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Annals of Tourism Research, Vol. 32, No. 4, pp. 11211137, 2005 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. Printed in Great Britain 0160-7383/$30.00

doi:10.1016/j.annals.2005.04.007

RURAL TOURISM AND GENDERED NUANCES

Peggy Petrzelka Richard S. Krannich Utah State University, USA Joan Brehm Illinois State University, USA Carla Koons Trentelman Utah State University, USA
Abstract: Research ndings on rural residents attitudes towards tourism are often contradictory, in part due to a lack of data examining the often divergent perspectives of particular subgroups. Regional survey data from the Intermountain Western United States is used to provide an improved understanding of rural tourism attitudes as they are linked to community involvement and changes, while also exploring both intragender and intergender differences. Group differences in levels of community involvement, perceptions of tourism and various other issues are observed. While differences emerge, there is also widespread agreement on the importance of preserving local culture and the opposition to sale of agricultural land for development. Keywords: gender, occupational identity, rural ideology. 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. sume : Tourisme rural et nuances sexuelles. Les re Re sultats des recherches sur les attitudes des habitants ruraux au tourisme sont souvent contradictoires, gra ce en partie au manque de donne es sur les perspectives divergentes de certains sous-groupes. Les re sultats dune enque te de la re gion a ` louest des Rocheuses (Etats-Unis) aident a ` comprendre les attitudes envers le tourisme rural et la relation entre ces attitudes et la participation et le changement communautaires, tout en examinant des diffe rences intersexuelles et intrasexuelles. On constate des diffe rences entre les groupes par rapport a ` lengagement communautaire, aux perceptions du tourisme et a ` dautres questions. Malgre les diffe rences, il y a un accord ge ne ral sur la pre servation de la culture locale et lopposition a ` la vente des terres agricoles pour la s: sexe, identite construction. Mots-cle professionnelle, ide ologie rurale. 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

INTRODUCTION In rural areas worldwide, tourism growth represents a potential solution to the decline of traditional extractive industries and the

Peggy Petrzelka is Assistant Professor of Sociology at Utah State University (Logan UT 84322-0730, Email <peggyp@hass.usu.edu>). Richard Krannich is Professor of Sociology. Carla Koons Trentelman a Doctoral Student, both at Utah State University. Joan Brehm is Assistant Professor of Sociology at Illinois State University. Their research interests include environmental sociology and examination of rural communities undergoing social and economic changes. 1121

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accompanying lost economic opportunities and population decline. From shing communities in Norway (Puijk 2001), to agricultural villages in Morocco (Petrzelka and Bell 2000), to ranching communities in the Western United States (Power 1996), attempts are being made to establish tourism as an alternative economic development strategy. Numerous studies have examined how rural residents perceive such attempts in their communities (Boissevain 1996; Harvey, Hunt and Harris 1995; Mason and Cheyne 2000; Puijk 2001; Van Broeck 2001). However, these research ndings are often contradictory (Gursoy, Jurowski and Uysal 2002; Pearce, Moscardo and Ross 1996). While several explanations have been provided for these contradictions, the two of most interest in this current study are a tendency to view residents in the community(ies) under study as a single group, rather than examining variation among local subgroups, and the tendency to ignore or trivialize possible differences in mens and womens orientations (Mason and Cheyne 2000). As Liepins (2000) and others (such as Young 2000) have argued, community is a troublesome concept if it is treated as homogenous rather than recognizing and acknowledging the inherent diversity within communities. More precisely, as stated by Ap, a collective may not be homogenous and it may be necessary to identify the relevant subgroups within the collective (1992:673). A related issue, as noted in a special edition on Gender in Tourism published in Annals of Tourism Research, is the construction of an essentialist universal female experience as a converse to the universal male leading to limited use beyond generalized description (Swain 1995:253254). Essentializing of gender can result in marginalization of certain voices within the discoursemost often womens voices (Marshall 2001; Rao 1997). As identifying gender differences may be signicant in informing the tourism planning and management process (Mason and Cheyne 2000:407) it is imperative that these voices be accounted for in this process. Drawing upon survey data collected in the Intermountain Western United States, this article explores ways gender differentiation is related to tourism attitudes while simultaneously examining how these relationships are linked to other facets of the community. This form of analysis is essential for a clearer understanding of residents attitudes, for as Urry argues, residents perceptions cannot be separated off from the social relations within which they are embedded (1990:23). In addition, this analysis of subgroups may assist in identifying where points of commonality and consensus of attitudes exist and facilitate movement forward on issues of concern that are shared by all (Pearce et al 1996). While acknowledging, as others have (Liepins 2000; Young 2000), that the concept of community is problematic and has varied denitions, the objective of this studyfollowing Prentices (1993) researchis focused on residents attitudes in their geographical locale. Community therefore is dened in terms of where its residents are physically based.

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FACTORS INFLUENCING ATTITUDES Discussions in the literature reveal that various factors inuence tourism attitudes. One theoretical explanation for variance in attitudes is that of occupational identity. An occupational identity is one where workers in a particular occupation have a sense of identity that is closely tied to the occupation (Carroll and Lee 1990). Several studies suggest those who hold high levels of occupational identity in extractive industries are less favorable towards other forms of industry, especially tourism. Carroll and Lees work on male loggers in the US Northwest shows that loggers were taught to believe that logging is the only acceptable way to make a living (1990:151). Haukeland (1984) found in rural Scandinavian communities that residents most opposed to tourism were those engaged in agriculture and other traditional occupations, and Johnson, Snepenger and Akiss study in an area of Idaho that historically relied on extractive industries suggests that negative perceptions of tourism in that area may be due in part to the fact that the local population still see themselves as primarily mine and timber workers (1994:638). Maureen Reeds (2003) interviews with female loggers and partners of male loggers in Canada reinforce these study ndings, concluding that a turn to tourism shakes the foundations of worker identity (2003:113) in this area of Canada. Therefore, the relationship occupational identity has with tourism attitudes is critical to examine, for as Mason and Cheyne note in their work on residents attitudes in a rural New Zealand region, if community members feel their identity to be threatened by the tourist industry, they may develop attitudes which are at best ambivalent, and at worst actively hostile (2000:393) towards the industry. The identities residents hold have also been found to impact views on land use and local culture and values. Pearce et al suggest that residents may oppose or support various land uses according to their values and related social identities (1996:42). Similarly, Lindberg and Johnson argue when increases in tourism are concurrent with decreases in traditional industries, tourism can be perceived as disrupting the local culture that is intertwined with these industries (1997:406). In her study of a Turkish village, Van Broeck (2001) found that initially the villagers were welcoming and felt the economic impacts of tourism were positive, but, as time went on the villagers became aware of social impacts, many of which they deemed detrimental. Van Broeck concluded that tourism had indeed changed the village, including. . . community bonds, and, to some degree, traditional values and customs (2001:172173). In Puijks case study of a Norwegian shing village, he found that tourism was not only altering the local culture but causing divisions within the community, with some subgroups thriving while others complain that new (tourist) attractions violate Norwegian traditions. As a consequence, he concludes the municipality is divided over conicting social values (2001:175). Potential for broad-based civic engagement and collective actions in pursuit of common interests is likely reduced when such division occurs (Wilkinson 1991), resulting in decreased community well-being.

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In addition to occupational identity and local culture, the rural ideology also offers insight on tourism attitudes, particularly as they may be nuanced by gender. This ideology includes viewing men as providing the primary roles in production and local extractive industries (such as farming, shing, mining, ranching, and logging activities), and women as playing supporting roles, primarily involved in activities within the household and activities which support the overall community (Sachs 1996). For example, when female residents in rural Iowa were asked why they were involved in tourism promotion, two primary reasons were given: this type of work was womens work, and beneted the community. One resident stated her reason for involvement as a lot of the men are busy with other things, like the farming end of it, while another noted, I think men kind of consider it womens work (Petrzelka 2003:1). An additional reason women gave for getting involved was to increase economic opportunities for the rural community. As stated by one resident, we felt tourism growth would bring more funds into the economic picture, while another noted, it was something our area needed as far as economic development . . . and Im for anything that would boost our economy and help us (Petrzelka 2003:9). Mason and Cheyne (2000) also found in their survey of rural New Zealanders that women favored tourism more than men due to their belief it would bring economic benets. In his ethnographic study, Puijk found that gender differences among Norwegian rural residents are notable in reactions to tourism. While many of the men in the sh sector talk about the tourist sector in political and economical terms . . . women seem to be more occupied with the social consequences of tourism. The author attributes these differences to the traditional division of labor, where men were absent from the village for long periods of time while women were responsible for the general well-being of the village (1996:224). Puijk also attributes these attitudinal differences to diverse views towards the community as a place to live (1996:224). Gursoy et als study of ve counties surrounding a Virginia recreation area found those residents most satised with their community as a place to live are the ones most likely to be in favor of tourism, reecting a tendency to see it as an answer to improving the local economy. The researchers found that perception of the economic well-being of the community [had the] strongest effect on whether or not residents will support tourism development (2002:96). Likewise, Prentices study of the North Pennines area of England which was restructuring economically to combat job loss found that there was general support among the residents because of the economic benets they saw accruing from the tourism industry (1993:225). Conversely, those residents who feel the economic condition of their community is strong tend to be less favorable towards such development (Perdue, Long and Allen 1987). Attitudes toward tourism may, in part, be a product of sociodemographic factors such as length of residence in a community. Prior

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research suggests that divergent views about tourism growth can become a focal point for tensions between old-timers and newcomers (Beyers and Nelson 2000). Several studies reveal that old-timers in a community are more negative than newcomers towards such development (Allen, Long, Perdue and Kieselbach 1988; Liu and Var 1986). In a study of rural counties in the Appalachian region bordering the Great Smokey Mountain National Park, Jakus and Siegel concluded that the greater the proportion of the respondents life spent in the community, the less likely the individual was to strongly agree that tourism should play a major role in the communitys future (1997:59), while Rosss (1992) study of residents in Cairns, Australia, found old-timers were more opposed to tourism due to a concern that it detrimentally impacted friendliness of the locals. Several of the studies highlighted above provide some insight regarding the role of gender in attitudes towards tourism, and highlight the need to also consider various individual and social factors that could inuence these relationships. However, the research needs to move beyond looking at men and women universally, and treating mens and womens perspectives on the subject in a uniform and simplistic manner. As Henderson argues, the situation is often much more complex (1994:124125). Despite calls for intragender studies (Kinnaird and Hall 1994; Swain 1995), to date no studies of this sort have been found in the literature. In fact, various authors have noted the lack of research dealing in any substantial manner with the interrelationship of tourism and gender issues (Harvey et al 1995; Swain 1995). Breathnach, Henry, Drea and OFlaherty argue this may be due in part to a gender bias which subsumes female behavior into that of the dominant male pattern (1994:57). The dearth of literature on this interrelationship may also be due to the fact that the majority of scholars writing about gender issues continue to be women (Swain 1995:247), yet few women academics. . . breach the nearly exclusive male domain [of tourism] (Richter 1993:79). The purpose of this exploratory study is to extend the research on rural residents attitudes about tourism through examining various subgroups within local communities to provide both intergender and intragender perspectives. Analysis on various subgroups will provide researchers, public ofcials, and citizens with a better understanding of rural residents views on tourism, and how these views may be embedded within other issues. As Pearce et al argue, it is highly desirable to know the different views held about tourism and work with these views in the planning process rather than simply working with predened groups of people who are erroneously assumed to hold different views (1996:138). In addition, the absence of more indepth gender analysis contributes to ongoing marginalization of both womens and mens voices in the discourse. As Harvey et al note, understanding how tourism is perceived by all residents (emphasis added) is important for planners and leaders alike as they struggle to balance quality of life issues with building a strong economy (1995:363).

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Study Methods This study is part of a larger project examining social and economic changes affecting small communities in the Rocky Mountain Region. Three study areasStar Valley, Wyoming; Western Wayne County, Utah; and Escalante, Utahwere selected for this study (Figure 1). These areas were chosen based on several criteria, including: signicant declines in employment in natural resource sectors such as mining, agriculture, and forestry, and their locations in areas characterized by the presence of mountains, lakes, canyons, public lands, and other natural amenities. The dominant forms of tourism in these communities are closely linked to natural amenity features, with all three areas exhibiting a transition towards a tourism based economy. The Star Valley study area is located in Lincoln County, at the western edge of Wyoming, approximately 50 miles southwest of Jackson and Grand Teton National Park. It is comprised of a cluster of individual settlements, including the towns of Afton (1,818 residents in 2000), Alpine (550 residents), Thayne (341 residents), Smoot (182 residents), Grover (137 residents) and Etna (123 residents). Dairy farming and processing industries have historically been the primary sources of economic activity in the valley. However, the dairy industry has experienced substantial declines in recent decades, and at present Star Valley has just one remaining cheese processing plant and only a handful of operating dairy farms. Timber harvesting and sawmills were also well-established during the 60s, but like the dairy industry this segment of the economy has declined signicantly. As the economy of Star Valley continues to change, tourism and recreation based services have come to play an increasingly important role in the economy. Tourist spending in Lincoln County has been on a steady increase, from

Figure 1. Map of the Study Site

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US$32 million spent in 1998 to $38 million in 2001 (Dean Runyan Associates 2003). The Western Wayne County study area, located in Southern Utah, is also comprised of a cluster of individual small communities. It includes the towns of Loa (252 residents in 2000), Lyman (234 residents), Bicknell (353 residents), and Torrey (171 residents), as well as adjoining unincorporated portions of the county. Farming and ranching have historically been core elements of the local economy, but as with many other rural areas the economic importance of agriculture has declined in recent decades. A small lumber industry has also contributed to the local economy, although that has decreased considerably with reductions in timber harvesting on surrounding public lands. Western Wayne County is bordered by the Dixie National Forest and the Escalante-Grand Staircase National Monument to the south, and the Fish Lake National Forest to the north. Capitol Reef National Park is located immediately east of the study area, near the gateway town of Torrey. Tourists spent $13 million in 1998 in Wayne County and $10 million in 2001. The number of jobs generated by tourism was 249 jobs in 1998, increasing to 274 in 2001, and accounting for more than 20% of total non-farm jobs in 2001 (UDTD 2004). Escalante (population 818 in 2000) is also located in southern Utah, in Gareld County. The surrounding area is dominated by extensive tracts of public lands, with over 95% of the countys land area in federal and state ownership. Economic activity in this area has long been centered on timber and agriculture, particularly livestock grazing on public lands. While still important components of the local economy, these industries have experienced substantial declines in recent decades. Beautiful natural amenities ranging from redrock deserts and slot canyons to forested mountains characterize the landscapes that surround Escalante. In 1996 the Escalante-Grand Staircase National Monument was established on Bureau of Land Management lands surrounding Escalante, bringing increased national and international attention to the area. The monument, coupled with the many other natural amenities in the region, has increasingly drawn tourists to this remote area. The number of jobs generated by tourism in Gareld County was 974 jobs in 1998, rising to 1027 jobs in 2001 and, as in Wayne County, these jobs accounted for more than 20% of total non-farm jobs in 2001. Tourists spent $53 million in 1998 in Gareld County with a drop to $51 million in 2001 (UDTD 2004). During the summer of 2000 a team of research assistants conducted key-informant interviews with various community leaders and gathered secondary data about each of the communities to permit analyses of social changes and processes occurring in the study areas. This information was used to develop a survey instrument, which included questions pertaining to community satisfaction, involvement, and general sociodemographic questions. Random samples of households were drawn from public utility records in each study site. During the summer of 2001, the survey was delivered to these households, using a drop-off/ pick-up method; this involved hand delivery of the questionnaire to each household, and then returning within 2448 hours to pick up

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the completed survey (Steele, Bourke, Luloff, Liao, Theodori and Krannich 2001). Multiple attempts to contact a sampled household were made at three different times of day over a period of two to three days. Once contact was made, the specic respondent in the household was identied as the adult, age 18 or over, who had the most recent birthday and was a permanent resident of the home. If a respondent was unable to complete the survey by the time the research team left the area, they were provided with a postage-paid envelope and asked to mail the completed questionnaire as soon as possible. These procedures produced response rates of 81% in Star Valley, 85% in Western Wayne County and 81% in Escalante. To determine if the communities in this study differed signicantly on attitudes regarding tourism, a one-way analysis of variance was conducted on a composite index created from two statements contained within the questionnaire that asked respondents opinions on the importance of increasing tourism in their community. A Tukeys B test revealed no statistically signicant differences in mean response values on the index across the three communities. Further, in each of the communities differences in mean index scores for men and women were not statistically signicant. Therefore, responses from the three study areas were aggregated for further analysis. After dropping those cases where respondents did not indicate their sex, the combined sample size is 456 respondents, consisting of 203 men and 253 women. Variable Measurement Several statements gauging residents views were used to create a summated tourism attitudes index. Respondents were asked to indicate how important they thought increasing tourism as a means of economic opportunity was for maintaining and improving the future quality of life in their community. Responses for this item ranged from 1 (not at all important) to 7 (extremely important). Residents were also asked to indicate their level of opposition/support to a 50% increase in visitation by tourists/recreationists to the community in the next 5 years (responses for this item also ranged from 1 [strongly oppose the action] to 7 [strongly support the action]). The alpha coefcient of reliability for this index was .76, indicating a high degree of internal consistency in response to these two items. The index has a potential range of 214, with a lower score indicating opposition and a higher score indicating strong support of tourism. To differentiate residents attitudes (either opposed to or in favor of) four subgroups were created, consisting of only those respondents whose index scores were in the bottom quartile of the distribution (considered low supporters of tourism) or in the top quartile (considered high supporters). The sample was split in this way in order to clearly distinguish between tourism opponents and supporters. The sample was also split by sex, in order to examine more specically intragender differences. This subset of the larger sample consisted of 269

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respondents, with 27% (n = 73) of the women and 23% (n = 61) of the men from the larger sample identied as low supporters, and 31% (n = 83) of the women and 19% (n = 52) of the men as high supporters. To specically examine how facets of occupational identity and the rural ideology intersect with gender and tourism, two indices were created. In this study, occupational identity was measured by assessing residents degrees of involvement in an array of voluntary organizations that are associated with traditional extractive industriesa reasonable proxy for getting at one facet of occupational identity. Survey participants were asked to indicate on a scale from 1 (not at all involved) to 7 (highly involved) their involvement in the local watershed council, local irrigation district group, water conservation district group, and agricultural production organizations. Local watershed councils are involved with extractive industries such as logging and mining, as well as with agriculture; the other organizations all focus primarily on agricultural activities. The alpha coefcient of reliability for this index is .82, indicating a high degree of internal consistency in response to these four items. A second organizational index measured broader patterns of community involvement, with respondents again asked to indicate on a scale from 1 (not at all involved) to 7 (highly involved) their involvement in the Chamber of Commerce, planning group, economic development group, arts councils, and local civic groups. The alpha coefcient of reliability for this index is .72, indicating an acceptable degree of internal consistency in response to these ve items. To measure levels of commitment to traditional local culture and values, an additional variable shown to be related to attitudes towards tourism, an index was created using items addressing respondents views about the importance of preserving various community aspects, including traditional ways of life, quiet, slow pace of life, opportunities for traditional multiple use activities like grazing/logging, local culture and traditions, and ability to earn living off the land (farming, logging). Responses for all items ranged from 1 (not at all important) to 7 (extremely important). The alpha coefcient of reliability for this index is .76, indicating a high degree of internal consistency in response to these ve items. Views regarding the community as a place to live, perception of the local economic situation, and land uses are three additional issues shown in other research to be related to tourism attitudes. Residents were asked whether they thought their community had become more or less desirable as a place to live during the past ve years; responses were recorded on a scale ranging from 1 (much less desirable) to 7 (much more desirable), with the midpoint (4) associated with a no change response. Satisfaction with local economic conditions was measured by asking respondents to rate their satisfaction with the opportunity to earn an adequate income (responses were recorded on a numeric intensity scale ranging from 1, completely dissatised, to 7, completely satised). To measure views on land use, respondents were presented with several scenarios regarding future land uses, and asked to indicate their views about each on a scale ranging from 1

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(strongly support the change) to 7 (strongly oppose the change). This series of questions produced three measures focusing on residents attitudes regarding the scenario of having a 100 home subdivision proposed within one mile of their homes, a 50% increase in the number of properties owned by seasonal residents and the sale of 50% of local agricultural land for development. Various sociodemographic characteristics of the respondents were also included in the analysis. Age was measured as a continuous variable (with respondents asked in what year were you born?). Length of residence was dichotomized to differentiate recently-arrived residents (10 years or less) from longer-term residents (more than 10 years). Tenure was operationalized this way as many researchers have argued that an important factor in classifying newcomers and longterm residents in areas affected by episodes of substantial population change is the approximate year in which a major wave of in migration to the community began (Smith and Krannich 2000). For the communities examined here, as with many other areas of the rural Western United States, a major phase of amenity-related growth began in earnest around 1990. Finally, household income was measured as a ve category ordinal variable (with respondents asked which of the following categories describes total household income before taxes in 2000?).

Study Results To examine where the subgroups were both similar and different with respect to the indices and variables examined here, a one-way analysis of variance was used to compare mean response values on the attitudinal measures across the four subgroups. Tukeys B test was used to assess signicant differences between the groups (Table 1). Gender differences were found for the occupational identity measures of involvement in extractive industry organizations. Consistent with research discussed earlier on the dominant rural ideology, male respondents were more highly involved in activities linked to production and local extractive industries than women. The rural ideology theory also argues that women are more likely to be involved in community organizations. However, in this study, similar levels of involvement were found, with both male and female supporters of tourism most active in development organizations. Although the differences on this measure of involvement are not statistically signicant, the results do suggest that generalizations based on the rural ideology theory regarding gender differentials do not necessarily hold up. In addition, higher levels of involvement in extractive industry groups do not necessarily correspond to low support for tourism, as evidenced by the fact that male supporters exhibit the second highest mean on the occupational identity index. This nding may reect in part the observation that occupational identity is not universally strong among all those involved in extractive industries (Carroll 1995:97).

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Table 1. ANOVA Results across Subgroups for Involvement and Issues

Attitudinal Measures Range (MinMax) Community Involvement Occupational Organizationsc Community Development Organizations Attitudes Regarding Community Issues Local culture and values Whether community has become more or less desirable place to lived Satisfaction with adequate incomee Opposition to 100-home subdivisionf Opposition to 50% increase in seasonal residentsg Opposition to sale of 50% of local agricultural land for development purposes
a

Range and Mean Scores Total Mean Women (Low)a Women (High)b Men (Low)a Men (High)b

428 527

8.59 9.01

8.58 8.41

6.69 9.66

10.25 8.63

9.79 9.31

535 17

29.17 3.93

29.99 3.76

29.58 4.65

27.80 3.16

29.04 3.91

17 17

2.93 5.40

3.14 5.94

2.63 5.04

3.49 5.80

2.47 4.75

17

4.88

5.22

4.13

5.56

4.78

17

5.64

5.92

5.22

5.92

5.61

Low supporters of tourism. High supporters of tourism. c Women (High) differ signicantly with Men (Low) at p < .01 and with Men (High) at p < .05. d Men (Low) differ signicantly with Women (High) at p < .05 and with Men (High) at p < .01. e Women (High) differ signicantly with Women (Low) at p < .01 and with Men (Low) at p < .001. f Women (Low) differ signicantly with Women (High) at p < .05 and with Men (High) at p < .01 Men (Low) differ signicantly with Men (High) at p < .05. g Women (High) differ signicantly with Women (Low) and with Men (Low) at p < .001.
b

When examining attitudes regarding local culture and values the results indicate that preservation of local culture is important to all four groups. Although both female groups exhibited the highest mean

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scores on this index, differences across all four groups are small and not statistically signicant. This nding reveals a point of consensus among the groups, and can alert promoters of tourism to an important aspect that needs to be taken into consideration in discussions about this form of development. Female supporters of tourism were signicantly more likely to indicate that their communities had become more desirable as a place to live during the past ve years, followed by male supporters. Improved shopping and commercial development was the primary reason given by both female (27%) and male (33%) supporters for this increase in desirability. When asked why their place has become less desirable, increased tourism activity was indicated by 12% of female and 8% of male opponents. More specically, detrimental impacts of tourism were highlighted as making the community less desirable, as seen in this female residents comment, there has been an undesirable proliferation of ghostly motels in a uniquely lovely place. Similarly, a male opponent added the service stations and motels to me are an eyesore. Satisfaction with the opportunity to earn an adequate income in the community was signicantly higher for both opponents than among supporters of tourism. The nding suggests that those who favor tourism are often not satised with economic opportunity and may believe this industry will enhance economic conditions, consistent with the Gursoy et al study that residents attitudes toward tourism were largely inuenced by the perception of the state of the local economy (2002:96). Views on land use reveal some consistent variation across the subgroups. For all three of the land use scenarios, those opposed to tourism were also more opposed to the potential land use changes. For the scenario of a 100-home subdivision within one mile of respondents

Table 2. Comparison of Selected Demographics across Subgroups

Demographics Year Born Length of Residency in Community Less than 10 years More than 10 years Household Income ($) <10,00019,999 20,00039,999 40,00059,999 60,00079,999 80,000 or higher
a b

Women (Low)a 1951

Women (High)b 1948

Men (Low)a 1946

Men (High)b 1946

Percentage Responding

34% 66% 22 32 30 10 6

30% 70% 32 26 24 9 9

28% 72% 19 37 26 7 11

36% 64% 25 46 17 6 6

Low supporters of tourism. High supporters of tourism.

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homes, female opponents differ signicantly from both groups of tourism supporters, and male opponents differed signicantly from male supporters. Female supporters differed signicantly from both groups of opponents on the prospect of a 50% increase in the number of local area properties owned by seasonal residents. Selling agricultural land for development purposes was the most consistently opposed scenario across all of the subgroups, again revealing a point of consensus among the groups that needs to be taken into consideration in discussions about tourism-based development. No signicant differences exist between the four subgroups with respect to the demographic characteristics (Table 2). Age, length of residency, and income do not clearly distinguish opponents and proponents of tourism in the sample of local residents. Nevertheless, some suggestive patterns are evident in the data. In particular, those highly supportive of tourism have lower household incomes than do opponents. Given that these are also the two groups most dissatised with opportunities to earn an adequate income, this may again reect a belief that this type of development can provide for economic opportunities, as seen in previous literature (Gursoy et al 2002; Prentice 1993). CONCLUSION In their study of rural Idaho communities, Harvey et al found that although some small differences may be found among men and women in their perceptions of tourism development, for the most part, men and women share similar perceptions of tourism in Idaho and in their communities (1995:362). Similarly, Allen et als (1988) study of residents in 20 rural Colorado communities found no signicant differences between mens and womens attitudes. However, by examining subgroups within the community, this current study shows there are intragender and intergender differences. Many studies have neglected looking closer at differences and similarities among subgroups in the community as differentiated by gender. This study begins to address the call in the literature for more indepth analysis of gender issues in tourism and intragender studies (Kinnaird and Hall 1994; Swain 1995). The ndings revealed here are intended to provide a base upon which future studies of gender differentiation as it is related to tourism attitudes can be built. The study ndings bring into question various assumptions regarding occupational identity and rural ideology as they relate to tourism. In this study some men are as involved in community organizations as women despite also being involved in organizations that revolve around the extractive occupation industry. In addition, research on occupational identity and rural ideology suggests men would be the most opposed to land use changes which could have a detrimental impact upon traditional extractive industries. That is not the case here. Male supporters of tourism are the least opposed to one of the three

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land use changes (100 home subdivision), and second to least opposed on the other two land use changes (50% increase in ownership of homes by seasonal residents and 50% increase in agricultural land sold). The ndings suggest there are men who are not as tied to traditional industries as literature indicates, but there are women who are. Both of these groups have been overlooked in the literature and exploring this nding in future research would advance the knowledge of the occupational identity-tourism relationship. The study results also reveal similarities between the subgroups. Despite varying attitudes towards tourism, importance of preserving local culture and values and opposition to sale of agricultural land for development were important community concerns shared broadly across all respondent categories. Such ndings should guide those who plan tourism in rural communities so that it will occur in a manner that does not threaten these important aspects. As is true of any research effort, there are several limitations of this study. First, the analysis conducted here was derived from a larger study of rural communities undergoing social and economic changes in the Intermountain West that was not designed to specically examine the research questions posed here. Also, the analytic comparisons pursued here do not focus on a number of resident subgroups, such as those based on differences in race/ethnicity or religious orientation, that may be important in some settings. In addition, as is true throughout much of the Western US, the dominance of public lands around these study sites may have some inuence on the study results. Tourism is viewed by some as a threat due to concerns about resulting interference with or pressure to reduce grazing, logging, and other extractive activities on public lands. Finally, the somewhat limited scope of the survey questions used to quantitatively measure variables in this study limit the ability to explore observed relationships in more depth. These issues raise interesting questions and challenges for future research. A comparative cross-national study which would encompass subgroups not represented here and conducted in areas not dominated by public lands could produce a more nuanced understanding of the issues that have been raised here. In addition, conducting this research through qualitative analyses based on in depth interviews would allow for inclusion of a more personal voice of the subject in the analysis (Swain 1995:259). Despite these limitations, with tourism showing no signs of abating in rural areas, research of the form conducted here can alert and assist those who promote this industry in understanding residents perspectives more clearly. It is hoped that further research will explore ways gender differentiation is related to tourism attitudes while simultaneously examining how these relationships are linked to other facets of the community. While results are likely to differ depending upon geographic location and local culture, research such as this will help all involved in rural development better understand local reactions to tourism development as social and community changes continue in rural areas worldwide.

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AcknowledgementsResearch supported by the Utah Agricultural Experiment Station, projects UTA 839 and UTA 840.

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Submitted 20 February 2004. Resubmitted 30 August 2004. Resubmitted 17 February 2005. Resubmitted 22 April 2005. Accepted 28 June 2005. Refereed anonymously. Coordinating Editor: Christina A. Joseph