eae | oe t BS) HE |B) ER] ES] ER | BB] | ae | ee | é 8 230000, eS zor | ose7 | 0.257 | o.g19 wr oss | 2.50 | o2e S200 077 5 BS S| HE te ge bel oe eee | ER | Sap | He Pe ac ce ad ig 238 | 2B | 18 | 88 wooo |e | gm | ems | ove | oor | ou cea | 1s | eae | me oe Be |S | BR | bee | ah | be | Se fe | Ea |g ig A) HE |B) ba) Sie) ae | HE i SR GE ER | St | 32 om (2B | & ig z S| HB | ee te | ae | ee ie | iBT ig ae ja] ee lis ge alee am | it | a5 | BB ut BS | Bae | | HER | 8 | EU | SH | | EB | 8 | HB | SSSA a ne hte Rete th oe ot Se Ge aptation, BETS os umac aceon open Orne! Rnd 69am in which, according to Fig. 6, Deoutside diameter in inches. d= diameter of individual conduetor in inches. conductor insulation thickness in inches. t= belt insulation thickness in inehes (when present). L=lead sheath thickness in inches, ‘This equation refers to cables with round conductors. For seotored cables there is no exact rule, but a close approxi- mation can be obtained by using an equivalent cable with round conductors and ealeulating the diameter D by Eq, (11), and then subtracting 0.8 to 0.4 times the round con ductor diameter d, depencling upon the shape of the sector. ‘A set of caleulated constants is given in Table 10 for single-conduetor cables, from which the positive, negative- ‘and zero-sequence charaeteristies can be quickly deter- mined by using the equations given at the fool of the tabulation. ‘These equations are derived directly from those given for the ealeulation of sequence impedances in the sections under Hlectrical Charaeteristies. Since 12 MR. ohms per phase per mile 2 ay ‘ohms per phase per mile sn. a (12) £ 0.2704 Flom (22) s : 74702704 F tog & ohsws per phase per mile (18) 0 and r, and r, are conductor and sheath resistances respeo- tively, the derivation of the equations given with Table 10 Decomnes evident. ‘Table 12 gives the one other quantity, a, nevesary for the use of Table 10. ‘These reactanca spacing factors are tabulated for equivalent eable spacingsChapter 4 Electrical Characteristics of Cables 81 ‘TADLE 8—60-CYCLE CHARACTERISTICS OP THREE-CONDUCTOR OIL-FILLED Parer-INsuLATED CABLES Grounded Neutral Service EOSTIYE & mor-suguence | smear if i | le \@ i 3 L a Wi ‘ | ie Bulg) a 8 i B | at EE 3 u a 7 (2) iB fe ete ie iB . ol) | ERD | 8 | Bet | ote | ok oe i) 2) BBB ee S| te le lie e/g Ca aa | ES |e (ie camo | aut | 8m | gmk ee 1B) 28 | | EE ie 2 ces tee | cum [sa | om | one tm | 8) Be |S GBR] 8 32 ae gam | aut | es | at u sm |B 888 Lee ke L | 3] 8 | wae ga | gam | gat 1B ge lis | 3s ta $8 tH ie i Bets een ove | con | om Ls cow |e | one ae | | "Ag rae ech les gandany we OG, a {Ti ions eyo ar edt data th cala pet: CR—Comsael Rata; C&-Compast Salo, from 0.5 to 36.0 inches, which should cover the range met in practice. For all spacings less than 12 inches, 24 is negative. “The constants ealculated in this manner apply to one three-phase circuit of single-conductor Jead-sheath cables, assuming all zero-sequonce return eurrent. to be in the sheaths, none in the ground, ‘The 60-cycle characteristics of single-conductor oil- filled cables are given in Table 11, This table is similar in form to Table 10 and the impedance characteristies are determined in precisely the same way. Here again the sequence constants apply to one three-phase cireuit of three cables with zero-sequence return current assumed to be all in the cable sheaths, Single-conduetor oil-filled cables have hollow conductors (the oil channel forms the core), consequently Table 11 includes eables of the two ‘most common inside diameters, 0.5 and 0.69 inches. In each of the tabulations, the valtage elas listod in tho first column refers specifically to grounded-neutral oper= tion. Frequently cable systems are operated with other than a solidly grounded neutral. In low-voltage cables the samo insulation thickness is usod for both grounded and ungrounded operation, but. in cables rated 7000 volts and above, a greater thickness of insulation is recommended for a given voltage class when cable is operated with an ungrounded neutral. A good approximation of the eles ‘vical characteristics of these higher voltage cables when operated with other than a solidly grounded neutral, ean be had by referring in each specific ease to the next higher voltage lass listed in the tables, "The constants of several typical cables calculated by the methods outlined are listed in Table 13, These typical eases are inchided to be used as a cheek on the general magnitude of cable constants when making ealeulations for a specific case. Representative sizes and types of exble have been chosen to cover as many types of calculation as possible. IIL. TABLES OF CURRENT CARRYING CAPACITY, ‘One of the most common problems in cable esleulations is that of determining the maximum permissible amperes82 Electrical Characteristics of Cables Chapter 4 ‘TABLE 9—-60-CyCLE CHARACTERISTICS OF THREE-CONDUCTOR GAS-FILLED Paren-INsuLAteD CABLES 9852 odd G28 B58 S82 | ante 2 Fy gS oe85 3285 = Foo 88 S582 CREE a gi = gid aes HS a Bag $20 3255 223 ibs isia wea) 204g B28 inte t SS Guay GG /EREE E287 ESE G88 EES EEE ELSE FES EEEE Bete ft ermonra| "> “28 8808 E8n/"°"" FRg EERE Eas “"-~ “28g 488g Ea|""~~ “28g 8809 388 ae TRS A988 283 aa83 588 Sage E38 ana 2 | 32 = aga Sade e202 e23|nece ener PERE eee [AERA BEEe ON CBR [SERS REE =o era| ron 1 ore T mFChapter 4 Electrical Characteristics of Cables ‘TaLe 11—60-Cycue CHARACTERISTICS oF SINGLE-CONDUCTOR OIL-FILLED (Iontow Corr) Paper-INSULATED CABLES Grounded Nevteal Service Saag B233 & a aay GRE 3 5868 a a 2582 FA 2 Hees 8 | g 88a 2 | 5 35/2889 Bae jaees a5 |ze & | 5 aapruns 288 2282 22/8883 2808 |S805 BEE gs | ove mig 82 S45 8 gues 4590/4002 H5az[sU20 S4a/2 [ 1 Ege: lg: A ae ; if aes 2888 BS 2058 #888 £9 S825 e588 ‘355E DSIDE DIAMUTEROFSIAUNGCORE™Os1NC1 89s 8289 & EO BSEE §) sam anys| BR ANS aaae BES? |i Fe ‘RS FESS EER 883 2288 wege [Ree ROSE Care Site sin lata 4 i cd rss alae ier Somer Components oy Wasa Rests te! on 0% crate a 6, ling 2 wan or rain, Above eet fom Set (Based on all return current in sheath; none in ground) Ht ¥ed Eat gat ibe k srs jla tale (b) Including Sheath Currents: “s) Neglecting Sheath Currents; Positiye~ and Negative-Sequence Impedances: cs “(ete itt. + ak. Where x Note: sy is obtained from Table 12, many cireuits more inatalled in order to carry the IV. CABLES IN PARALLEL ing capacities of cables in air have recently been revised ‘The problem of current division among paralleled cables by the IPCEA and aro now available in the eable manu- facturers’eatalogs frequently encountered, because i than ane eable per phase total current, Also, mutual effects mey develop between cable ci ble igure for eables in air, The current-earry- In the discussion on proximity effect it- was mentioned that where cables are installed parallel to steel plates, the extra losses arising from the current vuits which are adjacent throughout their length but which termi Depending upon ste on separate busses, proximity to the plate may affect Learrying capacity he type of cirewit, the cable type and configuration, and, the system conditions being investigated, the problom may take any of several forms. “This reduetion in earrying eapacity is given by the eurves of Fig. 19 which are taken from the test values presented by Booth.Chapter 4 Electrical Characteristics of Cables 85 ‘TABLE 12—REACTANCE SPACING Factors (z:)*, OHMS PER MILE aT 60 CYCLES m) = [™| = |e) a |e, = [=| a [ma fo] an fm] 27 | ~otTe =o =oois | 18a | oan 0.005 | 27.0 | 0.008 050 | oss | 300 | 0.160 0.005 Snort | t60 | 00s ns } 280 | 0.108, 076 | ~oaae | 325 | 0.159 =008) =n00s | 165 | aso oor | 200 | 0x07 00 | 0.902 | 350 | 0.180 ~0.084 00. | 170 | ope 074 | s00 | ont 2s | “027s | azs | ~o.si ~o0r 00s | 75 | aos 0% | s10 | ois 160 | 0252 | 400 | 0135 =00r4 dono | to | a089 ore | a20 | o.xi9 us | moa | 425 | os Zoom ous | 185 | 005s nse | 530 | 0.123 200 | “0217 | 450) —o119 So.06s ois | 90 | 0058 ‘pst | 540 | 0420 220 | ~203 | 475) ou2 oot vas | 193 | 0050 0.090 | 350 | 0.100 200 | 0.100 | $00 | —0.100 =0067 027 | 200 | 0.002 00s | 360 | oss saan204 £5 ping inch, enone avs RECEIVING BUS It is difficult to anticipate in detail the problems met ve Uenerie in MiLES: gee practice, but the examples outlined here indicate methods Of solution that ean be modified to fit actusl circumstances. zy ‘Alimost any problem invalving paralleled eables ean be represented by simultaneous equations of voltage drops 2, cansed by self and mutual impedances but such equations often become numerous and cumbersome. Therefore in 26 ‘approaching mast prableras it becomes desirable to search ahout for one or more simplifying assumpions so that ze problem can be reduced to simpler terms, still without introducing errors large enough to invalidate the solution. le For example, when paralleled eable eireuits connect. 2 generating source to a balanced load, it is usually permis- x sible to assume that the total current in each phase is com- ‘posed only of the respective positive-sequenee eoraponent | this assumption is based on the ungymmetrieal eable-n- it cuit impedances being much smaller than the symmetrical rit Toad impedances. LAL ‘Three outlined examples of calculations on paralleled cables are included here, but. they assist only by illustrating genersl methods, singe there are 80 many different, and more complex, cases to be found in practice. (ZERO CURRENT IN EARTH RETURN PATH) Fig. 16—Rquivalent cireult for parallel cables, with open- circuited eheaths and no net ground-return ‘current (see Bxample 3). ‘TALE 13—-60-CycLE CONSTANTS OF TYPICAL CABLES IN OuMS PER PHASE Par MILE : a | escpyprro% i collie &, # a "Boe CasSro ncn eee ttn 04 Se Cale ped i Seen) Fagen ut Sard MCN. 7/4ia Contre ee | 8.9 | ‘Figg OO ited Type; Becerd, 20 MCN, 225 Ml | Tae Se Ei Posrrivg, AND BROMINE NI86 Electrical Characteristics of Cables Chapter 4 ‘Tapue 14—Cunnent Carrynva Capacity or THREE-CONDUCTOR BELTED Paper-INsutatep CABLES om ip Lon Gato Dust Bank NINE * LBS, “[atinaeati we, [dite geamaes,| dia We am ne, $ a8 = alg FRY Hs | fs ve] tea | tea ie 7 ell agl as] ws wa] ig) aa] ie BU) B) a) Ba 8 al giagl | a gia) 8 8 28) 8) 2) S 8) 8) ag i | S| i] 3] Sb el atl el wee ews | Si aioe od ws, | Om a BE 8m ne, | a Sera imi Example 3—Type of Cireuit: A three-phase O0-cycle cable cireuit connected between a sending and a receiving ‘bus, using single-conductor unsheathed eables, and having two paralleled cables per phase. Conditions: ‘The current flowing into the sending bus and out of the reeciving bus is nearly balanced three-phase SERRE epee edad ot ns OE Es compnct to sean aan a0, oad current, (positive-sequence only), and its magnitude is known. The cable conductors can be of different sizes, and their spacings ean be entirely unsymmetrical Problem: ‘To find the division of load current among all conductors Circuit: Refer to Figure 16.Chapter 4 Electrical Characteristics of Cables a7 ‘TABLE 15—CURRENT CARRYING CAPACITY OF THREE-CONDUCTOR SHIELDED Parer-INsULATED CABLES ‘Nowe of Bally Lol Caos e Duet Ba i ux | __wiwe sd 2 iw [| @ | | wo i]h] sls &) 8] 8) 8) 8) 8] Ble) 8] el z PMR 8] ay 1] 18] ie) HE) & ot] S| Bs) Bt BB ie] a8) at Bg i ei\sla a al z B/S |S) 2 ie BE 2 ee 2 2/8) 8) as 5 | cS | eis] sos | San ia ata | Sea | Soa ae Conger Tenors °C i] BE] M5] eo) ue] aT] | oe B/S 42) 08) 30] | 0) 1B) #2] BB) 18) 29 | c {a ais| sel azf an) sel ae atl oe ws ee ee] S|) 2) 22) 22) 20) ae) 8) | aa) 21 8 [esl se we) se irs} aes | , 3| 8/8) 2) ge a] | at] oe) BF) om | S| 8) se] ae] ge * cunts ggg anne OF mer wnt i Seen I SE le sede nil act, © Multnty Shleted curronia by’ Those instore when earth igen armlr oe er da Complete voltage drop equations: Applying these assumptions leads to a set of three simul TeLectLalooot Wht ly leit lelete Tela tancous equations relating three currents: Beet leet lyleyt lela bless Te Modified equations Lebaret Taker Iw lagrt Lelaiet Teli tlelevt lobo lyZytlelicet leks Bed lee ert Zane Lage Bao) To la le= Bla) Simplifying assumptions: It is apparent that Ey= By, | leet fare = Zerg Laie} ~(Zerr Lad) Fm Bus, and Ee=Ey; therefore these voltages can be ba%{Zy-— Zvx:) taldire—Zve) liminated by subtraction. Also if one ampere positive 4 Laren Loser Lard) +1 Lose Do sequence current is assumed to flow through the overall Zyre)-+le(Ze-b Ze 2Lve)= (Leer Le ireuit, then y= L0—Le, fun oy, and Lorma=Le, ba Bare— Ban) bathe Ze Lise88 Electrical Characteristies of Cables ‘Tanue 15—CunneNr Cannving CaPActrY FoR THREE- CONDUCTOR O1-PILLED Paver INSULATED CanLEs (amporen por eondietar)* Reted Line Voltage—Grounded Neutral Cireular Mile or or AWG, Bes) ° Cy 00 210 210 20 ‘9000 200 20 240 280 00 25 265 25 200 000 298 205, 25 350 000 320 320 320 400 000 52 aa Baz 5000 000 ‘82 se 80 00 060 a7 ar a2 700 000 45 45 440 750 00 400 480, 455 Deg. ©. Corteetion Factor for Various Earth Teraps, Aftor substituting the proper self and mutual impedaneo values as defined later, these equations ean be solved by the method of determinants for current distribution, bases! on a total of 1.0 ampere positive-sequence current in the cir: cuit. To obtain actual currents, the distribution factors musi be multiplied by the actual load eurrent in amperes. Apparent conductor impedances: Using the current distribution factors for each conductor ta solve the com plete voltage drop equations, an "apparent! impedanee for each phase of the circuit ean be calculated. ‘This apparent impedance is valid only for the particular eurrent division, cealentated: Apparent impedance of phase a Inthe Apparent impedance of phase e Be Supplementary equstions: The original assumption of positive-sequenee current flow through the cizcuit pre= cludes the existence of any net ground return current. ‘This assumption simplifies the determination of the various self and mutual impedances, because the effects of a Chapter 4 ground retwen path may be ignored with very stall error: Boalt jr) where Le-cireuit length in miles re=4-0. resistance of conductor a’, ohms per mile +#.= reactance of conductor a’, toa twelve inch radius, ‘ohms per mile = 30.2794 lope GER -afcand Oe TRE =90.2794 loB EXER; of eorduetor a”, Thahon Boo tos, Boe, Be, and Ze axe determined similarly, based ‘on ihe respective conduetor characteristies 2130279 log 2 spacing in inchos between conductors a and o', The re- raining mutual impedance are ealeulated similarly, using the appropriate spacing for each. A series of more complex examples of the above type of problein is described by Wagner and Muller.* Example 4—Type of circuit: A three-phaso 60-cycle cable civeit connected between asending and a receiving bus, using twa dissimilar three-conduetar lead sheathed cables in parallel Conditions: Each enble contains three conductors that, by the nature of the cable construction, are symmetrically transposed so that the flow of positive- or nexative- sequence currants vill cause no gero-sequence voltage drops, Therefore, the sequence networks are not interde- pendent and an impedance value of each sequence may be calealated and used independently. Problem: To find the zero-sequence impedance of the entire cable circuit, and to determine how zero-sequence curzent divides betwaen eables (=a) where Sz is the axial abe LENGTH IN MILES: [sare © Seyouis ECEIVING wus ‘us me ‘Eantn obrerboorprrmap rarer: o cane EQUIVALENT ciRGUIT, WITH ALL QUANTITIES [EXPRESSED IN ZERO~ SEQUENCE TERMS Fig. 17--Actual and equivalent zero-sequence eireult for owo parallel three-conductor lead-sheathed cables (ee Example 4).Chapter 4 Electrieal Characteristics of Cables 89. ‘Tamux 17—Cuneenr Carrvine Capacity oF THREE-CONDUCTOR GAS-FILLED PAPsr-INSULATED CABLES ‘Nor of aval tana ain oe Far | Toa eu | wlelelelel@lols lol» lelele ole | a) ae | | Bb Ce BS |e Be |S | te mS |b i 8] IB] 8 gjslgas gig oe |S | St] i) Bt Hg wie] a) s/e i) Bi B18 i #21 oe Ba ARS | 8] S'S) Ss) a) 8 8 els of | S| BB) BB) BB a) elal|ale us| as] an] as B/S] Ble $8] 13 Be ” dt nd Sen asa Ste lr rane © Rallis Se as. and doe ne oa, Bas ctl dat ean say adel wate daa oly sma tate! Cea by tas See whee i at Sgn a Circuit: Refer to Fig. 17. The three actual conductors in each cable have been reduced to one equivalent con- ductor in this figure, and all impedances are to be ex- pressed in zero-sequence lerun considering the earth a3 & return path for each cireuit. Complete voltage drop equations: Epa leZetleeert leZee+ Eyaleheot leh how tl, feledoe Om FeLi loon didaor Lobe ‘The voltage drop Eo can be elirninated by subtraction, and the sheath currents can be solved in terms of conductor currents by using the last two equations only. Also, itis convenient to assume that the total zero-sequence current flowing into the sending bus is ane ampere, which makes Ten 10- Ie. After making these changes, the following single equation reaulte: Modified equation: Tel Ce~ Lee Baile Cooke tbe Bec elem Ti hie \ lochs so) De ‘This eqquation furnishes a solution for Je, from which Jy follows directly. ‘To find the zero-sequence impedance of the entire cireuit requires that one of the complete voltage drop equations be solved for Ks. ‘Then Supplementary equations: ‘The equations necessary ta determine each impedanee value ave shown here; every impedance must be expressed in zero-sequence terms, with ‘the effect of earth as a return path included.90 Electrical Characteristics of Cables Chapter 4 'TaBLE 18—CURRENT CARRYING CAPACITY OF SINGLE-CONDUCTOR SOLID ParER-INSULATED CABLES of Eagualy Contes Goes Dae a Contactar TaREE I T INE I Tweuve, Be Fe Gaim ow xox | «| | w |» | © | | w | w | «| w|i ~ Copper Temperarure, 85°C 6 pour T i |B) g| 1 | 8) 8 a 8) &| B @| 8/8 ou | re |e MG | SB | ie z 8 8 Copper Temperature °C Biss won SB S885 Eas oe | ge | a ES gue setee Be. 4 s # 8/8) 2) 8 Bee etd | a ae ot MeL Shed od ‘Continued |Chapter 4 Electrical Characteristics of Cables a1 ‘Tasie 18—Cunrent Canying Capacity or SINGLE-CONDUCTOR SOLID PargR-INSULATED CABLES (Continved) Seer = = = Dacha ar Gretel Factor {wt swore compen 190 3) 8) # | gl alli) @| el S| 8 @/ 8] B a) | a) #| B| se | a | ag wl me | ae | me = 8| 2) 818 B/S) #812 eB) | # a) 8 B/E) | B® | | m | we] Be s| 8 gelel ele eg tee ele wane va | sa | me 2 B 8/8) Bie) & 8) 8) 8 g B 1s | bh | 8 |e Lm BLE] Ble cape Tengen 6° S| mR) R #| | 8 oo Bt ae) ct BE) Re) aR) e | ah) Bl e| sl ele sie] s B\G A BE ge) 8 BBLS ant | alt Sg von ve @| 8/8) 8) & 8] Be) 8 Be a || | | Bi cal 1290 gaz | yee | rae | ore ae | |B) EB] g HB [85 | ie at | Bl nna ent hectare i aaa oe softy eb Rea ibe op ue Weta Ue OAM pS Sean wre,92. i 2c.) ohms, where I= circuit length in miles, and the other terms are defined as for Eq, (19). Zo is defined similarly. Ze {8r.416+j(30+2,)] ohms, where the terms are defined as for Eq. (23) Za is determined similarly Zee=l[rctj(B2+2,)) ohms, where the terms are defined as for Eq. (28) Zoey is determined similarly. or =Zye= [tet j(ay~S14)] obms, where ? spacing between cables in inches, A more general version of the above type of problem, ‘covering those eases where the cables are nob necessarily bussed together, is described by Cheek.* Example 5—The use of complex GMR’s and GMD's will very often reduce a complicated problem to workable terms. ‘The use and significance’ of these factons should be studied thoroughly before attempting a solution by this mathod (see Chap. 3). using for S the center-to-centor ‘Tamu 19 Cunneart Cansvie Caractry 108 SINGLE CONDUCTOR OIL-FILLED Parsa-INsUnATSD CABLES (amperes per conductor)® Rated Line Voltage—Grounded Neutral Cireular Mis, | 84500 | 46000 | 60 000 | 115000 | 198 000 or AWG. | oo ies) | _ Maximum Copper Temperatae-Deg. C. ms [78 | 76 0 250 2a me | Py am) as aor | a? | ans 405 an | 365 | ane ‘00 ao | aoa | 392 492 so | ass) a7 528 iz | 70 | 480 562 ses | san | sa | oss es | 585 | 578 | om es | eas | 0 42 715 | 6a7 | ess er wo | oss | 60 ca sis | 75 | im | 955 | 875 ro82 | 1 ois rie | tie2 | 113s ra0 | 120 | 1200 Eeererie. . eee ete" tainer by a Electrical Characteristics of Cobles Chapter 4 "Tas 20—Sucowereo WirusraNn Inrcuse VoutAGes Foe CABLES WITH METALLIC COVERING” Solid-Paper | Oil-illed Paper Basie Trsalation Insulation Insulation) Tinpulse |—_*taton ‘Chass | Insulation Insulation Withstand|Inaulation| Withstand kv | Levelfor IThickness) Voltage (Thickness) Voltage | Besipmane | nae | ke | mtn | ky ra) |e 23 | 8 | oe 50 | o | ons az] om | ua | to 1B uo | 203 | 2 | a0 | ise 23 130 | 266 | aio | a4s | ata 345, am | ars | am | iso | 2am s 250 | wo | Bes | 395 | 370 ee er ee re) us| 660 | 480 | 875 138, 850 500 | or 161 750 oes | 780 280 1050 5 | no Cireuit: Four paralleled cables similar to the three conductor belied cable described in Example 1, and ar- ranges! in a duet bank as illustrated in Fig, 18, Problem: ‘To find the overall zero-soquence impedance of the circuit, with sheaths and ground in parallel, o with return current only in the sheaths. GMR of three conductors, GMR,.=0.338 inches (from example 1). soy (a) Cable configuration ‘ONDUCTOR OF CIRCUITS ‘cONDUCTOR BRANCH 40188 0.0 sa SOOUETORS (GHD) SEPARATION stn ‘Gam conouaToRS TFN OF ATS, () General equivalent circuit, Fig. 18--Four three-conductor cables in a duct hank (soe Example 5).Chapter 4 GMR of the four conductor groups, GMR = 9/(0.538)'(5)"10)'(15)"=3.479 inches. Equivalent spacing of three conductors to their sheath, £812 inches. GMD (_-a) = VO812)(5)10)"15) From Fig. 18(b), resistance of the sheath branch, 0800 (1.623)(0.109)(4) Also from Fig. 18(b), impedance of the ground branch 2300X12 0.2564, 90.838 logy = .848 ohms per mile. Electrical Characteristics of Cables 34 se 7 6 8 0 Fig. 19 Effect of steel plates on current-carrying capacity of single-conductor cables. Three phase system; flat conilg- 82 od By a 25 | | sraone | | B (tt S| q ‘ Coe q boa F 4 2 E aq C C , reg * Eto 2 Fos - a EA E bef 2 a *. Eu bau fa Lg ses: E Lseo boo boa E'* ay Fs Fos bos . or F Ce Es 4 sre Fane at ato: COPYRIGHT fH BY W.F PETERS Fig. 6—Chare for catcufatlon of effictency. Directions: A straight-edge placed between, ‘the known full load copper loss and Iron loss polnts will give intercepes on the efficiency ‘scales for various lond.Chapter 5 Power Transformers and Reactors 108 \ —— wl 8 le 3 PPR t 3 gl & 8 SS Sos 5 ct 2 g 3 | “ 7 co 2° vwweronme s 3 og hralay dads Bod — é g 5 ‘ 5 F of E 04 i v z 3 4 ° °.(#) Fig. 7 Relation between transformer loss ratlo and the moat ‘eficient loading. Loss R ‘The relation between locs ratio and most efficient trans- former loading is shown in Fig. 7. ‘The range through ‘which Joss ratio may vary in normal transformer designs is, shown by Table 3. ‘The product of percent no-load and load lasses ia quan- tity that has become standardized to the extent that it is predictable with fair aecuraey for large power transformer Taoue 3 Normal Limite af Loss Rati, R Tass Ratio, R= (Ou Fe) Voltage Class 04, OW FOAM kv oayrat Fow' OA/FA/FOA* Wand below... iat 28 08 to 188, ne. 12020 Ane 138 10% 18 Tesh os ann Qh ow se SS BCT FO oe FOW rating Fig. 8 shows typical values of the product of percent losses, as s function of transformer size and voltage rating. To estimate values of no-load and load losses for a particular transformer rating it is first necessary to select values of Joss ratio ® und loss product P from Table 3 and Fig, 8. ‘Then the respective lose values, in kilowatte, aze given below: —Kva, f 100 Fe’ as) 06} ae 3 “TRANSFORMER RATING = MWA, (@) THREE-PHASE Fig. 8—Typical values of product of percent losses (percent full-toad copper-tose times percent iron lows). For OA/FA ‘of OA/PA/FOA units use OA rating to evaluate product. For FOA and FOW unite use 60 percent of rated kva to evaluate product. n= Ev. 10 a x ow voutace Me Xe VOLTAGE co m 2 (@) TERMINAL MARKINGS ip _ x K Me om STAR-DELTA OR DELTA-STAR CONNECTION DELTA-DELTA OR 'STAR=STAR CONNECTION (0) LINE-TO-NEUTRAL VOLTAGE VECTOR DIAGRAMS Fig. 14—Scandard polarity markings and vector diagrams for three-phase transformers. for « three-phaso, tivo-winding transformer are illustrated. in Fig. 14. Also included are the veetor diagrams for delta- delta, starstar, star-delta and detta-star connected trans formers. ‘The phase rotations are assumed to he Hy-He-Hy and XXX. ‘Fig, 15 summarizes the phase angles that ean he obtained, between high- and low-voltage sides of star-delts and delta Gay LAGS 87 30" on te | af ge} Bom! ata ee ahem xy opm ete a—fis ete a—tn, xt ls el ee hs Cag CAGS Eg 87 90" op EADS Eup 87 90" afin ste | ¢—fap ele Btn, rete |e —fone eet — atone gets Fig. 15—Angular phase displacements obtainable with three- ‘have otardelca transformer waits, star, three-phase transformers built with standard connec- tions and terminal markings, In this Figure A, B, and C represent the three phases of the high-voliage system, whereas a, b, and o represent the three phases of the low Nollage system. Phase rotations ACH-C and arbre are Power Transformers and Reactors 107 V. STANDARD INSULATION CLAS 14, Choice of Insulation Class ‘The standard insulation classes and dicloctrio tests for power transformers are given in Table 5. ‘The insulation class of a transformer is determined by the dielectrie tests ‘which the unit ean withstand, rather than by rated operat- ing voltage. ‘On a particular system, the insulation class of the connected power transformers may be determined by the ratings and characteristics of the protective devicos stalled to limit surge voltages aeross the transformer windings. Ratings of the protective devices will in turn depend upon the type of sysiem, its grounding connections, and some related factors. For example, when the system neutral is solidly grounded go that a grounded neutral (80 percent) arrester ean be used, an insulation level corre sponding to the arrester rating may be chosen rather than an insulation level corresponding to the system operating voltage. Many transformer banks having a ster-eonnected three-phase winding, with the nenttal permanently and solidly grounded, have an impulse strength corresponding to lower line-to-ting classifieation than indicated in Table 5 (See Chap, 18 for a more detailed discussion of thie subject), 15. Dielectric Tests Tho purpose of dicloetrie testing is to show that the design, workmanship, and inswistion qualities of a trans- former are such that the unit will actually meet standard cor specified voltage test limits. Below is a deseription of the various dielectric teate which may be applied to power transformers: (2) The slandard Ympulse test consists of applying in succession, one reduced full wave, two chopped waves, and fone full wave (@) A full wate ie a 1.540 microsecond wave, usually of tive polavity for oil-immersed transformers, or positive polarity for dry type, and of the magnitude given in Table 5. A reuenl full wae is 1.5% 40 microsecond wave, having & crest value between 50 and 70 pereent of the full wave ES © A chopped wave is formed by connecting an air gap to eause voltage breaiedoven on the tail of the sppled wave, The crest voltage and minimum time to Bashover are specified in Table &: (2) The standard applied-potential test consists of apply- ing « low-frequency voltage between ground and the wind ing under test, with all other windings grounded. ‘The standard test voltage magnitude is listed in Table 5, and its specified daration is one minute. (B) Tho atandant indueed-potensiat teat in general con- sists of applying between the terminals of one winding a voltage equal to twiee the normal operating voltage of that. winding. A frequency of twier rated or more is used for this test, so that the transformer core will not be over excited by the application of double voltege. The duration ‘of the test is 7200 cycles of the test frequency, but not Jonger Uhan one minute. Commonly used test frequencies108 Power Transformers and Reactors Chapter 5 ‘TABLE 5—STANDARD INSULATION CLASSES AND DIELECTRIC Tests FOR DisTRIBUTION AND PowER TRANSFORMERS (Taken from Table 11.030 ASA Standard 11-1948 for Transformers, Regulators and Reactors.) va Tapas Pate ate Volge Bets Teri cel Vaage Baines Tom Gittemael Tomas | Oshima Tanna “00 te ‘ee 50 Tal - F | saporiae | ark | ttm hopped Wave Class rene [2% — | Ta |Fubaw | pagay| Me [Be ‘Min Tine imevtion | Gxmeatin | BEE 2X wee | we ceerhan | onthe | Comes &,| me | Sy Sum @) | “asain |S cat | ee oe te Meme me || teams | berm Mise, 1.2 0.08 | 0.09 (4)| 1.2 10 4 30 20, ot 1s 45 2s oe | fo ow] ot 6 bo) 2m | gave) 60 | oe | oe | te | am) me | te |e rue) S00) Sana) orm | as fom) | te |) | rs | oe) bm oe) ase | | at fof ore |e | ae | oae | a 5.0 uA | B50 25.0 50 175 30 150 175, 3.0 150, HS) 9 | BS 345 0 z0 | 30 | 20 | 20 | 30 | 20 go) be | we | we | os mo | fo | ao | ao | a8 | a mo) ms | me | me | ao im | 50 | a | amo | a0 | ao e ow oe ve | ass so | a0 | wo | 20 | a ue) wt one | oe am | so) wo) ge | bo | an te) ome oe | ota | | so | ao | mo | a0 | aa wr) oa | ae oo | me | as | 80 Fao os |e 1s | 0 | wo | ras | 0 | oo = om | om wo | 30) | som | ia | 88 | se an or fat too | 308 | ie | ism | 30 | iam 345, | 845 690, 690, 1785 3.0 15901785, 3.0 1550. TIP in tok 25 ls, 20 br: 80am, 25 S96 Krol, ey 16 ky lc, ‘Tha values app Uo tad cboppetmave andl to Yael etme ati isnot ie co Hise teh ara a ER mista are 120 cycles for 60-cyele transformers, and 60 eyeles for 25-cyele transformers ‘Combinations and modifications of the testa deseribed above are contained in transformer standard publications, for example ASA C57.22-1948, and these publications should be conculted for detailed information. 16, Insulation Class of ‘Transformer Neutrals ‘Transformers designed for wye connection only with the neutral brought out may have a lower insulation level at the neutral than at the line end. The following rules are incladed as a guide in selecting the permissible neutral insulation level (a) A solidly grounded transformer may have a mini- mum neutral insulation class in accordance with column 2 of Table 6. (b) A transformer grounded through « neutral imped- ance must have a neutral insalation class at least as high as ihe maxitoumn dynamie voltage at the transformer neu- tral during system short-cireust conditions. In no case a pee iy an acd ination a the nae Wan Meeps for Swk ulscomstal sql plas sprain are til sn ep highe tne weeded fot to lags a hould the neutral class be lower than that given in Column 2, Table 6 (c) Ifthe neutral of a transtormeris connected to ground. through the series winding of a regulating transformer, the neutral insulation class must be at least as high as the maximum raise or lower voltage (phase to neutral) of the rogulating transformer. In no ease should the neutral class be less than that given in Column 3 of Table 6. () A transformer grounded through the series winding, of a regulating transformer and a separate neutral impod= tance shall have a neutral insulation class at least as high as the sum of the maximum raise or lower voltage (line to neutral) of the regulating transformer and the maximum dynamie voltage across the neutral impedance during sys- tem short-eirouit conditions. In no ease should the neutral wulation class be less than that given in Column 2 of Table 6 (©) Itheneutral of a transformers conneeted to ground through a ground fault neutralizer, er operated un grounded but impulse protected, the minimum neutratChapter 5 "Tanta 6— MINIMUM INSULATION CLASS AT TRANSFORMER ‘NEvrRAL 0 @ a @ : Grovndes winding | Smt | Guundet | ovat Totation | Selly or | “Through | Ground Fault Ghaoat” | THOM | eguating | Neutra of ine End | CH#T8 | cTaafrmer | Talatad but aanorner hats re 25 Bo Same ot Hie nd 6.00 » 203 8.06 2 S00 w us a5 2 s 8 Ms & is i te Pa & 15 a8 & i Ks 2 fa 3 @ 1% “0 ns 230, 46 | 12 28 % 345 co I insulation class shall be in accordance with Column 4 of Table 6 VI. TEMPERATURE AND SHORT-CIRCUIT TANDARDS 17, Temperature Standards The rating of clectrieal apparstus is inherently deter- mined by the allowable operating temperatures of insu- lation, or the temperature rise of the insulation above ambient temperature. For transformers and voltage reg- ulatons with Class A insulation, either air or oil cooled, the rating is based on an observable temperature rise (by resistance or thermometer) of 55 C above an ambient temperatura at no time in excess of 40 C, and the average during any 2thour period not exceeding 80 C. ‘Trans formors and other induetion apperatus are designed to limit the hottest-spot temperatures of the windings to not more than 10 C above their average temperatures under ‘continuous rated conditions. The limits of observable temperature rise for air-cooled transformers with Class B insulation is 80 C by resistance meastirerent. 18, Short-Circuit Conditions A propose revision to American Standard C57.12-1948, (section 12.050) reads in part: “L. ‘Transformers shall be capable of withstanding with- out injury short cirewits on any external terminals, with rated line voltages maintained on ull terminals intended for connection to sources of power, provided: (a) The magnitude of the symmetrien! current in any wind ing of the transformer, resulting from the external short eet, does not exceed 25 times the base current of the Power Transformers and Reactors 109 fing. ‘The initial current is aseumed to be com pletely displaced from zero (b} The duration of the short elreuit is limited to the fol- lowing. time periods. Intermediate valuss may be termined hy interpolation, Current ‘Time Period ‘nding _in Seconds 25 times hase current 2 20 times hase current 3 18,6 times bave eurreat, 4 14.3, oF los, times aso current 5 “2, Where kya is mentioned in paragraph the following, is intended: ‘When the windings have a self-cooled rating, the kva of the self-cooled rating shall be used. When the ‘windings have no self-oooled ratings, the largest kva obtained from the ratings assigned for other means ff cooling by the use of the following factors shall be used of Tras ying Fs Water-cooed (OW) 10 Dry-Type Foreed-Air-Cooled (AFA) 0.75 Fureobitcoded (ROA or FOW) 0.00 “3, For multi-winding transformers ‘The hase current of any winding provided with ex- ternal torminals, or of any delta-connected stabiliz~ ing winding without terminals, shall be determined from the rated kva of the winding or from not less than 85 percent of the rated kva of the largest winding of the transformer, whichever is larger “Jn some cases, the short-circuit current, as limited by transformer ianpedance alone, will excced 25 times base current. Tt must be recognized that such eases ean occur with transformers manufactured according to these stand- ans snd that the transformers built under these standards ot designed to withstand sueh short-cireuit current.” xr chort-cirenit conditions the ealeulated copper temperatures for power and distribution transformers shall not exceed 250 C where Class A insulation is usod assuming aan initial copper temperature of 0 C, or 330 C where Class B insulation is used assuming ‘an initial copper temperature of 125 C. VII. TRANSFORMER TEMPERATURE-TIME CURVES 19. Constant Load A *hoat run” of a transformer on test is made to deter mine the temperature rise of the various parts at rated load. If the tost wore made by applying only rated load, with the transformer at room temperature, thirty hours or more would be requited before stationary temperatures ‘were reached. Such & process would he quite inefficient of time, energy, and in the useof testing facilities. Accelerated. heat’ runs are made by clesing radiator valves, ete., and applying loads in excess of rated load until the expected temperatures are reached. Radiation restrictions are thea removed, the load reduced to normal, and the test. con- tinued until stable temperatures are reached.10 It is evident that the temperature-time characteristies of a transformer cannot be obtained from the accelerated hot-run data. Information is secured from the heat run, however, which permits the temperatures to be calculated under assumed load conditions. Exact calculations are quite involved, but sufficiently accurate results can be obtained by the use of an approximate method due to S. B. Griscom for estimating tho temperatures reachod under variable load conditions, changing ambient tempera tures, ete. Certain simplifying assumptions ean be made that permit-a quick estimate of the expected temperatures. Let L=transformer load in kva, W= total losses (in kw) at load Z. Te~final temperature rise at load L in degrees C above ‘the temperature at £=0. ‘M~= thermal capscity in kw hours per degree C. Keradiation constant in kw per dogree C. T=oil temperature rise in degrees C at time ¢ above the temperature at (0. H-=thermal time constant in hours. t= ime ia hours, If the heat radiated is directly proportional to the temperature rise of the transformer above the ambient, the radiation constant ean be obtained from the heat run data, for Wand Tp: t (23) where the temperature at f=0 is taken as ambient, Since the total heat generated is equal to the heat. radiated plus the heat stored (heat consumed in raising the ‘temperatures of the various parts) weir cr a ‘This equation can be solved for 7’, giving (25) (26) where = =the trnsformer time constant in hours. (27) ‘This derivation may be broadened to show that Eq. (26) is equally correct for the case where the oil temper- ature tises T and Tp are those above the temperature at 1=0, whether the value then is the ambieut temperature oF otherwise. _ The foregoing diseussion has been based on the assump- tion that the temperature throughout all parts of the trans- former is the same. ‘This, of course, isnot the ease, When ‘he (ransformer load is increased, the copper temperature is above that of the surrounding parts, and when the load is decreased, the copper tends to he more nearly the same temperature as the surrounding parts. Also, the top and bottom oil are at different temperatures. Eq. (28) is therefore commonly taken as referring to the top-oil Power Transformers and Reactors Chapter 5 temperature rise, that is, T and Tp are defined as before Dut refer to the top-oil speeffically. Further, the final top- oil temperature rise Ty is not direetly proportional to the losses for all types of transformers as Bq. (23) would indicate, but is more correctly represented by the relation ‘ "uth (28) where: m=038 for type OA transformers 9 for type OA/FA transformers. =1,0 for type FOA transformers, inal top-oil temperature rise at full load in degrees C. ‘The use of this relation when substituted in Eq. (28) indieatos that for other than the type FOA transformer the radiation constant & and the time constant H are not completely independent of load but vary according to a small fractional power of the total loss. Howover for con- venience in calculations this variation in k and Tis nor- mally overlooked and the values obtained from Equations (23) and (27) for the full load condition are taken as constant. The error introduced by the provelure is not large compared to that normally expected in transient thermal calculations. ‘To determine the temperature rise eurve for any load L therefore, the radiation constant & under full load condi- tions is first determined from the heat run data using Fq. (23). The thermal capacity 3 is dependent on the thermal capacities of the various parts of the transformer. For convenienee it can be assumed that the transformer parts can be separated into three elements: the core and coils, the case and fittings, and the oil. Although the core and coils are of copper, iron, and insulation the specific. heats of those elements do not vary widely, Sinee, also, there is « reasonably constant proportion of these elements in different transformers, a single weighted coefficient of thermal capacity for the coils and eore is warranted. The following relation is accordingly suggested: Tra $0.04 (wt. of ease and fittings) $0.17 (ot. of oil] (29) ‘Here the coefficients of the last two terms are also weighted to make further allowance for the fact that all parts of the cease and fittings and the oil are not at a uniform tempera- ture, The values of & and M found as above may be substituted in Eq, (27) to obtain H. The value of Tp for the desired load L is determined next by substitution of heat run cata in Fa, (28). The quantity W for the load L may be evahiated by the relation L . 1 (sara) x08 nmr Htavtad os) ] (0) ‘The quantities H and Ty may now be substituted in Eq, (26) from which the top-cil temperature-ise curve may be plotted directly.Chapter 5 For example, a 6000-kva, three-phase, self-cooled, 24 000-5040 volt transformer bas the following full load performance data as supplied by the manufacturer: Tron loss= 10 920 watts. Copper loss~43 540 watts, ‘Total 54 400 watts ‘Top-oil rise=40C (from heat-run test data) LV copper rise=46.3 C. HY copper rise= 43.3 C. We. of core and evils =25 000 pounds We. of eace and fittings ~ 18 000 pounds. We. of oil =17 400 pounds, From this information the time constant H may be evalu: fated and the expression for 7’ obtained for the load J equal to the rated load. 1.46. ap 71-86 kew por degree ©. {0.0625 000+0.04 18 000-+0.1717 400] =3.81 hours, 1 400m), ‘Phe full load top-oil temperature rise curve shown in Fig. 16 was ealeulated from this relation, ‘9 plot the top-oil temperature-rise curve for half load conditions for this transformer the same time constant H is used as found above. From Eq, (25: go ODXASSAF INAV, Tym so( ON AB SHF092V 99. 7=192(1~631), ‘The curve represented by this equation also appears in Fig. 16. ‘The rise of the hottest-spot copper temperature above the top-oil temperature is known as the hottest-spot cop- er gradient and ot ful load may be estimated from the Guay = Geen tA. en where Gan =hottest spot copper gradient at full load in. degrees C. Geqy=appareat copper gradient at full load in dogrees C. A= 10 C for type OA and OW transformers, 0 C for type OA/PA. transformers. for type FOA and FOW transformers with directed flow over ils ‘The apparent copper gradient at full load (Gq) is the difierence between the average copper temperature rise and the top-oil temperature 1ise, both of which are de- Power Transformers and Reactors at sor TF i / | 2g , Be Ff | | | and e E14 : | / | °% Ey i 7 30, hu te Tol ont ir inf 8 termined during the heat-run. The average copper tem- perature rise above ambient at full Toad is required by Standards not to exeeed 55 C: for class A insulation. The use of that value to cbtain the apparent copper gradient will generally lead to overly pessimistic results since the actual value of the average copper temperature rise is niorinally below the limit, Therefore itis advisable to use ‘he value measured on the heat run and obtained from the ‘manufacturer For any load Z, the hottest-spot copper gradient may be ealeulated from the relation % LY Om oX(an im) From the performance date of the transformer previously cited: Ena (a) Gcun=16.3—~40=6.3 C for the LV winding. Gray 63410 16.3 C. “The hottest-spot copper temperature for full-load is thus 16.3 C above the top-oil temperature. For, say, half-load, Eq. (32) must be used to obtain Guy, =16.8X (0.5)'*=54 ©. Tis not feasible in a study of this kind to keep track of short time variations of copper or hottest spot tempers- ture, and itis suggested if itis desirable to show roughly hhow this varies, a time constant of 15 minutes be used.‘Chapter 5 112 Power Transformers and Reactors . | 3 _ § ol orator reternunt 94 — ~~} 5 rewrenarine A eae FAL ToP-o1. se . é Lad el i i roo ij | | i sol [pm cous Lo sc 1 rn — ae Pig. 17Step-by-step graphical calculation of cemperatures under changing fond conditions. 20. Variable Load A step-by-step analysis using Eqs. (28) to (32) ean be made to consider conditions of variable load, changing ambient temperatures, etc, The method of approach is based on the fact that the initial rate of change of tempera ture is the slope of a line joining the initial and final teme peratures, the tivo temperatures being separated by a time Interval equal to the thermal time constant of the teane- former. As before Ty is calculated (rom heat ran data and the total loss TV for each lond condition through the use of iq, (28). ‘The loss W is obtained fram Eq. (30). ‘The final top-cil temperature is then found by adding 7p to the ambient temperature. Since the load is varying, the final ‘temperature cannot be reached for each load eondition atid the step-by-step analysis must be employed to obtain the top-oil temperature curve. Points on the hattest-spot temperature time curve may then be obtained by adding the hottest-spot copper gradient Gx for each load to the top-oil temperature at the time corresponding to the load for which the gradient was ealeulated. Gq is obtained in the same manner as previously outlined. To illustrate the step-by-step method, the oil tempers ture-time curve for the 6000-kva transfortaer previously described will be calculated, starting with an oll tempers ture of 55 C for an assumed load eycle as tabulated in the adjacent column, Figure 17 illustrates the use of the ealenlated data in the gtaphical step-by-step proves to plot the curve of top-oil temperature with time and the mannerin whieh thehottest- spot gradients are added to abtain the hottest-spot tem persturetime curve, ‘The accuracy can be increased by using shorter time intervals, T Final OF i ‘Temp. | Hottest | Finat_| ambien | Spot | oad | toss | ox Rise | “pias | Gradient ‘ime | Ambient| (ava) | ay 0 Fa. 2) a BC 2 | 157 3.80 amo | oo | iy | sr 28 aos [oa fsa | ar 28 o | 7 3 21.8 | 19.2 54 s jm | 4 faa | avo 53 w | a | s faa] ae | ne vw | | 6 | as | 400 163 zm as | 6 | sts | 00 163 a" ar | 6 | ans | wo 03 o | a | 5 | aa] ao 22 8 | 4 | a2 | oe #5 wo | % | 3 | ate] tee ba VII. GUIDES FOR LOADING OIL-IMMERSED POWER TRANSFORMERS 21. General “Phe rated kva output of a transformer is that load wi it can deliver continuously st rated secondary voltage without exceeding a given temperature rise messured under preseribed test conditions. The astual test tempera- tare rise may, in a practical ease, be somewhat below the established limit because of design and manufacturing tolerances, he output whieh a transformer can deliver in service without undue deterioration of the insulation may be more or lese than its rated output, depending upon the followingChapter 5 design characteristics and operating conditions as they ‘exist at a particular time: (2) Ambient temperature 2) Top-oil tse over ambient temperature. ) Hottest-spot rise over toprol temperature (hottest-spot copper gradient). (8) Tronsiormer thermal time constant. (6) Ratio of load loss to no-load loss. 22. Loading Based on Ambient Temperature Air-cooled oil-immersed transformers built. to meet e= tablished standards will operate continuously with normal life expectancy at rated kva and secondary voltage, pro- viding the ambient air temperature averages no more than 30 C throughout a 24-hour period with maximum air temperature never exceeding 40 C, Weter-cooled trans formers are buill to operate continuously at rated output with ambient water temperatures averaging 25 C and never exceeding 30 C. ‘When the average temperature of the cooling medium is, different from the values above, 2 modification of the trans- former loading may be made according to Table 7. In ‘Tasus 7—Pencewn Cuan Tw VA Loan ror Exc DBoRER (CeNTIGHADE CHANGE IN AVERAGE AMBIENT TEMPERATURE Power Transformers and Reactors 118 180 WoTTEST-SPOT RISE OVER TOP OIL IN DEGREES © Air above 30 Cave. | Air below 80 C avg peat Cong |S ‘e pene att 28 Cag] Water be 25 Cans Belf-cooled 1.5% perdeg. C) +1.0% per deg. C Tecra | ay germ he Tieton Forced-Oil-Cooled | — Band 0 foran-cokd ng o 40.75" cases where the difference between maximum air temper- ature and average air temperature exceeds 10 C, a new temperature that is 10 C below the maximum should be used in place of the true average. ‘The allowable difference between maximum and aversge temperature for water- cooled transformers is 5 C. 23. Loading Based on Measured Oil Temperatures ‘The temperature of the hottest-spot within a power transformer winding influences to a lange degree the de- terioration rate of insulation. For oil-immersed transiorra- ers the hottest-spot temperature limits have been set at 105C maximum and 95 C average through a 24 hour period; normal life expectancy is based on these limits. ‘The top-oil temperature, together with a suitable tem- perature increment ealled either hotiest-spot copper rise ‘over lop-vil temperature or hottes-spoi copper gradiznt, is often used as an indication of hottest-spat temperature, Allowable top-oil temperature for a particular constant load may be determined by subtracting the hottest-spot copper gradient for that load from 95 C. ‘The hottest-spot copper gradient must, be known from design information for accurate results, though typical values may be assumed for estimating purposes. If the hottest-spot copper grad- ient is known for one load condition, it may be estima- ted for other load conditions by reference to Fig. 18. “0892560 PERCENT RATED KVA 18—Hottest-spot copper rise above top-oll temperature function of toad, for various valuesof full load copper rise. 700 E40 a 7 8 = TIMES RATED KVA "010 260 4080-0 ‘TOP OlL TEMPERATURE IN DEGREES ¢ Fig. 19—Loading guide based on top-oll temperature. (A) OA, OW, OA/FA types. (B) OA/FAJFOA, FOA, FOW types. A conservative loading guide, based on top-oll tempera- ‘ares, is given in Fig, 19, 24. Loading Based on Capacity Factor ‘Transformer capacity factor (operating kva divided by, rated kv) averaged throughout 24hotr period may be ‘well blow 100 percent, and when this is truc some com- Densating inerense in maximum transformer loading may be made. The percentage increase in maximum loadingid ‘Tanto 8 Pomassimis Transrorwen Loapine Baseo ON Avpeace Parcenr Capacity Facrons* Power Transformers and Reactors Chapter 5 ‘Tanta 9—Prmrssims DAILY SHoRT-Tin TRANSFOR, TLOADING HaSbD ON NORMAL Li? EXPECTANCY a kere, | aear ovat conng | eyes, | et Whe Capacity Pact Ts Below 100 Regardless of Capacity Factor Saif-Cooled Water cooled Force -Air-Cooled Forced. O8- Coie as a function of capscity factor, based on » normal trans former life expectancy, is given in Table 8. 25. Loading Based on Short-Time Overloads Short-time loads which occur not more than once during. uy 24-hour period may be in excess of the transformer rating without causing any predictable reduction in trans former life. ‘The permissible load is @ function of the aver age load previous to the period of sbove-rated leading, according to Table 9. ‘The load increase based on eapacily factor and the increase based on short-time overlonds eit not be applied concurrently’ it is necessary to chose one method ar the other. Short time loads larger than those shown in Table 9 will cause @ decrease in probable transformer life, but the amount of the decrease is difficult. to predict in general terms. Some estimate of the sacrifice in transformer life ean be obtained from Table 10(a) whieh is based on the [Maximum Yaad In Per Unit of Transformer Rat remass| onow | onan [OVFREDS Teoh on ; Nesting Average Initial Load, In Per Unit of ‘Transformer Rating ‘0.20 /0.70]0.50]0.90] 0,700.50 0.90] 0.70) 9-50 on [rsalir 1 1.88] 1.68] 1.36) 1.47] 1.60 fi 45a|t.09/ ican ap] cso]r el att ae 2 ie Lap iaonia tas) 1 4 value dinn|rssa| 1.15) 1-09| 1.10 1.10 § {1.06/08 asl 6/1071 1.071105 | 106,106 ‘theoretical conditions and limitations described in Table 10(b). ‘These conditions were chosen to give results con- taining some probable margin, when compared with most conventional transformer designs. For special designs, or for # more detailed check on some particular unit, the hottest-spot copper temperature ean be caleulated by the method shown in section 19, and the probable sacrifice in transformer life ean then be estimated from Table 11 26. Limiting of Load by Automatic Control ‘The loading of a transformer can be supervised by con- trol devices to insure that hottest-spot copper temperatures ‘TABLE 10(a)—PERMISSIBLE SHORT-TIME TRANSFORMER LOADING, BASED ON REDUCED LIFE EXPECTANCY F Typeat | Period of Ieressod|__ Prt Cooling Loading Hours |g. 9 | 0.25 za ‘Maxiomm 5 | 2.00 on 10 17% | Lo or 2.0 ro | 16a ow 40 1 13s 50 1 v2 wo 1 0 08 197 | 2.00 10 nee) 179 /Ea® 20 ay | rai 40 ra | rat 80 mi | nie m0 105 | 09 OA/FA/Foa® 50 percent or less of rated kv Probable Sncrifive In Peroent of Normal Life Caused By Kash Overlond Fall 6 io | 010 | 025 | 0.80 | 1.00 ‘sa nv Por Unit OF Tranforser Rating | 12] 200 | 20 Joie | rst | te Jats | vas | aoe | vse | iso 14s x20 | 128) 135 fr ner | age | 1st | 2.00 ya jor | orm) re ha) oa | ca) roe tis | as | ras) te Hw | iis | tae | 3s hos | too | ovis | rat ise | 10 | 1.80 | 1.90 | 139 | 150 | 1.50 1.69 rae | ise | vas | ot his | i25 | ase | ge rio | ras | ia | tar | vos | von | nas | 120 sr TEPERChapter 6 ‘Tanti 10(b) —Coxmrions AND Teansrommen Cuaracrenisttos "ASSUMED IN THE PREPARATION OF TABLE 10(8) Ambient temporsture = 0 C. ‘Maxim oil temperature =100 Masiraiia hottet-epot_ copper! temperature —150 C. Maximum short-time louling 200 perven.? oA ‘OA/A/POR Gh oarra | FOA row Hotest.spot rie (©) @ 6 6 op cil doo C) 6 8 0 ‘Time constant af fll loud | thors 30] 20 16 Ratio of fl lad copper iron) | lone 25) 85 50 8 Resetting inning ler one ts or ane, Pornase Step ebanesre ‘igs buco je tie S300 grea ‘Tapus 11 Pronanix Sacrusice IN ‘Teansronsmn Lire (Cause By PRoLoNuED Horrest Seo? Corman TEMPERATURE Tomw [0 | om | 0s | ae High ‘Temperature, ‘Temperature In Degrees Contgeade ‘To Sacrifice Not More Than The Above Pereent of Noraal Life are always within a permissible range and duration. This control may be accomplished with a thermal rlay respon- sive to both top-oi! temperature and to the direct heating effect of load current. ‘The thermestatie element of this relay is immersed in the hot transformer oil, and it aleo carries a current proportional to load current: in this way the temperature of the element is geared to the total tem- perature that the transformer winding attains during oper- ation. ‘The relay can be arranged to close several ects of contacts in succession as the copper temperature climbs with inereasing load: the first contacts to close can start fans or pumps for auxiliary cooling, the next, contacts can ‘warn of temperatures approaching the maximum safe limit and the final contacts ean trip a cireutt breaker to remove Jond from the transformer. Loading by copper temperature makes available the short-time overload capacity of a power transformer, 50 that emergency loads can be carried without interruption of power serview, and so that peak loads ean be carried without the use of over-size transformers? ‘The thermal relay can be coordinated with exch transformer design to which it is applied, and it can inherently fellow tnpr= dictable factors that affect permissibly safe loading for a particular installation, Power Transformers and Reactors 15 uote sroreewel preston LINK ——— 1 ! hows | MRR Ronen ‘TRANSFORMER — eT rAuRiLiaRY Saeesaf Ce Fig. 20—Single-line diagram of CSP power transformer. IX. THE COMPLETELY SELF-PROTECTED. ‘TRANSFORMER, A power transformer design may include protective de- ‘vices capable of preventing damage to the unit when it is subjected to electrical conditions that would probabl damage conventional transformers, Also, standard ssviteh ing, metering, and voltage regulating funetions may be included within a power transformer assembly. When these protective, switching, and metering featnres are all combined at the factory within a singlo unit, as indieated in Fig, 20, it may he designated a CSP power transformer. Lightning Protection—Coordinated arreaters 270 in stalled to protect both high- and low-voltage eireuts from lightning or other voltage surges. Fig. 21—Folly assembled 4000 kva, 3416 ky CSP power ‘transformer.Fig.22—Tastallation view of 1500 kva, 13.2-4.33 ky CSP power transformer, Internal Fault Protection—Fusible protective links of high interrupting capacity are connected between the high-voltage bushings and the winding, so that the supply circuit can be cleaved from internal transformer faults. Overload Protection—A thermal relay, responsive to copper temperature (see section 26), operates to trip the secondary circuit breaker before damaging temperatures develop in the winding Relaying—Overcurrent relaysnormally are provided in the low-voltage circuit, to protect for secondary faults. Circuit Breaker—Load switching is accomplished by a cireuit breaker in the low-voltage circuit of the trans- former. Voltage Regulation—Standard no-load taps aro pro- ‘Fig. 23—Portable substation rated 2000 kya, 72 000/24 000— 25/4.33/5.0/7.5 ke, shown in operation at a substation site. Power Transformers and Reactors ‘Chapter 5 vided in the high-voltage winding. Tap-changing-under- load equipment for the secondary circuit may be built into the transformer housing. Metering—Wetthour meters snd ammeters are usually ‘supplied for circuit metering, CSP transformers are available in kva ratings up to 3000, primary voltages up to 69 ky, and secondary voltages up to 15 kv. ‘The units may be used to supply distribution cireuits from high-voltage lines in either industrial or elec- tric utility applications; if one unit is used individually on 4 radial circuit, a by-passing switch ean be supplied across the low-voltage cirenit breaker to permit withdrawal and ‘maintenance of tho breaker without a service interruption. X. AUTOTRANSFORMERS 27. Two-Winding Autotransformer Theory ‘The single-phase two-winding autotransformer contains ‘8 primary winding und a secondary winding on a common core, just as a conventional iwo-srinding transformer does. However, in the autotransformer the two windings are interconnectod so that the kva to be transformed by actual aagnetie coupling is only « portion of the total va trans- mitted through the cireuit to which the transformer is connected. Aatotransformers are normally rated in terms ofcireuitkva, without reference to the internal winding kv ‘The autotransformer circuit shown in Fig. 24 contains Fig. 24—Circuit for a two-winding autotransformer, ‘8 primary winding P which is common to both low- and high-voltage circuits, and a secondary winding $ which is connected direcily in series with the high-voltage circuit ‘Under no-load conditions, high-side eireuit voltage B’. will tbe the sum of the primary and secondary winding voltages; low-side circuit voltage E. will be equal to the primary ‘winding voltage. ‘Tho rolation botweon primary and eos- ‘ondary winding voltages will depend upon the turns ratio 72 between these windings. 83) a) ‘Here N is the overall voltage ratio between high- and low- voltage cireuits. ‘When the transformer is carrying Josd current, theChapter 5 primary ampere-turns should escentially balance the secondary ampere-turns (noting that T’,=Ts): aly rate~ nal (95) Ln "p (36) 7 Toten 1+ m 37) The total cireuit kva is given by E,xJy or B’xIe (expressing voltages in kv), but the winding kva is given by Bate or ("!) B24. The ratio between winding eva (Up oF Us) and cireut kva (Uo) i referring to eauae tion (37) Uy_BxXIv_ Ie _N=1 BAX. ( Ge For example, an autotransformer rated 1000 kva, eit voltage ratio of 22h 38 hr (1 equivalent tro-winding kva of Naty, 15-10 oS ‘The reduced rating of transformer parts required in an autotransformer make it physically smaller, less costly, and of higher efficiency than a conventional two-winding unit for the same circuit, kva rating. In the example just cited, the autotransformer would thearetically be only xs latge as 2 333-kva eonventional transformer, and this re- duced kva would in practice furnish a fairly accurate basis for estimating the cost of the 1000-kva autotransformer. ‘Total losses in the autotransformer would be comparable to those ia # 399-kva conventional transformer, #0 that efficiency based on circuit, transmitted power would be quite high. ‘An autotransformer will introduce series impedance, as well as current and voltage transformation, in the circuit where it is connected. ‘The series impedance may be evalu- ated by referring to Fig. 25(a); here the low-voltage eineuit, terminals are short-circuited, so that the impedance meas ‘the high-voltage terminals will be equal to the series impedance attributable to the autotransformer, Note that the circuit in Fig. 25(a) is exactly the same as the that would be used to messure the leakage impo- Zep weredefined as the ohmic impedance measured across the secondary winding with the primary winding short-circuited. A circuit providing correct cizeuit. voltage and current ratios, and also correct through impedanee, is shown in Fig. 25(b). ‘Two conversions may now be made, the first to move the series impedance to the low-voliage , and the second to express impedanee in terms of Zee. (39) Ue Ver 1000 = 333 kva Laem () trem WD (40) Power Transformers and Reactors ut (6) EQUIVALENT OF TEST CIRCUIT ze (i) 2 ey a ae fe Ndtce (c) CONVENTIONAL EQUIVALENT GIRGUT Fig. 25—Equivalent circuits for a two-winding avtotrans- former. From this, the conventional form of equivalent ciruit is shown in Fig. 25(0), whore tan (Spl) tre Soquenoo equivalent crits forthe three-phase tve-mind- ing autotransformer are presented in the Appendix. "The sieuit impedance ofan autotransformer iy smaller than thet ofa conventional two-winding unit of the same rating, as is evident from Eq, (41). This low series ime Podance, though advantageous i ts effect on transformer regulation, may allow exeemsive ahori-ireit, currents Ghring aystem fault conditions, Often the through imped- tice vil be les than four pereent bared on the autottens- former nameplate kva rating, which means thit thro phase short creuit current Could exeoed the tmaximum tf twenty-five times normal rated current for bvo seconds as permitted by standards. For this reason aitotrans- formers lke voltage regulators, cannot always protect themselves against excesive fault current; reactors oF other eonnectedeiuit elements may have to be relied on for this protection. an118 28, The Three-Winding Autotransformer ‘Throe-phase autotransiormers for power service are usually star-star connected with the neutral grounded, and in anost of these cases it is desirable to have a third winding on the core delta-vonnected so as to carry the third har- monic component of exeiting current. This winding eould be very stall in capacity if it were required to carry only harmonic currents, but its size is increased by the requine- ment that it carry high currents during system ground faults, A widely used rule cots the delta-winding rating at 35 percent of the autotransformer equivalent, tworwind= ing kva rating (not eincuit kva rating) nee it is necessary in most cases to have a delte-con- nected tertiary winding, itis often advantageous to design this winding so that lond ean be taken from it. ‘This re- cults ina three-winding autotransformer with terminus to accommodate three external eireuits. ‘The equivalent cir- cuit for this type of transformer is given in section 59 of this chapter. 29, Autotransformer Taps It is frequently necessary to place tape in the windings of an autotransformer to regulate either or both circuit, voltages. Tt is not advisable to place taps adjacent. to the line connections for voltages above 22 000 volts, because extra insulation is necessary on turns adjacent to the line terminals. If taps wore placed at the enda of the winding, additional padding would be required throughout the tapped section. Furthermore, taps placed adjacent, to the Tine, where the most severe voltage stresses oveur, con- stitute a weakness that can be avoided by placing the taps im the middle of the winding as shown in Fig. 28. Taps fy NORMAL TAP |e’ Fig. 26—Autotransformer tape, may be placed in either the primary (common) winding, or in the secondary (series) winding, or in both windings: however, some tap combinations are more desirable than others, if the transformer materials are to be tused most effectively. ‘The low-side and high-side cizewit voltages may be related, under no-load conditions, by an equation whieh takes account of both primary and secondary taps: Power Transformers and Reactors Chapter 5 nacht netblin aml thdtmal tA) m(L-h) “ ~ turns on primary winding, not considering taps. ‘ny=turns on secondary winding, not considering tops. &=fractional part of m included in primary winding tap (+4m; indieates additional turns) = fractional part of ng included in secondary wind- ing top. Chins indicates additional turns). If By is assumed constant at 1.0 per unit based on normal raled low-side cizeuit vollage, User cases are possible: (1) Taps in secondary winding only: Bum Byt (42) (3) a1 See In this case the transformer volts per tum remain normal. ‘The percent change in By is: m mt 100. a A, fe a 100. (44) (2) Taps in primary winding onlyt 2 (45) ule 1 a These vt pr tam ae (4) normal value. The pereent change in Ey is: Azs=—— 8x "100, (46) THA mitre (8) Taps in both primary and secondary windings: reptile ES ro) ‘As in case (2), the transformer volts per tum are t\ , (G4) times thee norma value, ‘The perwent change in Elis: Appelt Tee Tf £4 is assnmed constant at 1.0 per unit based on normal rated high-side circuit voltage, and Eis allowed to vary, three more cares are possible: (4) Taps in secondary winding only: is 100. (as) th a i wai) “ if em "he transformer volts per turn are(—"4*"__) tien perma (ra) their normal value “The percent change in, wl be: AE, = -4—__™*—_100. 5 Fae) & (8) Tape in primary winding onyt = (51) mite | ttm emChapter 5 atm _) 4 7 att) ses earsforer volts per tum axe (PE —) ‘heir normal value. ‘The pereent change in Bd ist ap" 100, 52 Abe teil & {8) Taps in both primary and secondary mM yom maltr=8) Va t=) gg) atm mee maruemaeey note ‘ranaformer volts por tum are (PM) times their normal value. The percent change in Hy is: mals) ” AB=—— bo 8) 199, (54) mF) Fel $6) oo Tf the transformer were designed for constant volts per sun ten the peennt change i K wold be AR.=4X100, (65) Tv is often advisable to specify a tap combination which will allow the autotransformer to operate at practically constant volts-per-turn, regardless of tap position. As indicated in some of the cases above, a tap change in only one winding may be less effective than would normally be anticipated, because of the nullifying effect of the sccompanying change in volt=-per-turn. Also, a significant inerease in volis-per-turn at some tap setting would be reflected ina magnetic core of larger size than otherwise nnecoseary. 30, Autotransformer Operating Characteristics ‘An sutotranaformer inherently provides a metallic cone nection between its Jow- snd high-voltage circuits; this ia unlike the conventional two-winding transformer which ssolates the tyro circuits. Unless the potential to geound of each: autotransformer circuit is fixed by some means, the low-voltage cireuit will bo subject to overvoltages originating in the high-voltage circuit. These undesirable effects ean be minimized by connecting the neutral of the autotransformer solidly to ground. If the neutral of an autotransformer is always to be grounded in service, an induced potential shop test is more appropriate than ast applied potential test, because it represents more closely the field operating conditions; building « grounded auto- transformer to withstand a full-voltage applied potential test would not be economical because of the excess insula- ton near the neutral. To summarize the preceding discussion, the autotmns- former has advantages of lower cost, higher efficiency, and better regulation as compared with the two-winding trans- former; it hes disadvantages including low reactance which may make it subject to excessive short-circuit currents, the arrangement of taps ismore complicated, the delta tertiary may have to earry fanlt currents exceeding its standard rating, the low- and high-voltage cizeuits cannot be iso- lated, and the two circuits must operate with no angular phase displacement unless a sig-2ag connection is intzo- duced. ‘The advantages of lower east aud improved eff Power Transformers and Reactors 9 ea & x t 1 °® > 2 fesun-casa——ayaenomecten-suan (GROUNDING: TRANSFORMER ‘SROUNOING TRANSFORMER ‘WINDINGS. ORAWN PARALLEL [ARE ON THE SAME: CORE (€) SCHEMATIC. WINDING ARRANGEMENT OF AN INTER CCONNEGTED-CTAR GROUNDING TRANSFORMER OF THE TTHREE-PHASE CORE-FORM CONSTRUCTION. app of —— (8) EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF AN INTERCONNECTED-STAR GROUNDING TRANEFORMER Fig, 27-—Srar-detta and zig-zag grounding transformers.120 ciency become less apparent as the transformation ratio increases, so that autotransformers for power purposes are usually used for low transformation ratios, rarely exceeding 2tol. XI. GROUNDING TRANSFORMERS A grounding transformer isa transformer intended solely for establishing « neutral ground eonnection on a thres- phase system, ‘The transformer is usually of the star-delta or interconnesied-star (sig-zag) arrangement as shown in Fig. 27. The kva rating of a three-phase grounding transformer, or of a grounding bank, is the product of normal lineo- neutral voltage (ke) and the neuiral or ground amperes that the transformer is designed to earry under fault conditions for specified time. A one-mimute time rating is often used for grounding transformers, though other ratings such aa those suggested in ATEE Standard for “Neutral Grounding Deviees” (No. 32, May 1947) ean be specitied depending upon the probable duty to be imposed on the unit in Rated voltage of a grounding transformer is the line-to- line voltage for whiah the unit is dosigned When operated at rated three-phase balanced voltage, only exciting eurrent efrculates in the windings of a ground- ing transformer. Current of approviable magnitude begine to flow in the grouading circuit only when a fault involving ‘ground develops on the eoanected syste Grounding transformers, particularly the zig-sag type, normally are designed so that rated neutral current flows ‘when a solid single-line-to-ground fault is applied at the transformer terminals, assuming supply voltage to be fully maintained. Thisisequivalentto 100-percent zero-se7uence voltage impresied at the transformer terminals resulting in the circulation of rated neutral current. ‘Transformers 30 ‘designed are said to have 100-pereent. impedance based on rated kva and rated voltege. Sometimes « resistor or other impedance is connected in the transformer neutral, and in these eases it may be desirable to opecify that the grounding transformer shall hhave less than the conventional 100 percent impedance. Equivalent circuits for stardelta and aig-rag grounding transformers with extemal neutral impedance ate includ= ed in the Appendix. Because a grounding transformer isa short-time deviee, ite size and eovt are less than for a continuous duty trans” former of equal kva rating. ‘The reduced size ean be estab lished in terms of an “equivalent two-winding 55 C kva” U, by applying reduction factor K to the short-time rated kva of the grounding transformer, and this reduced eva can be used for a price estimate. Ug= UaX Ka fora three-phase grounding unit. (56) U_=8Uq XK; for a bank of single-phase grounding. unita oD) where U,=equivalent two-winding 55 Ckva, three-phase. Ug = (line-to-neutral kv) x (rated neutral amperes), ‘Values for K ate listed in Table 12 for various types and Pewer Transformers and Reactors Chapter 5 Tbh en Dee aoa tarDelal Zig-Zag Connection a in, [Site" aap. aw _ Ks, Tamm 2minutes | 0-240 0.183 | 0.160 | 0.167 | 0.178 0.187 | 0.196 | 0.205 | 0.21 4 minutes 0.235 | 0.215 3 0 Srrioutes | 0.2% o 8 5 minutes Tminure | 0.037 2mintes | 0.080 arminuter | 0.098 4 minutes 5 minutes RS HIS alin fe apical aly Tor ending “casas dniguad srs teres apace!” classes of grounding transformers; the table includes values for both three-phase and single-phase units, though the single-phase type is uncommon. Conventional power transformers may be connected to serve solely as grounding transformers, but the current and time ratings for grounding servioe are open to question depending upon the form and details of construction. When these modified ratings are desired, they should be obtained from the transformer manufacturer. Star-Delta Impedances—The impedance to zero sequence currents in each phase of a solidly-grounded star- dolta grounding hank made up of single-phase units is equal to Zps, the ohmic leakage impedance between one primary (star) winding and the corresponding secondary (delta) winding: Zue=Zen (58) Percent nero-sequence impedance is normally expressed in terms of short-time kva and line-to-line voltage: aaggnteXUa B00 est In a three-phase star-delta grounding transformer Zo mey bbe smnaller than Zpa by an amount depending on the formn of core construction: a typical ratio of Z to Zrs is 0.85, though variation from this value for different designs is likely. Zig-zag Impedances—Tho impedance to zero eequence currents in each phase of w solidly grounded (59) rig-aag bank can be derived on a theoretical basis by reference to Fig. 27(d). Bim LX 205Gb. (00) Fe ya Znn. (n) h Percent zero-sequence impedance for the sig-rag connec-Chapter 5 tion is normally expressed in terms of short-time kva snd line-to-line voltage: (62) XII. TAP CHANGING UNDER LOAD ‘The modern load tap changer had its beginning in 1925, Sineo that. timo tho development of more complicated transmission networks has made tap changing under load more and more essential to control the in-phase voltage of power transformers, and in other eases to control the phase angle relation. Tap-changing-under-load equipment is ap- plied! to power transformers to maintain a constant second ary voltage with a variable primary voltage; to control the secondary voltage with a fixed primary voltage; to control the flow of reactive kva between tivo generating systems, or adjust the reactive flow between branches of loop cir- cuits; and to control the division of power between branches of loop circuits by shifting the phase-angle position of transformer output voltages. ‘Various types of tap-changing equipment and circuits are used depending upon the voltage and kva and sls0 uupon whether voltage or phase angle control is required. Under-load-tap-changers are built for 8, 16, and 82 steps, with the trend in resent’ years heing toward the larger number of steps 60 ae to give a finer degree of regulation. ‘The usual range of regulation is plus 10 percent and minus 10 percent of the rated line voltage, with plus and minus 74 percent and plus and minus 5 peacent Ueing second and third, respectively, in popularity. ‘The 32 step, plus and minus 10 percent, tap-changing-under-load equipment has such wide acceptance as to be considered standard for many types of transformers, PREVENTIVE AUTO TRANSFORMER. JTRANSFER SMITOMES ‘SELECTOR SWITCHES SEQUENCE OF OPERATION Posivion|i|2]3]4] 6]? ayo oh a|spapahehy] TTeH=t [90 foloTo} ie ‘O+SWITCH CLOSED Fig. 28 Seventeen position, single-phase, Tyoe UT tap changer. Power Transformers and Reactors 121 31. The UT Mechanism Figure 28 illustrates schematically the operation of the type UT mechanism for changing taps under load. Taps from the transformer winding connect to selector switch- es 1 through 9. The selector switches are connected to load transier switches R, S, and 1. The-conneetions for the tap changer positions are shown on the sequence chart of Fig. 28, The sequence of switching is so coordi- nated by the tap changing mechenism that the transfer switches perform all the switching operations, opening, before and closing after the selector switches. All arcing i thus restricted to switches R, S, and T, while switches 1 to 9 merely soleet the transformer tap to which the load is to be transferred, When the tap changer is on odd-numbered positions, the preventive auto-transformer is short-cirenited. On all even- umbered positions, the preventive auto-transformer ridges two transformer taps. In this position, the relar ly high reactance of the preventive euto-transformer rents between adjacent taps prevents damage to the transformer winding, while its relatively low impedanee to the load current permits operation on this position to obtain vollages midway between the transformer taps, 32, The UNR Mechanism, Fig. 20 shows schematically the diagram of connections and sequence of operations of the type UNR tap changer. ‘The operation of the selector and transfer switches is ex- actly as described for the type UT top changer. But, the type UNR tap changer also has a reversing switch which reverses the connections to the tapped section of the winding so that the same range and number of positions REVERSING SHITOHES PREVENTIVE AUTOTRANSFORNER ‘Teansree SWITCHES. b =) 1 q a 4 “SELECTOR swrTcHEs Position [a] 3[ 413] e]* 6]9}oh ehsfaishery la ° lojoj0) = lajatol = felot_olofol 11 : iojola t = (ololalofolatoraro} = atalo} T i | fololalo|oiao16%9; =—=0)o|6|o|a'oio[a‘lo| t =7=Alolo| [ololo!_jo'olo!-|a|}1 6/9] = =a [olojo loloie! lolalo} Jorajo! == Hel Jol io! fo) Ja|"fo| To) fo! Jo) ‘O-SWITGH CLOSED Fig. 29—Seventeen position, single phase, Type UNR cap changer.122 can be obtained with one-haif the number of tap sections, cor twice the range can be obtained with the same number ‘of taps. The reversing switch is a close-before-open switch which operates at the time there is no voltage across its contacts, 33. The URS Mechanism The type URS load tap changer is applied to small power transformers and large distribution transformers. The ‘transfer switches are oliminated, and each selector switch serves as a transfer switel fur the tap wo whieh it is con nected. The schematic cireuit diagram and operations sequence chart is shown in Fig, 30 REVERSING Switch —ap————J rere seugctor-taansren—“9) [e SWITCH ‘SEOUENGE OF OBERATION 1 oar [ose lala arava dapaant el pa | oot tet Tot aia ‘OrswiTon cLoseo Fig, 30—Thirty-three position, single-phase, Type URS tap ‘changer. Physically, the stationary selector switch contacts are arranged in circles, one for each phase. The moving se- leetor switch contacts, as they rotate about a ceater shat, both select the taps and make contact with them. The reversing switch operates when the selector switches are ‘on position 17, at which time there is no current. through the reversing switches and therefore no areing on them. ‘The URS tap changer, like the other loud tap changers, cean be equipped for hand operation, remote manual opera tion, or for full automatic operation under the eontral of relays, XIII, REGULATING TRANSFORMERS FOR VOLTAGE AND PHASE ANGLE CONTROL Consider two systems A and B in Fig. 81 connected by a single transmission cizcuit. 4 and B may both be generat- ing units, or one of them may be a generating unit and the other a load. Should .1 generate 10 000 kilowatts iu excess of its own load, there can be hut one reault, the 10 000, Power Transformers and Reactors Chapter 5 e Fig. 31—Power interchange between syatem: (a) Tro systems with te (b} Vector diagram of voltages during interchange of power. {e) Inteodustion of sa in phase voleage, EC, to correc: for exces: sive voltage deep. kilowatis mast go over the tie line to B, An increase in enerator output by must be acvompanied by a corres- ponding deezease in output (incxease in input) by B if there is to be no ehange in The transmission of power from 1 to B results in a difference in magitude betseen terminal voltages and alse shift in phase an! as illustrated in Fig, $1 (b). 0 is the terminal voltage at 4, BO is the cerminal voltage at B..4B is the vectorial vole= age drop zrom -Lto B. created by the Aw of load current F and 9 is the phase-angle difference betiveen terrainal vole~ ‘ages. [n actual practice the phase angle is wot alsays appar ren, but thedrop in voltage, 1B", is often objectionable. An attempt to maintain satisfactory terminal voltages at and B vill often esule in undesirable circulation oi reactive kva henween the systems, The flow of power ftom - to B, or vice versa, is determined by the governor settings. The flow of reactive power over the interconnecting Tine is determined by the terminal veleages held by che machine excitations at { and B. Excessive voltage drop bevnveen the systems van be realy corrected by tmnsTormer taps Of's xed nature or by tap changing equipment, itrodes Q reaheren ee . : ¥ asa ¢ Lis } pew 1 6 | B | & " + TxCITING hansronwer Pig. 92--Regulating cransformer for voltage control.Chapter 5 ing an in-phase voltage, BC, to compensate for the voltage drop and bring the terminal voltage at B to.a desired value. Figure 32 is a simplified sketch of a regulating transformer for voltage control, using an exciting autotransformer with automatic tap changing equipment indicated by the arrows. Consider three systems intereomected with exch other +0 that the interconneetions from A to B, from B to C, and from C to A form a closed loop, #3 in Fig. 33 (a). An ( ° a a . 2 ° 2 ) te) Fig. 83—Power Interchange with three Interconnected ‘ystems, entirely new element enters, and adjustment of governors ‘will not entizely control the flow of power over any one of the interconnecting lines, An attempt to adjust load on the tie hetween two systems results in a ebange of lead on the other two tie lines. With the tie ine from B to C open, and with power transmitted from 4 to B, the terminal voltages of A und C will bo equal and in phase, with no power being transmitied from A to C, or viee versa (see Fig. 33 (b))- There now exists between B and C a difference in voltage and a difference in phase angle. If the tie line between B and ( is closed under these conditions there is a redistribution of power flow betweon A and B, « part going over the line from A to B, and a part of the power going irom 4 to B over the lines A-C and C-B (see Fig. 88 (c)). The distribution of power, both kw and reactive kya be tween the various lines is determined solely by the relative impedances of the interconnecting lines, If at the time of closing B-C an adjustment of trans- former taps were made, or a regulating transformer for voltage control were inserted in the loop, it would be possible to make the veltage at ( equal in magnitude to that at B but it would not have the same phase relation hip. ‘There would still be a flow of power from 4 to C and from C to B. Conditions similar to that just deseribed oeeur on inter- connected systems involving loop circuits. To control the circulation of kw and prevent overloading certain lines it is often necessary to introduce a quadrature voltage, any place in the loop, by the use of # regulating transformer for phase-angle control. ‘This differs from the usual star- Power Transformers and Reactors 128 dalla power transformation in that the angle of phase shift of current and voltago is not fixed but depends on the tap position. Figove 4 isa schermatie diagram ofa typical regulating transformer for phase angle control. Fig. Regulating transformer for phase-angle control. In general the distribution of real power flow over the ‘various interconnections tound in loop eireuits een be con= trolled by regulators for phase-angle control. ‘The flow of reaetive kya ean be controlled by regulators for veltage control. The preceding statements follow from the fact that tranamission-cirenit impecances are predominantly reactive. ‘The voltage regulator introduces a series in-phase voltage into the loop, and quadrature current. (reacti kva) is circulated around the loop since the impedances are reactive, The regulator for phase-angle control intro duces a quadrature series voltage in the loop resulting in the low of currents lagging the impressed veltage by nearly 90 dogrves, oF the circulation of in-phase eurrents (Ki). For the ease of vorrveting the voltage for Tine drop, & simple voltage control equipment can be used. This simply adds or subtracts a voltage in phase with the system volt~ age. For the ease of phase-angle eontrel, the equipment an be identical except the voltage selected to add or sub- tract is in quadrature. As the earlier diseussion showed, there are eaies where both voltage and phase angle control senies @ ‘TRANSFORMER FOOT 8 9 750. ¢ ¢ +0000, (OH none ail ae Fig. 35—Regulating transformer for independent phase-angle sand voltage coFig. 36¢—Regulating transformer for voltage control, rated 20 000 La, 12.47 ky, plus or minus 10 percent, are required, There are a number of sombinations of con- nections to accomplish this, one of them being shown in Fig. 35. Where the voltage and phase angle bear a close relation, one mechanism may suffice. However, where com- pletely independent control is desired, two mechanisms with two reguiating windings and one series winding, or with one regulating winding and two series windings are necessary. If it is desired to close the loop, and the flow of both real and reactive power over the various lines forming the loop must be controlled, the economical loca~ tion for the control equipment is at the point of lostest load to be transferred. This may dictate the location in a Joop, unless when in tying several companies together the boundary between systems determines the location, The voltage to be added or the phase-angle shift that must be obtained can be determined by calculation, considering the impedances of the tie line and the load conditions in the loop. When such calculations become involved, the use of the network calculator provides quick and aceur- ate tool for obtaining the colution. Several common connections used for regulating trans- formers providing voltage control, phase angle control, or ‘combined voltage and phase angle control, are tabulated in the Appendix under Equivalent Circuits of Power and Regulating Transformers, The equivalent eircuits of the regulating transformers to positive-, negative, and. zero- sequence are given. It should be noted that the equivalent cireuits for phase-angle control regulators involve an ideal transformer providing a phase shift of voltage and current. Positivesequence voltage and current are always shifted by the same angle in the same direction. ‘The angular shift for negative-sequence voltage and current is always equal to the angular shift for positive-sequenee, but isin the oppo- sile direction. Zero-sequence currents and voltages do not ‘undergo an angular shift in being transformed. For ex- Power Transformers and Reactors Chapter 5 ample, refer to F-7 in Table 7 of the Appendix, which is the rogulating transformer for phase-angle control shown in Fig, 34 For positive-squence, neglecting regulator impedance: El=NeeE av 17 3nte9k, (ea) 1 1 Lekeh= om co) NOON Tae where a= tan"VIn For negative-soquence, neglecting regulator impedance V IFS Es (65) (66) 3 (67) (6s) For this regulator zero-sequenee voltage and current are not transformed; [y flows through the regulator as though it were a reactor. Tt happens with several connections of regulating trans- formers that aero-sequence voltages and eurrents are not transformed at all, as in F-7; or are transformed with a transformation ratio than for positive- or nega- tive-sequence quantities as in G-1. This phenomenon, and the use of the soquence equivalent cireuits for regulating transformers has been diseussed in papers by Hobson and Lewis, and by J.B, Clem. XIV. EXCITING AND INRUSH CURRENTS If normal voltage is impressed across the primary ter minals of a transformer with its secondary open-cireuited, ‘a stpall exciting current flows, This exciting current con- sists of two components, the loss component and the mag- netizing component. The loss component is in phase with the impressed voltage, and ite magnitude depends upon the no-load losses of the transformer. ‘The magnetizing com- ponent Ings the impressed voltage by 90 electrical degrees, and its magnitude depends upon the number of turns in the primary winding, the shape of the transformer satura tion curve and the maximum flux density for which the transformer was designed. A brief discussion of cach of these components follows: 34. Magnetizing Component of Exciting Current If the secondary of the transformer is open, the trans- former ean be treated as an iron-core reactor. The dif- ferential equation for the circuit consisting of the supply ‘and the transformer ean be written as follows: candt ex Ritmet (6) where, ¢instantaneous value of supply voltage iwinstantaneoue value of current Rmelfective resistance of the winding $= instantaneous flux threading primary winding m= primary turnsChapter 5 Normally the resistance, R, and the exciting current, i, are small. Consequently the Ri term in the above eqta tion has litte effect on the flux in the transformer and ean, for the purpase of discussion, be neglected. Under these conditions Eq. (60) ean be rewritten: ag com (70) If the supply voltage is a sine wave voltage, em V/28 sin(ot-+d), (71) where, Erna value of supply voltage om 2x Subetivuting in Eq, (70) V2E cinfat +n) =nild Solving the above differential equation, cos(atN) +h @ vie steady-state flux in the transformer core. ‘The second term, 43, represents a transint component of flux the magnitude of whieh depends upon the instant at whieh the transformer is energized, the normal maximum flux and ‘the residual flux in the core at the time the transformer is Im this solution, ~Y= cos (old) is the normal VouTace, FLUX Fig. 37—Improused voltage and steady-state fux. Power Transformers and Reactors 128 energized. Under steady-state conditions this component is equal to zero; the magnitude of 4 is discussed in Bec. 38. From Eq. (72) it ean be seen that the normal steady- state flux is a sine wave and lags the sino weve supply voltage by 90 degrees, ‘The supply voltage and the normal flux are plotted in Fig. 37 as a function of time. If there were no appreciable saturation in the magnetic circuit in a transformer, the magnetizing current and the flux would vary in direct proportion, resulting im s sina soidal magnetizing eurrent wave in phase with the flux However, the cconomic design of a power transformer re- quires that the transformer iron be worked at the curved part of the saturation curve, resulting in appreciable sat tration, Under this condition the magnetizing current is not a sine wave, and its shape depends upon the sata- ration characteristiga (the B-H curve) of the transformer magnetic circuit, "The shape of the current wave ean be determined graphically as shown in Fig. 38. In Fig. 38(b) are shown the impressed voltage and the ux wave lagging the voltage by 90 degrees. For any flux the corresponding value of current can be found from the B-IT carve. Folk lowing this procedure the entire current wave can be plotted. The current found in this manner does not. con- ‘sist of magnetizing current alone but inclades a loss com- ponent required to furnish the hysteresis loss of the core. However, this component is quite small in comparison to tho magnetizing component and hae little effect on the ‘maximuin value of the total current, ‘A study of Fig. 38 shows that although the flux is sine weave the current is a distorted wave. An analysis of this current, wave shows that it contains odd-harmonie com ponents of appreciable magnitude; the third harmonic component is included in Fig. 38. In a typical case the harmonies may be as follows: 45 percent third, 15 percent fifth, three percent seventh, and smaller percentages of higher frequency. ‘The above components are expressed in percent of the equivalent sine wave value of the total exciting current, ‘These percentages of harmonie currents veill not change much with changes in transformer terminal voltage over the usual ranges in terminal voltage. In Rig 30 are shown the variations in the harmonic content of the exciting current for a particular grade of silicon sted. (0) reanaromuen (0) vouee, FLUE AND cuRRENT waves Fig. 38 Graphical method of determining magnetizing current,Chapter 5 128 Power Transformers and Reactors bol ff 5 2, Fig. 32Harmonic content of exciting current for a particular ‘rade of silicon steel, 35. Loss Component of Exciting Current The no-load losses of « transformer are the iron lasses, 1a small dielectric loss, and the copper loss caused by the exciting current, Usually only the iron losses, ie. hy: teresis and eddy current losses, are important. These losses depend upon frequency, maximum flus density, and the characteristics of the magnetic cireuit, In practice the iran losses are determined from labora tory tests on samples of transiormer steel. However, the formulas given below are useful in showing the qualitative tlfect of the various factors on loss Tron Toss = Ih We Wy= Ki/Brnue watts por Id B= KOPUB Eu. watts per tb = hysteresis loss Wy=eddy eurrent loss fe frequency = thickness of laminations Brox = maximum fas density Ky, Ky and 2 are factors that depend upon the quality of the stee! used in the core. In the original derivation of the hysteresis loss formula by Dr. Steiometa, 2 was 1.6. For modern steels 2 may have a valuc as high 3.0. The iron loss in a 60-cyele power transformer of modern design is approximately one watt per pound. ‘The ratio of hys- teress los to eddy current joss will be on the order of 3.0 ‘with silicon steel and 35 with oriented steel. ‘These figures sald be used as a rough guile only, as they vary eon siderably with transformer design, 3) 36. Total Exciting Current As discussed above, the total exciting current of a trans former includes u magnetizing and a lass component. ‘The economic design of a transformer dietates working the iron at the curved part of the saturation curve at normal volt= ‘age; hence any increase in terminal voltage above nornual will greatly’ inerease the exe'ting cursent. In Fig. 40 the exciting current of a typies! transformer is given as a function of the voltage applied to its terminals, ‘The exciting current increases far moro rapidly than the term- Fig. 40—Rxciting current vs. terminal voltage. The abore curve appiles for one particular design of transformer: the shape of the curve may vary considerably depending upon the trade of steel and the teanaformer design 108-percont terminal voltage current. inal voltage. For exampl results in 200-pereent es 37. Typical Magnitudes of Exciting Current The actual magnitudes of exciting enrrents vary over fairly wide ranges slepending upon transformer size, volt~ age class, ote, In Table 13 are given typical exciting currents for power transformers. The exciting eurrents vary sliectly with the voltage rating and inversely with the kvx rating Tanur 14 ‘Tytean Excrnine Cunkewr Vaices ror SiNGuE-PHASE POWER TRANSPORSEERS (Un percent of full load current) ‘The follssing valuss should be considered ss very epproximate For fverage sana signs und ate predicated on prevailing perform= fanoe characteristis. Test valuss will as 4 rule come below Unese values hut a plus or anus varation must be expected depending lupo purchaser's requirements. Should closer estimating data be roguited, chr matter should be reerred to the proper manufacturer's design engine ‘Toree-phase are 38% (sie rom 3a °/aa a0 43 zo laa a2 [as 500 (gs in 10.000 poo iso jst 25.90 | 2 a4 soc Tete Tao 38, Inrush Current When a transformer is first energized, a transient ex- ‘iting current Hows to bridge the gap between che cone ditions existing bofore the transformer is energized and the conditions dictated by steady-state requirements For any given transformer this transient euzeent depends upon the magnitude of the supply voltage at the instant the transformer is energized, the residual Bux in the core,Chapter 5 sand the impedance of the supply circuit. Often the mag- nitude of this transient eurrent execeds fullload current and rnay reach 8 to 10 times fullload current. ‘These high inrush currents are important principally because of their effect on the operation of relays used for differential pro- tection of transformers In studying the phenomena that occur when a trans- former is energized itis more satisfactory to determine the flux in the magnetic circuit first and then derive the cur- rent from the flux. ‘This procedure is preferable because the fx docs not depart muieh from a sine wave even though the current wave is usually distorted. ‘The total flux in a transformer core is equal to the nom mal steady-state lux plus a transient. component of flux, as shown in Eq. 72, ‘This relation ean be used to determine the transient flox in the core of a transformer immediately 728 after the transformer is energized, As = represents the crest of the normal steady-state flux, Eq. (72) can be rewritten, O= bm £08 (ul+0) +04 my where ¥ ae At t=0, ou 008 h+ do (75) where gu transformer residual flux ~n Co8 Nestondy-state flux at (=0 w= initial transient flux, In the above equation the angle X depends upon the instantaneous value of the supply voltage at the instant the transformer is energized. If tho Lransformor is ener- gized at zero voltage, \is equal to 0, whereas if the trans- former is energized where the supply voltage is at a posi tive maximum value, \is equal to 90 degrees. Assume that 4a transformer having zero residual flux is energized when the supply voltage isat « positive maximam, For these eon- ditions g and cas ) are both equal to ere 50 gw is also equal fo zero. The transformer flux therefore staris out ‘under normal conditions and there would be no transient. However, if transformer having zero residual is enezgized at zero supply voltage the following conditions exist: e008 N= ~ om =O burden Substituting in Bq. (74) B= — bn 008 (at) +0 (76) ‘The flux wave represented by Eq. (70) is plotted in Fig. 41a. The total flux wave consists of a sinusoidal fax wave plus a dee flux wave and reaches a erest equal to ‘twice the normal maximum flux. In this figure the Ursa sient, fax has been assumed to have no decrement; if lose is considered the transient fhix decreases with tire and the crest value of the total flux is lest than shown, Tn Fig, 41 (b) similar waves have been plotted for a transformer having 60 percent positive residual flux and energised at zero supply voltage. Sixty percent residual Mux has been Power Transformers and Reactors 12 VOLTAGE (0) PRIMARY CLOSED AT ZERO VOLTAGE ZERO RESIOUAL FLUX TRANSIENT FLUX 7 SreXoN STATE vourace (b) primary cLoseo AT 26R0 VOLTAGE 60% POSITIVE RESIDUAL FLUX, ig. 41—Transformer flux during transient conditions. assumed for illustration only. Flux waves for any other initial conditions ean be caloulated in @ similar manner using Eq. (74). 39. Determination of Current Inrush After the flux variation has been determined by the method described, the current wave ean be obtained graphically as shown in Fig. 42. In the ease illustrated it was assumed that a transformer having zero residual Bux was energized at zero supply voltage; the Nux there foro is equal to twice normal creat flux. For any flux the corresponding current. can be obtained from the trans- former B-if curve. Although the maximum flux is oaly twice its normal value, the current reaches a value equal to many tinies the maximum value of the normal trans former exciting current. This high value of current is sachod beeuuse of the high degree of saturation of the transformer magnetic cireuit, In the above discussion loss bas been neglected in order to simplify the problem. Loss is important in an actual transformer because it decreases the maximum inrush cur= rent and reduces the exciting eurreat to normal after aPower Transformers and Reactors Chapter 5 (0) Fue we No RUSH CURRENT HAE Fig. 42—Graphical method of determining inrush current, period of time. The losses that are offective are the resist ance loss of the supply eitouit and the resistance and stray Tossed in the transformer. Figure 43 is an oscllogram of a typical exeiting-current inrush for a single-phase trans former energized at the zero point on the supply voltage wave? The transient has a rapid decrement during the firot few eyoles and decays more slowly thevealter. ‘The damping cheffcient, R/T, for this circuits not eonstant because of the variation of the transformer inductance ‘with saturation. During the first few current peaks, the degree of saturation of the iron is high, making L low. ‘The inductanee of the transformer inereases as the saturation decreases, and hence the damping factor becomes smaller as the current decays. 40. Estimating Inrush Currenta The calculation of the inrush current to a power traus former requires considerable detailed transformer desiga information not readily available to the application en ineer. For this reason reference should be mado to the ‘manufacturer in those few eases where a reasonably ac- curate estimate is required. An order of magnitude of ‘Tanes 14—Approxneare Denvsnt Conners 70 60-Cvets owen TRANSFORMERS ENERGIZED FROM THE FXGH-VOLTAGE sine Takes Gwe Sa Fate See | Form 000 wow 25s 29-000 204 Snrush currents to single-phase, 60-cycle transformers ean, be obtained from the data in Table 14. The values given are based on the transformer being energized from the high-voltage side at the instant the supply voltage posees through zero. Energizing & coreform transformer from the low-voltage side may result in inrush currrents ap- proaching twiee the values in the table, The per unit inrush current to a shell-orm transformer is approximately. the same on the high- and low-voltage sides. ‘The inrush currents in Table 14 are based on energizing 12 transformer from a zero-reactance source. When it is desired to give some weight to source reactance, the inrush, current may be estimated from the relation 7) where =Inrush current neglecting supply reactance in per unit of rated transformer current X= Effective supply reactance in per a transformer kva base. t on the XV. THIRD-HARMONIC COMPONENT OF EXCITING CURRENT 41. Suppression of the Third-Harmonic Component As discussed in connection with Fig. 89, the exciting current of a transformer contains eppreeiable harmonicChapter 5 current. The third harmonic is by far the largest harmonic component, being as high as 40 to 0 percent of the equivalent sine-wave exciting current. the flax in a traneformer magnetic circuit is sinusoidal, the exciting current must contain a third-harmonie. co ponent, If this component cannot flow, because of trans former or aystem connections, the flux will contain a third- hharmonie component. ‘The ‘third-harmonic flax will, in turn, induce a third-harmonic voltage in the transformer windings. ‘The magnitude of the third-harmonic voltage. induced in « transformer winding, when the thint-harmonic current is suppressed, will vary between 5 and 50 percent depending upon the type of transformers used. With single- phase transformers or with thresphase shell-form trans. formers the third-harmonic voltages may be as high ao 50 percent of the fundamental-frequency voltage. In at phase core-form transformer the reluetanee of the third- harmonic flux path is high (see Sec. 56); consequently the third-harmonic flux in the transformer magnetic circult is small even if the third-harmonic component of the exciting current is suppressed. ‘The third-harmonic voltage induced is therefore small, usually not more than five pereent. Ina three-phase eystem, the third-harmonic currents of ‘each phase are in phase with each other and hence con- stinute # zervsequence set of currents of Lriple frequency. Likewise, tho third-harmonic voltages will constitute zero-sequence eet of voltages of triple frequency. ‘Thus, although a third-harmonic voltage may be present in the line-to-neutral voltages, there ean be no third-harmonic ‘component in the line-todine voltage. ‘The paths permit- ting the flow of third-harmonic currents are determined hy the system and transformer zero-sequience ciroits, It has been shown that third harmonies must occur in either the exciting current or the voltage of a transformer. ‘The exciting current will take the shape imposed by the particular connections used. It is always preferable to have st least one delta-connected winding in a throc- phase transformer bank. ‘The delta connection will furnish, a path for the flow of third-harmonic currents and will minimize the third-harmonic current in the external c! cuits. ‘This is very desirable because think-harmonic eur- rents in the extemal cireuits may, under some conditions, cause telephone interference. A discussion of telephone TRANSFORMER owen source “ansuission LINE Power Transformers and Reactors 129 interference, as affected by transformer connections, is given in Chapter 23, See. 11. 42. Effect of Transformer Connections ‘The application of the above principles willbe illustrated jeration of a number of typical connections. Tn is shown a three-phase transformer bank connested ‘TaHLE L5— INFLUENCE OF TRANSFORMER ConnecrioNs ON ‘Tuo Halowosue VOLTAGES axib CURRENTS source “onwecTion | couuenrs Prim | sec 1 A | A |seenore + 2 bl Apews > AL gle sus s}cmu cumenmce 0 | | hfe te ‘erouNo, no orouncen | | ceneratons on orowoen| A | Af. + 3 TRANSFORWEK ANKS) 6 + Alwins ? AlAle as ° Ald}: +38 . A | AL | see nore 1 © AL Aleve “ Al ble cu cnounoeo v2} comounoen cenenarons on | | fo [os + 88 GROUNDED TRANSFORMER 13] eaves on cance caracie | A | A |e « 3 TANCE TO GROUND) 6 ALA] aa 1 AlA}e ws 16 AlAl« «38 AeA Fig. 44—Connections which influence the flow of third-har- ‘monic exciting current. se trtaloier ns read sage y Ths celteconanted wining rice fnrroni eit em aeons car ow ee ea ui oh120 to a transmission line, the line in turn being connected toa power source. If the star-star connection in Fig, #41a) js used the third-harmonic component of the exiting eur- rent is suppressed and a third-harmonic component will therefore be present in the line-to-neutral voltages. With the primary neutral and the generator neutral grounded, as in Fig, 44(b), a path is furnished for the third-harmonie exciting currents. If the impedance of this path is low, le third-harmonic voltage will be present on the system, However, if the line is long and is closely coupled with telephone circuits, telephone interference may result. If the transformer bank is close to the power source no tele- phone interference should result from the use of this connection. ‘When a delta-connected winding is present in the trans former such as in Fig. 44(e) and (i), the delta eonneetion furnishes a path for the third-harmonic currents required to eliminate the third-harmonic voltages. If the primary is ungrounded or the generator is ungrounded, no third- harmonie current will flow in the line. If the primary is rounded and the generator is also grounded, «little third- harmonie current can flow over the line. With this comnes- tion the magnitude of the third-harmonic current in the Jine depends upon the relative impedances of the supply citeuit and the dolta cirenit. This current is usually 200 small'to cause any troublesome incerference. The same general comments appiy \hen three-winding transformers are used. If one winding is delta connected, little or no third-harmonic current will flow in che supply. eireuit and little or no third-harmonic voltage will be present on the system. In Table 15 is given a summary of a number of typical transformer connections with a brief description of the effect of the connections on the third-harmonic eurret and voltages, XVI. TRANSFORMER NOISE ‘Transformer noise is a problem because ofits disturbing effect upon people. Noise may arise from several sources of forve indueed vibrations, including (1) Magnetostriction, the small change in dimensions of ferromagnetic materials caused by induction. (2) Magnetic forces tending to pull jointed core mem- bers together. (B) Magnetic forces acting between two conductors, or between a conductor and a magnetic member. (4) Fans, pumps, or other transformer auxiliaries. ‘The most persistent of these sources of noise is magneto- striction, whieh depends upon flux density and cannot be eliminated by tight core construction. The only means of reducing magnetostrictive force now at band is to reduce flux density in the core. Noise arising from any of the sources listed above may’ be amplified by mechanical resonanee in the tank or fit- tings, and careful design is necessary to avoid such te inforcement of the original sound. Standards have been established for permissible sound pressure levels for various types of transformers, in terms of decibels referred to 0.002 dynes por square centimeter: Poser Transformers and Reactors Chapter 5 P - db ~20 lose p95 7s) where P, the sound prossure, is expressed in dynes per square centimeter. Transformers designed to have sound levels below standard levels are available, but at extra cast because the magnetic material is worked at an induction below normal It is quite difficult to predetermine a sound level whieh will prove satisfactory in the surroundings where a new transformer is to be installed. Local conditions affeet sound transmission, reffection, and resonanee to a great degree, and these factors sre hard to evaluate prior to transformer installation, XVII. PARALLEL OPERATION OF TRANSFORMERS 43. Single-Phase Transformers ‘Transformers having different kva ratings may operate in parallel, with load division such that each transformer carries its proportionate share of the total load. To achieve accurate load division, itis necessary that the transformers be wound with the same turns ratio, and that the pervent. impedance of all transformers be equal, when each per centage is expressed on the kva base ofits respective trans former. Tt is also necessary that the ratio of resistance ta reactance in all transformers be equal, though most power transformers will likely be similar enough in this respect to permit calculations based on only the impedance magnitude, The division of current between transformers having unequal turns ratios and tnequal percent impedances may be calculated from an equivalent circuit similar to the one shown in Fig. 45, Either pereent impedances or ohmic ry lent clrcult for parallel connection of single- ave two-winding transformers impedances may be used in an equivalent circuit for paral- leled transformers. ‘The circuit in Fig. 45 contains ohmie impedances and actual turns ratios; this method is perhaps more appropriate when the cireuit involves unequal wimn ratios, because the use of percent values in this type of circuit involves extra complieations. Solution of this cir- with a load current, assumed, will indicate the division of eurrent between transformers. Also, solution Of this circuit with total load current set equal to zer0 will indicate the circulating current caused by unequal trans- former ratios. For satisfactory operation the circulatingChapter 5 current for any combination of ratios and impedances: probably should not exceed ten percent of the full-losd rated current of the smaller unit More than two transformers may of course be paralleled, and the division of load may be calculated from an ex: tended equivalent circuit. similar to the one in Fig. 45. 44, Three-Phase Transformer Banks ‘The same considerations apply for the parallel operation ‘of symmetrical three-phase transformer banks as have been outlined for singlo-phaco tranaformers. In addition it is necessary to make sure that polarity and phase-shift. be- ‘tween high-voltage and low-voltage terminals are similar for the parallel units, A single-phase equivalent circuit may be set up on a line-to-neutral basis to represent, one phase of a balanced threo-phace bank, using the theory of symmetrical components. ‘When three-phase transformer banks hay siderable degree of dissymmetry among the three phases are to be anuilyzed, it is necessary ither to set up a com- plete three-phase equivalent circuit, or to interconnect equivalent sequence networks in a manner to represent the unbslaneed portion of the circuit according to the rules of symmetrical components, i any con 48. Three-Winding Transformers Currents flowing in the individual windings of parallel three-winding banks ean be determined by solving an equivalent eirenit, such as that shown in Fig. 46. ‘The y ty Fig. 46—Equlvalent clreult for parallel connection of slngle- hase three-winding transformers. terminal loads, as well as winding ratios and impedances, affect the division of eurreats among the windings of a three-winding transformer, so all these factors must be known before a solution is attempted, 46, Three-Winding Transformer in Parallel With ‘Two-Winding Transformer ‘The equivalent cireuit for a three-winding transformer paralleled with a tio-winding transformer is given in Fig. Power Transformers and Reactors 181 Fig, 47—Kquivalent circuit for a single-phase three-winding ‘wansformer paralleled with a two-winding unit. 47, Division of currents may be esleulated from this eine cuit, if the load currents [f and I," are assumed. Parallel operation of two such transformers is nob usually satisfactory, since a change in tertiary load will lier the distribution of loud between the other two windings. If the impedances are proportioned to divide the load prop- erly for one load eandition, the load division between trans- formers wt some other louding is likely lo be unsatisfactory. ‘An exeaption is the ease wherein th represents a delta tertiary winding in a three-phase bank, with no load connerted to the tertiary; in this instance the transformers ean be made to divide currents similarly at all loads. it ix possible to design a threo-winding transformer £0 that the load taken from the tertiary winding docs not seriously affect load division between the paralleled wind- ings of the two transformers. If the impedance Z» is made equal to zoro, then current division wt the a’ terminals will be determined hy Zs and Z only, and this impedance ratio ‘will remain independent of tectinry loading. Tt is diffieult to obtain acro as the value for Zp, particularly if this winding is of high voltage; however, values near zero can bbe obtained with special design at inereased cost. Such a design may result in a value of Zp which is undesirable for ather reasons XVIII. TRANSFORMER PRICES 47, Two-Winding Type OA Transformers Estimating prices for Type OA, oil-immersed, self-coaled, vole, tworwinding transformers are given in Pig. 48 ‘The estimating prices per kva are based on net priees as of December 1, 1949. As prices change frequently, the curves should be used principally for comparing the prices of “ifferent voltage classes, comparing banks mud of siugle- phase und three-phase units, ete. 1f the insulation level of the low-voltage winding is 15 oF higher, the prices in Fig 48 should be corrected in secordance with Table 16. Price additions are also required ‘when the rating of either the high- or low-voltage winding is 1000 volts and below. ‘Transformers designed for star connection of the high- voltage winding may be built with a lower insulation level182 Power Transformers and Reactors Chapter 5 ‘TABLE 16—ADDITIONS 10 BE MADE TO PRICES IN Fic. 48 When Low-VoUtAGe WINDING INSULATION Level 18 15 KV OR HIGHER Tow-Volage Winding Price Adibuon ta Perens | Single Phase Equivalent 55. kee ‘Pha Equivalent 680 kre Insulation | Haste Self-Cooled Rating Self-Cooled Rating Cina | Impuleo /-— =a a KV | toveinke 0170 | OL 9 | OL | TON [Hoa OL | SL ew | 700 [0d | ae Tou |_"Bin” | “ra” | "asae |"stove| a0 | “topo” | “ann | ‘ae bed sbve 6 io i OF 0% | om | om | wal use, om | om | om 3 | io | pea) 1 py a) a 1 as a | fr 6 | 6) 8 we |e 8 | kG i | eo |ow ow in lw |e) s fu bu w | | 2 | 80 wm | a | 2 3 a | 20 2 B | a | | | : us| sm ara 3 wo) aw | ou 3 x) 3s | so 2 39 we) a | 2 39 36 aE ret 0 | i wot ow | a 1 Loe ea at the neutral end than at the line end of the winding. ‘Table 17 summarizes the possible savings in cost with these designs. Reference should be mado to seetion 16 for a discussion of the minimum insulation level that should be used at the transformer neutral 48, Multi-Winding Units If 9 multi-winding transformer is designed for simul- tancous operation of all windings at their rated capacities, the price of Ue unit can be estimated from the curves given for tworwinding transformers by using ap eyuivalen’ Sool gore buss Tt ‘TaBLe 17 —Price REDUCTION FoR GROUNDED NEUTRAL SERVICE 3 00-55 Backs | (Py Winding insation | ——_Inaavon Prise brad Mia | coo Chat | Clase at |) Reduction = Ta TT i Line Bad Neate End Percent 3™a6 mn 0 j 6 ° 3 fr too v2 5 3.0 Biol eh { 2 a9 ; us Eo os COT | | 2 PsN S { ~ us 6 | 50 2 oss U5 9 | ozs aoe n3 | os Lo = Tr | a a 138 | 15 6.0 z 8102040 G5 8S FO Zo0 28 25-46 } 50 THREE-PHASE 94NK_RATING-MVA 138 9-22 30 “a SIN 28 115 1s c 2, ee a 16 | 15 10 636 { pr 101 a 55 f ie one 33 “ 8 15-138 2.0 g 3 186 | 6 20 3° 296 2516 18 i 198 sols 43 44 196 (aes 23 Z4 230 | 15 100 z 20 25-09 78 2 230 90-138 5.0 3 220 ier 3.0 os ees ie = |e TRANSFORMER RATING-MvA ar | 30 (Gr THe -uase UNITS 3 be Fig, 48—Curve tor estimating prices of oil-immersed, 60-oysle, = ‘two.reinding, type OA power transformers:Chapter 5 two-winding capacity equal to the sum of the rated ca pacities of the various windings divided by two. If a ‘multissinding transformer is not designed for sim operation of all windings at their ratod eapacities, the price of the unit can be estimated from the curves given for ‘bvo-winding transformers, using an equivalent two-winding capacity equal to Equivalent=4+3(8—A) Where A= (Sum of the simultancous loadings). B= (Sum of the maximum rated capacities of the various windings). In addition, 5 percent most be added for threewinling ‘transformers; 7.5 percent for fourwinding transformers; and 10 percent for five-winding transformers (79) 49, Estimating Prices for Other Types of Cooling ‘Table 18 is a summary of the approximate cost of three phase power transformers employing auxiliary cooling sys tems. All cost figures are expressed in per unit of OA ‘Tans 18—RELATIVE Cost oF Tineke-PHAse TRANSFORMERS "WETK SPEctAL CoouING {Bach cost is in por uni, based on the ost of an OA transformer baw ing a eating equal to th masimm of the special unit being consid ered Ter Phase Tosulstion Class—KV ‘Type™ | Bank w pid OAA | fod oT). 108 2 [oot orf onf-nateat oft a6 5 sap sop slo s60. 7029.8. 0 10 f.sop.stp sze.ago. ago sl.s90 990 98 20 .s-sob.oo8.s08. aaa. o70. a0 28 & Peep sre ese ene ole-oie-ed-sa 100 | (0.870.380, 80.0. 90)0.900.910.91 oarraros| 29 .r4o.150.726.750.190.sI.s00 890.83 50 (9,730.73)0. 750,77 0.80)0.81/0 8110.82 Fi fap Ho.tan m0 89 10.60 FOA 20 /p.60(0..57\0.710.73 0.750.77)0.78)0,81/0.82 fo P6.su0-080-700 710 730-790. s10.82 8) Reh Goes ape OW | 2 |1.054.090.990.999.002.07.0a0.070.91 | 5 pste.sa0 seo-sao.sao:e7o.soo.igo.at 1) b:ssp-sip.ae spe.apo. so-so 310.90 2 fo'mon syoszp ae mo sgn ao ao 90 | Po eto sop soo soa go. ago ero e7 1” (50 0 Sb ae a row | a 00.710.210.740.26 50 050.090.730.710 72 sm | PPO ebocero.cgo. ogo. 00.68 OE See ar nea gue a0 PPE See Dacian st a Power Transformers and Reactors 133 transformer cost, where the OA rating used to determine the base cost is oqual to the highest rating of the force. cooled or specially-eooled unit. ‘The kva ratings listed in the second column of Table 18 are the highest ratings of foreed-cooled units; for example, the kva rating listed for OA/FA/POA transformers is the FOA value. XIX. REACTORS 50, Application of Current-Limiting Reactors Current-limiting reactors are induetance coils used to limit current during fault conditions, and to perform this funetion it is essential that magnetic saturation at high current does not reduce the eail reactance. If fault eurrent is more than about three times rated full load current, an iron core reactor designed to have essentially constant magnetic permeability proves overly expensive, therefore air core coils having constant induetanee are generally used for current-limiting applications. A reactor whose indue- tance ineveased with current magnitude would be most effective for Tnniting fault current, but this characteristic has not been practically attained. Fig, 49--Oll-Immersed alr-core reactor.San saat i Fig, 50—Dry-type air-core reactor. Air core reactors are of tivo general types, oilimmersed (Fig, 49) end dry-type (Fig. 50). Oil-immersed reactors ean be cooled by any of the means commonly applied to power transformers. Dry-type reactors are usually cooled by natural ventilation buit ean also be designed with forced- air and heat-exchanger auxiliaries where space is at a promium. Power Transformers and Reactors Chapter 5 Oil-immersed reactors can be applied to a efreuit of any voltage level, for either indoor or outdoor installation. The advantages of oil-mmersed reactors also inelude: 1. A high factor of safety against fashover 2. No magnetic field outside the tank to cause heating for magnetic forves in adjacent reactors or metal structures during short-cirouits 3. High thermal capacity: Dry-type reactors depend upon the surrounding air for inculation and cooling. Because of the required clearan and construction details necessary to minimize corona, these reactors are limited to 34.5 kv as a maximurn insula tion class. Free circulation of air must be maintained to provide satisfactory hest transfer. ‘hese coils should not, be surrounded with elosed circuits of conducting material Decause the mutizal inductance may be sufficient fo prodice destructive forces when short-eireuit current flows in the oil. Structures such as I-beams, channels, plates, and. other metallic members, either exposed or hidden, should also be sept at a distance from the reactor even though they do not form closed circuits. A side clearance equal (0 ‘one-third the outside diameter of the coil, and an end. clearance of one-half the outside diameter of the coil will produce a temperature rise less chan 40 C in ordinary ‘magnetio steel, For the same sige members, brass will have about. the same rise, aluminum about one and one half times, and manganese steel about one-third the rise for Reinforving rnris ies than theea- ordinary magnoric steel fourths inch in diameter which do not form a complete electrical virenit are not included sn these limitations. be ceause the insulation clearances from the reactor should be suifieien: co avoid undue heating in such small metal parts In order to avoid excessive floor loading due to magnetic forces between reactors she spacing recommended by the manufacturer should be observed. Sometimes this spacing, can be reduced dy use of bracing insulazors hetiveen units ‘or using stronger supporving insulators and inereasing the ‘strength of the floor. This should alway's be cheeked with the manufacturer since bracing increases the natural period of vibration and may greatly inerease the forces to be resisted by the building doors or walls, 51, Reactor Standards ‘The standard insulation tests for current-limiting re ‘actors axe summarized in Table 19. Dry-type current-limiting reactors are built with Class B insulation and have an observable temperature rise by resistance of 80 C with normal continuous full-load current Dey-type and oil-immersed current-limiting reactors are designed! mechanivally- and thermally for not more than 33%5 times (3 percent. reactive drop) normal full-iosd ‘current for five seconds under short-cireuit conditions. 52. Determination of Reactor Characteristics ‘When specifying a current-limiting reactor, information should be included on the following: 1, Indoor or outdoor serviee. 2. Dry- or oibimmersed type. 3. Single-phase or three-phase reactor. 4. Ohms reactance,Chapter 5 "Tamu 19—Sranpanp Dreuecnic ‘Tests oR CuRRENT-LMMITING REACTORS T Cansney Tingle Tes ne (OU Tye)" Teaulaton a Class or ee ce Go |oityme) type | in Tine Wave wy re | (0) | Volto Yara ko rma | RY Sl eT v2 | | | a) te 25 vf} | ow | us so | a | ow | as | ie ae | 2 | w | no | rs wo |B) @ | m | ae m0 | o@ | a | ms | a0 | 10 as | | us | 2m | so | a0 i005 wo | 30 ) 20 oo) aa ao | 30 | a0 mo | a0 ae | 480 13.0 Ba 30 | $80 18.0 | 310 30 | 630 10 | Bas ao | 70 196.0 | 425 1s | ao | om zo 85 m0 | 3.0 | 1050 287.0 590 3600 | 8.0 | 1300 216.0 | 600 aes | 3.0 | 1550 ‘sl mprmodits volte tings are sacl Is the wet haber nmaon caw posers a ino sn 5, Continuous current rating, amperes. 6. Reactor rating in kva, Voltage class 8. Circuit charaeteristies: (a) Single-phase or three-phase (b) Frequency. (©) Line-to-line voltage. (d) Type of eisouit conductors. Standardization of current ratings and ohmic reactances for current-limiting reactors is not yet completed, but semi-standard values are available and should be used where feasible in the preparation of reactor specifieations. 53. Reactor Prices The estimating prices included in this section should be used for comparative purposes only becatise reactor prices are subject to change from time to time. Estimating prices for single-phase, 60-cyele, dry-type current-limiting reactors are given in Fig. 51 for kva rate ings between 10 and $000. Reactors for use in 1201 to 13.800 volt circuits may be estimated from the eurve labeled #15 kv and below.” ‘The prices given apply to single-phase reactors with current ratings between 300 and. 600 amperes. For current ratings below 300 amperes, price additions must be mace in accordance with Table 20. When, ‘the current rating exceeds 600 simperes make a price addi- Power Transformers and Reactors 135 aS ESTIMATING PRIGE-DOLLARS PER KVA lo 86 40-66 108 £00” 400.600 1006 2000 4000 000 REACTOR RATING-K¥ Big. St~—Curve for eatinnating prices of single-phase, cycle, “dry-type current-limiting reactors. Toke ake STs eft 5 a $ E ef or oe esos Fe ew RO [REACTOR RATING MVA ‘Fig. 52—Curve for estimating prices of single-phase, 60-cycle, ‘ll-immersed current-limiting reactors. tion of one pereent for each 100 amperes, orfraction thereof, bove 600 amperes. Estimating prices for single-phase, 60-cycle,cilimmersed ccurrent-limiting reactors are given in Fig, 62 for insulation classes between 15 and 138 kv. For current ratings above ‘800 amperes make a price addition of two percent for each 100 anperes, or fraction thereof, above 800 amperes. Estimating prices for 60-cyele, oil-immersed, self-cooled shunt reactors may be estimated by adding 10 percent to the prices xiven in Fig, 48 (a) for two-winding transformers, ‘Tanus 20—Price Anoirioxs FoR Dav-TYPE REACTORS RATED BELOW 300 AMPERES Corent Price Rating Amperes |____Addition Percent 250-200 3 200-249 10 15 22 29 38 8186 XX. EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS FOR SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMERS ‘Representation of a transformer by an equivalent circuit, isa commonly used metivd for determining its perform- ‘ance as a cirouit clement in complex powar and distribution networks. Without the simplifications offered by the use of such equivalent circuits the handling of transformers with their complex array of leakage and mutual imped- ances would be a formidable problem. For the purposes of calculating short circuit currents, voltage regulation, and stability of a power system, the normal magnetizing current required by transformers is neglected. ‘Thus Figs. 2c), (d), or (e), a9 the choice may be, will adequately represent & two-winding transformer for caleulation purposes. For three, four, and in general multi-winding trans- formers, an equivalent network ean be always determined that will consist only of simple impedances (mutual imped- ances eliminated) snd accurately represont the transformer a5 a circuit element. ‘The impedances which ean be most readily determined by test or by caleulation are those between transformer windings taken two at a time, with other windings considered idle; therefore the impedanens in an equivalent circuit can well be expressed in terms of these actual impedances between the transformer windings taken two at a time. ‘The number of independent impedances required in an equivalent circuit to represent x multiswinding transformer Shall be, in general, equal to the number of all possible different combinations ofthe windings taken two at ime ‘Thus, one equivalent impedance is required to represent «4 cvo-winding transformer, three branch impedances for a three-winding transformer, and six independent. branch impedances to represent a four-winding transformer. ‘squivalent circuits forthe two-winding transformer and ‘auto-transformer are presented in sections I and 27, re- spectively. The following sections discuss the equivalent sircuits for three-winding and four-winding transformers. 54. Equivalent Circuits for Three-Winding Trans- former ‘The equivalent circuit for a transformer having three windings on the same core is shown in Fig. $3, where the magnetizing branches have been omitted. The number of tums in the P, S, and T windings are m, ta, and na, respectively. The equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 53 (b) with all impedance in ohms on the P winding voltage base and with ideal transformers included to preserve actual voltage and current relationships between the P, S, and T windings. On the P winding voltage base: Ze~ (Zot rej 2ani( fart Lea~ Zor 2rat( Lert live Zn) Power Transformers and Reactors Chapter 5 te as + | eee ie ta ny fe, ele Reeve [ptare tes —Zor] oo) te] 2eeia[tee detar-te] 2ysva[ton eee Fig. 83~Three-winding transformer. (2) winding diagram. (©) equivalent eizcut in ohms (6) equivalent scout in percent. Note that Zp and Zs as defined and used hore differ from Zp and Zs in Eq. 10. The equivalent circuit, ppressed in percent is given in Fig. 33 (c) with all imped ances referred to the kva of the P winding. vee) Lelio (tant eo zomoni( 7 an"G+EreleEn%) (81 Leoni teatit eane—tesh) ‘The quantities can be expressed in percent on any arbi- trary kva buse, Uo, by multiplying each impedance byChapter 5 U2. ‘The notation used is defined aa fellow Up=kva of the P winding. Usekva of the 8 winding, Ur=kva of the T winding. Zya=lenkage impedance between the P and $ wind- ings as measured in ohms on the P winding with the S winding short-circuited and the T winding open-cireuited. Zea% = leakage impedance between the P and $ wind- ings, with the T winding open-circuited, ex- pressed in pereent on the kva and voltage of the P winding. Zex=leakage impedance between the P and 7 wind- ings az meaaured in ohms on the P winding with the 7 winding short-circuited and the $ winding open-circuited. Zex%~leakage impedance between the P and T wind ings, with the S winding open-circuited, ex- pressed in percent on the kva and voltage of the P winding. Zar leakage impedance between the Sand 7 winds ings as measured in ohms on the S winding with the 7 winding short-circuited and the P winding open-cireuited. Zex%~leakage impedance between the $ and T wind- ings, with the P winding open-circuited, ex pressed in percent on the kva and voltage of the S winding ‘The equations given in Fig. 53 (b) and Fig, 53 (c) for Ze, Zoo, ete., are derived from the relationships: the ratio ZeIrb le TeslomZi%+2s% Zerm Zot he Beromtaot lr" (62) Zap=NAGe Ta) Tante= Sah + Ta) ako Zen Re tike Loum Res tikveRetRetiXetXs) (83) Berson Res%tiXes%o ete where Xvs is the leakage reactance between the P and $ ‘windings (with 7 open-cirouited); and Res is the total effective resistance between the P and S windings, as ‘measured in ohms on the P winding with S short-cireuited and T open-cireuited, Res% and Xs are the respective quantities expressed in pereent on the kva and voltage of the P winding. The equivalent circuits completely represent the actual transformer as far as leakage impedances, mutual effects between windings, and losses are concerned (except ex- currents and no load losses). Its possible for one of the three legs of the equivalent eireuit to be zero or negative. 55, Equivalent Circuits for Four-Winding Trans- former ‘The equivalent cireuit representing four windings on the samo core, shown in Fig. 54 (a), is given in Fig. 54 (b) using chmic quantities. This form is due to Start, and Power Transformers and Reactors 137 ® 4 eg s@ 4 festa edb te | en ge vote te 2 2 2 vind of” tee ae eats zx Zep tM ge of wv i aa j i i ry Fig, 54Four-winding transformer, (winding diagram, () equivalent eieuit, here again the magnetizing branches are omitted. The branches of the equivalent circuit are related to the leal- age impedances between pairs of windings us follows: 1 (ev tov 2an( thot gyfsr—Zer-K) (84) — joe 1 1 Ky= Toe} saliay Zev zaZen K, aii For5 ‘The windings will ordinarily be taken in the order that makes Ky and K; positive so that Z. and Z; will be posi- tive. The leakage impedances are defined as before; for example, Zrs is the leakage impedance between the P138 and § windings as messured in hms on the P winding with the S winding short-circuited and with the T and V windings open-cireuited. The equivalent cirouit in per~ cont has the same form as Fig. 54 (b), omitting the ideal transformers, Bai (zener Brom Fan FoR), Ie, Ki%=2rv%t PeaaeMy ote. (85) Similar equations, derived from Eq. (84), apply for the other quantities in the equivalent circuit. XXI_ SEQUENCE IMPEDANCE CHARACTERISTICS OF THREE-PHASE ‘TRANSFORMER BANKS. 56, Sequence Equivalent Circuits The impedance of three-phase transformer banks to positive, negative, and zero-soquence currents, and the sequence equivalent cireuits, are given in the Appendix, under Equivalent Cireuits for Power and Regulating Transformers, The equivalent circuits were developed by Hobson and Lewis, ‘The same notation as defined in the early part of this chapter is used to denote leakaie ‘impedances in ohms and in percent. ‘Tho impodanee to negative-soquenee currents is always equal to the immpedanee to positive sequence currents, snd the equivalent circuits are similar except that the phase shift, i any is involvod, will always bo of the same magni- tude’ for both positive- and negative-sequence voltages and currents but in opposite direetions. Thus, if the phase shift is tee degrees for positivessequence, the phase shit for negative-sequence quantities will be —e degrees, “The impedance of a three-phase bank of two-winding transformers to the flow of zero-sequence currents is equal to the positive-sequenee impedance for three-phase shell- form units (or for a bank made up of three single-phase units) if the bank isstar-star with botk star points geound= Fig. 55—Zero-sequence exciting currents and fluxes ina three ‘Dhase core-form transformer. Power Transformers and Reactors Chapter 5 ced. If the bank is connected star-delta, with the star point grounded, the zero-sequence impedance viewed from the starconnocted terminals for shellsform units, or banks of three single-phase units, is equal to the positive-sequence Impedance; the zero-sequence impedance viewed from the elta-connceted terminals is infinite, ‘The impedance to the flow of zero-sequence currents in three-phase core-form units is generally lower than the pesitive-sequence impedance. Figure 55 illustrates that there is no retum for the zero-sequence exciting flux in such a unit, oxoept in the insulating medium, or in the ‘tank and metallic connections other than the core. ‘The flux linkages with the zero-sequence exciting currents are therefore low, and the exciting impedance to aero-sequence currents correspondingly low. Although the exciting im- pedance to pasitivesoquence currents may he several thousand percent, the exciting impedance to zere-sequence currents in a three-phase core-form unit will lie in the range from 30 to 300 pereent, the higher values applying to the nngest power transformers. Low exciting impedance under zero-sequence conditions is reflected in some re- duction in the through impesiances to aeto-seqnence eur ront flow. A star-star grounded, three-phase, two-winding unit of the eoresform, or a starstar grounded antotrans- formor of the Uhree-phase core form sets, because of this characteristic, as if it had a tertiary winding of relatively high reactance, In small core-form units this characteristic is particularly effective and can be utilized to replace a tertiary winding for neutral stabilisation and third har oonie excitation, ‘The sero-sequence exciting impedance is affected by the magnitade of excitation voltage, and it is also affected by tank construction. For example, the zero-sequenee excit~ ing impedanee of a 4000-kva, 66 000-2400-volt unit was meastired to be 84 percent at, normal voltage before the core was placed in the tank; it was measured to be 36 percent at normal voltage after the core and coils were plucec! in the tank. In this ease the tank saturated but acted as a short-circuited secondary winding around the ‘transformer, tending to limit the area of the flux return path to that botween tank end windings. The zor0- sequence exciting, impedance is measured by connecting ‘the throo windings in parallel and applying a single-phase voltage to the paralleled windings. ‘The zero-sequence exciting impedance of three-phase ccore-form units is generally mauch lower than the positive- sequence exciting impedance, and much lower than the rero-sequence exciting impedance of three-phase shell- form units or three single-phase units. For this reason it fs necessary to consider the zero~sequence exciting. im- peilance in deriving the zero-sequence impedance char actoristies for certain connections involving eore-form units. ‘The exciting impedance to zero-sequence currents hias been denoted by Zse, Zon, ete., where the first sub- script refers to the winding on which the zero-sequence exciting impedanee is measured in ohms. Following the same notation, Zsx7% is the exciting impedance of the 8 winding to zoro-sequence currents expressed in percent on the kva of the S winding, The number of branches required to define an equivalent circuit of three-phase two- or multi- ‘winding transformers is the same in goneral as has been de-Chapter 5 seribed for single phase transformers. Anotable exception to this will exist in the formalation of the zero-sequence im peclance of core form transformers with grounded neural In this case an extra impedance branch must be provided in the equivalent circuit, this branch being alway’s short= circuited to the neutral bus, and having a value dependent upon the zero-sequuence excitation impedances of the wind ings as well as the grounding impedance in the transformer neutral. If the three-phase bank connections are unsyii~ ‘metrical a3 in the onse of the open-delta connection, mutual coupling will exist between the sequence networks 57. Derivation of Equivalent Circuits In the derivation of equivalent circuits for three-phase transformers and banks made up of three single-phase transtormers, itis convenient to represent each winding of the transformer by a Ieakage impedance and one winding of an ideal transformer. ‘This method may be used in the develonment of cirenits for two- and three-winding ‘transformers ‘Two magnetically-coupled windings of a single-phase transformer having m and ne turns, respectively, are shown fhematieally in Fig. 56(a).. The customary equivalent circuit used to represent such a single-phase transformer is shown in Fig. 56(b) in which Zx and Zy are components of the transformer leakage impedance, with a more ar less arbitrary division of the leakage impedance between Za and Za, Zx is the so-called “magnetizing shunt branch.” Sinee the numerical value of Z is very large compared to Zx and Zs, for mast caleulations Fig. 56(b} is appros- imated by Fig. 36(¢) where Z is considered infinite. Either of these circuits has serious deficiencies as a device representing the actual transformer; the voltage and cur- rent transformation effected by transformer aetion is not represented in the equivalent circuit, and the circuit terminals «and particularly when analyzing transformer circuits ssherein several windings or phases are interconnected. To over- come these deficiencies it is expedient to use the equivalent citeuit shown in Fig, 56d) which combines the eircuit of Fig. 56(b) with an ideal transformer. The ideal trans- former is defined as having infinite exciting impedance (zero exciting current) and zero leakage impedance, and serves to transform voltage and current without imped- fanee drop or power loss; the ideal transformer thus re- stores actual voltage and enrrent_ relationships at the terminals @ and a’. The eieuit of Fig. 56(¢) is obtained from Fig. 56(d) by converting the impeiiance Za to the EB.’ voltage base (by multiplying Zp by the square of the voltage ratio). ‘This proveas may be thought of a3 “sliding the iieal transformer through” the impedance Zs. If the exciting, or no load, current may be neglected (Zy con- sidered 'as infinite)’ the cireuit of Fig. 56(e) becomes Fig. 50t0). Finally, if Zy is considered infinite, the circuit of Fig 56(0) becomes Fig. 56(g), in which the two parts of the leakage impedance, 7 and Zs, cambine into the complete leakage impedance Zes, where Beam DytTa (so) Power Transformers and Reactors 139 @ Fig, 56-Stope in the derivation of the equivalent circuit of « two-winding transformer,40 Im most developments the eirouit of Fig. 56(g) will be found most convenient, although in some cases it becomes desirable to have part of the leakage impedance associated with each winding, and the circuit of Fig. 86(f) may be used. "To be perfcetly definite, Zr» is understood to mean the Jeakage impedance, as measured in obras, with the $ wind ing short cireuited, and voltage applied to the P winding. ‘When the test is reversed, with voltage applied to the winding, and the P winding short circuited, the impedance is denoted by Zse. It is obvious from the development given that, when Z may be considered infinite, Zaw=" Zoe 6 58. Derivation of Equivatent Circuit for Star-Delta Bank In Fig. 57 each transformer winding is represented by an impedance and one winding of an ideal transformer, the transformer having m, tums in the P winding and ne turns in the 8 winding. ‘The windings shown in parallol aro assumed to be on the same magnetic core. ‘The voltages es ™ ee : eee |__4s fed Biro (a) SoHEMATIC oagnaM + (@)POSITIVE-SEQUENCE EOUVALENT GRCUIT By snc COTE [E)NEGATIVE-SEQUENCE EQUIVALENT GIRCUIT (OZERO~SEQUENCE EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT Fig, 57—Equivalent circuits of a star-delta transformer bank, Power Transformers and Reactors Chapter 5 ¢, and ¢, represent the voltages across the P and $ wind ings of the ideal transformers ‘Assuming positivesequence voltages Eu, Big, and Bog applied to the terminals abe, and a three-phase shor circuit at the a8‘ terminals, the following relations ean be written Big= Blg= Big ale nile een Ta ha Ehy (88) ha ee 6s) eon Menten (8) 15 Bu atte 2r4(*) 20] Designating the ciroits connected to the abe and a'8’¢” terminals as circuits 4 and 5, respectively, Eu mz 29x Tet to+ (M2) Ze= Zoo 23s defined as the impedance between circuits 4 and 5 in ohms on the circuit 4 voltage base. Zos is the imped ance between the P and S windings as measured by apply ing voltage to the P winding with the S winding short eireuited With positive-sequence voltages applied to the abe terminals and the a’ terminals open circuited, (69) Buen OBue hen Eig Bun dBae Egnabig Me, = Blg— Bly (90) ™ Bugg (Bag Ec) EBL a) = VIE SBA —0) = JS Bee Letting =—2t., B= NEvet™. Vim As positive-sequence quantities were used in this analy- sis, the final equation ean be expressed as follows: Ei=NEe™, wo where By and E; are the positive-sequence voltages to ground at the transformer terminals. ‘The above relations chow that the line-to- ages on the delts side lead the correspond voltages by 30 degrees, which must be considered in a complete positive-sequence equivalent cireuit for the trans- former. A consideration of Eqs. (88) will show that che currentsl,!, fy and Z¢ also lead the currents I, fy and I, by 30 degrees, net Bot, 2)Chapter 5 ‘The complete positive-sequence circuit in Fig. 57(b) therefore includes the impedance Zys and an ideal trans former having a turns ratio N and a 30-degree phase shift. 'A similar analysis, made with negativesequence volt ages and currents, would show that (93) co) ‘The positive and negative-sequence cireuits are there- fore identical excepting for the direction of the phase shifts introduced by the star-delta transformation. ‘The rero-sequence circuit is derived by applying a ect of sero-sequence voltages to the abe terminals, In this ease Bago Bou= Bea Bs Lela lnle Bun tot Sele e.~[eZ5=0 because no soro-sequence voltage can be present between line terminals, (95) 1 (22) ae ee] <1 Ey Bow hl was obtained with positive-sequence voltages and currents, (08) If zero-sequence voltages are applied to the a't’e’ ter minals, no current can flow because no return circuit is resent. The zero-sequenee impedance of the transformer bank is therefore infinite as viewed from the delta side. Le = Zra, which is the same impedance 28 59, Derivation of Equivalent Circuit for Autotrans- former with Delta Tertiary ‘The basic impedances of an autotransformer with a delta, tertiary may be defined in terms of the leakage impedances between pairs of windings, with the third winding open cirouited. The impedance between the primary and secondary, or common and series, windings of the trans- former in Fig, 58(a) may be obtained by applying a voltage across the P winding with the $ winding short circuited, nt Fi @7) Bea B/T~ 2842, Similar relations can be derived for the impedances Power Transformers and Reactors eed (@) POSITIVE-SEOUENGE EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT tte mw f le et Zu eee (e) NeaTivE SEQUENCE EQUIVALENT ciRCUIT 2g ea = — les je (0) 2ERO-SEQUENCE EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT Fig. S8—quivatent circuits of a three: former, nding autotrane12 Power Transformers and Reactors Chapter 5 (101) Representing the circuit transformation ratio (L-+m) by. Ny as! Oe V xtra (102) ‘The impedance between cireuits 4 and 8 may be ob- ° tained by applying positive-sequence voltages to ter- Fig. 59—Representation of the primary- to secondary-wind- minals abe, with terminals a't’¢’ open and a’”b"c" shorted ing npedane of af aatotrantorne Shouied, inthis cue! enlLe Ee= Tifa between the Pad 7 and $ and T windings, resting a nae the set of equations ones (203) Bug eyt lor ~1[2+2] (98) met With. positive-sequence voltages applied to terminals ‘These equations can be solved for the individual winding @¥’c’, terminals abe open and terminals a6" short impedances Zp, Zs and Zr. circuited, Lh Ben i| oot Ser 28] won ot ae wwe a dm -(E2)h Lon 104) Zan HertntZes~niZer] (00) cota ae) 0 taasl (2) ort etzre—rtzee] Been tg es Ide Zs) o (ley, ‘The impedances among circuits 4, 5 and 6 can be de- ~-af( Yerttera| sived in terms of the impedances between windings, using the same procedure as employed in the derivation of the -( y Lather hs. impedances of the stardelta baak in section 58. With positivessequeneo voltages applied to terminals Expressing Zn, Ze and Zx in terms of impedances be- ‘abc, terminals a'b’c’ short circuited and terminols abc” gween windings as given in Eq. (99): ‘open circuited, the following relations ean be written: B= Bry=Biy=0 = ne y= (14 mort Vranas (105) Wahtnlind aed ‘The above equation is the impedance between circuits +m 5 and 6 in ohms on the circuit 5 voltage base. As Zs and. cote Un “1 Ze~[Z9=0. Za, are ohmic impedances on the circuit 4 base, it is eon- ‘Yenient to express the eireuit 5 to cireuit 6 impedanee om Eliminating e, and J’, from the above equation: the same base. Dividing by (1+%)", fun _ Fon, Zr my, “ Gay i ma ee Inde 4s Zar _N’ 1 1 Tem (100) (nye P48 ay) 2 XZee (106) piles)Chapter 5 ‘The transformer can be represented by the positive: sequence equivalent circuit in Fig. 58(b). The relations between the impedances in the equivalent circuit and the impedances between circuits ean be expressed as follows: Bart ZnsmZon Zaid Zinm Zan aon) fartou= 2, fartbuniets (208) (119) Zer= Zee au Zar (N'— oe Tn the above equations Zin, Zsny Zus, Zs and Zu are in fobms on the circuit 4 (abe terminals) voltage base. Zu is in ohms on the cireuit 5 (a'H'’ terminals) voltage base Zea and Zor are in ohms on the P winding voltage base and Zgr is in ohms oa the 8 winding voltage base. V" is defined as 1-¢ ns, which is the ratio of line-to-ine or line- to-neutral voltages between cizeuit 5 (a'b’¢) terminals) and circuit 4 {abe terminal. The phase shifts between circuit voltages can be de- termined by applying positive-sequence voltages to ter- minals abe with the other two cireuits open eireuited Under these conditions, Eygm ep bee Byg=(1-+m) Exe N’Eyy Which shows that the one ‘deal transformer has an .V’ ratio but no phase Exe ait rm Bag’ ~ Ey! = (1a?) eo ti an Bad Bae ge 5 “an Th am Defisiog Mas EQaN' Eye, Power Transformers and Reactors 3 ‘The second ideal transformer therefore has an N” turns ratio and 2 30 dogeve phase shift Negative-Sequence Circuit—A similar analysis made with negativesequence voltages would show that, the impedances in the equivalent circuit are the same as in the positive-sequence circuit, and that the terminal volt ages are related as follows: vB f= NV Beet, cuss) ‘The positive- and negative-sequence circuits are there- fore identical excepting for the direction of the phase shift introduced by the stardelta transformation Zero-sequence circuit ~The noro-sequcnce character istics of the transformer ean be obtained as follows 1. Apply zero-sequence voltages to terminals abe with terminels bc’ connceted to ground and the delta opened ‘This permits evaluation of the zero-sequence impedance between circuit Land cout 5 2. Apply zero-sequence voltages to terminals abe with the delta closed and terminals a’/e’ open circuited. 3._ Apply zevo-sequence voltages to terminals ab’ with the delta closed und terminals abe open cireuited “The general procedure in writing the necessary equar followad ia the positive-sequenco analysis given sbove, and the zero-sequence analysis in section 57. It will be found that the zero-sequence im- pedances in the equivalent circuit shown in Fig. 58(d) are ‘he same as the pasitive-sequence quantities, that i, tions is similar to aus) If the neutral of the autotransformer is ungrounded, the zero-sequence equivalent circuit is altered considerably a3 shown in Fig, 60, In this ease rero-sequence current flows 25 oni rt ed {es Fig. 60—Zero-sequence equivalent circuit of an ungrounded three-winding autotransformer. between terminals abe and a’ without transformation. Current in the S winding is balaneed by circulating eur- rents in the tertiary, with no current flow in the P winding, The zero-sequence impedance is therefore determined by the leakage impedance between the S and 7 windings Applying zero sequence voltages to the abc terminals, with the a’)’c’ terminals connected to ground and the tertiary closed,wifasa (Oo) oft] a Percent Quantities ‘The manufacturer normally ex presses transformer impedances in percent on a kva base corresponding to the rated kva of the circuits involved. ‘Phese percent values can be converted to obs by the fauuiliag relation Loz 7k? iva "where a6) impedanee in ohms, 22 =impedance in percent, kva=3-phase kva rating of eireuit, ine-to-line cireuit voltage in kv. Using the nomenclature employed in the derivations, 102.0% BA Us fine-to-ine voltage, in kv, of cirouit 4 Ze E U,=throo-phase kva rating of eirouit 4. Zalfo mimopedance between cirouite 4 and 5 in per cent on keva rating of cireuit 4 Zu=impedance between ¢ the cireuit 4 voltage hase where is 4 and 5 in chms on Similar relations can be wi involved It should be noted that the impedamees, as used in this chapter and in the Appendix, are expressed in terms of the voltage or kva rating of the eireuit or winding denoted by the first subseript. For example Z« is in ohms on the cir- cuit 4 voltage base, whereas Z:, would be in ohms on the citeuit 5 voltage base. ‘These impedances ean be converted from ono cireuit base to another as follows: ten for the other impedances a7) ‘The equivalent circuits can he based directly an pereent quantities as shown in Table 7 of the Appendix. Con- Power Transformers and Reactors Chapter 5 sidering the autotransformer with delta tertiary (case D-1 jn Table 7), the equivalent circuit impedances ean be obtained from the impedances between circuits as follows: 1[ fet 4ai— 20%] ac) Hao tuk] Za Exe futon [Zale ty The reculting impedances will all be in percent on the cirenit 4 kwa base. REFERENCES, 4, Blecisie Cicuits—Theory and Applications, by 0. G. C. Dab (chook) Vol 1, 9.34, MeGraw-Hill Book Company, Tae, New York. scunting Transformers in PowerSystem Analysis, by J. B. vom aul W. A. Lis, A.LILE, Transactions, Vol 58, 1989, ptt 3. Fundamental Concepts of Synchronous Machine Reaetances, bby BR Prontin, A.l-B, B, Transactions, Vol. 56, 1937, pp. I~ 22 of Supplement. 4. Simplified Computation of Voltage Regulation with Fous Wind ing Transformers, by. D. Evans, Blosrioal Engineering, Ontoter 1888, p. 120 5. Surge Proof Transformers, by H. V. Putman, A.D. Trane dations, September 1932, pp, 579-884 and disussion, pp, 584 con 6, American Standards for ‘Transformers, Regulators, and Re: factors. Amoriean Standards Assocation, ASA C57, 1018. 1. Laing Transformers by Copper Teriperature, by F, ¥. Put man and W. M, Dann ALK, Transactions, Vol. $8, 1039, ‘01-508. lent Crouit Impedance of Regulating Transformers, by JE, Clem, A.CE.B. Tranaasions, Val. 88, 19%), pp. 871-87 9. Theory of Abnormal Line to Neutral Transformer Voltages, by CW. LaPierre, 4.1.B.B, Transetions, Vol. 0, March 1931, pp #842 10, Standards for ‘Transformers NEMA. Publios September 1948 11, a Rauivalent Cireuit for dhe Pour-Winding Trauforme, by M. Stare, Geniral Hlecirie Reviae, March 1083, Vol. 38, pp. 140-132 12, Transformer Engineering, by LP, Blume, ets, (a book), John Wiley and Sone 1958), 18, Equivalent Citeuit for Power and Regulating Transformers, by JOE. Hobson and W. A Lewis, Hlecie Journal Preprint, anuay 1090, 14, J. end P. Transformer Bool, by Stigant, 6th Elition, 1935, ‘Tohuson and Philips, Loooa, 2 No, 48-199,CHAPTER 6 MACHINE CHARACTERISTICS Original Author: C.F. Wagner FORE the growth of the publie ntilities into their present enormous proportions with large generating stations and connecting tie lines. machine perform ance was largely judged in terms of the steady-state char- acteristics. The emergence of the stability problem gave ise to the analysis of the transient characteristics of machines and was largely responsible for our present knowlege of machine theory. A further contributing urge was the need for more accurate determination of short- circuit currents for the application of relays and circuit breakers ‘The variable charnetor of the air gap of the conventional sulient-pole synchronous generator, inotor, and condenser with its concentrated field windings requires that their ‘analysis follow a different line from that for machines such as inductioa ‘invturs, whieh have « uniform air gap and distributed windings. Blondel originally attacked this problem by resolving the armature mmt"s and fuses into two components, one in line with the axis of the pales and. the other in quadrature thereto, When the study of the transients associated with system stability was undertaken Fig. Cutaway view of umbrella-type waterwheel ‘enerator. Revised by: C.F, Wagner Fig. 2-Cut-away view of conventional waterwheel generator, this conception was quickly recognized as an invaluable toll, Since that time the method has been extended by subsequent investiyators2> notably Doherty and Nickle, ‘tho introduced into the industry several new constants, such as transient reactance and subtransient reactance 10 describe machine performance under transient conditions This chapter treats of the characteristics of synchronous and induction machines in the light of the development of the past twenty-five years, It will consider steady-state and transient conditions for both salient pole and eylin~ drieal rotor machines under both balanced and unbalanced conditions. There follows a discussion of the character- Isties of induction motors under such transient conditions as might contribute to the shor.-cireuit eurrent of a sysvem, and might influence the choice of a circuit breaker. I. STEADY-STATE CHARACTERISTICS OF SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES: ‘The two general types of synchronous machines are the cylindrical rotor machine or turbine generator which has sn essentially uniform air gap and the salient-pole gener ator. Figs. | to 5 illustrate the outward appearances and. cross-sectional views of typieal modern machines. ‘Typical saturation curves for 4 hydrogen-cooled turbine generator, a waterwheel-generator and a synchronous con denser are shown in Figs. 6, 7, and 8 respectively. Because of the necessity of matching the speed of water- wheel-generators io the requirements of the waterwheels it is difficult co standardize units of this type. However, 145146 Fig. 3_Steam turbine generator Installed at the Acme Sta- tion of the Toledo Edison Company, 90 000 kw, 88-percent Power factor, 8S-percent SCH, 13 800 volt, S-phase, 60-cycle. groat strides have been made with lange 8600-rpen con densing steam turbine-generators, ‘These find their great- est application in the electric utility industry. ‘Table 1 of Chap. 1 gives some of the speeifications™ for these machinos. 1¢ concept of per-unit quantity is valuable in eompar- ing the characteristics of machinos of different eapacities and voltages. Hovrover, care must be exercised in the ease of generators to uso the same reference value for field cut Fig. 4—Cut-away view of hydro- ‘en-coaled turbine ge Machine Characteristies Chapter 6 0 cyclo-11 800 volta; 60 cycles rent. Depending upon the application, either the field current for rated voltage in tho air gap or the actual field current for rated voltage, including saturation, is used. Unsaturated Cylindrical-Rotor Machine Under Steady-State Conditions ‘The vector diagram of Fig. 9 is the well-known diagrem, of a eylindrieal-rotor machine. Consistent with the policy ol this book, familiarity with this diagram is assumed. Let it suffice merely to indicate the signifieanee of the quan- tities. Tho vectors ¢, and ¢ represont the terminal voltage to neutral and armature current, respectively. Upon add- ing Une armature resistance drop, 7, and armature leakage reactance drop, #8 ta éa the vector e) is obtained, whieh represents the ‘voltage developed by the airgap Aux 4, which leads ¢; by 90 degrees. This flux represents the net flux in tho air gap. ‘To produce this flux a field current, Ty is required. ‘The current J, can be taken from the no-loadChapter 6 Machine Characteristics wT \ —— ; I ut L_4 ; La , VL ot tas \ PP tke. i | 3 | 3a x + 4 2 3 2) 9 a) |g BO Bg | Bg tl fo f co yoo af | 9 y |_t g/t [og | | | i a a x FIELO AMPERES-PER UNIT Fig. 6 Saturation curves for typical hydrogen-cooled turbine ‘generator, “4 ere Tr ea Se Ls g ¢ & - T é | FIELD AMPERES-PER UNIT Fig. 7—Saturation curves for typical waterwheel generator. saturation curve of Fig, 10 as being the current required to produce «. But, the armature current produces an mmf by its so-alled armature reaction, which is sn time phase with it and in terms of the fcld ean be expressed as At. To produce the net mmf represented by the current, £4, the field current must be of such magnitude and the field structure must adjust itself to such position as to equal [1 In other words, J; has now such position and magnitude that Z+ and Av added in veetorial sense equals J. The triangle O12, formed by drawing 4B perpendicular to ior Ai and OB pexpendicular to OC, is similar to the triangle ODC; OB has the sume proportionality to OC and AB to At ase; has to [,, Neglecting saturation, OB, designated a5 cj, is thus the open-circuit voltage corresponding to the PER UNIT FIELO AMPERES Fig. Saturation curves for typical hydrogen-cooled con denser fiold curront 1, it is the voltage taken from the ait-gap line ‘of the norload saturation curve for the abscissa corre sponding to f,. The side 8 of the triangle, sinee it is pro- portional to .1/ and consequently proportional tothe arma- {ure current, can be viewed as a fictitious reactance drop. eis called the drop of armature reactance and is des nated rai. The reactance drops 11/ and xi can he eon bined into 2 single term called the synchronous reactance drop and there results ennhte a I follows from the foregoing that the internal voltage. « is equal to the vector sum of é. ri and j sai. The fil current, /;, can be determined for any condition of loading (neglecting saturation, of course) by merely ealeulating and taking [from the air-gap line of Fig. 10. ‘At no load the axis ofthe field winding, the line OC, leads the terminal voltage by 90 degrees. At zero power-factor, the veetor diagrarm recices to that shown in Fig. 11, which shows that, except for the effect of the resistance drop, the foregoing statement would still be true. Asriis only about ‘one-o¢ two percent in practical machines, the statement Fig. 9 Vector dlagram of cylindrical-rotor machine,us wo Loan fhe saruration curve | 20 a REACTANCE IN PERCENT Fig. 27—Machino internal voltage as a function of reactance. Foll-load rated voltage. ner that¢g was determined in Fig. 14, except that 2a should bbo replaced by 74’. ‘The voltage ey’ should then replace ectaa! ta in (19). However, for nearly all practical pur- poses it is sufficiently accurate to replace ey’ by the army tude of a quantity #/, which is usually referred to as the voltage behind transient reactance to distinguish it from similar internal voltages for whieh leakage, aynchronous or subtransient reactance is used. ‘The construction for ‘this quantity is shown in Fig, 26 and to assist in the ready evaluation of the amplitude tho curves in Fig. 27 are provided. The transient component of shor-ireuit eurent is then, (20) ‘The subtransient component of short-cireuit ourrent is obtained in a manner similar-to the transient component except that the subtransient reactance is used in the ealeu- lation of the internal voltage ¢,”. For louds of zero-pover- factor lagging the subtransient reactance drop, 24a,158 ‘caused by the armature current is direetly additive to the terminal voltage and for zero-power-factot leading direetly subtractive, For other power-iactors «,” ean be obtained from Fig, 27 by using x4”. ‘The subtransient component of, short-cirouit current is then Unidirectional Component—In the three-phase short-cireuit from no load, the unidirectional component of current was introduced to prevent. a non-eontinuous transition of the instantaneous value of current from the no-load to the short-cireuit condition. The unidirectional current performs a similar role for the short-cirenit from loaded condition. Before the chort-cireuit, the armature current is equal to ‘ay and has some position with reference to ¢ such as shown in Fig. 28. The subtra Fig. 28~—Showing that i, for a short cireuit from load is equal to the negative of v2 times the difference between 1” and 1. ponent, 7”, lags e,” by ninety degrees so 7” and fay, will be determined with respect to cach other. ‘The v/2 times the vector difference betiveen these two quantities (since they fare rms magnitudes) gives the unidirectional component necessary to produce smooth transition. "The magnitude of this quantity varies between this amplitude and zero depending upon the point in the eyele at which short- circuit occurs, Other Considerations—Time constants are not influ enced by the nature of loading preceding the short-cirevit. ‘Yotal rms currents can be determined by the relations already given. 12, Three-Phase Short Circuit of Salient-Pole Ma- chine without Damper Windings For most applications it is sufficiently accurate to treat the sulient-pole machine without damper windings just as other machines. Tt must be recognized, however, that this is only an approximate solution. Among other complic tions, in reality a strong seeond harmonic is present in the armature current. Doherty and Niekle® have developed expressions for the armature currents for » three-phase short circuit from no load. ‘These are given below. Machine Characteristics Chapter 6 fan BEE eT oon Bafta) + cos (Ona) Tana = A Stl Roster) Se 28-21 678 cos (2aft-+a- 120) a cos (Onft-t+-a~120°) Tos (inft+-a—120°) @) + eos Orftbart 120) ee Fe cos (efit a H120) cy Where 2) (28) c=Angle which indicates point on wave at which short-circuit occurs, ‘The instantaneous field current, To, is {1 [We eos ast te cen) initial value of field current, III. UNBALANCED CONDITIONS 13. Phase Currents for Unbalanced Short Circuits As explained in the chapter relating to Symmetrical Components, the unbilanced operating conditions of a rotating machine can for most purposes be deseribed in terms of three characteristic coustanis: the positive-se- quence impodanee, the nogative-sequeneo impedance, and the sero-sequence impedance. ‘The short-circuit currents can be resolved, as before, into the steady-state, transient, and subtransient components. The difference between these components decreases exponentially as before. The components of armature eurrent and the time constants for the different kinds of short-cireuitsnre given below for horicircuits at the terminals of the mae For throo-phase short-circuit: For terminal-to-terminal short circuit, the a-e components of the phase currents are given byChapter 6 aa v3e Bate in which 21 is the negativesequence impedance of the machine For terminal-to-neutral short circuit, the a-c components of the phase currents are given by Beatie Ye (29) ue satarbiy in which 2s is the aero-sequenee impedance of the machine, ‘The subtransient time constant, 7”, does not change sig- nificantly with different conditions’ and, therefore, the single value is used for all conditions. The unidirectional components and the rms values are determined just as anti described under the general subject of “Short Circuit from Load.” The above values of ¢, ;’ and e;” will naturally be those values corresponding to the particular load condition. ‘The ratio of the phase currents for terminal-to-neutral to three-phase short cireuite ean be obtainod from Eq’s (30) Machine Characteristics 159 up by the armature current. If the axis of the short- cireuited field winding lines up with the axis of pulaating field then the current is Iange and if the rotor is moved through 90 electrical degrees then the current is much smaller. The first position corresponds to the case of 2 transformer in which the secondary winding is short~ circuited, the field winding in this ease corresponding to the secondary winding of the transformer. This is the position in which the subtransient reactance, 2," is deter- mined, Ttis equal to one-half of the voltage from terminal- to-terminal divided by theeurrent. For the second position the field winding is in quadrature to the pulsating feld and consequently no current flows in the field winding. ‘The armature current. is then determined by the magnetiz- ing characteristics of the air gap in the quadrature axis. ‘The subtransient reactance, x", is determined when the field isin this position and is equal to one-half the quotient of the vollage divided by the current. ‘The reactance for intermediate positions varies between these two amounts in aecordance with the curve shown in Fig. 29. aus oRAF ORE ARE 19 and (28). ‘Thus, for the phase currents eal _ No oAMPERS ‘Terminal-to-neutral short eireuit___3xa"” att fit "Three-phase short circuit 2-2 NEATIVE: SEQUENCE ‘The negative-sequence impedance, x, is usually equal to xq", but for many machines zy is Jess than xq". For those eases, the terminal-to-neutral short-cireuit current ia greater than the three-phase short-circuit current. The generator standards require that the machine be braced only for eurrents eqjual to the three-phase values, Tn order that the terminal-to-neutral eurrent not excoed the threo- phase current a reactor should be placed in the neutral of the machine of such value as to bring the zero-sequence impedance of the cireuit equal to za". ‘Thus, the neutral reactor, 25, should be Meet tem ge ta) 14, Negative-Sequence Reactance The negative-sequence impedance of a machine is the impedanes offered by that machine to the flow of negative- sequence current. A set of negativesequence currents in the armature ereates in the air gap a magnetic field that. rotates at synchronous speed in a direction opposite to that of the normal motion of the field structure. Currents of double frequency are thereby established in the field, and in the damper winding if the machine has one. ‘The imaginary component of the impedance is calied the nega- tivesequenee reactance and the real component the nega tivesequence resistance. These will be discussed sepa- rately, in the order mentioned. Ife single-phase voltago is applied aorose tivo terminals fs ealient-pole machine without dampers while its rotor is stationary, tho resulting current is dependent upon the position of the rotor with respect to the pulssting field eet TBLOGKEO-ROTOR METHOD || a {COPPER CAMPERS | | ° 3085 as 790 ANGULAR POSITION OF ROTOR W DEGREES Fig. 29 Relation between aubtranslent and nogative-te- "quence reactance. ‘When a set of negative-sequence currents is made to flow through the armature with the field short-circuited and rotating in ite normal direction, then the field winding takes dilferent positions successively as the armature field rotates with respect to it. The nature of the impedances in the two extreme positions, that is, where the field wind- ing lines up with the magnetic field and where it is in quadrature with it, should be somewhat the camo es 74” and x," the only signitieant differonco being the fact that, in the determination of 24” and 2", currents of normal frequeney were induced in the field, whereas, in the nega- tivessequence case the currents are of twice normal fre- queney. One would expect therefore that: the negative- sequence reactance 2 ie sore sort of a mean between za" and z,”, and such is the case. According to the AIEE test code,” the definition of negative-sequence reactance is ‘equal to “the ratio of the fundamental component of re-160 active armature voltage, due to the fundamental negative- sequence component of armature current, to this compo- nent of armature current at rated frequency.” A rigorous inverpretation of this definition results ia z equal to the arithmeticmean 5“. However, several different dei- nitions ean be given for 7. That this is ps ile is depend- ent largely upon the fact hat when a sinusoidal set of negative-sequence voltages is applied to the armature the Currents will not be sinusoidal, Conversely i the currents fare sinusoidal the vllages will not be. Tn Table 1 ate thown expressions for zy basod upon diferent definitions. This table is based on a machine without damper windings for which 2," is equal to 2, and 24" i equal to 22. Tn this table EV VietVid For each test condition it is possit establish definitions based on whether fundamental or root-mean-suare el- ronta are specified. For example, in the fist definition if the fundamental component of armature current is nso in calculating 2: then the expression in the first column should be vised, but if the root-mean-square figure of the resultant current is used then the expression in the second. coluron should be used. Tn order to orient one's self as to the relative importance of the different expressions, figares have been inserted in the expressions given in Table 1 for a typical machine having the constants xi'=35%, 070%, and z= 100%. The magnitudes are tabulated in the righthand columns of Table 1. From the standpoint of practiesl application, the negative-seyuence reactance that would result in the proper roct-meaivequare earrent for method (3). would appear to be the most important. However, the method of test to determine this quantity involves a sudden short- circuit and from this standpoint proves rather inconveni- ent. On tho other hand, the figure fer z obtained from the use of the root-mean-square values in a sustained singleephase shortrirot current [method (4), is nearly equal fo this quantity. When the resistance is negligible ‘this negative-sequence reactance is equal to vib. 1 14 en Machine Characteristics Chapter 6 ‘where T equiuls the root-mean-square armature current in the short-circuited phase; and # equals the root-mean- ‘square open-citeuit voltage between terminals before the short-circuit is applied or the no-load voltage correspond- ing to the field current at which Z is read. Tn general, the same arguments ean be applied to other types of machines such as turbine generators and salient- pole machines with damper windings when the parameters x4" and %,"" are used. For such machines the difference between 2” and x4” is not great. The values for x4" and 274" of a machine with copper dampers nre given in Fig. 29. For such machines the difference between 2, based on the different definitions of Table 1 will become inconsequential. In addition, for turbine generators, saturation introduces ‘variables of much greater magnitude than those just con- sidered, For these machines negativersequence feactance ‘ean he taken equal to 24" Method of Test—In addition to the method implied by the ATEE Cede and the ASA whereby 2 is defined as the arithmetic mean for x4" and 2,’, x2 ean be determined directly from test either by applying nogative-sequence voltage or by the method shown in Fig. 30. he0 fel Led Eynd ByeE Bom -k Fig. 30Determination of the negattve-requence Impedance ‘of symmetrically-wound machines. ‘Tapue 1—Derinttions oF NeGative-SeQUENCE REACTANCE Numerical Valuce 0% Analytical Expressions we % Definition ee ——- Funds Panda. Pogt-Meae- mental Root-Mean Square menti_ | Square (1) Applicstion “of sinusoidal negativeso| 2a 7 “ ‘alenee voltage \} nie ) Application of sinusoidal negativese: epee aTR © cedace cures Tnwoldal eta 1 VGTR IRR 8 m (G) Initial symmetrical component of sudden Ja OB ingls-phas shore-sircut current | D+ VER VISE ie 8 (2) Sustained single-plave short-oireuit current sa (Vint) + VR VIB 20 a (6) Same as (4) with 50% external reactance 5 0 @) ATER and ASA.Chapter 6 With the machine driven at rated speed, and with a single- phase short-circuit applied between two of its terminals (ncutral excluded) the sustained armature current and the voltage between the terminal of the free phase and either of the short-circuited phases are measured. ‘The reading Of a single-phase wattmeter with ite current coil in the short-circuited phases and with the above mentioned volt- ge across its potential col is also recorded. ‘The negative- sequence impedance equals the rutio of the voltage to the current so measured, divided by 1.73. The negative- sequence reactance equals this impedance multiplied by the ratio of power to tho product of voltage and current, 15, Negative-Sequence Resistance The power associated with the negative-sequence cur rent can be expressed as a resistance times the square of the current. This resistance is designated the negative: sequence resistance. For a machine without dazoper wind- ings the only source of loss is in the armature and field resistances, eddy currents, and iron loss. ‘The eopper lost Jn the armature and field is small as is also the iron and eddy loss in the armature, but the iron and eddy loss in the rotor may be considerable. Copper damper windings provide a lower impedance path for the eddy currents and hinder the penetration of flux into the pole structure. "The relatively low resistance of this path results in a smaller negativesoquence resistance than if the Sux were per- nnitted to penetrate into the rotor. For higher resistance damper windings thenegative-sequence resistance increases to a point beyond which the larger resistance diminishes the current in the rotor cizeuits sufficiently to decrease the loss Induction-Motor Diagram—The nature of the nog- ativessequence resistance is best visualized by analyzing oveurting in induction motors. In Fig. 31 Fig. 31 -Rquivatent clecuit of induction motor. is given the usual equivalent circuit of an induction motor in which, ry=stator resistance. ,~stator-leakage reactance at rated frequency. rrsrotor resistance, 7, =totorsleakage reactance at rated frequency. shunt impedance to include the effect. of magnetin- ing current and no-load loeses.. E,~applied voltage. T.=stator current. Trerotor eurrent. Smslip. ‘The justification for this diagram is shown briefly as follows: The airgap flux created by the currents J, aud I, Machine Characteristics 161 induces the voltage He in the stator and eB, in the rotor. In the rotor the impedance drop is rl ebjerd @2) since the reactance varies with the frequency of the eur rents in the yotor. ‘The rotor current is therefore deter mined by the equation abated et istel or Eg 3) Sind It follows from this equation that the rotor circuit can be ‘completely represented by placing a cireuit of impedance ty nero the voltage By. ‘The otal power absorbed by "must be the sum of the rotor losses and the useful shaft nd power, 00 that, resolving “F into the resistances 7, ‘CALCULATED NOMINAL RESPONSE-UNITS. Fig. 9--Correction factor to be applied to calculated response tolinclude effect of eddy currents, according to W. A. Lewis. in Fig. 9 by W. A. Lewis!. ‘This curve supplies a correction +o be applied to calculated responses, Separately-encited exviters are usually, but: not neces: sarily, faster in response than eelf-excited exciters. They do, however, have other advantages, such as being more stable at low voltages, voltages at which sellexcited ex- citers may have a tendency to creep. Improvement in speed of response ean be obtained by two general methods; (1) decreasing the time constant ofthe field eireuit, and (2) increasing the pilot-exciter voltagein the case of separately excited exciters or the ceiling voltage in the ease of self- excited exciters. The former is usually accomplished by paralleling the field circuits placing at the same time re- istors in series to limit the current. ‘Thus, if the parallels are doubled, the number of poles and likewise ¥ per circuit are halved. It is necessary to add more resistance to the external circuit so that the resistance per circuit remains the same. In Eq. (7) the only change is that ¥ is one- half and, therefore, the terminal voltage rises twiee as fast, 4. Calculation of Response Under Loaded Con- ditions ‘Most of the enses for which the exciter response is desired are concerned with sudden changes, such ws short eireuits, in the armature cireuit of the synchronous machine, Asso. ciated with these changes one usually finds that the field current of the alternator has increased a considerable amount, perhaps in exeess of the armature current rating of the exciter. Because of the high induetance of the field cireuit of the synchronous machine, the armature current of the exeiter can usually be regarded a remaining sub- stantially constant at this increased value during the period 3 which the response is desired. ‘When current flows in the armature, the phenomenon of ‘armature reaction must be taken into consideration except for those machines that have a compensating winding. The function of the compensating winding, which is wound into the pole face of the field winding, is to annul the effect. of the cross-magnetizing romf of armature reaction. However, for machines without compensating windings, the mraf of armature reaction produces an mmf that varies linearly from the center of the pole piece, one side being positive and the other side negative. This effect is shown in Fig 10 (a) in which MNV represents the maximum magnetizing mmf at one pole edge and PQ represents the mexinum demagnetizing mmf at. the other pole edge. Fig. 10 (b) represents a seetion of the no-load saturation curve in which O represents the gencrated voltage on the vertical co-ordinate and the feld mf on thehorigontal co-ordinate. Tf A and C are so laid off thst 04 and OC equal MN and PQ, respectively, from Fig. 10 (a), then because of the linearity of QN of Fig. 10 (a), the abscissa of Fig. 10 () etween CA repeesents dhe mut distribution along the pole face. Further, sinco the generated voltages are propor-Chapter 7 cenTeR LIne ‘OF POLE PIECE ne oF ARMATURE REACTION SECTION TAKEN SATURATION CURVE ‘USEFUL FLUE fo cenenateo voLTace 7 4 yy 4 zw Mule OUE To ARMATURE. REACTION aT EDGE OF Pove. [un FROM (0)) Fig. 10—Eftect of armature reaction in reducing total flux across gap. (a) Shows distribution of armature mrnf: (b} Sec- ‘Hon of no-load saturation curve. tional to the airgap fluxes, the section of no-load satura tion curve shows the effect of the superposed armature ‘mmf upon the density of air-gap lux across the pole. The higher mmf does not increase the flux on the right-hand side as much as the lower mmf decreases the flux on the left-hand side. Asa result, the total flux and consequently thegenerated voltageare decreased from the valueindicated CA to that indicated by FO, which is obtained by integrating the area under the eurve DOB and drawing PO so that the two triangular areas are equal, ‘The extent to which the average flux or voltage is deeressed ean be in- dicated by 2 “distortion curve,” euch as shown by the dotted curve of Fig, 11, This effect is most pronounced in the region of the knee of the saturation curve as at both higher and lovver field onrrents, there is a tendeney to add ‘on the one side of the pole just as much flux ass subtracted on the other. The terminal voltage is reduced still further by the armature resistance and brush drops, resulting in a load saturation curve for constant current, auch as shown in Fig. 11 ‘From this same curve it ean be seen that for a given fold sosistance line, the forcing voltage (ere) for aseli-excited Excitation Systems SATURATION CURVE. DisTORTION CURVE FOR CONSTANT [ARMATURE CURRENT VOLTAGE. “TERMINAL VOLTAGE FOR ‘CONSTANT ARMATURE CURRENT FIELD RESISTANCE UNE ir Fig. 11 Load saturation curves for exciter assuming constant moachine is very much emaller under load than under no Tend. In ealeulating the fux linkages in accordance with Eq. (5), the distortion curve should be used for eg. Except for these two changes, the load response can be calculated in the same manner as the no load response. For separately-excited exeiters, the forcing vollage re maine unaltered by the loading on the machine as it is independent of the terminal voltage. Tho armature resist- ance can be regartied as part of that of the main fied wind- ing. There remains only the distortion effect to consider which amounts to only several percent. For machines with compensating windings, this effect is negligible. 5. Effect of Differential Fields on Response Differential windings are provided to reduce the exciter voltage to residual magnitude or below. ‘They eonsist of a ‘mall number of tums wound on each pole, 20 connected that the mmf produced thereby is opposite to that of the main windings. Fig. 12 (8) shows schematically such an arrangement. If the diferential windings are not openod ‘when the regulator contacts close to produce field forcing, the differential circuit reduees the response of the exciter. ‘The extent to which this is effective may be ealeulated 1s follows: Let a=number of parallel paths in the main winding ‘b=number of parallel paths in the differential winding. c=number of turns per pole of the msin winding. d=number of turne per pole ofthe differential winding. Nestotal number of poles of exeiter ‘ig =current per eireuit of main winding. ig= current per cirouit of differential winding, ‘The resistors Ry and Ra in series with the combined main ‘nd differential windings, respectively, may be included in the calculation by increasing the actual resistances in each of the main und differential ciccuits by alt and bRa, re~ spectively. With those inereases the resistances of each of the main and differential circuils will be designated by theMam wngines. ! w/e i) Wh. Yt We (b) Fig. 12 Schematic diagram for main and differential windings. symbols rig and rg, respectively. Referring to Fig. 12 (b) the following equations ean be written Ridin + big) brant! = ss) rater t= RGin tb) raha @ in which ¥ and y are the flux linkages in each of the two respective cirruits, If all the field flux cute all turns, then ¥ (8) Nox (ux per poe in 10-* ines) ¥e= 2a lux per poe in 10-* fines) ad a If it be assumed that: the two windings be replaced by another winding having the same number of turns and cireuit connections as the main windings, then the in- stantaneous mmf of this winding is the same as that of ‘the combination if its current, i, is ven ao) fin Sia from which anita ap Ezeitation Systema Chapter 7 Tf (10) and (11) are inserted in (8) and (9), then ecm (Rarer in) Rigg MY (12) ecokati Sig + (Rb+rait aa) be ab ad at subtracting from (12). ‘The current ég can then be solved in terms of i. Upon substituting the expression for ia into (12) there is finally obtained that, By multiplying (13) by can be eliminated by «aay in which (as) Equation Idshows that the ordinary Mls-linkage eurve forthe exciter and conventional method of ealeulaticn san beused if the coefficient of ¢ be used as the resistance of each circuit,‘ be thecurrent read from thesuturation curv, and the voltage neross each circuit be multiplied by the eo- efficient of ex. In other words, the calculations should be Cartid out as though the differential winding were not present, except that instead of using the expression (a —reéi) to determine the: forcing voltage, ¢ should be mul Spted by (1) | 4, and by [va(2e2)]/a 6, Three-Field Main Exciter ‘The three-field main exciter shown schematically in Fig. 18 jis of conventional construction so far as mechanical details and armature winding are concerned, but it is built with three electrically independent shunt fields. Field 1 is connected in series with a variable resistance across the wan aX je] 33 ‘TERUINALS srapizms | ft ser-erciteo ewe eo r EY eto ee Low-entrey \ ot mecanicaL bre source: IwrERLocK Berween HED ARMS Fig. 18— Schematic diagram of threo-feld main exciter, Field 1 is self-ercited and provider base excitation, eld 2 tsa separately excited controlling eld, and field 3 isa omall- ‘capacity battery-ercited stabilizing Beld.Chapter 7 main terminals of the exciter and operates in the menner of the self-excited field discussed in Sec. 1. Field 1 provides the base excitation for the machine. Field 3 is a small separately-excited shunt field that obtains its energy from f station battery or any other source of cubstantially constant dee voltage, It is capable of supplying 5 to 10 percent of the normal total excitation requirements of the ain exciter, and its purpose is to provide exciter stability at low voltage output under hand control. Field 3isused only when the exciter speed of response or range of voltage output makes it desirable, Field 2 is a shunt field that is excited from a reversible variable-voltage d-c source under control of @ voltage regulator. ‘This field also provides for stability of the exeiter when the voltage regulation is under control of the voltage regulator. Fields 1 and 3 have rheostats in their energizing cir- vite, ‘These are usually motor-operated under manval control. ‘The rheostat arms are mechanically connected together so that resistance is added in one field circuit as it is removed from the other. Thus, when the self-energized shunt field is carrying a high excitation current, the sepa rately-excited field 3 caries a negligible current, ‘The combined effect of fields 1 and 3 is shown in Fig. 14 and cean be explained by assuming that the current in field 2is zero, When the field rheostat is adjusted to give a voltage output greater than that represented by the distance Oc, all excitation is supplied by ficld 1, and the relation between the exciter terminal voltage and the total field ampere thmns is represented by the line ab. Operation inthis region is the same as a self-exeited exeiter. If the resistance in the circuit of field 1 were increased to give a value of ampere tums less than Od in Fig. 14, and if field 1 were the only field excited, the machine would be unstable as pointed out, in Seo. 1 ‘To obtain a terminal voltage less than Oe, such as Of, the resistance in tho self-excited field cireuit would be in- creased to reduce the ampere-iurns produced by that field 10 0}. These ampere-tums would cause a generated volt= age equal to Oa, However, at the same time the current in field 1 is reduced, the current in field 3 is increased, and the generated voltage due to field 3 being energized is represented by Af. ‘The ampere-tums of the Ovo fields and the generated voltages add so that the distance Of is the total terminal voltage. Since the current in field 3 is controlled by the amount of current. in field 1 through the mechanical coupling of the field-rheostat arms, the total terminal voltage can be plotted asa function of the ampere tums in field I alone and is represented by the curve ckab n Fig. 14, If the field-resistanice characteristic of the self= ‘excited field is plotted on the same curve, there will always be a positive point of intersection between the resistance line and the saturation entve ekab and stable operation ean bbe obtained for any voltage greater than Oc. ‘The voltage represented by Oc is usually less than 10 percent of the rateil vohiage of the exeiter. Operation at smaller values ‘would not ordinarily be secessary except in the ease of a synchronons-condenser enciter. Smaller are obtained by holding the eursent in the se to zero and reducing tho cuzrent in separatel 3. Exciter polarity. ean be reversed by reversing. both field circuits when the currents are zero and building up Brcitation Systems 205, 3 3 & CURRENT IN SELF-EXCITED FIELD Fig, 14—Equivalent main exciter showin .-load ‘flect of stabilizing Meld 3. Field 2 ls in the opposite direction, ‘Thus, manual control of voltage is possible over the complete rango necessary. ‘When the voltage of the main exciter is under the control of a voltage regulator that varies the magnitude and polars ity of voltage applied to the soparatoly-excited field 2, the manually-operated field theostat in field 1 circuit is set to provide some base amount of excitation. This sotting isdetermined by the operator, but is generally higlt enough ‘to supply sufficient field eurrent to the a-c generator field to mainiain steady-state stability. The current in field 3 is usually negligible with such asetting of therheostat when the generator iseurrying any load. The polarity and magni- ‘tude of the voltage applied to field 2 are then regulated so that the flux produced by field 2 either aids or opposes the flux produced by the base excitation in field 1, thus, either increasing or decreasing the exeiter terminal voltage. Since the effect of field 1 is that of a conventional self-escited machine, small amount of energy input to field 2 ean ‘control the output voltage over a wide range. ‘The opera- tion of the three-field main exciter is made stable by sepa- rate means for the two conditions of operation: by a separately-excited stabilizing field under manual control, and by the voltage regulator controlling the input to field 2 under regulator control ‘The three-field main exeiter has an advantage over the eld separately-escited main exciter described in cin that control of the exciter terminal voltage ix not completely lost if any trouble should occur in the cited field eireuit. ‘The trouble might involve the variaile-voltage source for field 2 or the voltage regu- lator that controls it, but even though the current in the field should become zero, the exeiter will continue operating at a terminal voltage determined hy the setting of the theostat in the solf-oncrgized field circuit. The only effect fon the a-e generator would be a change in its internal voltage which would eause a change in reactive loading of