The Practice and Art of Woodcarving

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)igital $ormat 6 2ontent 2opyright 7 899: 1iblio$lip.2om ; All &ights &eserved Reproduce For Personal se Onl!
WOOD-CARVING DESIGN AND WORKMANSHIP
A Suggestion from Nature and Photography. COPYRIGHT, $Y %. APP&'TON !"#,

AN%
CO(PANY
All rights reserved Published October, 1903
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EDITOR'S PREFACE
In issuing these volumes of a series of Handbooks on the Artisti Crafts! it "ill be "ell to state "hat are our general aims. In the first #la e! "e "ish to #rovide trust"orth$ te%t-books of "orksho# #ra tise! from the #oints of vie" of e%#erts "ho have riti all$ e%amined the methods urrent in the sho#s! and #utting aside vain survivals! are #re#ared to sa$ "hat is good "orkmanshi#! and to set u# a standard of &ualit$ in the rafts "hi h are more es#e iall$ asso iated "ith design. 'e ondl$! in doing this! "e ho#e to treat design itself as an essential #art of good "orkmanshi#. (uring the last entur$ most of the arts! save #ainting and s ul#ture of an a ademi kind! "ere little onsidered! and there "as )*+ a tenden $ to look on ,design, as a mere matter of appearance. 'u h ,ornamentation, as there "as "as usuall$ obtained b$ follo"ing in a me hani al "a$ a dra"ing #rovided b$ an artist "ho often kne" little of the te hni al #ro esses involved in #rodu tion. -ith the riti al attention given to the rafts b$ .uskin and Morris! it ame to be seen that it "as im#ossible to deta h design from raft in this "a$! and that! in the "idest sense! true design is an inse#arable element of good &ualit$! involving as it does the sele tion of good and suitable material! ontrivan e for s#e ial #ur#ose! e%#ert "orkmanshi#! #ro#er finish! and so on! far more than mere ornament! and indeed! that ornamentation itself "as rather an e%uberan e of fine "orkmanshi# than a matter of merel$ abstra t lines. -orkmanshi# "hen se#arated b$ too "ide a gulf from fresh thought/that is! from design/inevitabl$ de a$s! and! on the other hand! ornamentation! divor ed from "orkmanshi#! is ne essaril$ unreal! and &ui kl$ falls into affe tation. Pro#er ornamentation )0+ ma$ be defined as a language addressed to the e$e1 it is #leasant thought e%#ressed in the s#ee h of the tool. In the third #la e! "e "ould have this series #ut artisti raftsmanshi# before #eo#le as furnishing reasonable o u#ations for those "ho "ould gain a livelihood. Although "ithin the bounds of a ademi art! the om#etition! of its kind! is so a ute that onl$ a ver$ fe" #er ent an fairl$ ho#e to su eed as #ainters and s ul#tors1 $et! as artisti raftsmen! there is ever$ #robabilit$ that nearl$ ever$ one "ho "ould #ass through a suffi ient #eriod of a##renti eshi# to "orkmanshi# and design "ould rea h a measure of su ess. In the blending of hand"ork and thought in su h arts as "e #ro#ose to deal "ith! ha##$ areers ma$ be found as far removed from the drear$ routine of ha k labor as from the terrible un ertaint$ of a ademi art. It is desirable in ever$ "a$ that men of good edu ation should be brought ba k into the #rodu tive rafts2 there are more than enough of us ,in the it$!, and it is )34+ #robable that more onsideration "ill be given in this entur$ than in the last to (esign and -orkmanshi#. 5his third volume of our series treats of one bran h of the great art of s ul#ture! one "hi h in the #ast has been in lose asso iation "ith ar hite ture. It is! "ell! therefore! that besides dealing thoroughl$! as it does! "ith the raftsmanshi# of "oodarving! it should also be on erned "ith the theor$ of design! and "ith the sub6e t-matter "hi h the artist should sele t to arve. 'u h onsiderations should be hel#ful to all "ho are interested in the ornamental arts. Indeed! the #resent book ontains some of the best suggestions as to ar hite tural ornamentation under modern ir umstan es kno"n to me. Ar hite ts an not forever go on #lastering buildings over "ith trade o#ies of an ient artisti thinking! and the$ and
the #ubli must some da$ reali7e that it is not mere sha#es! but onl$ )33+ thoughts! "hi h "ill make reasonable the enormous labor s#ent on the de oration of buildings. Mere stru ture "ill al"a$s 6ustif$ itself! and ar hite ts "ho an not obtain living ornamentation "ill do "ell to fall ba k on stru ture "ell fitted for its #ur#ose! and as finel$ finished as ma$ be "ithout arvings and other adornments. It "ould be better still if ar hite ts "ould make the demand for a more intelle tual ode of ornament than "e have been a ustomed to for so long. On the side of the arver! either in "ood or in stone! "e "ant men "ho "ill give us their o"n thought in their o"n "ork/as artists! that is/and "ill not be ontent to be mere ha ks su##l$ing imitations of all st$les to order. On the tea hing of "oodarving I should like to sa$ a "ord! as I have "at hed the ourse of instru tion in man$ s hools. It is desirable that lasses should be #rovided "ith asts and #hotogra#hs of good e%am#les! su h as Mr. 8a k s#eaks of! var$ing from rough ho##ings u# to minute and e%&uisite )39+ "ork! but all having the breath of life about them. 5here should also be a good su##l$ of illustrations and #hotogra#hs of birds and beasts and flo"ers! and above all! some bran hes and buds of real leafage. 5hen I "ould set the student of design in "oodarving to make variations of su h e%am#les a ording to his o"n skill and liking. If he and the tea her ould be got to lear their minds of ideas of ,st$le!, and to take some e%am#le sim#l$ be ause the$ liked it! and to ada#t it 6ust be ause it amused them! the m$ster$ of design "ould be nearl$ solved. Most design "ill al"a$s be the making of one thing like another! "ith a differen e. Later! motives from :ature should be brought in! but al"a$s "ith some guidan e as to treatment! from an e%am#le kno"n to be fine. I "ould sa$! for instan e! ,(o a #anel like this! onl$ let it be oak foliage instead of vine! and get a thrush or a #arrot out of the bird book., In regard to the a##li ation of arving! I have been o##ressed b$ the a umulation )3;+ in arving lasses of little arved s&uares and oblongs! having no relation to an$thing that! in an ordinar$ "a$! is arved. 5o arve the humblest real thing! "ere it but a real to$ for a hild! "ould be better than the #rodu tion of these #anels! or of the artifi ial trivialities "hi h our minds instin tivel$ asso iate "ith ba7aars -. .. L<5HAB=. September, 1903.
AUTHOR'S PREFACE
5O
5H<
.<A(<.!
Be $ou >#renti e or student! or "hat is still better! both in one! I introdu e the follo"ing #ages to $ou "ith this e%#lanation2 that all theoreti al o#inions set forth therein are the out ome of man$ $ears of #atient sifting and balan ing of deli ate &uestions! and these have "ith m$self long sin e #assed out of the ategor$ of mere ,o#inions, into that of settled onvi tions. -ith regard to the #ra ti al matter of ,te hni&ue!, it lies ver$ mu h "ith $ourself to determine the degree of #erfe tion to "hi h $ou ma$ attain. 5his de#ends greatl$ u#on the amount of a##li ation "hi h $ou ma$ be "illing or able to devote to its #ra tise. .emember/the la"s "hi h govern all )3?+ good art must be kno"n before the$ an be obe$ed1 the$ are subtle! but unalterable. 5he onditions most favorable to $our raft must first be understood before these la"s an be re ogni7ed. 5here $et remains at $our o"n dis#osal that devotion of energ$ "hi h is the first essential ste#! both in the dire tion of obtaining learer vie"s and in on&uering te hni al diffi ulties. I have to thank the follo"ing gentlemen for their assistan e in #roviding #hotogra#hs for some of the illustrations2 Messrs. Bedford Lemere @ Co./H. 'andland/Charles C. -inmill/-. -eir/8. .. Hollida$ and F. A. .ives. B. 8. September, 1903.
Contents
'%ITOR)S PR'*AC' A+THOR)S PR'*AC' CHAPT'R I

P.<AMBL<
'tudent and A##renti e! their Aims and Conditions of -ork/:e essit$ for 'ome <&ualit$ bet"een 5heor$ and Pra tise/5he 'tudent>s O##ortunit$ lies on the 'ide of (esign CHAPT'R II
5OOL'
Average :umber of 5ools re&uired b$ Carvers/'ele tion for Beginners/ (es ri#tion of 5ools/Position "hen in Cse/A &uisition b$ (egrees CHAPT'R III
'HA.P<:I:B-'5O:<'/MALL<5 A:( B<:CH
(ifferent 'tones in Cse/Case for 'tones/'li#s/.ound Mallet Best/A HomeMade Ben h/A Makeshift Ben h/Cram#s and Cli#s )3*+ CHAPT'R I,
-OO(' C'<( FO. CA.DI:B
Hard -ood and 'oft -ood/Closeness of Brain (esirable/Advantages of Pine and <nglish Oak CHAPT'R ,
'HA.P<:I:B 5H< 5OOL'
5he Pro#er Bevel/Position of 5ools on Oilstone/Bood and Bad <dge/ 'tro##ing/Paste and Leather/Careless 'har#ening/.ubbing Out the Inside/ 'tro##ing Fine 5ools/Im#ortan e of 'har# 5ools CHAPT'R ,I
,CHIP, CA.DI:B
Its 'avage Origin/A Clue to its onl$ Claim to Artisti Im#ortan e/Monoton$ better than Dariet$/An <%er ise in Patien e and Pre ision/5e hni al Methods CHAPT'R ,II
5H< B.AI: OF 5H< -OO(
Obstina $ of the -ood$ Fiber/First <%er ise in Brounding/(es ri#tion of Method/Cutting the Miters/Handling of 5ools! (anger of Carelessness/ Im#ortan e of Clean Cutting )30+ CHAPT'R ,III
IMI5A5IO: OF :A5C.AL FO.M'
(iffi ulties of 'ele tion and Arrangement/Limits of an Imitative 5reatment/ Light and (istan e Fa tors in the Arrangement of a (esign/< onom$ of (etail :e essar$/5he -ord ,Conventional, CHAPT'R I.OC:(<( FO.M'
:e essit$ for ever$ Carver Making his o"n (esigns/Method of Carving .ounded Forms on a 'unk Bround CHAPT'R 5H< PA55<.:<( BACAB.OC:(
Im#ortan e of Formal Pattern as an Aid to Disibilit$/Pattern and Free .endering Com#ared/First Im#ressions Lasting/Medieval Choi e of :atural Forms Boverned b$ a Euestion of Pattern CHAPT'R -I
CO:5OC.' OF 'C.FAC<
Ada#tation of Old (esigns to Modern Pur#oses/,5hro"ing About,/Criti al Ins#e tion of -ork from a (istan e as it Pro eeds )94+
CHAPT'R -II
O.IBI:ALI5=
(angers of Im#osing -ords/:ovelt$ more Common than Originalit$/An Cn"holesome Aind of ,Originalit$, CHAPT'R -III
PI<.C<( PA55<.:'
<%er ise in Ba kground Pattern/Care as to 'tabilit$/(rilling and 'a"ing out the '#a es/'ome Cses for Pier ed Patterns CHAPT'R -I,
HA.(-OO( CA.DI:B
Carvings an not be Inde#endent Ornaments/Carving Im#ossible on Commer ial Produ tions/5he Amateur 8oiner/Corner Cu#boards/ Introdu tion of Foliage (efinite in Form! and 'im#le in Chara ter/Methods of Carving Bra#es CHAPT'R -,
5H< 'A<5CH-BOOA
Old -ork Best 'een in its Original Pla e/Museums to be a##roa hed "ith Caution./Methodi al Memoranda/'ome <%am#les/Assimilation of Ideas Better than Making <%a t Co#ies )93+ CHAPT'R -,I
MC'<CM'
False Im#ressions Fostered b$ Fragmentar$ <%hibits/<nvironment as Im#ortant as Handi raft/-orks Die"ed as .e ords of Chara ter/Carvers the Historians of their 5ime CHAPT'R -,II
'5C(I<' F.OM :A5C.</FOLIAB<
Medieval and Modern Choi e of Form Com#ared/A Com#romise Ado#ted/A
List of Plant Forms of Ada#table Chara ter CHAPT'R -,III

CA.DI:B O: FC.:I5C.<
Furniture Constru ted "ith a Die" to Carving/.e i#ro al Aims of 8oiner and Carver/'moothness (esirable "here Carving is Handled/5he Introdu tion of Animals or Figures CHAPT'R -I5H< B.O5<'EC< I: CA.DI:B
Mis#ro#ortion :ot <ssential to the <%#ression of Humor/5he 'ham Brotes&ue Contem#tible/A 5rue 'ense of Humor Hel#ful to the Carver )99+ CHAPT'R -'5C(I<' F.OM :A5C.</BI.(' A:( B<A'5'
5he Introdu tion of Animal Forms/.ude Ditalit$ better than (ull ,:atural Histor$,/,A tion,/(iffi ulties of the 'tud$ for 5o"n-Bred 'tudents/5he Aid of Books and Photogra#hs/Outline (ra"ing and 'uggestion of Main Masses/ 'ket h-Book 'tudies! 'e tions! and :otes/'"iss Animal Carving/5he Cla$ Model2 its Cse and Abuse CHAPT'R --I
FO.<'HO.5<:I:B A' APPLI<( 5O -O.A I: .<LI<F
Intelligible Ba kground Outline Better than Confused Foreshortening/ 'u#er#osition of Masses CHAPT'R --II
C:(<.CC55I:B A:( ,BCIL5-CP, -O.A
Cnder utting as a Means and as an <nd1 its Cse and Abuse/,Built-u#, -ork /,Planted, -ork/,Pier ed, -ork CHAPT'R --III
PIC5C.< 'CB8<C5' A:( P<.'P<C5ID<
5he Limitations of an Art not 'afel$ 5ransgressed/Aerial Pers#e tive Im#ossible in .elief/Linear Pers#e tive onl$ Possible in a Limited -a$ )9;+ CHAPT'R --I,
A.CHI5<C5C.AL CA.DI:B
5he :e essit$ for Dariet$ in 'tud$/A Carver>s Die" of the 'tud$ of Ar hite ture1 Inse#arable from a 'tud$ of his o"n Craft/Im#ortan e of the Car#enter>s 'timulating Influen e u#on the Carver/Car#enters> Imitation of 'tone Constru tion Carried too Far CHAPT'R --,
'C.FAC< FI:I'H/5<F5C.<
5ool Marks! the Im#ortan e of their (ire tion/5he -ood$ 5e%ture (e#endent u#on Clearness of Cutting and '$m#atheti Handling CHAPT'R --,I
C.AF5 'CHOOL'! PA'5 A:( P.<'<:5
5he Countr$ Craftsman of Old 5imes/A Colon$ of Craftsmen in Bus$ Inter ourse/5he Modern Craftsman>s (iffi ulties2 <mbarrassing Dariet$ of Choi e )9G+ CHAPT'R --,II
O: 5H< IMPO.5A:C< OF COOP<.A5IO: B<5-<<: BCIL(<. A:( CA.D<.
5he Infinite Multi#li it$ of 't$les/5he ,Bothi , Influen e2 ' ul#ture an Integral <lement in its (esigns/5he A##roa h of the so- alled ,.enaissan e, Period/(isturbed Convi tions/5he .evival of the Classi al 't$le/5he 5"o 't$les in Confli t for a 5ime1 their .es#e tive Chara teristi s .evie"ed/ Carvers Be ome (e#endent u#on Ar hite ts and Painters/5he ,.evival, 'e#arates ,(esigner, and ,<%e utant, NOT'S
ON TH'
CO&&OTYP' P&AT'S
TH' CO&&OTYP' P&AT'S IN%'-
CHAPTER I PR'A($&'
'tudent and A##renti e! their Aims and Conditions of -ork/:e essit$ for some <&ualit$ bet"een 5heor$ and Pra tise/5he 'tudent>s O##ortunit$ lies on the 'ide of (esign. 5he stud$ of some form of handi raft has of late $ears be ome an im#ortant element in the training of an art student. It is "ith the ob6e t of assisting su h "ith #ra ti al dire tions! as "ell as suggesting to more #ra tised arvers onsiderations of design and treatment! that the #resent volume has been "ritten. 5he art of "oodarving! ho"ever! lends itself to literar$ demonstration onl$ in a ver$ limited "a$! more es#e iall$ in the ondensed form of a te%t-book! "hi h must be looked u#on merel$ as a tem#orar$ guide! of use onl$ until su h time as #ra tise and stud$ shall have strengthened the 6udgment of the student! and enabled )9?+ him to assimilate the man$ and involved #rin i#les "hi h underlie the develo#ment of his raft. If the beginner has mastered to some e%tent the initial diffi ulties of the draftsman! and has a fair general kno"ledge of the la"s of design! but no a &uaintan e "ith their a##li ation to the art of "oodarving! then the t"o fa tors "hi h "ill most immediatel$ affe t his #rogress Ha#art from natural a#titudeI are his o##ortunities for #ra tise! and his kno"ledge of #ast and #resent onditions of "ork. :o one an be ome a good arver "ithout onsiderable #ra tise/ onstant! if the best results are to be looked for. 8ust as trul$! "ithout some kno"ledge of #ast and e%isting onditions of #ra tise! none ma$ ho#e to es a#e the danger of be oming! on the one hand! dull imitators of the su#erfi ial &ualities of old "ork1 or on the other! follo"ers of the first "ill-o>-the-"is# novelt$ "hi h #resents itself to their fan $. If use of the tools and kno"ledge of materials "ere the onl$ sub6e ts of "hi h a arver need be ome master! there "ould be no "a$ e&ual to the old-fashioned one of a##renti eshi# to some good raftsman. )9J+ (ail$ #ra tise "ith the tools insures a manual de%terit$ "ith "hi h no amateur need ho#e to om#ete. Man$ traditional e%#edients are handed do"n in this "a$ that an be a &uired in no other. 5here is! ho"ever! another side of the &uestion to be onsidered! of &uite as mu h im#ortan e as the #ra ti al one of handi raft skill. 5he art of "oodarving has also to fulfil its intelle tual fun tion! as an inter#reter of the dreams and fan ies of imagination. In this res#e t there is little en ouragement to be looked for in the dull routine of a modern "orksho#. 5here are! therefore! t"o "idel$ se#arated stand#oints from "hi h the art ma$ be vie"ed. It ma$ be looked at from the #osition of a regular raftsman! "ho regards it #rimaril$ as his means of livelihood1 or it ma$ be dealt "ith as a sub6e t of intelle tual interest! based u#on its relation to the la"s of art in general. As! in the first instan e! the use of the tools an not be learned "ithout some a om#an$ing kno"ledge of the la"s of art! ho"ever slight that a &uaintan e ma$ be! the method of a##renti eshi# has the advantage of being the more #ra ti al of the t"o1 but it must be a e#ted "ith all the )9*+ onditions im#osed u#on it b$ the #ressure of ommer ial interest and its usages2 onditions! "hi h! it ma$ easil$ be imagined! are far more favorable to the #erforman e of dull task-"ork! than to the adventurous s#irit of uriosit$ "hi h should #rom#t the enter#rise of an energeti student.
On the other hand! although an inde#endent stud$ of the art offers a "ider range of interest! the student is! for that ver$ reason! e%#osed to the risk of involving himself in a lab$rinth of onfusing and ineffe tual theories. 5he fa t is! that neither method an at the #resent time be e% lusivel$ de#ended u#on as a means of develo#ment1 neither an be #ronoun ed om#lete in itself nor inde#endent of the other. 5he onl$ sure safeguard against the vagueness of theor$ is onstant #ra tise "ith the tools1 "hile! to the raftsman in the full en6o$ment of ever$ means for e%er ising and in reasing his te hni al skill! a general stud$ and intelligent on e#tion of the "ide #ossibilities of his art is 6ust as essential! if it "ere onl$ as an antidote to the influen e of an other"ise me hani al em#lo$ment. 5he more losel$ these ontradi tor$ vie"s are made )90+ to a##ro%imate! the more ertain "ill be ome the arver>s aims! and the learer "ill be his understanding of the diffi ulties "hi h surround his #ath! enabling him to hoose that "hi h is #ra ti able and intrinsi all$ valuable! both as regards the theor$ and #ra tise of his art. If the student! through la k of o##ortunities for #ra tise! is debarred from all han e of a &uiring that e%#ertness "hi h a om#anies great te hni al skill! he ma$ at least find en ouragement in the fa t that he an never e%haust the interest afforded b$ his art in its infinite suggestion to the imagination and fan $1 and also that b$ the e%er ise of diligen e! and a determination to su eed! he ma$ reasonabl$ ho#e to gain su h a degree of #rofi ien $ "ith the tools as "ill enable him to e%e ute "ith his hands ever$ idea "hi h has a definite e%isten e in his mind. Benerall$ s#eaking! it "ill be found that his manual #o"ers are al"a$s a little in advan e of his #er e#tions. 5hus the student ma$ graduall$ "ork out for himself a natural and reliable manner of e%#ressing his thoughts! and in a "a$! too! that is likel$ to om#ensate for his te hni al short omings! b$ e% iting );4+ a more livel$ interest in the resour es of the art itself. 5he measure of his su ess "ill be determined #artl$ b$ his innate a#a it$ for the "ork! and #artl$ b$ the amount of time "hi h he is enabled to give to its #ra tise. 5he resour es of his art offer an infinite s o#e for the e%er ise of his #o"ers of design! and as this is the side "hi h lies nearest to his o##ortunities it should be the one "hi h re eives his most earnest attention! not merel$ as e%#eriments on #a#er! but as e%er ises arried out to the best of his abilit$ "ith the tools. 'u h te hni al diffi ulties as he ma$ en ounter in the #ro ess "ill graduall$ disa##ear "ith #ra tise. 5here is also en ouragement in the thought that "oodarving is an art "hi h makes no immediate alls u#on that m$sterious ombination of e%traordinar$ gifts labeled ,genius!, but is rather one "hi h demands tribute from the bright and ha##$ ins#irations of a normall$ health$ mind. 5here is! in this dire tion! &uite a life>s "ork for an$ enthusiast "ho aims at finding the bearings of his o"n small but #re ious gift! and in making it intelligible to others1 "hile! at the same time! kee#ing himself free from the man$ onfusions and affe tations "hi h surround him in the endeavor. );3+
CHAPTER II TOO&S
Average :umber of 5ools re&uired b$ Carvers/'ele tion for Beginners/(es ri#tion of
5ools/Position "hen in Cse/A &uisition b$ (egrees. -e "ill su##ose that the student is an%ious to make a #ra ti al ommen ement to his studies. 5he first onsideration "ill be to #ro ure a set of tools! and "e #ro#ose in this #la e to des ribe those "hi h "ill ans"er the #ur#oses of a beginner! as "ell as to look generall$ at others in ommon use among raftsmen. 5he tools used b$ arvers onsist for the most #art of hisels and gouges of different sha#es and si7es. 5he number of tools re&uired b$ #rofessional arvers for one #ie e of "ork varies in #ro#ortion to the elaborateness of the arving to be done. 5he$ ma$ use from half a do7en on sim#le "ork u# to t"ent$ or thirt$ for the );9+ more intri ate arvings! this number being a sele tion out of a larger sto k rea hing #erha#s as man$ as a hundred or more. Man$ of these tools var$ onl$ in si7e and s"ee# of utting edge. 5hus! hisels and gouges are to be had ranging from 3K3?th of an in h to 3 in h "ide! "ith urves or ,s"ee#s, in ea h si7e graduated bet"een a semi ir le to a urve almost flat. Fe" arvers! ho"ever! #ossess su h a om#lete sto k of tools as "ould be re#resented b$ one of ea h si7e and sha#e manufa tured1 su h a thing is not re&uired2 an average number of! sa$ sevent$ tools! "ill al"a$s give a suffi ient variet$ of si7e and s"ee# for general #ur#oses1 fe" #ie es of "ork "ill re&uire the use of more than half of these in its e%e ution. 5he beginner! ho"ever! need not #ossess more than from t"elve to t"ent$-four! and ma$ even make a start "ith fe"er. It is a good #lan to learn the uses of a fe" tools before a &uiring a om#lete set! as b$ this means! "hen diffi ulties are felt in the e%e ution of "ork! a tool of kno"n des ri#tion is sought for and #ur hased "ith a forekno"ledge of its advantages. 5his is the surest "a$ to gain a distin t kno"ledge of the varieties of ea h kind of tool! and );;+ their a##li ation to the different #ur#oses of design. 5he follo"ing list of tools Hsee Figs. 3 and 9I "ill be found suffi ient for all the o asions of stud$2 beginning b$ the #ur hase of the first se tion! :os. 3 to 3J! and adding others one b$ one until a set is made u# of t"ent$-four tools. 5he tools should be sele ted as near the si7es and sha#es sho"n in the illustration as #ossible. 5he urved and straight strokes re#resent the sha#e of the a tual uts made b$ #ressing the tools do"n #er#endi ularl$ into a #ie e of "ood. 5his! in the ase of gouges! is generall$ alled the ,s"ee#., :os. 3! 9! ; are gouges! of s"ee#s var$ing from one almost flat H:o. 3I to a distin t hollo" in :o. ;. 5hese tools are made in t"o forms! straight-sided and ,s#ade,-sha#ed1 an illustration of the s#ade form is given on the se ond #age of tools. In #ur hasing his set of tools the student should order :os. 3! 9! ;! 34! 33 in this form. 5he$ "ill be found to have man$ advantages! as the$ on eal less of the "ood behind them and get "ell into orners ina essible to straight-sided tools. 5he$ are lighter and more easil$ shar#ened! and are ver$ ne essar$ in finishing the surfa e of "ork! and in sha#ing out foliage! more es#e iall$ su h as is under ut. );G+
*ig. );L+
*ig. .. );?+ :os. L! ?! J are straight gouges graduated in si7e and s"ee#. :o. * is alled a Deiner! be ause it is often used for making the grooves "hi h re#resent veins in leaves. It is a narro" but dee# gouge! and is used for an$ narro" grooves "hi h ma$ be re&uired! and for outlining the dra"ing at starting. :o. 0 is alled a D tool or ,#arting, tool! on a ount of its sha#e. It is used for making grooves "ith straight sides and shar# inner angles at the bottom. It an be used for various #ur#oses! su h as under utting! learing out shar#l$ defined angles! outlining the dra"ing! et .! et . It should be got "ith a s&uare utting edge! not beveled off as some are made. :os. 34! 33! 39 are flat hisels! or! as the$ are sometimes alled! ,firmers., H:os. 34 and 33 should be in s#ade sha#e.I :o. 3; is also a flat hisel! but it is beveled off to a #oint! and is alled a , ornerhisel,1 it is used for getting into diffi ult orners! and is a most useful tool "hen used as a knife for deli ate edges or urves.
:os. 3G and 3? are "hat are kno"n as ,bent hisels,1 the$ are used #rin i#all$ );J+ for leveling the ground Hor ba kgroundI! and are therefore also alled ,grounders., 5hese tools are made "ith various urves or bends in their length! but for our #resent uses one "ith a bend like that sho"n to tool :o. 9;! Fig. 9! and at a in Fig. ;! "ill be best1 more bend! as at b! "ould onl$ make the tool unfit for leveling #ur#oses on a flat ground. :o. 3L is a similar tool! but alled a , orner grounder!, as it is beveled off like a ornerhisel. :o. 3J is an additional gouge of ver$ slo" s"ee# and small si7e. 5his is a ver$ hand$ little tool! and serves a variet$ of #ur#oses "hen $ou ome to finishing the surfa e. 5hese seventeen tools "ill make u# a ver$ useful set for the beginner! and should serve him for a long time! or at least until he reall$ begins to feel the "ant of others1 then he ma$ get the remainder sho"n on Fig. 9. :os. 3*! 30! 94 are dee# gouges! having some"hat straight sides1 the$ are used "here grooves are set dee#l$! and "hen the$ are re&uired to hange in se tion from dee# and narro" to "ide and shallo". 5his is done b$ turning the );*+ tool on its side! "hi h brings the flatter s"ee# into a tion! thus hanging the sha#e of the hollo". :os. 93! 99 are gouges! but are alled ,bent gouges,/,front bent, in this ase! ,ba k bent, "hen the utting ,s"ee#, is turned u#side do"n. It is advisable "hen sele ting these tools to get them as sho"n in the illustration! "ith a ver$ eas$ urve in their bend1 the$ are more generall$ useful so! as &ui k bends are onl$ good for ver$ dee# hollo"s. 5hese tools are used for making grooves in hollo" #la es "here an ordinar$ gouge "ill not "ork! o"ing to its meeting the o##osing fiber of the "ood. :o. 9; is a similar tool! but ver$ ,eas$, both in its ,s"ee#, and bend/the s"ee# should be little more than re ogni7able as a urve. 5his tool ma$ be used as a grounder "hen the "ood is slightl$ hollo"! or liable to tear u# under the flat grounder. :o. 9G is alled a ,Ma aroni, tool. 5his is used for learing out the ground lose against leaves or other #ro6e tions1 as it has t"o s&uare sides it an be used right and left. In the illustration! Fig ;! a sho"s the best form of grounding tool1 b is little );0+ or no use for this #ur#ose! as it urves u# too suddenl$ for "ork on a flat ground. It is a good thing to have the handles of tools made of different olored "oods! as it assists the arver in #i king them out &ui kl$ from those l$ing read$ for use.
*ig. #. -hen in use! the tools should be laid out in front of the arver if #ossible! and "ith their #oints to"ard him! in order that he ma$ see the sha#e and hoose &ui kl$ the one he "ants. 5he tem#ering of tools is a ver$ im#ortant fa tor in their effi ien $. It is onl$ of too
ommon o urren e to find man$ of the tools manufa tured of late $ears unfit for use on a ount of their softness of metal. 5here is nothing more ve%atious to a arver than "orking "ith a )G4+ tool "hi h turns over its utting edge! even in soft "ood1 su h tools should be returned to the agent "ho sold them. -ith a sele tion from the above tools! a &uired b$ degrees in the manner des ribed! almost an$ kind of "ork ma$ be done. 5here is no need "hatever to have a tool for ever$ urve of the design. 5hese an readil$ be made b$ using straight hisels in ombination "ith su h gouges as "e #ossess! or b$ s"ee#ing the urves along their sides "ith a hisel used knife fashion. :o reall$ beautiful urves an be made b$ merel$ follo"ing the urves of gouges! ho"ever various their s"ee#s! as the$ are all segments of ir les. 5ools generall$ ome from the manufa turer ground! but not shar#ened. As the student must in an$ ase learn ho" to shar#en his tools! it "ill be 6ust as "ell to get them in that "a$ rather than read$ for use. As this #ro ess of shar#ening tools is a ver$ im#ortant one! it must be reserved for another #la e. 'hould tools be seriousl$ blunted or broken the$ must be reground. 5his an be done b$ the arver! either on a grindstone or a #ie e of gritt$ =ork stone! are being taken to re#eat the original bevel1 or the$ ma$ be sent to a tool )G3+ sho# "here the$ are in the habit of grinding arving tools. Catalogues of tools ma$ be had from good makers1 the$ "ill be found to onsist mainl$ in a large variet$ of the tools alread$ mentioned. 5hose "hi h are ver$ mu h bent or urved are intended for s#e ial a##li ation to elaborate and diffi ult #assages in arving! and need not on ern the student until he omes to find the a tual "ant of su h sha#es1 su h! for instan e! as bent #arting tools and ba k bent gouges. In addition to the above tools! arvers o asionall$ use one alled a ,.outer., 5his is a kind of #lane "ith a narro" #er#endi ular blade. It is used for digging or ,routing, out the "ood in #la es "here it is to be sunk to form a ground. It is not a tool to be re ommended for the use of beginners! "ho should learn to make suffi ientl$ even ba kgrounds "ithout the aid of me hani al ontrivan es. Carvers also use the ,.ifler!, "hi h is a bent file. 5his is useful for ver$ fine "ork in hard "ood! and also for roughl$ a##ro%imating to rounded forms before finishing "ith the tools. A fe" 6oiner>s tools are ver$ useful to )G9+ the arver! and should form #art of his e&ui#ment. A "ide hisel! sa$ about 3-3KG in. "ide! a small iron ,bull-nose, #lane! and a ke$hole sa"! "ill all be hel#ful! and save a lot of unne essar$ labor "ith the arving tools.
CHAPTER III SHARP'NING/STON'S0(A&&'T AN% $'NCH

(ifferent 'tones in use/Case for 'tones/'li#s/.ound Mallet Best/A Home-Made Ben h/A Makeshift Ben h/Cram#s and Cli#s. 5he stones "hi h are most generall$ used for the #ur#ose of shar#ening arving tools are ,5urke$, and ,-ashita., 5here are man$ others! some e&uall$ good! but ,-ashita,
is easil$ #ro ured and ver$ servi eable. It is to be had in various grades! and it ma$ be 6ust as "ell to have one oarse and one fine! but in an$ ase "e must have a finegrained stone to #ut a keen edge on the tools. A ,5urke$, stone is a fine-grained and slo"- utting one! and ma$ take the #la e of the finer ,-ashita., 5he ,India, oilstone is a om#osition of emer$ "ith some kind of stone dust! and )G;+ is a useful stone for &ui kl$ rubbing do"n su#erfluous steel before #utting an edge to the tool. It is better to get these stones "ithout ases! as the$ an then be used on both sides! one for flat tools and one for gouges! "hi h "ear the fa e of a stone into grooves. A ase ma$ be made b$ hollo"ing out a blo k of "ood so as to take the stone loosel$1 and if at one end a small not h is made in this blo k! a s re"driver ma$ be inserted under the stone "hen it is ne essar$ to turn it. 5"o brads or #ins should be inserted in holes! having their #oints 6ust a##earing belo" the bottom of the blo k. 5hese #revent it sli##ing about "hen in use. 5hese stones should be lubri ated "ith a mi%ture of olive oil and #araffin in e&ual #arts. Bi $ le lubri ating oil is ver$ good for this #ur#ose.
*ig. 1. For shar#ening the insides of tools! ,sli#s, are made "ith rounded edges of different si7es. One sli# of ,-ashita, )GG+ stone and one of ,Arkansas, "ill be enough for the #resent! as the$ "ill fit moderatel$ "ell most of the gouges in the beginner>s set of tools1 the ,Arkansas, being used for the smaller tools. 5he ,Arkansas, sli# should be "hat is alled ,knife-edged., 5his is re&uired for shar#ening su h tools as the veiner and D tool1 it is a ver$ fine marble-like stone! and e% eedingl$ brittle1 are must be taken in handling it! as a fall "ould in all #robabilit$ be fatal. 5H< B<:CH A:( MALL<5 The Mallet./5he arver>s mallet is used for driving his tools "here for e is re&uired. 5he most suitable form is the round one! made of bee h1 one G ins. diameter "ill be heav$ enough. The Bench./<ver$ arver should #rovide himself "ith a ben h. He ma$ make one for himself a ording to the si7e and onstru tion sho"n in the illustration! Fig. L. 5he to# should be made of t"o 33 % 9 in. boards! and! as steadiness is the main feature to be aimed at! the 6oints should have some are. 5hose in illustration are sho"n to be formed b$ he king )GL+ one #ie e of "ood over the other! "ith shoulders to resist lateral strain. Pro#er tenons "ould be better! but more diffi ult to make. It must have a #ro6e ting edge at the front and ends! to re eive the lam#s. 5he ben h should have a 6oiner>s ,ben h-s re", atta hed to the ba k leg for holding "ork "hi h is to be arved on its edges or ends. 5he feet should be se ured to the floor b$ means of iron bra kets! as onsiderable for e is a##lied in arving hard "ood! "hi h ma$ move the ben h bodil$! unless it is se ured! or is ver$ heav$. Professional arvers use a ben h )G?+ "hi h is om#osed of bee h #lanks! three or four in hes in thi kness! and of length a ording to sho#-room.
*ig. 2.
*ig. 3 'hould it not be #ossible to make or #ro ure a ben h! then a substitute must be used. Fig. ? gives a suggestion for )GJ+ making su h a tem#orar$ ben h. 5he to# is om#osed of one #ie e of board! 33 ins. "ide and 3-3K9 in. thi k. It should be about 9 ft. ? ins. long and rest on t"o blo ks fi%ed about 3-3K9 in. from the ends! "hi h must #ro6e t! as in Fig. ?. 5his ma$ be used on an$ ordinar$ table! to "hi h it should be se ured b$
means of t"o ;-3K9-in. lam#s. 5he height from the floor should be ; ft. 9 ins. to to# of board. 5his gives a good height for "orking! as arvers invariabl$ stand to their "ork. 5he height an be regulated b$ making the blo ks! a! higher or lo"er to suit the table "hi h is to be used.
*ig. 4. ramps./Cram#s for holding the "ork in #osition on the ben h are of several kinds. For ordinar$ thi knesses of "ood! t"o G-3K9-in. s re" lam#s! like the one in Fig. J! "ill be suffi ient. -ooden blo ks ma$ be also used to hold one end of the "ork do"n "hile the other is held b$ a lam#. 5hese blo ks )G*+ are not hed out to fit over the thi kness of the board being arved! as in Fig. J. Carvers use for their heavier "ork a ,ben h-s re"!, as it is alled1 that is! a s re" "hi h #asses through the ben h into the ba k of the "ork! "hi h ma$ thus be turned about at "ill1 also! if the "ork is ver$ thi k! the$ hold it in #osition b$ means of a ben h ,holdfast!, a kind of ombined lever and s re"1 but neither of these ontrivan es is likel$ to be re&uired b$ the beginner! "hose "ork should be ke#t "ithin manageable dimensions.
CHAPTER IV 5OO%S +S'% *OR CAR,ING

Hard -ood and 'oft -ood/Closeness of Brain (esirable/Advantages of Pine and <nglish Oak. 5he "oods suitable for arving are ver$ various1 but "e shall onfine our attention to those in ommon use. Of the softer "oods! those "hi h are most easil$ #ro ured and most ada#table to modern uses are $ello" #ine! Bass "ood! Aauri #ine! and Lime. 5hese are all good "oods for the arver1 but "e need not at #resent )G0+ look for an$ better
&ualities than "e shall find in a good #ie e of $ello" #ine! free from knots or shakes. 5he follo"ing "oods ma$ be onsidered as having an intermediate #la e bet"een soft and hard2 '$ amore! Bee h! and Holl$. 5he$ are light- olored "oods! and Der$ useful for broad shallo" "ork. !nglish Oa"./Of the hard "oods in ommon use! the #rin i#al kinds are Oak! -alnut! and o asionall$ Mahogan$. Of oak! the <nglish variet$ is b$ far the best for the arver! being lose in the grain and ver$ hard. It is be$ond all others the arvers> "ood! and "as invariabl$ used b$ them in this ountr$ during the robust #eriod of medieval raftsmanshi#. It offers to the arver an invigorating resistan e to his tools! and its hara ter determines to a great e%tent that of the "ork #ut u#on it. It takes in finishing a ver$ beautiful surfa e! "hen skilfull$ handled/and this tem#ts the arver to make the most of his o##ortunities b$ ada#ting his e%e ution to its virtues. Other oaks! su h as Austrian and Ameri an! are often used! but the$ do not offer &uite the same tem#ting o##ortunit$ to the arver. 5he$ are! b$ nature! &ui ker-gro"ing trees! and are! onse&uentl$! )L4+ more o#en in the grain. 5he$ have tough! sine"$ fibers! alternating "ith softer material. 5he$ rarel$ take the same degree of finish as the <nglish oak! but remain some"hat dull in te%ture. Bood #ie es for arving ma$ be got! but the$ must be #i ked out from a &uantit$ of stuff. Chestnut is sometimes used as a substitute for oak! but it is better fitted for large-s aled "ork "here fineness of detail is not of so mu h im#ortan e. #talian $alnut./5his is a ver$ fine-grained "ood! of even te%ture. 5he Italian variet$ is the best for arving2 it uts "ith something of the firmness of <nglish oak! and is a#able of re eiving even more finish of surfa e in small details. It is admirabl$ suited for fine "ork in lo" relief. In hoosing this "ood for arving! the hardest and losest in grain should be #i ked! as it is b$ no means all of e&ual &ualit$. It should be free from sa#! "hi h ma$ be kno"n b$ a light streak on the edges of the dark bro"n "ood. <nglish "alnut has too mu h ,figure, in the grain to be suitable for arving. Ameri an "alnut is best fitted for shar#l$ ut shallo" arving! as its fiber is ane$. If it is used! the design should be one in "hi h )L3+ no fine modeling or detail is re&uired! as this "ood allo"s of little finish to the surfa e. Mahogan%! more es#e iall$ the kind kno"n as Honduras! is ver$ similar to Ameri an "alnut in &ualit$ of grain2 it uts in a shar# ane$ manner. 5he ,'#anish, variet$ "as loser in grain! but is no" almost un#ro urable. -ork arved in mahogan$ should! like that in Ameri an "alnut! be broad and sim#le in st$le! "ithout mu h rounded detail. It is &uite unne essar$ to #ursue the sub6e t of "oods be$ond the fe" kinds mentioned. -oods su h as ebon$! sandal"ood! herr$! brier! bo%! #ear-tree! lan e"ood! and man$ others! are all good for the arver! but are better fitted for s#e ial #ur#oses and small "ork. As this book is on erned more "ith the art of arving than its a##li ation! it "ill save onfusion if "e a e#t $ello" #ine as our t$#i al soft "ood! and good lose-grained oak as re#resenting hard "ood. It ma$ be noted in #assing that the "oods of all flo"ering and fruit-bearing trees are ver$ liable to the atta k of "orms and rot. :o arving! in "hatever "ood! should be #olished. I shall refer to this "hen "e ome to ,te%ture, and ,finish., )L9+
CHAPTER V SHARP'NING TH' TOO&S

5he Pro#er Bevel/Position of 5ools on Oilstone/Bood and Bad <dge/'tro##ing/Paste and Leather/Careless 'har#ening/.ubbing Out the Inside/'tro##ing Fine 5ools/ Im#ortan e of 'har# 5ools. Having given this brief des ri#tion of the tools and materials used b$ arvers! "e shall su##ose a #ie e of "ork is about to be started. 5he first thing the arver "ill re&uire to do is to shar#en his tools. 5hat is! if "e ma$ assume that the$ have 6ust ome from the manufa turer! ground but not $et brought to an edge. It "ill be seen that ea h has a long bevel ending in a blunt ridge "here the utting edge should be. -e shall take the hisel :o. 34 and shar#en that first! as it is the easiest to do! and so get a little #ra tise before "e tr$ the gouges. 5he oilstone and oil have alread$ been des ribed. 5he first thing is to "ell oil the stone and la$ it on the ben h in a #osition "ith its end to"ard the o#erator.
A. ANG&' *OR SO*T5OO% $. ANG&' *OR HAR%5OO% *ig. 6. 5ools "hi h are going to be used in )L;+ soft "ood re&uire rather a longer bevel and more a ute edge than "hen the$ are "anted for hard "ood. Both angles are sho"n in Fig. *. La$ the flat of the tool on the stone at an angle of about 3LM! "ith the handle in the hollo" of the right hand! and t"o fingers of the left #ressed u#on the blade as near to the stone as #ossible. 5hen begin rubbing the tool from end to end of the stone! taking are not to ro k the right hand u# and do"n! but to kee# it as level as #ossible throughout the stroke! bearing heavil$ on the blade "ith the left hand! to kee# it "ell in onta t "ith the stone. .o king #rodu es a rounded edge "hi h is fatal to keenness. )LG+ C HFig. 0I gives a##ro%imatel$! to an enlarged s ale! the se tions of a good edge! and ( that of an im#erfe t one.
C. GOO% C+TTING '%G' %. $A%&Y *OR('% '%G'. *ig. !. Pra tise alone "ill familiari7e the mus les of the "rist "ith the #ro#er motion! but it is im#ortant to a &uire this in order to form the orre t habit earl$. It should be #ra tised ver$ slo"l$ at first! until the hands get a ustomed to the movements. -hen one side of the tool has been rubbed bright as far as the utting edge! turn it over and treat the other in the same "a$. Carvers> tools! unlike 6oiners>! are rubbed on both sides! in the #ro#ortion of about t"o-thirds outside to one-third inside. -hen a keen edge has been formed! "hi h an easil$ be tested b$ gentl$ a##l$ing the finger! it should be stro##ed on a #ie e of stout leather. It "ill be found! if the finger )LL+ is #assed do"n the tool and over its edge! that the stoning has turned u# a burr. 5his must be removed b$ stro##ing on both sides alternatel$. A #aste om#osed of emer$ and ro us #o"ders mi%ed "ith grease is used to smear the leather before stro##ing1 this an either be #ro ured at the tool sho#! or made b$ the arver. -hen the tool has been suffi ientl$ stro##ed! and all burr removed! it is read$ for use! but it is as "ell to tr$ it on a #ie e of "ood first! and test it for burr! and if ne essar$ stro# it again. Before "e leave this tool! ho"ever! "e shall anti i#ate a little! and look at it after it has been used for some time and be ome blunt. Its utting edge and the bevel above it are no" #olished to a high degree! o"ing to fri tion "ith the "ood. -e la$ it on the stone! taking are to #reserve the original angle H3LMI. -e find on looking at the tool after a little rubbing that this time it #resents a bright rim along the edge in ontrast "ith the gra$ steel "hi h has been in onta t "ith the stone. 5his bright rim is #art of the #olished surfa e the "hole bevel had before "e began this se ond shar#ening! "hi h #roves that the a tual edge has not $et tou hed the stone. )L?+ -e are tem#ted to lift the right hand ever so little! and so get rid of this bright rim Hsometimes alled the , andle,I1 "e shall thus get an edge &ui ker than if "e have to rub a"a$ all the steel behind it. -e do this! and soon get our edge1 the bright rim has disa##eared! but "e have done an un"ise thing! and have not saved mu h time! be ause "e have begun to make a rounded edge! "hi h! if arried a little farther! "ill make the tool useless until it is reground. 5here is no hel# for it2 time must be s#ent and trouble taken in shar#ening tools1 "ith method and are there need be ver$ little grinding! unless tools are a tuall$ broken. 5o resume our lesson in tool-shar#ening2 "e an not do mu h arving "ith one hisel! so "e shall no" take u# gouge :o. 9 as being the least diffi ult. 5his being a rounded tool! "e must turn the stone over and use the side "e have determined to kee# for gouges! et . -e ommen e rubbing it u# and do"n the stone in the same manner as des ribed for the hisel! but! in addition! "e have no" another motion. 5o bring all the
#arts of the edge into onta t "ith the stone the gouge must be rolled from side to side )LJ+ as it goes u# and do"n. 5o a om#lish this the "rist should be slo"l$ #ra tised until it gets into ste# "ith the u# and do"n motions1 it matters ver$ little "hether one turn of the tool is given to one #assage along the stone! or onl$ one turn to man$ u# and do"n rubbings. 5he main thing is evenness of rubbing all along the ir ular edge! as if one #art gets more than its share the edge be omes "av$! "hi h is a thing to be avoided as mu h as #ossible. -hen the outside has been leanl$ rubbed u# to the edge! the inside )L*+ is to be rubbed out "ith the -ashita sli# and oil to the e%tent of about half as mu h as the outside. 5he handle of the tool should be gras#ed in the left hand! "hile its blade rests on a blo k of "ood! or on the oilstone. Hold the sli# bet"een the fingers and thumb! slanting a little over the inner edge1 and "ork it in a series of short do"n"ard strokes! beginning the stroke at one orner of the gouge and leaving off at the other Hsee Fig. 34I. 'tro# the outside of the tool! and test for burr! then la$ the leather over the handle of another tool and stro# the inside! re#eating the o#eration until all burr has been removed! "hen #robabl$ the tool "ill be read$ for use.
*ig.
".
5he Deiner re&uires the same kind of treatment! onl$ as this tool is not #art of a ir le in its se tion Hhaving straight sidesI! onl$ one-half must be done at a time1 and it is as "ell to give the straight sides one stroke or so in ever$ half-do7en all to itself to kee# it in sha#e. Care must be taken "ith this tool as it is easil$ rubbed out of sha#e. 5he inside must be finished off "ith the Arkansas knife-edged sli#! one side at a time! as it is im#ossible to s"ee# out the "hole se tion of these )L0+ dee# tools at one stroke. 'tro##ing must follo" as before! but as this tool is so small that the leather "ill not enter its hollo"! the leather must be laid do"n flat and the hollo" of the tool dra"n along its edge until it makes a little ridge for itself "hi h fills the hollo" and lears off burr Hsee Fig. 33I1 if an$ su h adheres outside! a slight rub on the Arkansas stone "ill #robabl$ remove it. -hen the edges of the tools begin to get dull! it often ha##ens that the$ onl$ re&uire to be stro##ed! "hi h should be fre&uentl$ done. As the treatment of all gouges is more or less like "hat has been des ribed! #ra tise "ill enable the student to ada#t it to the sha#e of the tool "hi h re&uires his attention. 5here remains onl$ the D tool! the '#oon tools! and the Ma aroni! "hi h all re&uire s#e ial attention. 5he #oint
of the D )?4+ tool is so a ute that it be omes diffi ult to lear the inside. A knife-edged sli# is used for this #ur#ose! and it is "ell also to ut a sli# of "ood to a thin edge! and after rubbing it "ith #aste and oil! #ass it do"n fre&uentl$ over the #oint bet"een the sides. Cnless a ver$ shar# #oint is obtained! this tool is #ra ti all$ useless1 the least s#e k of burr or dullness "ill sto# its #rogress or tear u# the "ood. In shar#ening it! the sides should be #ressed firml$ on the stone! "at hing it ever$ no" and then to see "hat effe t is being #rodu ed. If a ga# begins to a##ear on one side! as it often does! then rub the other side until it disa##ears! taking are to bear more heavil$ on the #oint of the tool than else"here. If the sides get out of sha#e! #ass the tool along the stone! holding it at right angles to the side of the stone! but at the #ro#er angle of elevation1 in this ase the tool is held near its end! bet"een fingers and thumb. '#oon tools must be held to the stone at a mu h higher angle until the utting edge is in the right relation to the surfa e! or the$ ma$ be dra"n side"ise along it! taking are that ever$ #art of the edge omes in onta t and re eives an e&ual amount of )?3+ rubbing. 5hese ma$ be treated half at a time! or all round! a ording to the si7e and de#th of the tool. Ho"ever it is #rodu ed! the one thing essential is a long straight-se tioned utting bevel! not a rounded or obtuse one. 'tro# the inside b$ folding u# the leather into a little roll or ball until it fills the hollo" of the tool.
*ig.
For the small set of tools des ribed in Cha#ter II one flat oilstone and t"o sli#s "ill be found suffi ient for a beginning! but as a matter of fa t! it "ill be advisable! as the number of tools is enlarged! to obtain sli#s of urves orres#onding to the hollo"s of all gouges as nearl$ as #ossible. Man$ #rofessional arvers have sets of these sli#s for the insides of tools! var$ing in urves "hi h e%a tl$ fit ever$ hollo" tool the$ #ossess! in luding a triangular one for the inside of the D tool. 5he same rule sometimes a##lies to the s"ee#s of the outsides of gouges! for these! orres#onding hannels are ground out in flat stones! a #ro ess "hi h is both diffi ult and laborious. If the insides are dealt "ith on fitting sli#s! "hi h ma$ be easil$ ada#ted to the #ur#ose b$ a##li ation to a grindstone! the outsides are not )?9+ so diffi ult to manage! so that grooved stones ma$ be dis#ensed "ith. Before "e leave the sub6e t of shar#ening tools it "ill be "ell to im#ress u#on the beginner the e%treme im#ortan e of kee#ing his tools in good order. -hen a tool is reall$ shar# it "histles as it "orks1 a dull tool makes dull "ork! and the arver loses both time and tem#er. 5here an be no doubt that the great te hni al skill sho"n in the "orks of Brinling Bibbons and his follo"ers ould not have been arrived at "ithout the hel# of e%traordinaril$ shar# tools. 5ools not merel$ shar#ened and then used until the$ be ame dull! but tools that "ere al"a$s shar#! and never allo"ed to a##roa h dullness. 'har#ening tools is indeed an art in itself! and like other arts has its votaries! "ho su essfull$ on&uer its diffi ulties "ith a##arent ease! "hile others are baffled at ever$
#oint. Im#atien e is the stumbling-blo k in su h o#erations. 5hose most #ainstaking #eo#le! the Chinese! a ording to all a ounts! #ut magi into their shar#ening stones1 the keenness of their blades being onl$ e&ualed b$ that of their "its in all su h matters of deli ate a##li ation. 5o make a good beginning is )?;+ a great #oint gained. 5o arefull$ e%amine ever$ tool! and at the e%#ense of time orre t the faults of management! is the onl$ "a$ to be ome e%#ert in shar#ening tools.
CHAPTER VI CHIP CAR,ING

Its 'avage Origin/A Clue to its onl$ Claim to Artisti Im#ortan e/Monoton$ better than Dariet$/An <%er ise in Im#atien e and Pre ision/5e hni al Methods. One of the sim#lest forms of "oodarving is that kno"n as , hi#, arving. 5his kind of "ork is b$ no means of modern origin! as its develo#ment ma$ be tra ed to a sour e in the barbari instin t for de oration ommon to the an ient inhabitants of :e" Nealand and other 'outh 'ea Islands. 5e hni all$! and "ith modern tools! it is a form of the art "hi h demands but little skill! save in the matter of #re ision and #atient re#etition. As #ra tised b$ its savage masters! the #erfe tion of these t"o &ualities elevates their "ork to the dignit$ of a real art. It is diffi ult to )?G+ on eive the ontradi tor$ fa t! that this a##arentl$ sim#le form of art "as on e the e%#onent of a struggling desire for refinement on the #art of fier e and "arlike men! and that it should! under the influen e of #olite so iet$! be ome the all-too-eas$ task of estheti all$ minded s hoolgirls. In the hands of those "arrior artists! and "ith the tools at their ommand! mostl$ fashioned from shar#ened fish-bones and su h like rude materials! it "as an art "hi h re&uired the e&uivalent of man$ fine artisti &ualities! as su h are understood b$ more ultivated nations. 5he marvelous de%terit$ and determined #ur#ose evin ed in the laborious de oration of anoe #addles! a%-handles! and other "ea#ons! is! under su h te hni al disabilities as to tools! reall$ ver$ im#ressive. 5his being so! there is no inherent reason "h$ su h a rudimentar$ form of the art as , hi#, arving should not be #ra tised in a "a$ onsistent "ith its true nature and limitations. As its elemental distin tions are so fe"! and its methods so sim#le! it follo"s that in re ogni7ing su h limitations! "e shall make the most of our design. Instead! then! of trusting to a for ed variet$! let us seek for its strong #oint in an o##osite )?L+ dire tion! and b$ the monotonous re#etition of basket-like #atterns! "in the not-to-be-des#ised #raise "hi h is due to #atien e and #erseveran e. In this "a$ onl$ an su h a restri ted form of artisti e%#ression be ome in the least degree interesting. 5he designs usuall$ asso iated "ith the , ivili7ed, #ra tise of this "ork are! generall$ s#eaking! of the kind kno"n as ,geometri !, that is to sa$! om#osed of ir les and straight lines interse ting ea h other in om#li ated #attern. :o" the ,variet$, obtained in this manner! as ontrasted "ith the dignified monoton$ of the savage>s method! is the note "hi h marks a "eak desire to attain great results "ith little effort. 5he ,variet$!, as su h! is "holl$ me hani al! the te hni al diffi ulties! "ith modern tools at ommand! are felt at a glan e to be ver$ trifling1 therefore su h designs are &uite unsuitable to the kind of "ork! if human s$m#athies are to be e% ited in a reasonable "a$.
An im#ortant fa t in onne tion "ith this kind of design is that most of these geometri #atterns are! a#art from their un omfortable ,variet$!, based on too large a s ale as to detail. All the laborious arving on #addles and lubs! su h as )??+ ma$ be seen in our museums! is founded u#on a s ale of detail in "hi h the holes var$ in si7e from 3K3? to something under 3KG in. their longest "a$! onl$ in s#e ial #la es! su h as borders! et .! attaining a larger si7e. 'u h variet$ as the artist has #ermitted himself being onfined to the occasional introdu tion of a ir ular form! but mostl$ obtained b$ a subtle hange in the #ro#ortion of the holes! or b$ an alternate em#hasis u#on #er#endi ular or hori7ontal lines. As a test of enduran e! and as an e%#erimental effort "ith arving tools! I set $ou this e%er ise. In Fig. 39 $ou "ill find a #attern taken from one of those 'outh 'ea arvings "hi h "e have been onsidering. :o"! take one of the arti les so often disfigured "ith hildish and hast$ efforts to over a surfa e "ith so- alled ,art "ork!, su h as the side of a bello"s or the surfa e of a bread-#late! and on it arve this #attern! re#eating the same-sha#ed holes until $ou fill the entire s#a e. B$ the time $ou have om#leted it $ou "ill begin to understand and a##re iate one of the fundamental &ualities "hi h must go to"ard the making of a arver! namel$! #atien e1 and $ou "ill have #rodu ed )?0+ a thing "hi h ma$ give $ou #leasant sur#rises! in the une%#e ted but ver$ natural admiration it eli its from $our friends.
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Having dra"n the #attern on $our "ood! ruling the lines to measurement! and being areful to kee# $our lines thin and lear as dra"n "ith a some"hat hard #en il! #ro eed to ut out the holes "ith the hisel! :o. 33 on our list! 3KG in. "ide. It "ill serve the #ur#ose mu h better than the knife usuall$ sold for this kind of "ork! and "ill be giving $ou useful #ra tise "ith a ver$ ne essar$ arving tool. 5he orner of the hisel "ill do most of the "ork! slo#ing it to suit the different angles at the bottom of the holes. <a h hi# should ome out "ith a lean ut! but to insure this the do"n"ard uts should be done first! forming the raised diagonal lines. -hen $ou have su essfull$ #erformed this #ie e of dis i#line! $ou ma$! if $ou are to do more of the same kind of "ork! arr$ out a design based u#on the #rin i#les "e have been dis ussing! but introdu ing a ver$ moderate amount of variet$ b$ using one or more of the #atterns sho"n in Fig. 39! all of "hi h are )?0+ from the same dusk$ artist>s designs and an not be im#roved u#on. If $ou "ish for more variet$ than these narro"
limits afford! then tr$ some other kind of arving! "ith #erha#s leafage as its motive.
CHAPTER VII TH' GRAIN O* TH' 5OO%

Obstina $ of the -ood$ Fiber/First <%er ise in Brounding/(es ri#tion of Method/ Cutting the Miters/Handling of 5ools! (anger of Carelessness/Im#ortan e of Clean Cutting. It is urious to imagine "hat the inside of a $oung enthusiast>s head must be like "hen he makes his first ons ious ste# to"ard artisti e%#ression. 5he haoti 6umbles of halfformed ideas! "hirling about in its re esses! #rodu e kaleidos o#i effe ts! "hi h to him look like the most lovel$ #i tures. If he ould onl$ learn to #ut them do"nO let him but a &uire the te hni al de#artment of his art! and "hat easier than to reali7e those most marvelous dreams. Later in his #rogress it begins to da"n u#on him that this same te hni al de#artment ma$ not be so ver$ obedient )J4+ to his "ishes1 it ma$ have la"s of its o"n! "hi h shall hange his fair$ fan ies into sober images! not at all unlike something "hi h has often been done before b$ others. But let the $oung soul ontinue to see visions! the more the better! #rovided the$ be of the right sort. -e shall in the meantime ask him to urb his imagination! and $ield his fa ulties for the moment to the a##arentl$ sim#le task of reali7ing a leaf or t"o from one of the trees in his en hanted valle$. -ith the student>s kind #ermission "e shall! "hile these lessons ontinue! make believe that tea her and #u#il are together in a lass-room! or! better still! in a ountr$ "orksho#! "ith hi#s fl$ing in all dire tions under bus$ hands. I must tell $ou then! that the first sur#rise "hi h a"aits the beginner! and one "hi h o#ens his e$es to a "hole series of restraints u#on the freedom of his o#erations! lies in the dis over$ that "ood has a de ided grain or fiber. He "ill find that it sometimes behaves in a ver$ obstinate manner! refusing to ut straight here! hi##ing off there! and altogether seeming to take #leasure in th"arting his ever$ effort. B$ and b$ he gets to kno" his )J3+ #ie e of "ood1 "here the grain di#s and "here it omes u# or "riggles! and "ith #ra tise he be omes its master. He finds in this! his first te hni al diffi ult$! a kind of blessing in disguise! be ause it sets bounds to "hat "ould other"ise be an infinitel$ vague hoi e of methods. -e shall no" take a #ie e of $ello" #ine! free from knots! and #laned lean all round. 5he si7e ma$ be about 39 ins. long b$ J ins. "ide. -e shall fi% this to the ben h b$ means of t"o lam#s or one lam# and a s re"ed blo k at o##osite orners. :o" "e are read$ to begin "ork! but u# to the #resent "e have not thought of the design "e intend e%e uting! being so intent u#on the tools and im#atient for an atta k u#on the silk$ "ood "ith their shar# edges. 5he illustration! Fig. 3;! gives a lue to the sort of design to begin "ith1 it measures about 33 ins. long b$ J ins. "ide! allo"ing a margin all round. 5he "ood should be a little longer than the design! as the ends get s#oiled b$ the lam#s. 5his little design need not! and indeed should not! be o#ied. Make one for $ourself entirel$ different!
onl$ bearing in mind the #oints "hi h are to be observed )J9+ in arranging it! and "hi h have for their ob6e t the avoidan e of diffi ulties likel$ to be too mu h for a first effort. 5hese #oints are some"hat to this effe t2 the design should be of leaves! laid out flat on a ba kground! "ith no om#li ation of #ers#e tive. 5he$ should have no undulations of surfa e. 5hat is to sa$! the margins of all the features should be as nearl$ as #ossible the original surfa e of the "ood! "hi h ma$ have 6ust the least #ossible bit of finish in the manner I shall des ribe later on. 5he arti ulation of the leaves and flo"er is re#resented b$ sim#le gouge uts. 5here should be nothing in the design re&uiring rounded surfa es. 5he #assage for tools in learing out the ground bet"een the features must not be less than 3KG in.1 this "ill allo" the ;K3? in. orner grounder to #ass freel$ ba k"ard and for"ard. 5he ground is su##osed to be sunk about three-si%teenths of an in h. As $ou have not got $our design made! I shall! for onvenien e> sake! e%#lain ho" Fig. 3; should be begun and finished. First having tra ed the full-si7e design it should be transferred to the "ood b$ means of a #ie e of blue arbon #a#er. )J;+
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5hen "ith either the Deiner or D tool outline the "hole of the leaves! et .! about 3K* in. dee#! kee#ing "ell on the outside of the dra"ing. Ignore all minor detail for the #resent! blo king out the design in masses. :o outline need be grooved for the margin of the #anel at #resent! as it should be done "ith a larger tool. For this #ur#ose take gouge :o. ? H3KG in. "ideI! and begin at the left-hand bottom orner of the #anel! ut a groove about 3K3? in. "ithin the blue line! taking are not to ut off #arts of the leaves in the #ro ess1 begin a little above the orner at the bottom! and leave off a little belo" that at the to#. 5he miters "ill be formed later on. In this o#eration! as in all subse&uent ones! the grain of the "ood "ill be more or less in eviden e. =ou "ill b$ degrees get to kno" the #ie e of "ood $ou are "orking u#on! and ut in su h a "a$ that $our tool runs &ith the grain and not against it1 that is to sa$! $ou "ill ut as mu h as #ossible on the u#-hill dire tion of the fiber. 5his an not al"a$s be done in dee# hollo"s! but then $ou "ill have had some #ra tise before $ou attem#t these. :o" take hisel :o. 33! and "ith it )JL+ stab into the grooved outline! #ressing the tool do"n #er#endi ularl$ to "hat $ou think feels like the de#th of the ground. 5he mallet need not be used for this! as the "ood is soft enough to allo" of the tools being #ressed b$ the hand alone! but remember that the for e must be #ro#ortioned to the de#th desired! and to the dire tion of the grain1 mu h less #ressure is "anted to drive a tool into the "ood "hen its edge is #arallel "ith the grain than "hen it lies in a ross dire tion1 small tools #enetrate more easil$ than large ones! as a matter of ourse! but one must think of these things or a idents ha##en. -hen $ou have been all round the design in this "a$ "ith su h gouges as ma$ be needed for the slo" and &ui k urves! get the "ood out nearl$ do"n to the ground! leaving a little for finishing. (o this "ith an$ tool that fits the s#a es best1 the larger the better. Cut a ross the grain as mu h as #ossible! not along it. 5he flat gouge! :o. 3! "ill be found useful for this #ur#ose in the larger s#a es! and the grounders for the narro" #assages. 5his leaves the ground in a rough state! "hi h must be finished later on. )J?+ :o" take gouges :os. 9! ;! G! L! ?! J! and hisels :os. 34! 33! 39! and "ith them ut do"n the outline as a uratel$ as #ossible to the de#th of the ground! and! if $ou are lu k$! 6ust a hair>s breadth dee#er. In doing this make the sides slo#e a little out"ard to"ard the bottom. If the gouges do not entirel$ ada#t themselves to the ontours of $our lines! do not trouble! but leave that bit to be done after"ard "ith a s"ee# of the tool! either a flat gouge! or the ornerhisel used like a knife. :o" "e have all the outline ut do"n to the de#th of the ba kground! and ma$ #ro eed to lear out the "ood hanging about bet"een the design and the ground all round it. -e shall do this "ith the ,grounders!, using the largest one "hen #ossible! and onl$ taking to the smallest "hen absolutel$ ne essar$ on a ount of s#a e. 5his done! "e shall no" #ro eed to finish the hollo" sides of the #anel and make the miters. Again! take :o. ? gouge and drive a lear hollo" tou hing the blue line at end of #anel! and rea hing the bottom of the sinking! i.e.! the a tual ground as finished! see a! Fig. 3L. 5o form the miter at to# of left-hand side of #anel! )JJ+ arr$ the hollo" on until the tool rea hes the bottom of the hollo" running along the to#1 as soon as this #oint is gained! turn the tool out and #it h it a little u# in the "a$ sho"n at c! Fig. 3L! in "hi h the tool is sho"n at an angle "hi h brings the edge of the gouge e%a tl$ on the line of the miter to be
formed. Beginning as it does at b! this &ui k turn of the handle to the left takes out the little bit of "ood )J*+ sho"n b$ dotted lines at b! and forms one-half of the miter. 5he ross-grain ut should be done first! as in this "a$ there is less risk of s#lintering. :o" re#eat the #ro ess on the long-grain side of the #anel! and one miter is in a good "a$ for being finished.
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A "ord no" about these sides of sunk #anels. 5he$ al"a$s look better if the$ are hollo"ed "ith a gouge instead of being ut s&uare do"n. In the first ase the$ arr$ out the im#ression that the "hole thing is ut out of a solid #ie e of "ood! "hereas "hen the$ are ut shar#l$ do"n the$ al"a$s suggest abinet-making! as if a #ie e had been glued on to form a margin. -e have no" got the "ork blo ked out and the ground fairl$ level! and "e are read$ to do the little arving "e have allo"ed ourselves. Before "e begin this I shall take the o##ortunit$ of reminding $ou that $ou must be ver$ areful in handling $our tools1 it is a matter of the greatest im#ortan e! if the ontingen $ of ut fingers or damaged "ork is to be avoided. 5he left hand in arving has nearl$ as mu h to do as the right! onl$ in a different "a$. Bras# the hisel or gouge )J0+ in the left hand "ith the fingers some"hat e%tended! that is! the little finger "ill ome "ell on to the blade! and the thumb run u# to"ard the to# of the handle1 the "rist mean"hile resting on the "ork. 5he right hand is used for #ushing the tool for"ard! and for turning it this "a$ and that! in fa t does most of the guiding. Both hands ma$ be des ribed as o##osing ea h other in for e! for the #ressure on the tool from the right hand should be resisted b$ the left! until almost a balan e is stru k! and 6ust enough for e left to ut the "ood gentl$! "ithout danger of sli##ing for"ard and damaging it or the fingers. 5he tool is thus in om#lete ommand! and the slightest hange of #ressure on either hand ma$ alter its dire tion or sto# it altogether. :ever drive a tool for"ard "ith one hand "ithout this ounter-resistan e! as there is no kno"ing "hat ma$ ha##en if it sli#s. :ever "ave tools about in the hand!
and generall$ remember that the$ are dangerous im#lements! both to the user and the "ork. :ever #ut too mu h for e on a tool "hen in the neighborhood of a deli ate #assage! but take time and eat the bit of "ood out mouse-like! in small fragments. )*4+ :o" "e are read$ to finish our #anel. 5ake the grounders! a ording to the si7e re&uired! al"a$s using the biggest #ossible. Aee# the tool "ell #ressed do"n! and shave a"a$ the roughness of the ground! giving the tool a slight side"a$ motion as "ell as a for"ard one. -ork right u# to the leaves! et .! "hi h! if ut dee# enough! should allo" the hi#s to ome a"a$ freel$! leaving a lear line of interse tion1 if it does not! then the u#right sides must be ut do"n until the ground is &uite lear of hi#s. Brounder tools are ver$ #rone to dig into the surfa e and make "ork for themselves2 shar# tools! #ra tise! and a slight side"a$ motion "ill #revent this. 5ool :o. 9; is useful in this res#e t! its orners being slightl$ lifted above the level of the ground as it #asses along. Corners that an not be rea hed "ith the bent hisels ma$ be finished off "ith the ornerhisel. :o" "e ome to the surfa e de orations! for the arving in this design onsists of little more. 5his is all done "ith the gouges. Benerall$ s#eaking! enter the groove at its "idest end and leave it at the narro"est! lo"ering the handle of the tool graduall$ as $ou go along to lift the )*3+ gouge out of the "ood! #rodu ing the dra"ing of the forms at the same time. A gouge ut never looks so "ell as "hen done at one stroke1 #at hing it after"ard "ith amendments al"a$s #rodu es a labored look. If this has to be done! the tool should be #assed finall$ over the "hole groove to remove the su#erfluous tool marks/a side"a$ gliding motion of the edge! ombined "ith its for"ard motion! often su eeds in this o#eration. 5o form the ir ular enter of the flo"er! #ress do"n gouge :os. L or ?! gentl$ at first and #er#endi ular to the "ood. -hen a ut has been made all round the ir le! "ork the edge of the tool in it! ir us-like! b$ turning the handle in the fingers round and round until the edge uts its "a$ do"n to the #ro#er de#th. H'ee A! Fig. 3L.I Carve the sides of the leaves "here ne essar$ "ith flat gouges on the inside urves! and "ith hisels and orner- hisels on the outside ones. 5hese should be used in a sliding or knife-like fashion! and not merel$ #ushed for"ard. Finish the surfa e in the same manner all over bet"een the gouge grooves and the edges of the leaves! #rodu ing a ver$ slight )*9+ bevel as in se tion a! Fig. 3;! and this #anel ma$ be alled finished. Fig. 3G is another suggestion for a design! u#on "hi h I ho#e $ou "ill base one of $our o"n as an e%er ise at this stage of $our #rogress. Before "e begin another! though! I shall take this o##ortunit$ of reading $ou a short le ture on a most im#ortant matter "hi h has a great deal to do "ith the #re#aration of $our mind in making a suitable hoi e of sub6e t for $our future "ork.
CHAPTER VIII I(ITATION O* NAT+RA& *OR(S

(iffi ulties of 'ele tion and Arrangement/Limits of an Imitative 5reatment/Light and (istan e Fa tors in the Arrangement of a (esign/< onom$ of (etail :e essar$/5he
-ord ,Conventional., Broadl$ stated! the three most formidable diffi ulties "hi h onfront the beginner "hen he sets out to make "hat he is #leased to all his design for arving in relief! are2 Firstl$! the hoi e of a sub6e t1 se ondl$! ho" far he ma$ go in the imitation of its details1 thirdl$! its )*;+ arrangement as a "hole "hen he has de ided the first t"o #oints. 8ust no" "e shall deal onl$ "ith the se ond diffi ult$! that is! ho" far ma$ likeness to nature be arried. -e shall do this! be ause until "e ome to some understanding on that #oint! a right hoi e of sub6e t be omes #ra ti all$ im#ossible! onse&uentl$ the onsideration of its arrangement "ould be #remature. 5here is! stri tl$ s#eaking! onl$ one aim "orth$ of the artist>s attention! be he arver or #ainter1 and that is the re#resentation of some form of life! or its asso iations. Lu kil$! there is a might$ onsensus of o#inion in su##ort of this di tum! both b$ e%am#le and #re e#t! so there is no need to dis uss it! or &uestion its authorit$. -e shall #ro eed! therefore! to a t u#on it! and hoose for our "ork onl$ su h material as in some "a$ indi ates life! either dire tl$! as in trees! animals! or figures! or b$ asso iation! and as e%#lanation thereof! as in dra#er$ and other a essories/never hoosing a sub6e t like those kno"n to #ainters as ,still life!, su h as bo"ls! fiddles! "ea#ons! et .! unless! as I have said! the$ are asso iated "ith the more im#ortant element. )*G+ =ou have alread$ dis overed b$ #ra tise that "ood has a grain "hi h sets bounds to the #ossibilities of te hni&ue. =ou have $et to learn that it has also an inordinate a#a it$ for s"allo"ing light. :o"! as it is b$ the aid of light that "e see the results of our labor! it follo"s that "e should do ever$thing in our #o"er to take full advantage of that hel#ful agen $. It is obvious that "ork "hi h an not be seen is onl$ so mu h labor thro"n a"a$. 5here is a##ro%imatel$ a right relative distan e from "hi h to vie" all manner of arvings! and if from this #osition the "ork is not both distin t and oherent! its result is valueless. 5hen "hat is the &ualit$ "hi h makes all the differen e bet"een a telling #ie e of arving! and one "hi h looks! at a moderate distan e! like rum#led #a#er or the ork bark "hi h de orates a suburban summer-houseP 5he ans"er is! attention to strict econom% in detail. -ithout e onom$ there an be no arrangement! and "ithout the latter no general effe t. -e are #ra ti all$ dealing! not "ith so mu h mere "ood! but un ons iousl$ "e are dire ting our efforts to a mani#ulation of the light of da$/#la$ing "ith the )*L+ lam#s of the sk$/and if "e do not understand this! the result must be undoubtedl$ failure! "ith a #ie e of "ood left on our hands! ut into unintelligible ruts. But "hat! $ou "ill sa$! has all this to do "ith o#$ing the infinite variet$ of nature>s detail1 surel$ it an not be "rong to imitate "hat is reall$ beautiful in itselfP =ou "ill find the best ans"er to this in the te hni al diffi ulties of $our task. =ou have the grain of the "ood to think of! and no" $ou have this other diffi ult$ in managing the light "hi h is to dis#la$ $our design. 5he obstina $ of the "ood ma$ be to some e%tent on&uered! and indeed has been almost entirel$ so! b$ the te hni al resour es of Brinling Bibbons! but the treatment demanded b$ the la"s of light and vision is &uite another &uestion! and if our "ork is to have its due effe t! there is no other solution of the #roblem than b$ finding a "a$ of om#l$ing "ith those la"s. If I "ant to re#resent a rose and make it intelligible at a glan e from su h and su h a
#oint of vie"! and I find after taking infinite #ains to re#rodu e as man$ as I an of its numerous #etals! and as )*?+ mu h as #ossible of its om#li ated foliage! that I had not re koned "ith the light "hi h "as to illuminate it! and that instead of dis#la$ing m$ "ork to advantage! it has blurred all its deli ate forms into dusk$ and haoti masses! "ould I not be foolish if I re#eated su h an e%#erimentP .ather! I take the o##osite e%treme! and #rodu e a rose this time "hi h has but five #etals! and one or t"o s#ra$s of rudimentar$ foliage. 'omeho" the result is better! and it has onl$ taken me a tenth #art of the time to #rodu e. I no" find that I an afford! "ithout offending the genius of light! or straining m$ e$esight! to add a fe" more #etals and one or t"o e%tra leaves bet"een those I have so s#aringl$ designed! and a kind of balan e is stru k. 5he same thing ha##ens "hen I tr$ to re#resent a "hole tree/I an not even ount the leaves u#on it! "h$ then attem#t to arve themP Let me make one leaf that "ill stand for fift$! and let that leaf be sim#lified until it is little more than an abstra t of the form I see in su h thousandfold variet$. 5he #roof that I am right this time is that "hen I stand at the #ro#er distan e to vie" m$ "ork! it is all as distin t as I ould "ish it to be. :ot a leaf#oint )*J+ is &uite lost to sight! e% e#t "here! in vanishing into a shado"! it adds m$ster$ "ithout reating onfusion. -e have in this dis over$ a lue to the meaning of the "ord ,Conventional,2 it means that a #arti ular method has been ,agreed u#on, as the best fitted for its #ur#ose! i.e.! as sho"ing the "ork to most advantage "ith a minimum of labor. :ot that e%#erien e had reall$ an$thing to do "ith the invention of the method. 'trange to sa$! the earliest efforts in arving "ere based u#on an un&uestioning sense that no other "as #ossible! ertainl$ no attem#ts "ere made to hange it until in latter da$s tem#tations arose in various dire tions! the effe ts of "hi h have entailed u#on ourselves a ons ious effort of hoi e in om#aring the results of the man$ subse&uent e%#eriments. Before I ontinue this sub6e t further! I shall give $ou another e%er ise! "ith the ob6e t of making a loser resemblan e to natural forms! bearing in mind the "hile all that has been said about a s#aring use of minute detail "ith referen e to its visible effe t. -e shall in this design attem#t some sha#ing on the surfa e of the leaves and a little rounding too! "hi h )**+ ma$ add interest to the "ork. In m$ ne%t le ture to $ou! I shall have something to sa$ about another im#ortant element in all designs for "oodarving. I mean the sha#es taken b$ the ba kground bet"een the leaves! like the #at hes of sk$ seen behind a tree.
CHAPTER IX RO+N%'% *OR(S

:e essit$ for <ver$ Carver Making his o"n (esigns/Method of Carving .ounded Forms on a 'unk Bround. )*0+
*ig.
3.
Fig. 3?! our se ond e%er ise! like the first one! is onl$ to be taken as a suggestion for a design to be made b$ $ourself. It is a fundamental #rin i#le that both design and e%e ution should be the "ork of one and the same #erson! and I "ant $ou to begin b$ stri tl$ #ra tising this rule. It "as indeed one of the main onditions of #rodu tion in the best times of the #ast! and there is not a shado" of doubt that it must again ome to be the universal rule if an$ real #rogress is to be made in the art of "oodarving! or in an$ other art for that )04+ matter. 8ust think for a moment ho" false must be the #osition of both #arties! "hen one makes a ,design, and another arries it out. 5he ,designer, sets his head to "ork H"e must not ount his hands at #resent! as the$ onl$ note do"n the results in a kind of "ritingI! a ,design, is #rodu ed and handed over to the arver to e%e ute. He! the arver! sets his hands and e$es to "ork! to arr$ out the other man>s idea! or at least inter#ret his notes for the same! his head mean"hile having ver$ little to do! further than transfer the said notes to his hands. For ver$ good reasons su h an arrangement as this is bound to ome to grief. One is! that no #ie e of arving an
#ro#erl$ be said to be ,designed, until it is finished to the last stroke. A dra"ing is onl$ a ma# of its general outline! "ith #erha#s ontours a##ro%imatel$ indi ated b$ shading. In an$ ase! even if a full-si7e model "ere su##lied b$ the designer! the #rin i#le involved "ould suffer 6ust the same degree of violen e! for it is in the a tual arving of the "ood that the designer should find both his ins#iration and the dis i#line "hi h kee#s it "ithin reasonable bounds. He must be at full libert$ to alter his original intention )03+ as the "ork develo#s under his hand. A##arentl$ I have been led into giving $ou another le ture1 "e must no" get to "ork on our e%er ise. (ra" and tra e $our outline in the same manner as before! and transfer it to the "ood. =ou ma$ make it an$ onvenient si7e! sa$ on a board 3* ins. long b$ 0 ins. "ide! or "hat other sha#e $ou like! #rovided $ou observe one or t"o onditions "hi h I am going to #oint out. It shall have a fair amount of ba kground bet"een the features! and the design! "hatever it is! shall form a tra eable likeness to a #attern of some des ri#tion1 it shall have a rudimentar$ resemblan e to nature! "ithout going into mu h detail1 and last! it shall have a fe" rounded forms in it! rounded both in outline and on the surfa e! as! for instan e! #lums. *ig. 4.
In setting to "ork to arve this e%er ise! follo" the same #ro edure as in the first one! u# to the #oint "hen the surfa e de orations began. In the illustration! there is a suggestion for a variet$ in the ba kground "hi h does not o ur in the other. In this ase the little bran hes are su##osed to lie along the to#s of gentle )09+ elevations! and the #lums to lie in the hollo"s. It #rodu es a se tion something like this! Fig. 3J. 5here is a suffi ient e% use for this kind of treatment in the fa t that the bran hes do not re&uire mu h de#th! and the #lums "ill look all the better for a little more. 5he de#th of the ba kground "ill thus var$! sa$ bet"een ;K3? in. at the bran hes and ;K* in. at the #lums. 5he bran hes are su##osed to be #erfe tl$ level from end to end! that is! the$ lie #arallel to the surfa e of the "ood! but of ourse urve about in the other dire tion. 5he leaves! on the other hand! are su##osed to be some"hat rounded and falling a"a$ to"ard their sides and #oints in #la es. 5he vein in the enter of the leaves ma$ be done "ith a #arting tool! as "ell as the serrations at the edge! or the latter ma$ #erha#s be more surel$ ni ked out "ith a hisel! after the leaves have re eived their sha#es! the leaves being made to a##ear as if one side "as higher than the other! and as though )0;+ their #oints! in some ases! tou hed the ba kground! "hile in others the base ma$ be the lo"est #art. 5he t"igs oming out from the bran hes to su##ort the #lums should be some"hat like this in se tion! and should lie along the urve of the ba kground! and be in themselves rounded! as in Fig. 3*! see se tion a a. 5he bottom of the #anel sho"s a bevel instead of a hollo" border2 this "ill serve to distinguish it as a starting-#oint for the little bran hes "hi h a##ear to emerge from it like trees out of the ground. 5he #lums should be arved b$ first utting them do"n in outline to the ba kground! as A! Fig. 30. 5hen the "ood should be removed from the edge all round! to form the rounded surfa e. 5o do this! first take the large gouge! :o. 9! and "ith its hollo" side to the "ood! ut off the to#! from about its middle to one end! and reversing the #ro ess do the same "ith the other side. 5hen it "ill a##ear something )0G+ like B HFig. 30I. 5he
remainder must be sha#ed "ith an$ tool "hi h "ill do it best. 5here is no ro$al road to the #rodu tion of these rounded forms! but #robabl$ gouge :o. 3 "ill do the most of it.
*ig.
6.
*ig.
!.
Here it ma$ be observed that the fe"er tools used the better! as if man$ are used there is al"a$s a risk of un#leasant fa ets at the #la es "here the various marks 6oin ea h other. Before $ou tr$ the #lums! or a##les! or other rounded fruit "hi h $ou ma$ have in $our design! it "ould be as "ell to e%#eriment "ith one on a #ie e of s#are "ood in order to de ide u#on the most suitable tools. 5he stems or bran hes ma$ be done "ith flat gouge :o. 3! or the flat or orner hisel. A ver$ deli ate t"ist or s#iral tenden $ in their u#"ard gro"th "ill greatl$ im#rove their a##earan e! a mere fa eting #rodu ed b$ a flat gouge or )0L+ hisel "ill do this1 an$thing is better than a mere round and bare surfa e! "hi h has a tenden $ to look dough$. 5he little ir ular mark on the end of the #lum H all it a #lum! although that fruit has no su h thingI is done b$ #ressing gouge :o. J into the "ood first! "ith the handle rather near the surfa e of the "ood! and after"ard at a higher in lination! this taking out a tin$ hi# of a ir ular sha#e and leaving a D-sha#ed groove. :o" I am going to ontinue the sub6e t of m$ last le ture! in order to im#ress u#on $ou the im#ortan e of suiting $our sub6e t to the onditions demanded b$ the la"s of te hni&ue and light. Pra tise "ith the tools must go hand in hand "ith the edu ation of the head if good results are to be e%#e ted1 nor must it be left "holl$ to hand and e$e if $ou are to avoid the #itfalls "hi h lie in "ait for the un"ar$ me hani . )0?+
CHAPTER X TH' PATT'RN'% $AC7GRO+N%

Im#ortan e of Formal Pattern as an Aid to Disibilit$/Pattern and Free .endering Com#ared/First Im#ressions Lasting/Medieval Choi e of :atural Forms Boverned b$ a Euestion of Pattern.
*ig. .". B$ a om#arison of the #ie e of B$7antine s ul#ture! Fig. 94! "ith the more elaborate treatment of foliage sho"n in Fig. 93! from late Bothi a#itals! in 'outh"ell Minster! it "ill be seen ho" an in reasing desire for imitative resemblan e has taken the #la e of a #atterned foundation! and ho"! in onse&uen e! the ba kground is no longer dis ernible as a ontrasting form. 5he B$7antine design is! of ourse! little more than a #attern "ith sunk holes for a ba kground! and it is in marble1 but those holes are arranged in a distin t and orderl$ fashion. 5he other is a highl$ realisti treatment of foliage! the likeness to nature being so full$ develo#ed that some of these grou#s have veins on the bac"s of the leaves. 5he &uestion for the moment is this! "hi h of the t"o e%tremes gives the )0*+ learest a ount of itself at a distan eP I think there an be little doubt that the more formal arrangement bears this test better than the other! and this! too! in fa e of the fa t that it has ost mu h less labor to #rodu e. .emember "e are onl$ no" onsidering the &uestion of visibilit% in the design. =ou ma$ like the undefined and suggestive masses into "hi h the leaves and shado"s of the 'outh"ell one grou# themselves better than the unbending severit$ of the lines in the other! but that is not the #oint at #resent. =ou an not see the a tual "ork "hi h #rodu es that m$ster$! and I ma$ #oint out to $ou! that "hat is here romanti and #leasing on a ount of its hangeful and informal shado"s! is on the verge of be oming mere be"ildering
onfusion1 a tenden $ "hi h al"a$s a om#anies attem#ts to imitate the a idental or informal grou#ing of leaves! so ommon to their natural state. 5he further this is arried! the less is it #ossible to govern the forms of the ba kground #attern1 the$ be ome less dis ernible as ontrasting 'orms! although the$ ma$ be ver$ interesting as elements of m$ster$ and suggestive of things not a tuall$ seen. 5he onse&uen e is a )344+ loss of #o"er in #rodu ing that instantaneous im#ression of harmon$ "hi h is one of the se rets of effe tiveness in arving. 5his is greatl$ o"ing to the onstant hange of #lane demanded b$ an imitative treatment! as "ell as the "ant of formalit$ in its ba kground. 5he la k of restful monoton$ in this res#e t reates onfusion in the lights! making a loser ins#e tion ne essar$ in order to dis ern the beaut$ of the "ork. :o" the human imagination loves sur#rises! and never "holl$ forgives the artist "ho! failing to administer a #leasant sho k! invites it to ome for"ard and e%amine the details of his "ork in order to see ho" "ell the$ are e%e uted.
*ig. . .
5hese e%am#les! $ou "ill sa$! are from ar hite tural details "hi h have nothing to do "ith "oodarving. On the ontrar$! the same la"s govern all manner of s ul#tures&ue om#osition/s ale or material making no differen e "hatever. A s ul#tured marble frie7e or a arved ivor$ snuff-bo% ma$ be e&uall$ ensurable as being either so bare that the$ verge on baldness and "ant of interest! or so elaborate that the$ look like la$ers of fungus. (o not imagine that I am urging an$ #referen e for a B$7antine treatment in )343+ $our "ork1 to do so "ould be as foolish as to ask $ou to don medieval ostume "hile at "ork! or assume the s#ee h and manners of the tenth entur$. It "ould be 6ust as ridi ulous on $our #art to affe t a bias "hi h "as not natural to $ou. I am! ho"ever! strongl$ onvin ed that in the hoi e of natural forms and their arrangement into orderl$ masses Hmore #arti ularl$ "ith regard to their a##earan e in silhouette against the groundI! and also in the matter of an e onomi al use of detail! "e have mu h to learn from the arvers "ho #re eded the fourteenth entur$. 5he$ thoroughl$ understood and a##re iated the value of the light "hi h fell u#on their "ork! and in designing it arranged ever$ detail "ith the ob6e t of refle ting as mu h of it as #ossible. 5o this end! their "ork "as al"a$s al ulated for its best effe ts to be seen at a fairl$ distant #oint of vie"1 and to make sure that it "ould be both visible and oherent! seen from that #oint! the$ insisted u#on some easil$ understood #attern "hi h gave the ke$ to the "hole at a glan e. 5o make a #attern of this kind is not su h an eas$ matter as it looks. 5he forms of the ba kground s#a es are the om#lementar$ #arts of the )349+ design! and are 6ust as im#ortant as those of the solid #ortions1 it takes them both to make a good design. :o" I believe $ou must have had enough of this sub6e t for the #resent! more es#e iall$ as $ou have not $et begun to feel the e%traordinar$ diffi ult$ of making u# $our mind as to "hat is and "hat is not fit for the arver>s uses among the boundless e%am#les of beaut$ s#read out for our hoi e b$ (ame :ature. Meantime! I do not "ant $ou to run a"a$ "ith the im#ression that "hen $ou have mastered the #rin i#les of e onom$ in detail and an orderl$ dis#osition of ba kground! that $ou have therefore learned all that is ne essar$ in order to go on turning out design after design "ith the ease of a ook making #an akes a ording to a re i#e. =ou "ill find b$ e%#erien e! I think! that all su h #rin i#les are good for is to enfor e learness of utteran e! so to s#eak! and to remind $ou that it is light $ou are dealing "ith! and u#on "hi h $ou must de#end for all effe ts1 also that the #o"er of vision is limited. A ting u#on them is &uite another matter! and one! I am afraid! in )34;+ "hi h no one an hel# $ou mu h. =ou ma$ be ounseled as to the best and most #ra ti al mode of e%#ressing $our ideas! but those thoughts and inventions must ome from $ourself if the$ are to be "orth having. In m$ ne%t le ture I shall have something to sa$ "ith regard to originalit$ of design! but no" "e must take u# our tools again and begin "ork u#on another e%er ise.
CHAPTER XI CONTO+RS O* S+R*AC'

Ada#tation of Old (esigns to Modern Pur#oses/,5hro"ing About,/Criti al Ins#e tion of -ork from a (istan e as it Pro eeds.
*ig. ... Here are t"o fragments of a kind of running ornament. Fig. 99 is a #art of the 6amb molding of a hur h in Di en7a. If $ou observe arefull$! $ou "ill find that it has a de idedl$ lassi al a##earan e. 5he truth is that it "as arved b$ a Bothi artist late in the fourteenth entur$! 6ust after the .enaissan e influen e began to make itself felt. It is an ada#tation b$ him )34G+ of "hat he remembered having seen in his travels of the ne" st$le! grafted u#on the traditional treatment read$ to his hand. It suits our #ur#ose all the better on that a ount! for the reason that "e are going to re-ada#t his design into an e%er ise! and shall attem#t to make it suitable to our limited abilit$ in handling
the tools! to the hange in material )34L+ from stone to "ood! and lastl$! to our different aims and motives in the treatment of ar hite tural ornament. Please do all this for $ourself in another design! and look u#on this suggestion merel$ in the light of hel#ing a lame dog over a stile.
*ig. .#. In this e%er ise HFig. 9;I $ou "ill re#eat all $ou have alread$ done "ith the others! )34?+ until $ou ome to the sha#ing of the leaves! in "hi h an undulating or u# and do"n motion has been attem#ted. 5his involves a kind of double dra"ing in the urves! one for the flat and one for the #ro6e tions1 so that the$ ma$ a##ear to glide evenl$ from one #oint to the other! s"ee#ing u# and do"n! right and left! "ithout losing their true ontours. Carvers all this #ro ess ,thro"ing about!, i.e.! making the leaves! et .! a##ear to rise from the ba kground and again fall to"ard it in all dire tions. 5he #hrase is a ver$ meager one! and but #oorl$ e%#resses the ne essit$ for intimate s$m#ath$ bet"een ea h surfa e so ,thro"n about., It is #re isel$ in the observan e of this last
&ualit$ that effe ts of ri hness are #rodu ed. =ou an hardl$ have too mu h monoton$ of surfa e! but ma$ easil$ err b$ having too mu h variet$. 5herefore! "hatever s$stem of light and shade $ou ma$ ado#t! be areful to re#eat its motive in some sort of rh$thmi order all over $our "ork1 b$ no other means an $ou make it ri h and effe tive at a distan e. It is "ell ever$ no" and then to #ut $our "ork u# on a shelf or ledge at a distan e and vie" it as a "hole1 $ou "ill )34J+ thus see "hi h #arts tell and "hi h do not! and so gain e%#erien e on this #oint. -ork should also be turned about fre&uentl$! side"ise and u#side do"n! in order to find ho" the light affe ts it in different dire tions. Of ourse! $ou must not think that be ause $our "ork ma$ ha##en to look "ell "hen seen from a little "a$ off that it does not matter about the details! "hether the$ be "ell or #oorl$ arved. On the ontrar$! unless $ou satisf$ the e$e at both #oints of vie"! $our "ork is a #artial failure. 5he one thing is as im#ortant as the other! onl$! as the first glan e at arved "ork is generall$ taken at some little distan e! it is the more immediatel$ ne essar$ to think of that! before "e begin to "ork for a loser ins#e tion. First im#ressions are generall$ lasting "ith regard to arved "ork! and! as I have said before! beaut$ of detail seldom &uite atones for failure in the arrangement of masses. 5he rounded forms in this design ma$ give $ou a little trouble! but #ra tise! and that alone! "ill enable $ou to over ome this. Absolute smoothness is not desirable. Blass#a#ered surfa es are e%tremel$ ugl$! be ause the$ obtrude themselves on )34*+ a ount of their e%treme smoothness! having lost all signs of handi"ork in the tool marks. -e shall have something to sa$ #resentl$ about these tool marks in finishing! as it is a ver$ im#ortant sub6e t "hi h ma$ make all the differen e bet"een su ess or failure in finishing a #ie e of "ork.
CHAPTER XII ORIGINA&ITY

(angers of Im#osing -ords/:ovelt$ more Common than Originalit$/An Cn"holesome Aind of ,Originalit$., I told $ou that I should have something to sa$ about originalit$. Almost ever$ beginner has some vague im#ression that his first dut$ should be to aim at originalit$. He hears eulogiums #assed u#on the individualit$ of some one or other! and tries hard to invent ne" forms of e%#ression or #e uliarities of st$le! onl$ resulting! in most ases! in ne" forms of ugliness! "hi h it seems is the onl$ #ossibilit$ under su h ons ious efforts after novelt$. 5he fa t is that it takes man$ generations of ardent minds to a om#lish "hat at first ea h )340+ thinks himself a#able of doing alone. 5rue originalit$ has some"hat the &ualit$ of good "ine! "hi h be omes more delightful as time mello"s its flavor and im#arts to it the aroma "hi h omes of long re#ose1 like the ne" "ine! too! originalit$ should sh$l$ hide itself in dark #la es until maturit$ "arrants its a##earan e in the light of da$. 5hat kind of originalit$ "hi h is strikingl$ ne" does not al"a$s stand the test of time! and should be regarded "ith autious ske#ti ism until it has #roved itself to be more than the #assing fashion or novelt$ of a season. 5here is a kind of
sham art ver$ ons#i uous at the #resent time! "hi h "as at &uite a re ent date #o#ularl$ believed to be ver$ original. It seems to have arisen out of some su h im#atient raving for novelt$! and it has been en ouraged b$ an eas$-going kind of suburban re'inement! "hi h neither kno"s nor ares ver$ mu h "hat reall$ goes to the making of a "ork of art. 5his ne" art has filled our sho#s and e%hibitions "ith an invertebrate kind of ornament! "hi h ertainl$ has the doubtful merit of ,never having been seen before., It has evidentl$ taken its ins#iration from the trailing and su#ine forms )334+ of floating sea"eed! and revels in the e%#ression of su h boneless stru ture. B$ "a$ of variet$ it #resents us "ith a kind of s$mboli tree! remarkable for more than ar hai flatness and rigidit$. :o"! this kind of ,originalit$, is not onl$ absolutel$ valueless! but e% eedingl$ harmful1 its onl$ merit is that! like its ideal sea"eed! it has no ba kbone of its o"n! and "e ma$ ho#e that it "ill soon betake itself to its natural home! the slim$ bottom of the o ean of oblivion. Meantime! the onl$ thing "e are absolutel$ sure of in onne tion "ith that mu h-abused "ord ,originalit$, is this! that no gift! original or other"ise! an be develo#ed "ithout stead$ and ontinuous #ra tise "ith the tools of $our raft.
CHAPTER XIII PI'RC'% PATT'RNS

<%er ise in Ba kground Pattern/Care as to 'tabilit$/(rilling and 'a"ing out the '#a es /'ome Cses for Pier ed Patterns. 5he #resent e%er ises ma$ be des ribed as a kind of arved o#en fret"ork/that is to )333+ sa$! the ground is entirel$ ut a"a$! leaving the #attern standing free. 5his "ill form an e% ellent #ie e of dis i#line "ith regard to the design of ba kground forms! be ause in su h "ork as this! those forms assert themselves in a ver$ marked manner1 if the$ are in an$ "a$ found to be ons#i uousl$ une&ual in si7e or are a"k"ardl$ designed as to sha#e! the "hole effe t of the "ork is s#oiled.
*ig. .1. For $our first effort make a design based u#on :o. 9G! and #lease to observe these rules in its onstru tion. 5he main or leading lines of the #attern are to run as mu h as #ossible "ithout rossing ea h other. 5he holes are to be fairl$ e&ual in )339+ si7e! or rather in area! as the$ need not be at all like ea h other in sha#e. 5he amount of "ood
left standing to be of a "idth averaging never less than half the length of the averagesi7ed hole. 5his is ne essar$ for se uring suffi ient strength of material in the rossgrained #ie es! "hi h "ould be liable to s#lit if made too long and narro". 5he #attern should be formal in hara ter! not ne essaril$ s$mmetri al! but it should be "ell balan ed. =ou ma$ have one #art of $our design om#osed of large holes and another of small ones! #rovided the hange is #art of a definite design! as in Fig. 9L. =ou ma$ even leave the "ood in some #arts forming a solid ba kground! or $ou ma$ treat )33;+ it as a se#arate #ie e of sim#le arving on the solid! as in Fig. 9?! being areful to e%e ute it in a onsistentl$ sim#le manner! as in this kind of "ork mu h hange of manner in e%e ution is inadvisable! although! at the same time! it is o#en to an$ amount of variet$ in design of outline and ombination of ontrasts.
*ig. .2.
*ig. .3. 5ake a #ie e of #ine about ; or G ft. long and J or 0 ins. "ide b$ ;KG in. thi k. 5ra e on $our #attern and drill ir ular holes in the middle of ea h s#a e to be ut through. 5hen take a ke$hole sa"! and remove the "ood b$ sa"ing round the s#a e lose to the blue line! taking are not to ut through it in an$ #la e. 5he sa" must be held ver$ trul$ )33G+ u#right in order to ut the sides of the s#a es at right angles to the fa e of the "ood. :o" arve the #attern on the surfa e in "hatever manner $ou have designed/in grooves suggesting the arti ulation of the leaves! in short grooves "hi h ma$ #ass for additional leaves! or in a do7en "a$s "hi h #ra tise ma$ hel# $ou to invent. 5he "ood should be held tightl$ do"n to the ben h in all its #arts! or! at least! in those being o#erated u#on! as it ma$! if unsu##orted! ra k a ross some of the narro" #arts. 5he sides of all the holes must be arved out lean to remove the rough sa" marks. 5his an be done #artl$ b$ gouges! or still better! the "ood ma$ be held u# on its edge and the holes ut round "ith a shar# #enknife "here the grain allo"s it. :o" turn the "ork over on its fa e and arve bevels round ea h of the holes. 5his redu es the a##arent
thi kness of "ood! and adds to the effe t of deli a $ in the #attern. 5his "ork ma$ be used for the resting of some large #ie e of furniture! or ma$ be ada#ted to fill s reens or #artitions! stair ne"els! and balusters! or it ma$ be used as a orni e de oration in the manner )33L+ suggested b$ :o. 9?! "here the #ier ed "ork an be ba ked b$ a hollo" orni e "hi h it fills and enri hes. In our ne%t e%er ise "e shall tr$ our hands u#on a #ie e of hard"ood for a hange/ meantime do one or t"o of these fret #atterns b$ "a$ of dis i#linar$ e%er ise in outline forms.
CHAPTER XIV HAR%5OO% CAR,ING

Carvings an not be Inde#endent Ornaments/Carving Im#ossible on Commer ial Produ tions/5he Amateur 8oiner/Corner Cu#boards/Introdu tion of Foliage (efinite in Form! and 'im#le in Chara ter/Methods of Carving Bra#es. -e no" ome to the &uestion! "hat are "e going to do "ith all the #ie es of arving "hi h "e #ro#ose to undertake. 5here is no more ine%orable la" relating to the use of "oodarving than the one "hi h insists u#on some kind of #ass#ort for its introdu tion! "herever it a##ears. It must ome in good om#an$! and be #ro#erl$ introdu ed. 5he slightest and most distant onne tion "ith a re ogni7ed )33?+ s#onsor is often suffi ient! but it "ill not be re eived alone. -e do not make arvings to hang on a "all and be admired altogether on their o"n a ount. 5he$ must de orate some ob6e t. A hur h s reen! a font! a #ie e of furniture! or even the handle of a knife. It is not al"a$s an eas$ matter to find suitable ob6e ts u#on "hi h to e%er ise our "oodarving talents. Our furniture is all made no" in a "holesale manner "hi h #ermits of no interferen e "ith its onstru tion! "hile at the same time! if "e "ish to #ut an$ arving u#on it! it is absolutel$ essential that both onstru tion and de oration should be onsidered together.
*ig. .4. A ver$ modest beginning ma$ be made in ada#ting ornament to a useful arti le! b$ arving the surfa e of a bread #late. 5hese are usuall$ made of some hard "ood! su h as s$ amore. 5he$ ma$ be made of oak! but s$ amore has the advantage in its lighter olor! "hi h is more likel$ to be ke#t lean. 5"o suggestions are given in Figs. 9J and 9* for arving a##ro#riate to this #ur#ose. 5he essentials are! that there should be a "ell-defined pattern sim#le in onstru tion! and as effe tive as #ossible "ith little labor1 )33J+ that there should be little or no rounding of surfa e! the design onsisting of gouge uts and in isions arranged to e%#ress the #attern. 5he in isions ma$ form a regular sunk ground! but it should not be dee#! or it "ill not be easil$ ke#t lean. 5hen! as in utting bread the knife omes in onta t "ith the surfa e! no deli ate "ork is advisable1 a large treatment "ith broad surfa es! and some #lain s#a es left to )33*+ #rote t the arved "ork! is likel$ to #rove satisfa tor$ in ever$ "a$. A #ie e of s$ amore should be #ro ured! read$ for arving1 this ma$ be got from a "ood-turner! but it "ill be as "ell to give him a dra"ing! on "hi h is sho"n the se tion of edge and the #osition of all turned lines re&uired for onfining the arving. If the #late is to be of an$ sha#e other than ir ular! then it must be neatl$ )330+ made b$ a 6oiner! unless $ou an sha#e it $ourself.
*ig. .6. Man$ of $ou are! I have no doubt! hand$ 6oiners! and ma$ "ith a little hel# #ut together some slight #ie es of furniture to serve at least as an e% use for the introdu tion of $our arving. Here are some suggestions for orner u#boards! hosen as giving the largest area for arved surfa e "ith the minimum of e%#ense in onstru tion. 5he material should be oak/<nglish if #ossible! or it ma$ be Italian "alnut. 5he doors of Figs. G4 and G3 are in three narro" boards "ith shallo" beads at the 6oints! those of the others are ea h made of a single board! and should be 3K9 in. to LK* in. thi k! the doors ma$ be about 9 ft. ? ins. high! ea h having t"o ledges about ; ins. "ide! s re"ed on behind to# and bottom to kee# them from t"isting. All moldings! beads! et .! are to be arved b$ hand! no #lanes being used. Having tra ed the lines of $our design u#on the board! $ou ma$ begin! if there are moldings as in Fig. ;9! b$ using a 6oiner>s marking gage to groove out the dee#est #arts of the #arallel lines in the moldings along the edges! doing the same to the urved ones )394+ "ith a D tool or Deiner. 5hen form the moldings "ith $our hisels or gouges. Aee# them ver$ flat in se tion as in Fig. 90. 5he fret #atterns on Figs. ;9! ;L! and ;?! "here not #ier ed! should also be done in lo" relief! not more than 3K* in. dee#! and the sides of the bands beveled as in se tion a! Fig ;4. 5he "idths of these bands ought not to be less than 3K9 in.! and look better if the$ are "ider. Der$ narro" bands have a better a##earan e! if! instead of being ut straight do"n! the$ are hollo"ed at sides like b in Fig. ;4.
*ig. .!.
*ig. #".
*ig. # . Fig. ;3 is a detail of a kind of gouge "ork "hi h $ou must all kno" ver$ "ell. One #er#endi ular ut of a gouge driven in "ith the mallet! and one side ut! should form one of these res ent or thimble-sha#ed holes. 5he$ should not be too dee# in #ro#ortion to their si7e. 5heir )399+ ombinations ma$ be varied to a great e%tent. 5"o or three ommon ones are sho"n in the illustration. 5his form of ornament "as in all likelihood invented b$ some ingenious ar#enter "ith a turn for art and a limited sto k of arving tools. His humble ontribution to the resour es of the arver>s art has re eived its due share of the flatter$ "hi h is im#lied b$ imitation. In all these #atterns it is "ell to remember that the flat surfa e of the board left bet"een the uts is reall$ the im#ortant thing to onsider! as all variet$ is obtained b$ dis#osing the holes in su h a "a$ as to #rodu e the #attern re&uired b$ means of their outlines on the #lain surfa e. 5hus "aved lines are #rodu ed as in Fig. ;3! and little ni hes like mimi ar hite ture as in Fig. ;G! b$ the addition of the triangular-sha#ed holes at the to#! and the s#la$ed sills at the bottom. HIt is obvious that an arrangement like the latter should never be turned
u#side do"n.I If this attention to the surfa e #attern is negle ted the holes are a#t to be ome mere onfused and meaningless s#ots. In small #ie es of furniture like these! "hi h are made of om#arativel$ thin )39;+ "ood! the arving need not have mu h de#th! sa$ the ground is sunk 3KG in. at the dee#est. As oak is more tena ious than #ine! $ou "ill find greater freedom in "orking it! although it is so mu h harder to ut. =ou ma$ find it ne essar$ to use the mallet for the greater #art of the blo king out! but it need not be mu h used in finishing. A series of short strokes driven b$ gentle ta#s of the mallet "ill often make a better urve than if the same is attem#ted "ithout its aid. It "ill be "ell no" to #ro ure the remainder of the set of t"ent$-four tools if $ou have not alread$ got them! as the$ "ill be re&uired for the foliage "e are about to attem#t. 5he dee# gouges are es#e iall$ useful2 having t"o different s"ee#s on ea h tool! the$ ada#t themselves to hollo"s "hi h hange in se tion as the$ advan e. Fig. ;9 ontains ver$ little foliage! su h as there is being dis#osed in small diamondsha#ed s#a es! sunk in the fa e of the doors! and a small #ie e on the bra ket belo". All this "ork should be of a ver$ sim#le hara ter! definite in form and broad in treatment.
*ig. #.. Ha8f, *ig. ##. Ha8f Fig. ;; is more elaborate! but on mu h )39L+ the same lines of design varied b$ having a larger s#a e filled "ith grou#s of leaves. Fig. ;G gives the arving to a larger s ale1 in it the oak-leaves are sho"n "ith raised veins in the enter! the others being merel$ indi ated b$ the gouge hollo"s. 5here is some attem#t in this at a more natural mode of treating the foliage. -hile su h "ork is being arved! it is "ell to look no" and then at the natural forms themselves Hoak and laurel in this aseI in order to note their hara teristi features! and as a "holesome he k on the dangers of mannerism. It is a general a%iom founded u#on the eviden e of #ast "ork! and a res#e t for the la"s of onstru tion in the ar#enter>s de#artment! that "hen foliage a##ears in #anels divided b$ #lain s#a es! it should never be made to look as if it gre" 'rom one panel into the other! "ith the suggestion of boughs #assing behind the solid #arts. 5his is a hara teristi of 8a#anese "ork! and ma$! #erha#s! be admirable "hen used in deli ate #ainted de orations on a s reen or other light furniture! but in arvings it disturbs the
effe t of solidit$ in the material! and serves no #ur#ose "hi h an not be attained in a mu h better "a$. )39?+
CAR,ING IN PAN'&S O* *IG ## *ig. #1. )39J+ <%#edients have been invented to over ome the diffi ult$ of making a fresh start in ea h #anel! one of "hi h is sho"n in Fig. ;G! "here the beginning of the bough is hidden under a leaf. It is #resumable that the bough ma% go on behind the un arved #ortions of the board to rea##ear in another #la e! but "e need not insist u#on the fan $! "hi h loses all its #o"er "hen attention is alled to it! like riddles "hen the ans"er is kno"n.
*ig. #2., *ig. #3 In Fig. ;L! like the last! the treatment is some"hat realisti . 5his is sho"n to a larger s ale in Fig. ;*. :evertheless! it has all been ,arranged, to fit its allotted s#a e! and all a idental elements eliminated1 su h! for instan e! as leaves disa##earing in violent #ers#e tive! or even turned side"ise! and all minute details "hi h "ould not be likel$ to sho" ons#i uousl$ if arved in "ood. In Fig. ;0! HaI is an outline of a grou# of vineleaves taken from nature! as it a##eared! and in "hi h state it is &uite unfitted for arving! on a ount of its om#li ated #ers#e tive and "ant of definite outline1 Fig. ;0 HbI is a detail also o#ied from nature! but "hi h might stand "ithout alteration #rovided it formed #art of a "ork deli ate )390+ enough to note su h lose elaboration in so small a s#a e. 5his! of ourse! "ould entirel$ de#end u#on the #ur#ose for "hi h the arving "as intended! and "hether it "as meant for distant vie" or lose ins#e tion. As there is arrangement ne essar$ in forming the outline! so there is 6ust as mu h re&uired in designing the arti ulation of the surfa es of the leaves! "hi h should be so treated that their hollo"s fall into a semblan e of some kind of #attern. Fig. ;? is a more formal
design! or! to use a ver$ mu h abused "ord! more , onventional!, in "hi h su h leafage as there is onl$ serves the #ur#ose of ornamental #oints! marking the divisions of the general design. 5he gouge "ork u#on the leaves should be of the sim#lest des ri#tion! but stri t attention is ne essar$ in dra"ing the grooves! so that their forms ma$ be lear and em#hati ! leaving no doubt as to the #attern intended. (esigns of this kind have no interest "hatever e% e#t as #ie es of #atterned "ork! to "hi h end ever$ other onsideration should be sa rifi ed. It must not be ut too dee#/sa$ 3KG in. at the dee#est/and the sides of the #anels should be ver$ gentl$ hollo"ed out "ith a flattish s"ee# Hsee se tion on Fig. ;JI in )3;4+ order to avoid an$ a##earan e of a tual onstru tion in "hat more or less imitates the stiles and rails of a door. Fig. ;J sho"s a #ortion of the leafage to a larger s ale! and also a #lan e%#laining the onstru tion of all these u#boards.
*ig. #4.
*ig. #6.
*ig. #! 9a:. Fig. G4 is designed u#on the barest suggestion of natural foliage! the "av$ )3;9+ stem being &uite flat! and running out flush into the flat margins at the sides! onne ting them together. 5he leaves in this ase should be arved! leaving the veins standing solid1 grooved veins "ould have a meager look u#on su h rudimentar$ leaves. Of ourse a more natural )3;;+ treatment ma$ be given to this kind of design! but in that ase it "ould re&uire to be arried all over the door! and re#la e the formall$ ornamental enter #anel. 5he #ier ed #attern in resting should be done as alread$ des ribed for Fig. 9G.
*ig. #! 9;:.
*ig. 1"., *ig. 1 . Fig. G3 is a variant on the last design. In this ase a little more #la$ of surfa e is attem#ted! making a #oint of arving the )3;L+ side lobes of the leaves into little rounded masses "hi h "ill refle t #oints of light. 5his is sho"n better on Fig. G9.
*ig. 1..
*ig. 1#. In arving foliage like that of the vine! "here small dark holes or e$es o ur! enough "ood should be left round them to form dee# dark little #its. 5he$ are ver$ valuable as #oints of shado". In doing this! ut the rim all round "ith a ver$ slight bevel as in se tion! Fig. G;. -henever leaves run out to a fine edge )3;?+ the$ also should have a small bevel like this in order to avoid an a##earan e of "eakness "hi h a ute edges al"a$s #resent. As a general rule leave as mu h "ood as #ossible about the edges of leaves as $ou "ant shado" from them/di##ing them onl$ "here $ou are sure the variet$ "ill be effe tive. In the e%e ution of bun hes of rounded forms like gra#es there is no s#e ial me hani al e%#edient for doing them &ui kl$ and easil$1 ea h must be ut out se#aratel$! and arved "ith "hatever tools ome handiest to their sha#e and si7e. It is a good "a$ to begin b$ utting triangular holes bet"een the gra#es "ith the #oint of a small hisel Hsee Fig. GGI! after "hi h )3;J+ the rough sha#es left ma$ graduall$ be formed into ovals. -hen the "ork is ver$ sim#le in hara ter! and does not re&uire a realisti treatment! the gra#es ma$ be done in a more methodi al "a$! as in Fig. GL. First ut grooves a ross both "a$s "ith a D tool! dividing the gra#es as at a a! then "ith a gouge turned hollo" do"n round ea h line of gra#es into rolls as at b b. (o this both "a$s! and after"ard finish the form as best $ou an.
*ig. 11.
*ig. 12.
CHAPTER XV TH' S7'TCH/$OO7

Old -ork Best 'een in its Original Pla e/Museums to be A##roa hed "ith Caution/ Methodi al Memoranda/'ome <%am#les/Assimilation of Ideas Better than Making <%a t Co#ies. In holida$ time! and as other o##ortunit$ arises! be sure to visit some old building! be it hur h or mansion. In this "a$ $ou "ill make a &uaintan e "ith man$ a fine s#e imen of old "ork "hi h "ill set $our fan $ moving. In the one there ma$ be a arved hoirs reen or ben h ends! in )3;*+ the other a fire#la e or table. 5he first sight of su h things in the #la es and among the surroundings for "hi h the$ "ere designed! is al"a$s an eventful moment in the training of a arver! be ause the element of sur#rise a ts like a toni to the mind b$ arousing its emulative instin ts. It is b$ seeing su h things in their #ro#er home and asso iations that the best lessons are learned. One sees in that "a$! for instan e! &h% the tool marks left b$ the old arvers on their "ork look more effe tive than smoothl$ #erfe t surfa es! "hen asso iated "ith the rough timbers of the roof! or the uneven surfa e of the #lastered "all. One sees! too! the effe t of time and fri tion in the #olished surfa es of ben h ends! rubbed and dusted b$ ountless hands until the$ have be ome smooth to the e$e and tou h! and a mental note is made to avoid shar# or s#ik$ "ork in an$thing that is likel$ to be "ithin rea h of the fingers. In this "a$ a ertain balan e is given to the 6udgment in #ro#ortioning to ea h #ie e of "ork its due share of labor! and "e ome a"a$ "ith a fi%ed determination to #a$ more attention in future to breadth of design and e onom$ of a tual arving! a #roblem "hi h no arver )3;0+ finds eas$! but "hi h must be fa ed if "asted "ork is not to be his onl$ re"ard. )3G4+
*ig. 13.
)3G3+ In museums! too! "e shall find man$ useful lessons! although there "e see things huddled together in a distra ting fashion "hi h demands great "ariness of sele tion. 5he great #oint to be observed in making our notes for future referen e is! that ea h sket h should ontain some memorandum of a s#e ial &ualit$! the one "hi h attra ted us at the time of making it. One ma$ be made for sake of a general arrangement! another to remind us of some striking #ie e of detail or )3G9+ #e uliarit$ of e%e ution. 5he dra"ings need not be elaborate or labored! #rovided the$ make lear the #oints the$ "ere intended to re ord. 5hus Fig. G? is a sket h "hi h is meant as a memorandum of a livel$ re#resentation of birds! taken from an old Miserere seat. Fig. GJ "as done for sake of the ri h effe t of an ins ri#tion on the #lain side of a beam! and also for the #e uliar and interesting se tion to "hi h the beam had been ut. Fig. G*! again! for sake of the arrangement of the little #anels on a #lain surfa e! and the sense of fitness and #ro#ortion "hi h #rom#ted the arver to dis#ose his "ork in that fashion! b$ "hi h he has enri hed the "hole surfa e at little ost of labor! and b$ ontrast enhan ed )3G;+ the value of the little stri#s and diamonds of arved "ork! other"ise of no #arti ular interest. Figs. G0 and L4 are t"o sket hes of I elandi arved bo%es. Fig. G0 "as dra"n as an e%am#le of the ri h effe t "hi h that kind of engraved "ork ma$ have! and of the use "hi h it makes of losel$ #a ked letters in the ins ri#tion. 5he #attern is! of ourse! a traditional :orse one! although the arving is om#arativel$ modern. 5he #oints to be noted in the other bo% "ere its &uaint )3GG+ and sim#le onstru tion! the use of the letters as de oration! more es#e iall$ the un#remeditated manner in "hi h the$ have been grou#ed! the four letters belo" making a short line "hi h is eked out b$ a rude bit of ornament. 5he letters are ut right through the "ood! and are surrounded "ith an engraved line. Fig. L3 "as noted on a ount of the "a$ in )3G?+ "hi h a ver$ sim#le #ier ed ornament is made mu h of b$ re#etition. 5he ornament is on a Portuguese bed! and this is onl$ a detail of a small #ortion. 5he effe t greatl$ de#ends u#on the &uantit$! but in this ase that is a #oint "hi h is easil$ remembered "ithout dra"ing more of it than is sho"n. 5he fa t that this "ork is asso iated "ith ri hl$ turned balusters is! ho"ever! noti ed in the sket h! as that might easil$ be forgotten. Figs. GJ to L3 are from 'outh Aensington Museum.
*ig. 14.
*ig. 16.
*ig. 1!.
*ig. 2".
*ig. 2 . 5hen "e ome to the sket h of a hair HFig. L9I! or ombined table and hair. 5he ri hl$ arved ba k is #ivoted! and forms the table to# "hen lo"ered over the arms! u#on "hi h it rests. 5he #oints to be noted in this are! the general ri hness of effe t! the ontrast of "av$ and rigid lines! and the ha##$ "a$ in "hi h the ar hite tural suggestion of ar h and #illars has been translated into ornament. As this sket h "as not made so mu h for the hair itself as for its enri hed ba k! no measurements have been taken1 other"ise hairs! as su h! de#end ver$ mu h u#on e%a t dimensions for their
#ro#ortions. 5his hair is at <%ning in 'uffolk.
*ig. 2.. :o" "e shall su##ose that $ou are )3GJ+ going to make man$ su h sket hes both in museums and in ountr$ hur hes or houses. =ou "ill find some too elaborate for dra"ings in the time at $our dis#osal! in "hi h ase $ou should obtain a #hotogra#h! if #ossible! making notes of an$ detail "hi h $ou "ish #arti ularl$ to remember/su h! for instan e! as the arved hest sho"n in Plate I. 5he sub6e t! 't. Beorge and the (ragon! is given "ith various in idents all in the one #i ture. 5his is a valuable and suggestive #ie e of "ork to have before $ou! as the manner in "hi h the #i torial element has been managed is strikingl$ hara teristi of the arver>s methods! and "ell ada#ted to the onditions of a te hni&ue "hi h has no other legitimate means of dealing "ith distant ob6e ts. 5he king and &ueen! looking out of the #ala e "indo"s! are almost on the same s ale as the figures in the foreground1 the "alls of the houses! roofs! et .! have a##arentl$ &uite as mu h #ro6e tion as the foreground ro ks/distan e is inferred rather than e%#ressed. 5he ver$ sim#le onstru tion! too! is "orth noting. It is #ra ti all$
om#osed of three boards! a "ide one for the #i ture! and t"o narro"er ones for ends and feet. )3G*+ 5he ob6e t in making these sket hes should be mainl$ to olle t a variet$ of ideas "hi h ma$ brighten the mind "hen there is o asion to use its inventive fa ulties. 'uggestive hints are "anted1 rarel$ "ill it be #ossible! or "ise! to re#eat an$thing e%a tl$ as $ou see it. 5hese sket hes! if made "ith are! and from "hat Constable used to all ,breeding sub6e ts!, "ill give $our fan $ a ver$ ne essar$ #oint of vantage! from "hi h it ma$ ha7ard flights of its o"n. As mu h of our kno"ledge must ne essaril$ be gained from museums! and as the$ no" form su h an im#ortant feature of edu ational ma hiner$! I think it "ill be "ell to devote a "ord or t"o of s#e ial noti e to the dra"ba ks "hi h a om#an$ their man$ advantages. 5his I #ro#ose to do in the follo"ing ha#ter. )3G0+
CHAPTER XVI (+S'+(S

False Im#ressions Fostered b$ Fragmentar$ <%hibits/<nvironment as Im#ortant as Handi raft/-orks Die"ed as .e ords of Chara ter/Carvers the Historians of their 5ime. A ne" "orld of ommer e and ma hiner$! having slain and forgotten a #ast ra e of artist raftsmen! makes lums$ atonement b$ s"ee#ing together the fragments of their "ork and alling the olle tion a museum. From the four orners of the earth these reli s have been gathered. Our hungr$ minds are bidden to make hoi e a ording to fan $! for here is variet$ of foodO Here are o##ortunities! never before en6o$ed b$ mortal! for an intelle tual feastO/and of a kind "hi h might be onsidered god-like! "ere it not for the sus#i ion of some giganti 6oke. 5hat out of all this huge mass of haoti material "e have not as $et been able to make for ourselves some living form of art! must indeed be to the gods a ontinual sub6e t of merriment. Museums of art are in no res#e t the unmi%ed blessings "hi h the$ a##ear to )3L4+ be. 5he$ have! to be sure! all the advantages of hand$ referen e1 but at the same time! on a ount of the great diversit$ in the hara ter of their e%hibits! the$ tend to en ourage the s#read of a #at h$ kind of kno"ledge! far from being hel#ful to the arts in the interests of "hi h the$ are established. It must be remembered that! in these olle tions! all s#e imens of ar hite ture and ar hite tural arving are invariabl$ seen in false #ositions. All have been "ren hed from their #ro#er settings! and #la ed! more or less at random! in lights and relationshi#s never ontem#lated b$ their designers. 5o the environment of a #ie e of ar hite ture! and the #osition and surroundings of arved de orations! are due &uite half of their interest as "orks of art. (e#rive them of these asso iations! and little is left but fragmentar$ s#e imens of handi raft! more or less unintelligible in their lonel$ deta hment! misleading to the e$e! and dangerous as ob6e ts of imitation! in #ro#ortion to the de#enden e the$ on e had u#on those absent and unkno"n asso iations. 5he edu ational #ur#ose "hi h these olle tions are intended to serve is liable to be onstrued into an unreasoning assum#tion )3L3+ that ever$ s#e imen e%hibited is
e&uall$ "orth$ of admiration. Ho" often the #lodding student is to be seen arefull$ dra"ing and measuring "ork of the dullest imaginable &ualit$! "ith no other a##arent reason for his #atheti all$ "asted industr$O It "ould be strange! indeed! if all in this vast re ord of #ast a tivit$ "as of e&ual value1 if merel$ to belong to the #ast "as a sure "arrant that su h "ork "as the best of its kind. Far from this being the ase! it re&uires the onstant use of a more or less trained and riti al 6udgment to se#arate "hat is good from the indifferent or reall$ bad in these olle tions! for all are usuall$ #resent. 5here is ine&ualit$ in artisti #o"ers! in te hni al skill! and a distin tion of $et greater im#ortan e! "hi h lies in the signifi an e the "orks bear as re ords of the inner life of their reators. Artists! arvers in #arti ular! are the true s ribes and historians of their times. 5heir "orks are! as it "ere! books/"ritten in "ords of un ons ious but fateful meaning. 'ome are filled "ith the noblest ideals! e%#ressed in beautiful and serious language! "hile others ontain nothing but sorr$ 6ests and stu#idities. )3L9+ As all the "orks of the #ast! "hether good or bad! are the a hievements of men differing but little from ourselves! save in the dire tion of their energies and in their out"ard surroundings! there is surel$ some lue to the se ret of their su ess or failure! some light to be thro"n b$ their e%#erien e u#on our o"n dubious and &uestioning s#irit. -hat better ould "e look for in this res#e t than a little kno"ledge of the lives led b$ the arvers themselves! a mental #i ture of their environment! an a &uired sense of the influen e "hi h this! that! or the other set of onditions must have im#osed u#on their "ork. -ith a little aid from histor$ in forming our 6udgments! their "orks themselves "ill assist us/so faithful is the trans ri#t of their "itness/for! "ith more ertaint$ than a##lies to hand"riting! a fair guess ma$ be made b$ inferen e from the "ork itself as to the general status and ideals of the "orkman. 5he striking analog$ bet"een its salient hara teristi s and the #revailing mood of that ever- hanging s#irit "hi h seeks e%#ression in the arts! is no"here more marked than in the "ork of the arver. )3L;+
CHAPTER XVII ST+%I'S *RO( NAT+R'0*O&IAG'

Medieval and Modern Choi e of Form Com#ared/A Com#romise Ado#ted/A List of Plant Forms of Ada#table Chara ter. It is high time no" that "e had some talk about the studies from nature "hi h are to furnish $ou "ith sub6e ts for $our "ork. I shall at #resent deal onl$ "ith studies of foliage! as that is "hat $ou have been #ra tising! and I "ish $ou to arr$ on $our "ork and studies as mu h as #ossible on the same lines. Bet"een the fe" abstra t forms! re#resenting a general t$#e of foliage! so dear to the heart of the medieval arver! and the unstinted variet$ of hoi e dis#la$ed in the "orks of Brinling Bibbons and his time! there is su h a "ide differen e that surel$ it #oints to a orres#onding dis#arit$ of aim. Although there is no doubt "hatever that su h a striking hange of vie"s must have had its origin in some dee#er ause than that "hi h is to be e%#lained b$ artisti and te hni al develo#ment! $et I think that for our immediate )3LG+
#ur#ose "e shall find a suffi ientl$ good lesson in om#aring the visible results of the t"o methods. Broadl$ s#eaking! then! the medieval arver ared more for general effe t than for #ossibilities of te hni&ue. He therefore hose onl$ su h natural forms as "ere amenable to his #re on eived determination to make his "ork telling at a distan e. He had no botani al leanings! and re6e ted as unfit ever$ form "hi h "ould not bend to his one #ur#ose/that of de oration on a large s ale/and "hi h he aimed at making om#rehensive at a glan e! rather than alling for attention to its details. He invented #atterns "hi h he kne" "ould assist in #rodu ing this result! and here he further handi a##ed his hoi e b$ limiting it to su h forms as "ould re#eat or vanish at regulated intervals! refle ting light or #rodu ing shado" 6ust "here it "as "anted to em#hasi7e his #attern. 5he more modern arver! on the ontrar$! offered an all-embra ing "el ome to ever$ form "hi h #resented itself to his noti e. He re6e ted nothing "hi h ould b$ an$ #ossibilit$ be arved. :othing "as too small! too thin! or too diffi ult for his "onderful de%terit$ "ith the arving tools. His hief end "as elaboration of )3LL+ detail! and it "as often arried to a #oint "hi h ignored the fa t that nearl$ all of it "ould be ome invisible "hen in #osition! or! if seen at all! "ould onl$ a##ear in onfused lum#s and unintelligible masses. :o"! for man$ reasons! I think "e had better take the medieval method as our model u# to a #oint! and make a ertain sele tion of material for our studies! based u#on some relation to general effe t! but not ne essaril$ imitating a medieval austerit$ of re6e tion! "hi h "ould be the merest affe tation on our #art. C#on these #rin i#les! and taking some"hat of a middle ourse! I shall here note a fe" t$#es of foliage "hi h I think ma$ be useful to $ou in the "ork u#on "hi h $ou are engaged. Leaf forms! "ith their a##ro#riate flo"ers or fruit! afford the arver a ver$ large #ro#ortion of his sub6e t material. 5he$ serve him as #rin i#al sub6e t! as bordering or ba kground to figures of men or animals1 the$ o ur as mere deta hed s#ots! to break the monoton$ of s#a es or lines1 and in a thousand other "a$s give e%er ise to his invention. As a general rule! those leaves "ith serrated! or dee#l$ left and indented edges! )3L?+ lend themselves most readil$ to de orative treatment. Large! broad leaves! "ith unbroken surfa es! and triangular or rounded outlines! are less manageable. 5hose most ommonl$ taken as models are2 The (ine, &ith its )rapes./5his "as freel$ used b$ medieval arvers! at first for its s$mboli signifi an e! but after"ard even more on a ount of its rare beaut$ of form. 5he #la$ of light and shade on its vigorous foliage! the variet$ of its dra"ing in leaf! vine! and tendril! and the ontrast afforded b$ its bun hes of oval fruit! aused it to be a e#ted as a favorite sub6e t for imitation in all kinds of arving. It lends itself kindl$ to all sorts of relief! either high or lo"! in almost an$ material. It is so re ogni7able! even in the rudest attem#ts at imitation! that its #o#ularit$ is "ell deserved. 5he ho#-vine shares some of these &ualities! though mu h less strongl$ marked in hara ter. The Acanthus./5his leaf "as first ada#ted for the #ur#ose of ornament b$ the "orkmen of lassi al Bree e. 5he ins#iration "as one of the fe" "hi h the$ took dire tl$ from
nature>s models. It "as also freel$ used b$ medieval arvers! )3LJ+ but "ith an insisten e u#on the flo"ing and rounded hara ter of its surfa e forms1 and again b$ the .enaissan e artists! "ith a return to its lassi al hara ter of fluted and formal strength of line. 5he gra eful dra"ing of its elaboratel$ arti ulated surfa e! and the e%traordinar$ a entuation of its outline! #rovide an endless sour e of suggestion. It has been ada#ted in all manners! a ording to the fan $ of the arver/sometimes long and dra"n out! at others "ide and s#reading. Altogether it has been more thoroughl$ ,generali7ed, than an$ other natural form. The Oa", &ith its Acorns! a##ears in earl$ medieval "ork! but "ithout mu h attem#t to re#resent its form "ith an$thing like individual hara ter. In later "ork it has more 6usti e done to its undoubted merits as a de orative feature b$ a learer re ognition of its beaut$ in lum#s and masses. Fruit! other than the gra#e and a nondes ri#t kind of berr$! "as seldom re#resented b$ medieval raftsmen1 it formed! ho"ever! a marked feature in .enaissan e ornament! "here #omegranate! a##le! fig! and melon "ere in onstant re&uisition. )3L*+ *lo&ers in general "ere ver$ little used in earl$ times! and then onl$ in a highl$ abstra t form orres#onding to that of the foliage. 5he rose and lil$ "ere the t"o most fre&uentl$ seen! but the$ seldom had more individualit$ about them than "as suffi ient to make them re ogni7able. (uring the .enaissan e flo"ers "ere treated "ith mu h more regard to their inherent beauties! and "ere re#resented "ith great skill and #o"er of imitation! although often arried be$ond legitimate limits in this dire tion. -hen dealt "ith as ornaments! rather than botani al details! the$ form a ri h sour e of suggestion to the arver! and offer a read$ means of ontrast "ith masses of foliage. 5he rose and lil$ are su h ons#i uous flo"ers that the$ should! in modern times! be used in a "a$ onsistent "ith our demands for individual hara ter and likeness. 5he$ should be fairl$ "ell defined and easil$ re ogni7able. It is &uite #ossible to treat these flo"ers in a ver$ realisti "a$! "ithout endangering their effe t as de orative details2 the$ have both su h distinguished forms in flo"er and foliage. Flo"ers should be hosen for their 'orms1 olor should not be allo"ed to )3L0+ de eive the e$e in this res#e t! unless the olor itself is suggestive of lines and ontours. *oliage should al"a$s be studied at its #rime! never "hen it is dried and ontorted in its forms. Here is a short list of sub6e ts! in luding those I have mentioned! all having a suffi ientl$ #ronoun ed hara ter to make them valuable as sto k in trade. Man$ more might be named! but these are hosen as being ommonl$ familiar! and as being re#resentative t$#es of various forms. *or their +eaves and *ruit./5he gra#evine! ho#-vine! globe arti hoke! tomato! a##le! #lum! #ear! bramble! and stra"berr$. *or *ruit and (ine,li"e )ro&ths -lea'age too massive and smooth to be o' much value &ithout adaptation../5he melon! vegetable-marro"! #um#kins! and u umber. *or +ea'age, *lo&ers, or Seed (essels./5he a anthus! oak! thistles! tea7le! giant hemlo k! o"-#arsle$! butter u#. O' )arden *lo&ers./5he rose! lil$! larks#ur! #eon$! #o##ies! olumbine! hr$santhemum! tuli#! Christmas rose! 8a#anese anemone.
*or lose and #ntricate /esigns./Peri"inkle! )3?4+ "inter a onite! trefoils of various kinds. Man$ valuable hints on this sub6e t ma$ be gleaned b$ a stud$ of Berrard>s Herbal! "hi h is full of "ell-dra"n illustrations! done in a "a$ "hi h is ver$ suggestive to the designer. A areful stud$ of the outline forms of leaves is a s hooling in itself! so mu h ma$ be learned from it. It tea hes the relation bet"een form and gro"th in a "a$ "hi h makes it #ossible to use the greatest freedom of generali7ation "ithout violating stru tural la"s. 5he same auses "hi h govern the sha#ing of a tree are #resent in the leaf! settling its final outline! so that! ho"ever "andering and fantasti it ma$ a##ear! there is not the smallest urve or serration "hi h does not bear "itness to a methodi al develo#ment! and to ever$ a idental ir umstan e "hi h hel#ed or hindered its fulfilment. =ou ould not do better than make a olle tion of suitable leaves! #ress them flat and tra e them ver$ arefull$! kee#ing the tra ings together in a book for referen e. A om#an$ing this $ou should have in ea h ase a dra"ing of the leaf as it a##ears in its natural state! al"a$s )3?3+ being areful to do this from a #oint of vie" "hi h "ill a ommodate itself to arving the leaf if $ou should have o asion to use it.
CHAPTER XVIII CAR,ING ON *+RNIT+R'

Furniture Constru ted "ith a Die" to Carving/.e i#ro al Aims of 8oiner and Carver/ 'moothness (esirable "here Carving is Handled/5he Introdu tion of Animals or Figures.
*ig. 2#. =ou "ill find in the illustrations! Figs. L; to ?9! ertain suggestions for various #ie es of furniture. 5he$ are given "ith the intention of im#ressing u#on $ou the fa t that ver$ little arving an be done at all "ithout some #ra ti al motive as a ba kbone to $our fan ies. 5o be al"a$s arving ina##li able #anels is ver$ dull "ork! and onl$ good for a fe" #reliminar$ e%er ises. It is mu h better to onsider the matter "ell! and resolve u#on some ,o#us!, "hi h "ill s#read $our efforts over a onsiderable #eriod. -hen $ou have de ided u#on the #ie e of furniture "hi h is most likel$ to be useful to $ou! and )3?;+ "hi h lies "ithin $our #o"ers of design and e%e ution! then make a dra"ing for it! and have it made b$ a 6oiner Hunless $ou an make it entirel$ $ourselfI! to be #ut together in loose #ie es for onvenien e of arving! and glued u# "hen that is finished. =ou should ertainl$ design the #ie e $ourself! as $ou should make all $our o"n designs for the arving. 5he t"o de#artments must be arried on in the losest relation to ea h other "hile the "ork is in #rogress! other"ise their asso iation "ill not be om#lete "hen it is finished. 5ake! for instan e! the head of the bed in the illustration. -h$ should
it stand u# so high! like the gable of a houseP It is for no other reason than to give an o##ortunit$ for arving. A #lain board of half the height "ould have been 6ust as effe tive as a #rote tion to the slee#er. Cseless as arving ma$ be from this #ra ti al #oint of vie"! it must nevertheless be amenable to utilitarian la"s. It must be smooth "here it is likel$ to be handled! as in the ase of the knobs on to# of the #osts1 and even "here it is not likel$ to be handled! but ma$ be merel$ tou hed o asionall$! it should still have an inviting smoothness of surfa e. As a )3?G+ matter of fa t! all arving on a bed should be of this kind! "ith no dee# nooks or orners to hold dust. Here! then! are a number of onditions! "hi h! instead of being a hindran e! are reall$ useful in entives to fresh invention. 8ust as the onstru tion of 6oiner>s "ork entails on essions on the #art of the arver! so the arver ma$ ask the 6oiner to go a little out of his "a$ in order to give o##ortunities for his arving. A little kno"ledge of this sub6e t "ill make a reasonable om#romise #ossible. =ou "ill find a further advantage in undertaking a fairl$ large #ie e of "ork. As it is almost ertain to be in several #arts! ea h ma$ thus re eive a different treatment! b$ "hi h means $ou not onl$ obtain ontrast! but get some idea of the e%traordinar$ #o"er "ith "hi h one #ie e of arving affe ts another "hen #la ed in 6u%ta#osition. -hatever designs $ou ma$ de ide u#on! should $ou undertake to arve the #anels for a bed! let them be in de idedl$ lo" relief. 5he surfa e must be smoothl$ "rought! doing a"a$ "ith as mu h of the tool marking as $ou an! but this smoothing to be done entirel$ "ith the tools! not b$ an$ means "ith glass )3?L+ #a#er. Breat attention must be #aid to the dra"ing of the forms! as it is b$ this that the im#ression of modeling and #ro6e tion "ill be e%#ressed. A ver$ #leasant treatment of su h lo" relief "hen a smooth and even a##earan e is "anted! is to arve the ground to the full de#th! sa$ 3K* in.! onl$ along the outlines of the design! and form the remainder into a kind of raised ushion! almost level in the middle "ith the original surfa e of the "ood. 5he "hole design need thus be little more than a kind of dee#ish )3??+ engraving! de#ending for its effe t u#on broad lights defined b$ the engraved shado"s. 'ee Fig. LG for an e%am#le of this treatment a##lied to letters.
*ig. 21. :o" I e%#e t $ou to make a fresh design. 5he illustrations in all su h ases are
#ur#osel$ dra"n in a some"hat indefinite "a$! in order that the$ ma$ suggest! "ithout making it #ossible to o#$.
*ig. 22. :o" "e ome to the mirror frame! Fig. LL. I should suggest that this be done in some light- olored "ood like #ear-tree! "hi h has an agreeabl$ "arm tone! or if a hard #ie e of edar an be found! it "ould look "ell! but in no ase should #olish be added e% e#t that "hi h omes from the tool. 5he onstru tion need not be om#li ated. 5ake t"o ;KG-in. boards! glue them together to form the "idth! sha#e out the frame in the rough. Put behind this another frame of ;KG-in. thi k stuff! and make the orni e out of "ood about 3-3K9 in. thi k. 5he #arts to be ke#t se#arate until the arving is finished! and after"ard glued or s re"ed together. 5he arving on the bod$ of the frame! that is! in the gable above and the front of bra ket belo"! should be in ver$ )3?*+ lo" relief! the lo"er #art being like the last! a kind of engraving. 5he fret above ma$ be sunk about 3K3? in. and the ground slightl$ ushioned. 5he arving on sides and orni e is of a
stronger hara ter! and ma$ be ut as dee#l$ as the "ood "ill allo"! "hile the orni e is a tuall$ #ier ed through in #la es! sho"ing the flat board behind. 5he design for this orni e should have some re#eating ob6e t! su h as the kind of #inea##le-looking thing in the illustration! and its foliage should be formed "ith #lent$ of "ell-rounded surfa es! that ma$ suggest some rather fat and 6ui $ #lant.
*ig. 23. In Fig. L? $ou have a suggestion for arving a ben h or settle! the #ro#ortions of "hi h have been taken from one found at a =orkshire village inn. 5he a tual measurements are given in order that these #ro#ortions ma$ be follo"ed. It is a "ell-kno"n fa t! that hairs! or seats of an$ kind! an not be su essfull$ designed on #a#er "ith an$ ho#e of meeting the essential re&uirements of omfort! lightness! and stabilit$. Making seats is a #ra ti al art! and the develo#ment of the design is a matter of man$ $ears of su essive im#rovements. A good model )3J4+ should therefore be sele ted and o#ied! "ith su h slight hanges as are ne essar$ "here arving is to be introdu ed. 5he main lines should
not be interfered "ith on an$ a ount! nor should the thi kness of the "ood be altered if #ossible. 5he arving on this settle is intended to be in se#arate #anels! about t"o in hes a#art. 5hese #anels "ill look all the better if no t"o are &uite alike1 a good "a$ to give them more variet$ "ill be to make ever$ alternate one of some kind of o#en #attern! like a fret. 5hese #ier ings need not e%tend all over the design in the #anel in ever$ ase2 some ma$ have onl$ a fe" sha#el$ holes mi%ed u# "ith the lines! others again ma$ be formed into om#lete frets "ith as mu h o#en as solid. H'ee Fig. LJ.I 5he arving should be shallo"! and not too fine in detail! as it "ill get a great deal of rubbing. 5he material should be! if #ossible! oak1 but bee h ma$ be used "ith ver$ good effe t/in neither ase should it be stained or #olished.
*ig. 24. Fig. L* is a lo k ase. 'omething of this kind "ould make an e% ellent ,o#us, su h as I have alluded to! and give #lent$ of s o#e for invention. As lo ks of this )3J9+ kind are generall$ hung on a "all! the bra kets! from a #ra ti al #oint of vie"! are of ourse
unne essar$! but as it is im#ortant that the$ should loo" as if the$ "ere su##orted and to satisf$ the e$e! something in the "a$ of a bra ket or bra kets is generall$ added. A bra ket like the one in the illustration! not being a real su##ort onstru tivel$ s#eaking! but onl$ #ut there to give assuran e that su h has not been overlooked or negle ted! be omes a kind of to$! and ma$ be treated as su h b$ adding some little fan $ to make it amusing! and give an e% use for making a feature of it. 5his "ill be a good #la e to tr$ $our hand at some modest attem#t at figure "ork. In designing $our bra ket! should $ou "ish to introdu e a little figure of man or beast! I think $ou "ill find it more satisfa tor$ if the figure is se#arated from the stru tural #art b$ a slight suggestion of solid surroundings of its o"n. 5hus the little roof over! and the solid bit of "ood under! the figure in the illustration serve this #ur#ose! lending an a##earan e of steadiness "hi h "ould be "anting in a bra ket formed of a deta hed figure. At an$ rate! never make $our figures! "hether of man )3JG+ or beast! seem to arr$ the lo k1 $ou ma$ hun h them u# into an$ sha#e $ou like! but no "eight should be su##osed to rest u#on them.
*ig. 26. For sake of the arving! oak "ill be the best "ood to em#lo$ in making this lo k! or one like it! but Italian "alnut "ill do e&uall$ "ell. 5he si7e should be fairl$ large! sa$ about three feet over all in height. 5his "ill give a fa e of about ten in hes in diameter! "hi h fa e "ill look best if made of o##er gilt! and not mu h of it! #erha#s a mere ring! "ith the figures either raised or ut out! leaving nothing but themselves and t"o rings surrounding. 5his should #ro6e t from the "ood! leaving a s#a e of about one in h.
*ig. 2!. If $ou are in lined to tr$ a heavier #ie e of "ork! the ben h or settle-end in Fig. L0 ma$ give $ou a suggestion. In this there is a bird introdu ed in the sha#e of a o k roosting on the bran h of a tree. It "ould re&uire to be done in a thi k #ie e of "ood! sa$ ; ins. thi k! and "ould be best in <nglish oak. 5he idea "ill be! to ut a"a$ the "ood from the outer lo"er #ortion! leaving onl$ about 3-3KG or 3-3K9 in. thi kness! but at the to# retaining the full thi kness1 in "hi h the )3J?+ bird must be arved! the outer edges being ke#t full thi kness in order to give the stru tural form and en lose the arving. 5he inside of this u##er #art! to"ard the seat! should also be arved! but "ith a smooth and shallo" #attern of some kind! as both ma$ be seen together! and in ontrast to ea h other.
*ig. 3". 5he introdu tion of figures leads me to a sub6e t "hi h it "ill be better to dis uss in the ne%t ha#ter! i.e.! the &uestion as to ho" far it is #ossible or onsistent "ith )3JJ+ #resent onditions to attem#t an$thing that ma$ bear the hara ter of humor. But in the meantime here are three more sub6e ts u#on "hi h fan $ and ingenuit$ ma$ be e%#ended "ith #rofit. In Fig. ?4 $ou have a heraldi sub6e t. In all su h ases the heraldr$ should be true! and not of the ,bogus, kind. 5his shield re#resents a real oat of arms! and "as done from a design b$ Phili# -ebb! being finall$ overed "ith gesso! silvered and #ainted in trans#arent olors. Figs. ?3 and ?9 are suggestions for "ooden rosses! oak being the best material to use for su h a #ur#ose. 5he arving should be so arranged as to form some kind of #attern on the ross. In Fig. ?9 the bla k trefoils are su##osed to be ut right through the thin #ie es of "ood forming the enter #ortion! and the arving on that #art is ver$ shallo". )3J*+
*ig. 3 . )3J0+
*ig. 3.. )3*4+
CHAPTER XIX TH' GROT'S<+' IN CAR,ING

Mis#ro#ortion not <ssential to the <%#ression of Humor/5he 'ham Brotes&ue Contem#tible/A 5rue 'ense of Humor Hel#ful to the Carver. 5he dullness "hi h omes of ,all "ork and no #la$, ma$ be said to affe t the arver at times. He tires of arving leaves and ornaments2 "hat more natural than to seek hange and amusement in the invention of droll figures of men or animalsP 5he en6o$ment
"hi h "e all feel in ontem#lating the out ome of this s#irit in an ient "ork! leads us to the imitation of both sub6e t and manner! ho#ing thereb$ that the same results ma$ be obtained1 but someho" the re#etition is seldom attended "ith mu h su ess! "hile of original fan ies of the same sort "e are obliged to onfess ourselves almost destitute. -ho an behold the fantasti humors of Bothi arvings "ithout being both amused and interestedP 5hose grotes&ue heads "ith ga#ing mouths re all )3*3+ the stories of hildhood! #eo#led "ith goblins and gnomes. It is all so natural! and so mu h in kee#ing "ith the ar hite ture "hi h surrounds it! the arving is so rude and sim#le! that it seems absurd "hen some authorit$ on su h matters makes a statement to the effe t that all su h e%#ression of humor has be ome forever im#ossible to ourselves. 5his im#ortant #art of the &uestion must be left to $our o"n meditation! to settle a ording to $our lights1 e%#erien e "ill #robabl$ lead $ou ultimatel$ to the same o#inion. Meantime! the #oint I "ish to im#ress u#on $ou is this! that until $ou feel $ourself se ure! and something of a master of various bran hes of $our raft! $ou should not attem#t an$ sub6e t "hi h aims at being de idedl$ grotes&ue. 5here are ver$ good and #ra ti al reasons for this1 one is! that "hile $ou are stud$ing $our art! $ou must do nothing that ma$ tend to obs ure "hat fa ulties $ou have for 6udging #ro#ortion. :o"! as all grotes&ue "ork is based more or less on e%aggeration! it forms a ver$ dangerous kind of e%er ise to the beginner! therefore I should never allo" a #u#il of mine to so mu h as attem#t it. (o not think )3*9+ that I "ish to dis ourage ever$ effort "hi h has not an ultra-serious aim. On the ontrar$! I am but taking a rather roundabout "a$ to an admission that the humorous element has! and must have at all times! a #o"erful attra tion for the "ood- arver1 and to the statement of an o#inion that it should not be allo"ed to take a #rominent #la e in the "ork of a student1 moreover! that it is &uite #ossible to find in nature a varied and unfailing sour e of suggestion in this res#e t Hmore! in fa t! than "e are ever likel$ to a ount forI! and "hi h re&uires no artifi ial e%aggeration to aid its e%#ression. 'ome tin ture of the fa ult$ is absolutel$ ne essar$ to the arver "ho takes his sub6e ts from birds or beasts! in order that he ma$ #er eive and sei7e the salient lines and hara teristi forms! of "hi h the ke$-note is often to be found in a faint tou h of humor! and "hi h! like the s ent of a flo"er! adds harm b$ a##ealing to another sense. 5he same argument a##lies to the treatment of the human figure. Let no student Hand I ma$ in lude! also! master- arverI think that a grotes&ue treatment "ill raise the smile or e% ite the interest )3*;+ "hi h is anti i#ated. 5he ,grotes&ue, is a vehi le for grim and often terrible ideas! lightl$ veiled b$ a loak of humorous e%aggeration1 a sort of Diking horse-#la$/it is! in fa t! a language "hi h e%#resses the mi%ed feelings of s#ortive ontem#t and real fear in about e&ual #ro#ortions. -hen these feelings are not behind the e%#ression! it be omes a language "hi h is in itself onl$ ontem#tible.
*ig. 3#. )3*L+ If! arried a"a$ b$ fan $! $ou must find vent for its im#ulses! and arve images of unearthl$ beings! at least make them heerful looking1 one an imagine su h demons and goblins as being rather ni e fello"s than other"ise. A grim 6est that fails is generall$ a foolish one/at least its #er#etrator neither deserves nor re eives s$m#ath$ for his dis omfiture. :o"! I shall sho" $ou one or t"o e%am#les "hi h ma$ make this matter a little learer to $ou! if $ou are at all in lined to argue the #osition. I think! at an$ rate! the$ "ill #rove that the e%#ression of humor does not al"a$s de#end u#on e%aggeration! and ma$ e%ist in a "ork "hi h is! one ma$ sa$! almost o#ied from nature. Fig. ?; is an e%am#le to )3*?+ this effe t. 5he little 6ester 6ust emerging from a flo"er! one of the side-#ie es to a Miserere seat arving! is undoubtedl$ a true #ortrait! arved "ithout the slightest attem#t at e%aggeration. 5he &uiet humor "hi h it evin es re&uired onl$ s$m#ath$ to #er eive and skill to #ortra$ on the #art of its arver. He had nothing to invent in the ommon a e#tation of the "ord. 5he arving of the mendi ant! "hi h omes on the other side! is e&uall$ vivid in its truth to nature. It is so lifelike that
"e do not noti e the humorous en6o$ment of the artist in de#i ting the "hining li#s and losed e$es of the #rofessional beggar. Observe the good manners of it all/the natural refinement of the artist "ho leaves his hara ters to make all the fun! "ithout intrusion from himself other than to give the aid of his skill in re#resentation. :o"! sub6e ts of this lass "ill! in all #robabilit$! #resent themselves until the end of the "orld1 but artists like this Bothi one are not so likel$ to be ommon. Breat te hni al skill! a large fund of vitalit$! and man$ other ontrolling &ualities are ne essar$ to the #rodu tion of su h an artist1 but he gives a lue to the right a tion! "hi h )3*J+ "e ma$ "ith safet$ a e#t! even if "e an not ho#e to e&ual his #erforman e.
*ig. 31.
*ig. 32. 5he enter-#ie e! Fig. ?G! tells a little stor$ of 'amson. It is noti eable in these medieval #i ture sub6e ts! ho"! "hen a stor$ has to be told! the details are treated in a broad and distin t fashion! as if the stor$ ould take are of itself! and onl$ re&uired to be stated learl$ as to fa ts. 5he deta hed ornamental #arts! on the ontrar$! re eive a degree of areful attention not given to the #i ture! seemingl$ "ith the ob6e t of making their loneliness attra tive. 5he broad-humor hara teristi of the )3**+ om#anion #i ture of medieval life! in the little domesti s ene! Fig. ?L! is e&uall$ free from for ed e%aggeration or intentional mis#ro#ortion. ' ale and anatom$! to be sure! have had little onsideration from the arver! but "e readil$ forgive the ina ura ies in this res#e t! on a ount of his &ui k "it
in devising means to an end. Before "e leave this sub6e t! look at Plate II! in "hi h $ou "ill see a urious use of mis#ro#ortion/intentional! too! in this ase/and used for &uite other than humorous #ur#oses. 5his is a little ornamental figure from the tomb of Henr$ ID! in Canterbur$ Cathedral. =ou "ill see that the bod$ is out of all #ro#ortion1 too small for the head "hi h surmounts it! or too big for the feet u#on "hi h it stands. :o"! "hat ould have indu ed the arver to treat a daint$ little lad$ thusP It ertainl$ "as not that he onsidered it an im#rovement u#on nature! nor "as it a 6oke on his #art. It ould onl$ be done for some #ra ti al reason su h as this2 that the little figure does #art dut$ as a bra ket! hen e! more a##earan e of solidit$ is re&uired at the to#! and less at the foot! than true #ro#ortions "ould )3*0+ admit. It is all done so unostentatiousl$ that one might look for hours at the figure "ithout noti ing the li ense. :ot that I should advise $ou to imitate this )304+ naive "a$ out of a diffi ult$. 5he hildlike sim#li it$ of its treatment su eeds "here ons ious effort "ould onl$ end in affe tation.
*ig. 33.
*ig. 34. In Fig. ?? $ou "ill see another little figure doing dut$ in onne tion "ith a )303+ stall division in the Lad$ Cha#el at -in hester Cathedral. Its smooth roundness of form is ver$ a##ro#riate to the #osition it o u#ies1 "hile its #olished surfa e bears am#le testimon$ that it has given no offense to the tou h of the man$ hands "hi h have rested u#on it. Fig. ?J sho"s another e%am#le of the same sort! but #er hed on a lo"er #art of the division. 5his one is from the athedral at Berne! ea h division of the stalls having a different figure! of "hi h this is a t$#e.
CHAPTER XX ST+%I'S *RO( NAT+R'0$IR%S AN% $'ASTS

5he Introdu tion of Animal Forms/.ude Ditalit$ Better than (ull ,:atural Histor$,/,A tion,/(iffi ulties of the 'tud$ for 5o"n-Bred 'tudents/5he Aid of Books and Photogra#hs/Outline (ra"ing and 'uggestion of Main Masses/'ket h-Book 'tudies! 'e tions! and :otes/'"iss Animal Carving/5he Cla$ Model2 its Cse and Abuse. :othing enlivens or gives more variet$ of interest to "oodarving than the introdu tion of animal forms. 5he$ )309+ make agreeable halting-#la es on "hi h the e$e ma$ rest "ith #leasure. 5he$ are! in general! both beautiful in their sha#es and asso iated "ith ideas "hi h a##eal strongl$ to the imagination! thus affording in masses of abstra t ornament the #leasantest kind of relief b$ adding to it #oints of definite lineament and meaning. 5o arve animals as the$ ought to be arved! one must have something more than a #assing interest in their forms1 there must be in luded also an understanding of their natures! and some a &uaintan e "ith their habits. A attle-drover is likel$ to kno" the salient #oints of a bullo k! a horse-breeder all those onne ted "ith a horse! and so on. -e students! ho"ever! not having the advantage of su h a urate and #ersonal kno"ledge! must make shift in the best "a$ "e an to dis over and note the #oints so familiar to trained e$es. 5o see animals in this "a$! and! "ith kno"ledge of their forms and habits! treat their s ul#tured images a ording to the la"s of our raft! is no light task. If hoi e "ere to be made bet"een a rude manner of arving/but "hi h familiarit$ "ith the sub6e t )30;+ invested "ith livel$ re ognition of hara ter/and a more ultured and elaborate! but lifeless stud$ in natural histor$! there should be no hesitation in making hoi e of the former method! be ause animal forms! "ithout some indi ation of vitalit$! are the dullest of all dull ornaments. It is &uite im#ossible to des ribe in "ords the kind of ,a tion, "hi h is most a##ro#riate to s ul#ture! it being mu h more a &uestion of treatment! and the guiding s#irit of the moment! than a sub6e t "hi h an be formulated. As a broad and general #rin i#le "hi h ma$ be taken for guidan e! $ou "ill al"a$s find $ourself on surer ground in the attem#t to indi ate the capacit% for energ$ and the suggestion of movement! than $ou "ill if $our aim is the e%tremit$ of a tion in an$ dire tion. =ou ma$! "ith some 6usti e! #oint to the illustration given in Fig. ?L! and "hi h a##ears to ontradi t this statement! as being an e%am#le in "hi h violent a tion is the ke$-note. =ou must noti e! ho"ever! that the t"o figures! although struggling! are for the moment still! or ma$ be su##osed so. 5here is enough suggestion of this #ause to e% use the attitudes and save the om#osition )30G+ from restlessness/even the raised hands ma$ be su##osed to remain in the same #osition for a se ond or t"o. 5his imaginar$ #ause! ho"ever infinitesimal! is essential to the dignit$ of the s ul#tor>s art! as nothing is more irritating to the mind than being for ed to re ogni7e the ontradi tion bet"een a motionless image and its suggestion of restless a tion. It is ne essar$ to observe the same rule in the e%#ression of a tual re#ose! as some lue must be given! some om#leted a tion be suggested! in order to distinguish dormant energ$ from do"nright inertia. I should like to im#ress u#on $ou the im#ortan e of making a s#e ial stud$ of the hara teristi movements of
animals. =ou "ill in time be ome so far familiar "ith them that ertain standards of om#arison and ontrast "ill be established in $our mind as aids to memor$. 5hus $ou "ill be all the better able to arve "ith signifi an e the measured and statel$ a tion of a horse! if $ou have in $our mind>s e$e at the same time a #i ture of the more umbrous and slo"er movements of a o"1 and $ou "ill be hel#ed in the same "a$ "hen $ou are arving a dog! b$ remembering that the movements of a at afford a )30L+ striking ontrast! in being stealth$ "here the other is nervous and &ui k. For the unfortunate to"n-bred student or artist! "ho has had fe" o##ortunities to stud$ birds and beasts familiar to the ountr$ s hoolbo$! there is no other "a$ but to make the best of stuffed birds! #hotogra#hs! et . Mu h ma$ be done "ith these aids if a little #ersonal a &uaintan e "ith their habits and asso iations is added like salt! to kee# the se ond-hand kno"ledge s"eet and "holesome. In the absen e of o##ortunit$ for stud$ from the life! no #i tures of animals an om#are in their usefulness to the arver "ith those b$ Be"i k. 5he$ are so om#letel$ develo#ed in essential details! so full of hara ter and e%#ressive of life! that even "hen #ersonal a &uaintan e has been made "ith their various &ualities! a glan e at one of his engravings of birds or beasts onve$s ne" meaning! either of gesture or attitude! to "hat "e have #reviousl$ learned. <ver$ student "ho "ishes to make a livel$ re#resentation in arving of familiar beast or bird should stud$ Be"i k>s engravings of ,Euadru#eds, and ,Birds.,)30?+ (ra"ings made for the #ur#ose of stud$ need not be elaborate2 indeed! su h dra"ings are onl$ embarrassing to "ork from. 5he most #ra ti al #lan is to make a dra"ing in "hi h the main masses are given orre tl$! and in about the same relative #osition that the$ "ill o u#$ in the arving. I give $ou in Plate DII an e%am#le of this in a dra"ing made b$ Phili# -ebb! "ho! b$ the stud$ of a lifetime! has amassed a valuable store of kno"ledge on erning animals! and a &uired that e%traordinar$ skill in their delineation and the e%#ression of hara ter "hi h is onl$ to be attained b$ lose observation and great s$m#ath$ "ith the sub6e t. 5he dra"ing in &uestion "as made for m$self at the time I "as arving a lion for the over of a book Hgiven in Plate DIIII. It "as made! in his good-natured "a$! to ,hel# a lame dog over a stile!, as I had got into diffi ulties "ith the form. 5his dra"ing is all that a arver>s first diagram should be! and gives "hat is al"a$s the first ne essit$ in su h #reliminar$ outlines/that is! the right relationshi# of the main masses! and the merest hint of "hat is to ome in the "a$ of detail1 all of "hi h must be studied se#aratel$! but "hi h "ould be entirel$ useless )30J+ if a "rong start had been made. In Fig. ?* I give $ou tra ings from some notes I made m$self "hile arving the shee# in Plates D and DI. 5he ob6e t "as to gain some definite kno"ledge of form b$ noting the relation of #lanes! se tions of #arts! #ro6e tions! et .! et . 5he se tion lines and side-notes are the most valuable #art of the memoranda. In the same manner the illustration! Fig. ?0! sho"s diagrams made from a heron! giving se tion lines of beak! et . 5he side-notes about the olors are valuable! as! although not translatable into arving! the$ do to some e%tent influen e the manner of inter#reting forms. Photogra#hs must not be des#ised! but the$ are onl$ of use if read b$ the light of #revious kno"ledge. For this reason $ou an not make too man$ notes of se tional stru ture through heads! ne ks! and legs! "hi h "ill hel# to e%#lain the m$ster$
ommon to all #hotogra#hs. 5he bear sho"n in the frontis#ie e is tra ed from a #hotogra#hi illustration "hi h a##eared in the -estminster Budget some time ago. B$ the merest a ident it is suggestive of a sub6e t almost read$ for the arver>s hand. )30*+
*ig. 36.
*ig. 3!. )944+ Cntil tourists began to e%#lore the beauties of '"it7erland! there "ere no better arvers of animals than the serious but genial raftsmen of that noble ountr$! more es#e iall$ of su h animals as "ere familiar to their e$es. 5his #reeminen e sho"s distin t signs of soon be oming a thing of the #ast in the endeavors to meet the demands reated b$ thoughtless visitors. 'till! it is #ossible to obtain a little of the traditional "ork! uninfluen ed b$ that fatal im#etus originating in modern ommer e. A #ie e of this kind is sho"n in Fig. J4! bought b$ a friend onl$ a $ear or t"o ago in the Brindel"ald! and "hi h! although forming #art of the usual sto k of su h things made for tourist onsum#tion! "as #i ked out "ith 6udi ious dis rimination from a number of stu#id and trivial ob6e ts "hi h dis#la$ed neither interest of design nor other than me hani al skill of arving. 5his little bear! a fe" in hes in si7e! is arved in a "a$ "hi h sho"s long e%#erien e of the sub6e t! and great familiarit$ "ith the animal>s "a$s. 5he tooling of
the hair is done "ith the most e%traordinar$ skill! and "ithout the "aste of a single tou h. :o"! a "ord or t"o more on studies from the life )943+ before "e leave this sub6e t. I have given $ou e%am#les of diagrams made for this #ur#ose! but mu h ma$ be done "ithout an$ dra"ings! further than a #reliminar$ ma# of the general masses. In the ase of su h an animal as the horse! "hi h an be seen in ever$ street! I have m$self found it useful to follo" them in m$ "alks! taking mental note of su h details as I ha##ened to be engaged u#on! su h as its legs and 6oints! its head or ne k1 another da$ I "ould onfine m$ attention to e$es! ears! mane! et .! al"a$s "ith referen e to )949+ the "ork immediatel$ in hand! as that is the time to get the best results from life stud$1 be ause the diffi ulties have #resented themselves! and one kno"s e%a tl$ "hat to look for. Five minutes s#ent thus after the "ork has been started H#rovided the start has been right and involves no mistake in the general massesI is more valuable than hours of labor in making #reliminar$ dra"ings.
*ig. 4". 5he use of e%#erimental models in la$ or "a% has! of ourse! its advantages! but it "ill be "ell to kno" 6ust ho" far su h an aid is valuable! and at "hat #oint its use be omes hurtful to one>s "ork. It is a ommon #ra tise in large arving sho#s for one man to design the figure or animal sub6e ts in la$! "hile another arves them in stone or "ood. :o"! a#art from the differen e in material and the unnatural ,division of labor!, "hi h "e have dis ussed before! it is be$ond &uestion that a model of this kind has even a more #aral$7ing effe t on the a tual arver than a dra"ing "ould have. Of ourse! the "ork is more ertain to rea h a re ogni7ed standard! and the risk of total failure is redu ed to a minimum! but there is literall$ nothing left for the arver )94;+ to invent1 "ho! if he is a man "ith a turn for that kind of thing! and of a nervous tem#erament! must suffer untold irritation in its e%e ution. 5he good and bad results of the use of a modeled #attern attend in a modified degree even "here both are done b$ the same hand! but for all that it is a useful and onvenient "a$ of making e%#eriments in doubtful #assages of the "ork. 5he ,ho" far, a model is to be arried must be regulated b$ the amount of onfiden e the arver has in his o"n foresight! but in an$ ase it is al"a$s "ell to remember the differen e of treatment re&uired in #laster! la$! and hard "ood! "hi h lead to su h different results that often fresh diffi ult$ arises in having to
translate the one manner into the other. For the #ur#ose of roughing out the general s heme! the la$! if it must be resorted to! should be used in soft masses! then a dra"ing in outline made from this1 but all doubtful detailed "ork should be arved! not modeled! and for this #ur#ose the la$ should be allo"ed to harden until it is nearl$ dr$. 5he o#inions of the "ell-kno"n "ood- arver! Mr. -. Aumonier! on this sub6e t! "ill be of value to $ou1 he sa$s "ith )94G+ regard to the best method of going to "ork2 ,A fresh #ie e of "oodarving e%e uted "ithout a model is distin tl$ a reated "ork!, and that mu h good "ork ma$ ome b$ , ho##ing boldl$ at a blo k "ithout an$ #re on eived design! but designing as $ou go on., But he thinks it is best to "ork from dra"ings1 ,rough! full-si7e har oal artoons! "hi h give the effe t "anted b$ their light and shade., He also sa$s that he ,strongl$ #rotests against the too fre&uent use of la$ or #laster models! be ause the$ are often "orse than useless! and not infre&uentl$ absolutel$ immoral in their tenden $! be ause the$ absorb time and mone$! "hi h ought more legitimatel$ to be s#ent on the arving itself., )94L+
CHAPTER XXI *OR'SHORT'NING AS APP&I'% TO 5OR7 IN R'&I'*

Intelligible Ba kground Outline Better than Confused Foreshortening/'u#er#osition of Masses. I have s#oken of the ne essit$ for areful balan e bet"een the outlines of sub6e t and ba kground2 that both should be agreeable in sha#e. 5his be omes om#li ated and more diffi ult to arrange "hen "e admit into our design an$thing resembling "hat #ainters all foreshortening! and the a"k"ardness is felt even in the #la ing of su h a small thing as an a##le-leaf! "hi h ma$ be treated in su h a "a$ that the intention of the dra"ing is entirel$ lost in the onfusion "hi h arises bet"een the inferred and the a tual #ro6e tion. In designing su h sub6e ts it "ill be good to bear in mind as a guiding #rin i#le that no matter "hat e% use there ma$ be in the nature of the inferred #osition of the leaf or limb! the outline )94?+ against the ba kground must be at on e agreeable and e%#lanator$. <ver$ kind of "ork in relief develo#s a s#e ies of om#romise in the e%#ression of form! l$ing some"here bet"een the re#resentation of an ob6e t on a #erfe tl$ flat ground! as in a #ainting! and the om#lete reali7ation of the same form! o#ied from nature in some solid material! "ithout an$ ba kground "hatever. In #ro#ortion to the amount of a tual #ro6e tion from the ba kground! of ourse the ne essit$ diminishes for that kind of foreshortening "hi h is obtained b$ delineation. It might be inferred! therefore! that in ver$ lo" relief/"hi h is more nearl$ akin to the nature of a #i ture/more libert$ ma$ be taken in this dire tion. It is not so! ho"ever! for "here a tual de#th or #ro6e tion e%ists! as in arving! be it onl$ so mu h as the de#th of a line! it makes foreshortening "ell-nigh im#ossible! e% e#t to a ver$ limited e%tent. 5here must be! of ourse! some a##earan e of this &ualit$! so a ertain onventional standard has been set u#! be$ond "hi h one onl$ ventures at one>s o"n risk. 5hus! are is taken that ever$ ob6e t
om#osing the sub6e t lies "ith its longest lines #arallel to the ba kground. In this "a$ the least #ossible violen e is done to the imagination in om#leting the #i ture. As an e%am#le! no single leaf should be re#resented in )94*+ relief as turning or oming for"ard more than it "ould do if #lu ked from the tree and laid loosel$ do"n u#on a sheet of #a#er. A! Fig. J3! is an outline of an a##le-leaf #ressed out flat. B is an attem#t to #resent it in violent foreshortening! sho"ing its ba k to the s#e tator! "hile its #oint is su##osed to be buried in the ba kground. C is the same leaf turned the other "a$! and su##osed to be #ro6e ting for"ard1 both are e% eedingl$ a"k"ard and unintelligible as mere outlines! and if e%#ressed in relief "ould not be an$ more onvin ing as #ortraits of the thing intended/rather less so! in fa t! than the diagram! "hi h has no #ro6e tion to interfere "ith the dra"ing. 'o "e must turn our leaf until it #resents its long side more or less to the s#e tator! as in (1 but even here #art of the edge is so thin at a that it "ill be better to turn it a little farther! as in <! sho"ing more of its surfa e! as at b.
*ig. 4 . Again! if "e take as another e%am#le t"o a##les! one #artl$ overing the other! as in a! Fig. J9! "here one a##le is su##osed to be behind the other! and so im#lies distan e. 5here is no means of e%#ressing this distan e in arving. )940+ Lo"ering the surfa e of
the hindmost a##le "ould merel$ thro" out the balan e of masses "ithout giving a satisfa tor$ e%#lanation of its #osition! "hile to ut a dee# groove bet"een the t"o "ould be an e&uall$ unsightl$ e%#edient. 5he diffi ult$ should! "henever it is #ossible! be avoided b$ #artiall$ se#arating the t"o forms! as in b! "here the enter of the hindmost a##le lears the outline of the other1 thus making it #ossible to get a division "ithout a"k"ardness.
*ig. 4..
*ig. 4#. A good e%#edient! "here leaf or s roll forms are to be arved! and "hen ver$ truthful dra"ing is ne essar$ to e%#lain their onvolutions! is that ado#ted b$ Professor Lethab$ at the .o$al College of Art. It onsists in utting the leaf out of a #ie e of stiffish #a#er! and "ith a knife or #en-handle urling it into the re&uired )934+ form. 5he main lines "ill thus be seen in true relation to one another! and all the distortion avoided "hi h arises from dis onne tion of #arts1 not onl$ that! but it is a useful aid to the invention! as mu h variet$ an be hinted at b$ a skilful mani#ulation in urling its lobes. Fig. J; "as dra"n from a #a#er model of this kind. Of ourse! it is &uite "ithout the ne essar$ veins or minor arti ulations! but is useful as a suggestion of main lines. -ith regard to sub6e ts ontaining figures of men or animals! the same #rin i#le governs the #la ing of the "hole bod$ in the first instan e! then of the different members! so that heads! arms! and legs take u# a #osition as nearl$ as ma$ be "ith a #ie e of ba kground all to themselves. 5hus! no t"o bodies should be su#er-im#osed )933+ if it an be in an$ "a$ avoided. HI am s#eaking no" of moderate and lo" relief! although even in high relief the best masters have al"a$s res#e ted the #rin i#le.I 5he tem#tation to imitate effe ts of foreshortening for its o"n sake is not "ithout some e% use! as it is &uite #ossible to make #resentable #i tures in this "a$. A horse! for instan e! ma$ be arved in lo" relief! #resenting either its head or hind&uarters to the s#e tator! and $et not look absolutel$ absurd. Again! a front fa e ma$ be arved in the same "a$! not"ithstanding the diffi ult$ #resented b$ the #ro6e tion of the nose. :either of these e%#eriments an ever be said to #rove entirel$ su essful. It is not so mu h that the$ are either diffi ult or im#ossible! as that a more suitable method! one more natural to the te hni&ue of the arver! is being negle ted! and its man$ good &ualities sa rifi ed for sake of an effe t "hi h an never be full$ reali7ed in s ul#ture. 5o so dis#ose the various masses! great
and small! that the$ fall easil$ into grou#s! ea h having some relation to! and share of the ba kground! is a true arver>s artifi e. A skilful use of this arrangement makes it &uite unne essar$ to en roa h u#on the )939+ domain of another art in the imitation of an effe t "hi h ma$ be su essfull$ rendered "ith the #en il! but onl$ so to a ver$ limited e%tent "ith the arving tools. =ou have all seen the a tors! "hen alled before the urtain at the lose of the #la$! ho" the$ #ass before it one b$ one! and #erha#s 6oining hands make their bo"s in line! to all a##earan e! on a ver$ narro" #latform. 5he urtain is $our ba kground! "hile the footlights ma$ stand for the surfa e of $our "ood. In illustration of this #rin i#le! let me all $our attention to the arrangement of the animals in Plate DI! "here e onom$ of s#a e! and a desire to dis#la$ ea h detail to advantage! are the leading motives. I give it as the readiest e%am#le to hand! and be ause it fairl$ illustrates the #rin i#le in &uestion. =ou must e% use the a##arent vanit$ in making hoi e of one of m$ o"n "orks to e%em#lif$ a anon of art. 5he shee# at the to# is su##osed to be s am#ering over ro ks1 the ram belo" ma$ be an$ distan e from the shee# that $ou hoose to imagine/the onl$ indi ation of relative #osition is separation! b$ means of a ridge that ma$ #ass for a ro k. 5he head of the ram is some"hat foreshortened! but there "as enough thi kness )93;+ of "ood ontained in the big mass of the bod$ to allo" of this being done in the smaller mass of the head! "ithout leaving too mu h to be su##osed. 5he heads of the shee# in the fold have been as losel$ #a ked as "as onsistent "ith sho"ing as mu h of ea h as #ossible! as it "as onsidered better to give the "hole head and no bod$ than to sho" onl$ a #art of both2 most of the bodies! therefore! are su##osed to be hidden behind the "all! onl$ one sho"ing in #art. It is a general a%iom of the raft! that ever$ mass Hbe it bod$ or leafI must be made as om#lete in itself as the ir umstan es "ill allo"1 but! if #artl$ hidden! the on ealment should be "ilful! and "ithout ambiguit$. 5hus! a dog>s head ma$ be rightl$ arved as being #artl$ hidden in a bu ket! but ought not to be overed b$ another head if it is #ossible to avoid it.)93G+
CHAPTER XXII +N%'RC+TTING AN% =$+I&T/+P= 5OR7

Cnder utting as a Means and as an <nd1 its Cse and Abuse/,Built-u#, -ork/,Planted, -ork/,Pier ed, -ork. B$ under utting is meant the utting a"a$ of the solid #ortions of #ro6e tions in su h a manner as to make them invisible! thus thro"ing the arved surfa e "ork into more om#lete relief b$ deta hing it from the ba kground. 5his devi e has often been arried so far! "here the #ro6e tion "as suffi ient! that entire grou#s of figures and foliage have been #ra ti all$ deta hed from the ba kground! like #ie es of se#arate s ul#ture arved all round. 5his desire for om#leteness of relief "as more or less a de#arture from the orthodo% aims of the arvers> raft! and led ultimatel$ to "hat is kno"n as ,built-u#, "ork/that is to sa$! "ork in "hi h the #ro6e ting #arts "ere om#osed of man$ different #ie es of "ood! ea h arved se#aratel$! and after"ard glued or #inned together
to form the om#osition. Man$ )93L+ of the most elaborate arvings b$ Brinling Bibbons are of this kind1 the$ have a harm of their o"n! but it is one of &uite se#arate interest! and belongs to a ategor$ entirel$ removed from the art of arving ob6e ts in a solid #ie e of "ood. A#art from this distin tion! the diffi ult$ of the method re&uires the most a om#lished me hani al skill and a highl$ trained e$e to either arve or om#ose su h "ork in a "a$ to ommand res#e t. I shall therefore dismiss this bran h of the sub6e t as being outside of our #resent limits. Cnder utting! on the other hand! is an e%#edient distin tl$ hara teristi of solid "oodarving! and some e%#eriments ought to be made b$ $ou in designing "ork in "hi h it an be used. It ma$ be either #artial or om#lete/ om#lete! of ourse! onl$ u# to a #oint1 that is to sa$! the onne tion "ith the ba kground must in ever$ ase be not onl$ maintained but visibl$ demonstrated. Partial under utting a##lies to su h #ortions as the sides of leaves! the re eding #arts of heads! "ings! et .! "here the "ood bet"een the ob6e t and its ba kground is ut a"a$ on an in"ard bend! either om#leting the )93?+ #ro6e ting form! as in the ase of a head! or merel$ to hide the su#erfluous "ood in the ase of a leaf. All this #resu##oses a ertain amount of elevation in the relief1 indeed! it is onl$ in su h ases that the #ro ess is ne essar$ or an be arried out. 5he use of under utting of this kind is like ever$ other te hni al #ro ess! liable to abuse through too mu h being made of its effe ts. Fortunatel$ the time it onsumes is a safeguard against an$ tenden $ to run riot in this dire tion. 5he #oint at "hi h it should in all ases sto#! and that relentlessl$! is "here it begins to ause a se#aration bet"een an$ entire mass of ornament and its ba kground. If portions are thus relieved almost to om#lete deta hment! but visibl$ re onne t themselves in another #la e! a ertain #i&uan $ is gained "hi h adds harm "ithout destro$ing hara ter. A urious use is made of under utting in the bun h of leaves given in Plate FI from a Miserere seat in -in hester Cathedral1 it ma$ be said to be om#letel$ under ut in so far that the "hole bun h is hollo"ed out under the surfa e! leaving from 3KG to 3K9 in. thi kness of "ood! in "hi h the leaves are arved! so that $ou ma$ #ut $our finger )93J+ in at one hole and see it at the bottom of another. 5he onl$ end all this e%tra labor seems to have attained is that of hangefulness in the shado"s of the holes bet"een the leaves! in "hi h one sees dark rims "ith light at the bottom! a ondition "hi h ertainl$ adds a m$sterious lightness to the "hole mass. It is a ver$ refined and a##ro#riate use of under utting! but "ould onl$ be #ossible "here time ould be s#ent to se ure a variant of su h e#i urean deli a $! as all the su#erfluous "ood must be taken out through the s#a es bet"een the leaves! and in this ase the$ are not overlarge for that #ur#ose. -ork "hi h has its ba kground entirel$ ut a"a$! and "hi h is after"ard glued or ,#lanted, on a fresh ba kground to save labor! an not be alled ,under ut,1 this method has generall$ a hea# look! as it is used "ith the ob6e t of saving time and e%#ense. Carving "hi h is treated in this "a$! but instead of being ,#lanted, lose to the ba kground! is fi%ed at a little distan e from it Has is the ase "ith the la e-like designs fitted into the hollo" moldings of fifteenth- entur$ hoir-s reensI! is of &uite a different order! although even in )93*+ this ase it an not be stri tl$ des ribed as under ut2 it is more nearl$ akin to #ier ed fret"ork. It has! ho"ever! all the general effe t of under ut "ork! and is the onl$ #ossible "a$ of obtaining this effe t in "ood "here a large &uantit$ of su h ornament is re&uired. 5he fa e of su h arving is generall$ a little onve%! "hile the ba k is hollo"ed out to give an e&ual thi kness of se tion. 5he ornaments in Figs. JL! J?! and JJ are of this des ri#tion! and are al ulated to give
great #la$ of light and shade! and be seen "ell at a onsiderable distan e. Cnder utting in the stri t and more laborious sense must be reserved for o asions "here the labor is re#aid b$ the additional harm. It must be onsidered in the light of a tour de 'orce! "hi h! on a ount of its ost in the matter of time! should onl$ be used under e% e#tional ir umstan es! are being taken to make it lear that it is an e0ception to the general rule of solid arving on a solid ba kground. )930+
CHAPTER XXIII PICT+R' S+$>'CTS AN% P'RSP'CTI,'

5he Limitations of an Art not 'afel$ 5ransgressed/Aerial Pers#e tive Im#ossible in .elief/Linear Pers#e tive onl$ Possible in a Limited -a$. 5hose vague and shado"$ boundaries "hi h se#arate the domains of the different arts are being #er#etuall$ alled in &uestion. B$ "hat landmarks su h indefinite frontiers ma$ be distinguished! and ho" far the$ ma$ be e%tended or transgressed! "ill al"a$s be a matter of dis#ute. <% ursions of on&uest are ontinuall$ being made! and ons#i uous among these! one "hi h animates the ho#es of man$ s ul#tors and modelers. Its aim is the a##ro#riation of those harms "hi h are the #e uliar #ro#ert$ of the gra#hi arts! more es#e iall$ their #o"er of e%#ressing the effe ts of distan e b$ means of linear and aerial #ers#e tive. 5he ba kground of a #ie e of arving is so obviousl$ solid and im#enetrable that an$ attem#t to imitate an a##earan e of distan e is sure to defeat its o"n ends! the )994+ loss being greater than the gain. If there are limits to be observed in the foreshortening of a single leaf! ho" mu h more must the$ a##l$ to the re#resentation of "hole lands a#esP Pro#erl$ s#eaking! there is no distance available in the arver>s art1 its "hole interest lies near the surfa e! and in the dire t ra$s of the light "hi h illuminates it. 5here is even a distin t #leasure to be derived from the sense that it is all arved out of a blo k of su h and su h thi kness! #ointing to the reasonable on lusion that this thi kness should never be lost sight of! the arving ever and anon returning to the surfa e as a measure of musi does to its ke$-note. 5his is e%em#lified in all the great "orks of anti&uit$! among "hi h the Parthenon frie7e ma$ be &uoted as eviden e. On the other hand! all #i torial s ul#ture! su h as arved lands a#es "ith figures diminishing both in s ale and #ro6e tion! ne essaril$ fail to u#hold this sense of solidit$! as there must o ur large s#a es "hi h are hollo"ed out far belo" the surfa e to give another #lane on "hi h to arve the more distant ob6e ts in lo" relief! in the vain ho#e of making them a##ear to re ede. -ork in "hi h #ers#e tive )993+ of this kind is used must be vie"ed as nearl$ as #ossible from the #oint of vision #rodu ed b$ its vanishinglines1 this #oint is intelligible enough in the ase of a #ainting! but "hen it omes to be arved into relief! if it ha##ens to be seen from an$ other #oint of vie"! it ne essaril$ looks all "rong! be ause ever$ #art is thro"n into false relationshi#. All this! of ourse! forms no argument against the use of e%#lanator$ lands a#es "ith trees! buildings! et . It onl$ means that all su h features must be treated in a "a$ entirel$ different to that ado#ted b$ the #ainter/that is to sa$! in deta hed grou#s! ea h
having some due relation to the original surfa e of the "ood! and onl$ ver$ little to their #ers#e tive #ositions. In Fig. JG are t"o diagrams of a lands a#e om#osition. 5he one is a##ro#riate to a #ainted #i ture and the other to arving1 both have #rett$ nearl$ the same number of features! e% e#t that in the arving there is no e''ect of distan e attem#ted! "hereas in the #ainting ever$thing leads to this one #arti ular distin tion. 5he road goes into the #i ture! the bridge is seen end on! the house and mill are diminished in si7e! and )99;+ the hori7on is strongl$ enfor ed b$ a shado" e hoed in the sk$. 5he arving looks ridi ulous beside the #ainting! but it is a severe test! as it is not a sub6e t "hi h should be arved at all in that ondensed "a$.
*ig. 41.
CHAPTER XXIV ARCHIT'CT+RA& CAR,ING

5he :e essit$ for Dariet$ in 'tud$/A Carver>s Die" of the 'tud$ of Ar hite ture1 Inse#arable from a 'tud$ of his o"n Craft/Im#ortan e of the Car#enter>s 'timulating Influen e u#on the Carver/Car#enter>s Imitation of 'tone Constru tion Carried too Far. 5hat the stud$ of "oodarving should be onfined to the narro" field of its o"n #erforman es "ould be the surest "a$ to bring ontem#t u#on an art "hi h alread$ offers too man$ tem#tations for the eas$ embodiment of #uerile motives. 'u h a limited range "ould e% lude all the stimulating lessons to be derived from the man$ other kinds of arving and s ul#ture1 forgetful that the$ are! after all! but different forms of the same art! differing onl$ in te hni&ue and a##li ation. It "ould take no note of the statel$ s ul#tures of )99G+ Bree e/the fountain-head of all that is te hni all$ and artisti all$ #erfe t in e%#ression of form/or of the s#lendor of imagination dis#la$ed in the ivories of Ital$. Man$ another sour e of ins#iring im#etus "ould be negle ted! in luding the greatest of all! the influen e of ar hite ture! and through it! the dignified asso iation or the arver>s art "ith all that is noble in the life of mankind. 5he dr$ and uninviting as#e t "hi h a serious stud$ of ar hite ture #resents to some minds is su h that it is too often avoided as both useless and "earisome. Mu h of this diffiden e is due to a mis on e#tion of the aims "hi h should govern the student of de orative design in making an a &uaintan e "ith its #rin i#les. 5he stud$ should not be looked u#on as #ertaining e% lusivel$ to the fun tions of an ar hite t! nor as having onl$ an a idental onne tion "ith #arti ular rafts. It must be remembered that in the old da$s mason and ar#enter "ere both raftsmen and ar hite ts! and the s ul#tor and "ood- arver had an e&ual share in reating ever$ feature "hi h gives an$ distin tion of st$le to the buildings that "ere the out ome of their united efforts. 'o! instead )99L+ of looking u#on the sub6e t as onl$ a stud$ of dates for the anti&uar$! and rules of onstru tion for the ar hite t! the arver should take his o"n vie"! and regard ar hite ture for the time being as "hat in some sense it reall$ is2 a ver$ large kind of arving! "hi h in ludes and gives reason for his o"n #arti ular bran h. 5he im#ortan e of the sub6e t is #roved b$ the e%#erien e of enturies1 histor$ sho"ing #lainl$ ho" the t"o arts gre" in strength and beaut$ onl$ "hen losel$ asso iated! and shared ea h other>s fate in #ro#ortion to their estrangement. In this #la e I an sa$ but ver$ little u#on su h a vast sub6e t1 all I an do is to all $our attention to one or t"o e%am#les of arved "ork ombined "ith stru tural ar#entr$! in order that $ou ma$ see for $ourselves "hat a #o"er of effe t lies in that union! and ho" b$ ontrast it enhan es the value and interest of both. I do this in the ho#e that it ma$ #ossibl$ lead $ou to a more om#lete stud$ of ar hite ture! for "hi h there is no la k of o##ortunit$ in books and museums! but more es#e iall$ in "hat remains of the old buildings themselves! "ith "hi h a familiar and #ersonal a &uaintan e "ill be mu h )99?+ better than a theoreti al or se ond-hand one. :o arver "ith a health$ ambition an long ontinue to make designs and #rodu e them in "ood "ithout feeling intensel$ the "ant of some ar hite tural o asion for his efforts. Had he onl$ a barge-board to arve! or the ano#$ of a #or h! it "ould be su h a relief to turn to its large and general treatment after a ourse of the #anels and ornaments
#e uliar to domesti furniture. Look! for instan e! at the arved beams of the aisle roof in Mildenhall Chur h given in Plate III! and think "hat a fund of #o"erful suggestion la$ in the bare timbers before the$ "ere embellished b$ the arver "ith lion! dragon! and knight. <ven the ar#enter be ame ins#ired "ith a desire to make something ornamental of his o"n de#artment! and has sha#ed and arved Hliterall$ arvedI his timbers into gra eful moldings. 5hen! again! in the roof of 'all Chur h! :orfolk! sho"n in Plate ID! $ou have a noble #ie e of ar#entr$ "hi h is as mu h the "ork of an artist as the arved figures and tra er$ "hi h adorn it/indeed it is all 6ust as trul$ arved "ork as those figures! being ho##ed out )99J+ of the solid oak "ith larger tools! a% and ad7e! so that one kno"s not "hi h to admire most! arved angels or arved ar#entr$. Plates FI and FII are details of the arvings "hi h fill the s#andrels of ar h and gable in the hoir stalls and s reen at -in hester Cathedral. 5here are a great man$ of these #anels similar in hara ter but differing in design! some having figures! birds! or dragons "orked among the foliage. 5he$ are om#arativel$ shallo" in relief! and this a##ears less than it reall$ is o"ing to the fa t that man$ #arts of the arving di# do"n almost to the ba kground! giving definite but not dee# shado"s. 5he main intention seems to have been to allo" onl$ enough shado" to se ure the #attern! and then to em#hasi7e this b$ means of a multitude of little illuminated masses. 5he leading lines run through the #attern as ontinuousl$ as #ossible! but the surfa e of the leafage is divided u# into numbers of little hills and hollo"s. 5he sides of these #rominen es at h and refle t light more readil$ than the$ #rodu e shado"! so that it is #ossible to tra e the #attern at a onsiderable distan e b$ means of the lights alone. Cnfortunatel$ )99*+ for all believers in the histori al eviden e of an ient handi rafts! this "ork "as overhauled some half entur$ ago! and in #arts ,restored., 5he old "ork has been imitated in the ne" "ith sur#rising leverness! but for that! no one "ho has a lear sense of the true fun tion of the arver>s art! or of the histori al value of its "itness to #ast modes of life! "ill thank those "ho arried out the ,restoration!, so onfusing is it to be unable to distinguish at a glan e the old from the ne"! so de#ressing to find su h laborious efforts "asted in #leasing a hildish desire for uniformit$ of treatment "hen it ould onl$ be a hieved at the ost of de e#tion! and! I ma$ add! so irritating to find oneself for a moment de eived into a e#ting one of the ,restored, #arts as genuine old "ork. 5o add to the de e#tion! the "hole of the old "ood"ork! as "ell as the ne"! "as smeared over "ith a bla k stain in order the better to hide the differen e of olor in old and ne" "ood! thus forever destro$ing its soft and natural olor! as "ell as the te%ture of its surfa e! so dear to the "ood- arver. 5he fifteenth entur$ in <ngland "as a #eriod of great a tivit$ among "ood- arvers! )990+ and man$ beautiful hoir-s reens "ere added about this time to the e%isting hur hes! all in the traditional Bothi manner! as the .enaissan e influen e "as a full entur$ at "ork in other ountries before its #o"er began seriousl$ to affe t the national st$le. 5he -est of <ngland H'omerset and (evon in #arti ularI is ri h in the remains of this late Bothi arving! some details of "hi h are sho"n in the a om#an$ing illustrations! Figs. JL! J?! JJ.
*ig. 42.
*ig. 43.
*ig. 44. As a general rule the su##orting ar#entr$ of these s reens bears a strong )9;4+ resemblan e to stone"ork1 so imitative is it in treatment! that it is onl$ b$ the te%ture of the "ood and its lightness of onstru tion that the distin tion is made evident. :o" a ertain degree of modified imitation! "here one raft models its forms of design u#on those of another! using a different material! as in the ase of "ood"ork imitations of ar hes! tra er$! et .! is not onl$ legitimate! but ver$ )9;9+ #leasing in its results. 5o attain this end! the ar#enter need onl$ be true to his o"n ideals/there is no o asion to abandon the methods of his o"n raft in order to o#$ the onstru tion "hi h is #e uliar to another. 5he resour es of ar#entr$ offer an infinite field for the invention of ne" and hara teristi forms! and these ma$ be made all the more attra tive if the$ sho"! to some e%tent! the influen e of an asso iated raft! but never fail to be ome "earisome if essential hara ter has been sa rifi ed for the sake of an ingenious imitation. 5he stru tural #arts of some of these s reens are om#osed of elaborate imitations of stone vaulting and tra er$! so losel$ o#ied as to be almost de eiving!
therefore the$ an not be taken as good e%am#les of suggestive o##ortunit$ for the "ood- arver. 5he arved "ork! on the other hand! is marked b$ a strong raft hara ter! essentiall$ &ood% both in design and e%e ution. 5he illustrations referred to are t$#i al e%am#les of this kind of "ork! and! although the e%e ution an not be indi ated! the$ at least give the dis#osition of #arts! and some idea of the ontrast obtained b$ )9;;+ the use of alternate bands of ornament differing in s ale! or! as in some ases! the agreeable monoton$ #rodu ed b$ a re#etition of almost similar designs! varied slightl$ in e%e ution. Another #rominent feature of hur h "ood"ork! "hi h develo#ed about this time into magnifi ent #ro#ortions! "as the font over and ano#$. Man$ of these "ere! ho"ever! more like glorifi ations of the ar#enter>s genius for onstru tion than e%am#les of the arver>s art! as the$ "ere om#osed of a multitude of tin$ #inna les and ni hes! the arver>s "ork being onfined to a re#etition of endless ro kets! tra er$! and se#arate figures or grou#s. Ho"ever! in Plate FIII an e%am#le is given of "hat the$ ould do "hen "orking together on a more e&ual footing1 although mu h mutilated! enough remains to sho" ho" the one raft gains b$ being asso iated "ith the other in a "holesome s#irit of rivalr$. )9;G+
CHAPTER XXV S+R*AC' *INISH0T'-T+R'

5ool Marks! the Im#ortan e of their (ire tion/5he -ood$ 5e%ture (e#endent u#on Clearness of Cutting and '$m#atheti Handling. 5he term ,te%ture, is sometimes a##lied to the &ualit$ of finish "hi h is hara teristi of good arving1 it has a some"hat misleading sound! "hi h seems to suggest that the final treatment of the surfa e is the "ork of a se#arate o#eration. Ho"ever! it is a right enough "ord! as the te%ture "hi h "ood- arvers aim at is that of the "ood in "hi h the$ are arving. One might naturall$ think that this te%ture must ne essaril$ a##ear "hen the "ork "as finished! but that is not the ase! as it is onl$ res ued b$ the most skilful use of the tools! and easil$ disa##ears under the mismanagement of lums$ or uns$m#atheti hands. 5e%ture in arving is in some res#e ts on a #arallel "ith tone in #ainting/it de#ends u#on a right relation of man$ &ualities. As in the #ainting good tone )9;L+ is the out ome of the ombined effe ts of truth in olor and a right balan e of "hat are alled the ,values!, together "ith de ision in the handling of the brush! so in arving! te%ture de#ends u#on! first! having a lear idea of "hat is being arved! and making it lear to others1 that if it be round! hollo"! or flat! it must be so indeed1 that edges and shar#nesses be reall$ "here the$ "ere intended to be! and not lost in "ooll$ onfusion. 5hen again! as "ith the #ainter>s brush! the tool must be moved b$ a hand "hi h ada#ts itself to ever$ hanging #lane! to all manner of urves and ontours! "ith tou hes sometimes deli ate and deliberate! at others broad and s"ee#ing! or even! at times! brought do"n "ith the "eight and for e of an a%-blo".
A good &ualit$ of finish ma$ e%ist in the most divergent kinds of "ork! ea h having its o"n hara teristi te%ture. 5hus a broad treatment on a large s ale "ill make mu h of the natural te%ture of the "ood! enfor ing it b$ ris# edges and subtle little ridges "hi h at h the light and re all the momentar$ #assage of the shar# tool! "hile elaborate "ork in lo" relief ma$ have a deli ate te%ture "hi h #artl$ imitates that of the details )9;?+ of its sub6e t! and #artl$ dis#la$s the nature of the "ood. In either ase! the te%ture must be ons iousl$ aimed at b$ the arver as the last but b$ no means least &ualit$ "hi h is to give vitalit$ to the "ork of his hands. A sense of the a#abilities of his "ood in this res#e t is one of the best aids to the arver! as it rea ts on his sense of form and om#els him to #re ision. Manual de%terit$ alone ma$ su eed in making its "ork learl$ intelligible! but that is all! and it generall$ leaves a surfa e in "hi h there is little indi ation of an$ feeling for the material in "hi h the "ork is arved! nothing! in fa t! that marks it s#e iall$ as arving in "ood! or distinguishes it from a asting in metal. 5he te hni al o#eration "hi h is most immediatel$ ans"erable for the making or marring of te%ture is the dis#osition and nature of the final tool marks. 5hese should be so managed that the$ hel# the e$e to understand the forms. 5he$ should e%#lain rather than onfuse the ontours of the surfa e. 8ust as in a good halk dra"ing the strokes and ross-hat hings are #ut in "ith method! and if "ell done )9;J+ #rodu e the effe t of something solid! so in arving! the tool marks should em#hasi7e the dra"ing "ithout in an$ "a$ alling attention to themselves. It is &uite im#ossible to e%#lain in "ords that "ill not be o#en to mis onstru tion the subtle ommingling of &ualities "hi h make all the differen e bet"een good and bad te%ture. -e ma$ su eed better b$ des ribing those onditions "hi h are unfavorable to it. 5hus "ork "hi h is ver$ mu h ut u# into minute detail! and "hi h la ks a #ro#er ontrast of surfa e! or! for the same reason! "ork "hi h is too generall$ bald and smooth! rarel$ e%hibit a good surfa e te%ture. Again! "ork "hi h is overlabored! or "here deli ate details have been attem#ted on a oarse-grained "ood! or finall$! "ork "hi h! although done "ith su ess in the matter of me hani al de%terit$! is defi ient in feeling for its "ood$ #ossibilities! are all likel$ to fail in the matter of te%ture. Pun h-marked ba kgrounds have undoubtedl$ a legitimate #la e among the e%#edients of the arver for obtaining ontrast! but on the "hole! as su h! the$ are of a some"hat meretri ious order! and )9;*+ in almost ever$ ase their use is fatal to the harm of fine te%ture! as this al"a$s de#ends on an a##re iation of the homogeneous onne tion of arving and ba kground. If the$ are used at all the$ should be made to form #atterns on the ba kground! and not #ut do"n #romis uousl$. Little gouge marks are still better! as the$ are not so me hani al. I shall on lude this #art of m$ sub6e t "ith a &uotation from the "ords of Mr. -. Aumonier! in a le ture delivered at the .o$al Institute of British Ar hite ts. ,All carving to be treated according to the position it is to occup%. :ot onl$ the design! but the a tual arving itself! should be onsidered "ith a vie" to the #osition it is to take and the light it "ill re eive. 5hus! even if &uite lose to the e$e! "here! of ourse! its #osition "arrants or demands a ertain amount of finish! it must be remembered that real finish rather means #erfe tion of form than smoothness of surfa e! so that even there it should still sho" its uts and its tool marks fearlessl$! and be dee#ened in #arts
to make it tell its #ro#er tale in the ombined s heme of de oration1 "hile if it is going a great height or distan e from the e$e it should )9;0+ be left as rough as ever $ou an leave it. 5he onl$ #oints that have to be regarded are the outlines! varieties of #lanes! and de#ths! and if these be #ro#erl$ onsidered ever$thing else "ill take are of itself! and then the "hole "ork an not be left too rough. Its ver$ roughness and ho##$ uts "ill give it a softness and &ualit$ "hen in its #la e that no amount of smoothing or high finish an #ossibl$ attain to., Be"are of #utting a "rong inter#retation u#on the "ord ,rough,/refer to "hat he sa$s of the #oints to be regarded! i.e.! the ,varieties of #lanes! and de#ths., If the$ are right the ,roughness, is not likel$ to be of the offensive kind. :othing so effe tuall$ destro$s the &ualit$ of te%ture as #olish a##lied to arving. If furniture must be #olished it should not be arved. 5he onl$ #olish that im#roves arving is that "hi h omes of use. On hard "oods! su h as oak or Italian "alnut! the #ressure of the tools leaves a #leasant #olish! "hi h is all that is ne essar$1 the most that should be allo"ed ma$ be given b$ a little burnishing "ith the handle of the tool. )9G4+
CHAPTER XXVI CRA*T SCHOO&S, PAST AN% PR'S'NT

5he Countr$ Craftsman of Old 5imes/A Colon$ of Craftsmen in Bus$ Inter ourse/5he Modern Craftsman>s (iffi ulties2 <mbarrassing Dariet$ of Choi e. 5he #resent revival of interest in the arts! es#e iall$ "ith regard to those of a de orative kind! is based on the re entl$ a"akened estheti desires of a small se tion of the general #ubli ! "ho o"e their a tivit$ in this dire tion to the influen e of men like 8ohn .uskin and -illiam Morris. 5he first of these! b$ his magi insight! dis erned the true sour e of vitalit$ "hi h la$ in the traditions of medieval "orkmanshi#! i.e.! their intensel$ human hara ter and origin. His fier$ "ords om#elled attention! and a"akened a ne" enthusiasm for all that betokens the dire t and ins#iring influen e of nature. 5he$ raised the ho#e that this #assion might in some "a$ #rovide a lue to the re over$ of a fitting form of e%#ression. -illiam Morris! "ith no less #o"er as a )9G3+ raftsman! "as the first to give #ra ti al embodiment to this ne"l$ a"akened im#ulse b$ a modified return to the older methods of #rodu tion. His rare kno"ledge of medieval histor$! and manl$ s$m#ath$ "ith all that is generous in modern life! made it im#ossible for him to be ome a su#erfi ial imitator. His "ork is an e%am#le of "hat ma$ be a hieved b$ a union of high artisti instin ts "ith a lear understanding of the onditions of modern life. Cheering as is the #resent a tivit$ in its en ouragement of endeavor! the diffi ulties of establishing an$thing like an effi ient s$stem of edu ation for the artist! more es#e iall$ the s ul#tor! or arver artist! is onl$ being graduall$ reali7ed. 5he diffi ulties are not so mu h a ademi as #ra ti al. It is less a &uestion of "here to stud$ than one of kno"ing "hat dire tion those studies should take. Before an$ genuine develo#ment in the art an be looked for! ontinuit$ of effort must be established! and that in a single dire tion! undisturbed as it is at #resent b$ differen es of #ubli taste.
O##ortunities for stud$ are no" afforded to an e%tent never before dreamed of2 in )9G9+ books and s hools! and in museums1 but division of o#inion mars the authorit$ of the t"o first! "hile the last is onfessedl$ but a kind of atalogue! "hi h ma$ onl$ be read "ith #rofit b$ the light of onsiderable e%#erien e. A ertain amount of su ess has undoubtedl$ attended the #rogress of the ne" s$stem! but it must al"a$s be more or less at a disadvantage1 firstl$! b$ reason of its divided aims1 se ondl$! be ause the s$stem is more theoreti than #ra ti al! and is often based on the false assum#tion that ,design, ma$ be learned "ithout attaining a master$ over te hni&ue! and vice versa. Cntil students be ome disillusioned on this latter #oint! and are at the same time #ermitted to follo" their natural bent "ith as little interferen e as #ossible from the e%igen ies of #ubli taste! uniformit$ of aim "ill be im#ossible! and onse&uentl$ the s$stem must remain artifi ial. It an never! under an$ ir umstan es! entirel$ re#la e that more natural one ado#ted b$ our an estors. Ho" an its methods om#are for a moment "ith the s#ontaneous and heart$ interest that guided the tools of those more ha##il$ #la ed raftsmen! )9G;+ "hose sub6e ts la$ around them! of dail$ familiarit$1 "hose artisti language "as read$ to hand and "ithout onfusion! affording an endless variet$ of e%#ression to ever$ ne" and individual fan $. Man$ of these raftsmen "ere! o"ing to their invigorating surroundings! gifted "ith a high #oeti feeling for their art/a &ualit$ "hi h gives to their "ork a trans endent value that no learning or manual leverness ould su##l$. 5he$ a &uired their te hni al kno"ledge in genial onne tion "ith e&uall$ gifted members of other rafts! and in onse&uen e e%#ressed themselves "ith orres#onding and 6ustl$ #ro#ortioned skill in e%e ution. Conditions that an not be altered must be endured "hile the$ last! but the first ste# to"ard their im#rovement must be made in gaining a kno"ledge of the fa ts as the$ are. 5his "ill be the surest foundation u#on "hi h to build all individual effort in the future. -ho that has felt the embarrassing doubts and ontradi tor$ im#ulses! #e uliar to modern stud$! an have failed to look dis onsolatel$ a"a$ from his o"n surroundings to those far-off times "hen raft kno"ledge "as a &uired under ir umstan es )9GG+ al ulated to a"aken the brightest instin ts of the artistP 5he imaginar$ #i ture alls u# the an ient arver at his ben h! heerfull$ blo king out images of leaves and animals in his bus$ "orksho#! surrounded "ith the sights and sounds of ountr$ life. His o#en door frames a #i ture of the village street! alive "ith s enes of neighborl$ interest. From the mill-"heel omes a monotonous musi making #leasant aden e to his o"n "ood$ notes! or the bla ksmith>s hammer rings his heer$ ounter#art in their om#anionable duet. 'hort as is the distan e bet"een "orksho# and home! it #rovides a "orld of beaut$ and in ident1 suggesting to his inventive mind the sub6e ts suitable for his "ork. Birds! beasts! and flo"ers are as familiar to him as the tools "ith "hi h he "orks! or the s ent and tou h of the solid oak he handles dail$. 5here! among the aromati hi#s! he s#ends the long "orking hours of a summer da$1 varied b$ the o asional visits of a rather e%a ting Father from the neighboring monaster$1 or #erha#s some idle and gossi#ing a &uaintan e "ho looks in to hold a long #arle$ "ith his hand u#on the lat h. )9GL+ Or it ma$ be that the mind turns to another arver! at "ork in one of the man$ large olonies
of raftsmen "hi h s#rang u# amid the forest of s affolding surrounding the slo" and m$sterious gro"th of some noble athedral. Here all is organi7ed a tivit$/the best men to be found in the ountr$ have been banded together and ommissioned to do their best! for "hat seems! in modern e$es! a ridi ulousl$ small rate of #a$. 'ome are "ell kno"n and re ommended1 others! as traveling artists! are seeking hange of e%#erien e and dail$ bread. Foreigners are here! from Fran e! Ital$! and the <ast. All have been #la ed under the dire tion of om#etent masters of their raft1 men "ho have long sin e served their a##renti eshi# to its m$steries! and earned an honorable #osition in its gilds. Here the arver "orks in an atmos#here of e%hilarating emulation. 'tone- arver and "ood- arver vie "ith ea h other in #rodu ing "ork that "ill do redit to their res#e tive brotherhoods. Painter and de orator are bus$ giving to the "ork of their hands "hat must have a##eared to those on erned an as#e t )9G?+ of heavenl$ beaut$1 the most #re ious materials not being onsidered too ostl$ for use in its adornment. -hat an inter hange of artisti e%#erien eO/inter hange bet"een those of similar raft from different ountries! and the stimulating or refining influen e of one raft u#on another/s ul#tors! goldsmiths! "ood- arvers! and #ainters! all uniting in a s$m#atheti agreement to do their utmost for the high authorities "ho brought them together1 "ith a ommon feeling of reveren e! alike for the religious traditions "hi h formed the motives of their "ork and the re#resentatives of that religion in the #ersons of their em#lo$ers. -hat an endless variet$ of interru#tions must have been ommonO all of a kind eminentl$ al ulated to stimulate the imagination. Muni i#al fun tions! religious festivals "ith their s#lendid gatherings and #ro essions! the e% iting events of #oliti al ontest! often arried to the #oint of a tual ombat! to sa$ nothing of the fre&uent 'aint>s da$ holida$s! en6o$ed b$ the raftsman in 6ovial so ial inter ourse. All and ever$ s ene lothed in an out"ard dress of beaut$! )9GJ+ ranging from the #i tures&ue roughness of the village inn to the magnifi ent #ageantr$ of a nobleman>s dis#la$! or the ma6esti surroundings of an ar hi-e#is o#al re e#tion. From dreams of the #ast "ith its man$-sided life and ba kground of serious beaut$! "e turn "ith feelings almost bordering on des#air to the #ossibilities of the #resent. :ot onl$ has the modern raftsman to master the te hni alities of his business! but he must be ome student as "ell. :o universall$ a e#ted form of his art offers him a read$-made language1 he is left fatall$ free to hoose st$le! #eriod! or nationalit$! from e%am#les of ever$ on eivable kind of arving! in museums! #hotogra#hs! and buildings. As #roud but distra ted heir to all! he ma$ ultivate an$ one of them! from Chinese to the latest st$le of e%hibition art. For his studies he must travel half a do7en miles before he an rea h fields! trees! and animals in an$thing like ins#iring onditions. He must find in books and #hotogra#hs the botani al lineaments of foliage and flo"ers! of "hi h he mainl$ seeks to kno" the "ild life and free gro"th. -ith but )9G*+ one short life allo"ed him in "hi h to make his #oor effort in a single dire tion! he must $et stud$ the histor$ of his raft! om#are st$les! and endeavor "ith all the hel# he an get to sha#e some ourse for himself. Can he be assured of sele ting the right one! or out of the multitude of ounselors and ontradi tor$ vie"s! is there not a danger of taking a false ste#P :o "onder! if in the loud$ obs urit$ of his doubts! he sometimes feels a tired desire to abandon the #roblem as too intri ate to be resolved. )9G0+
CHAPTER XXVII ON TH' I(PORTANC' O* COOP'RATION $'T5''N $+I&%'R AN% CAR,'R

5he Infinite Multi#li it$ of 't$les/5he ,Bothi , Influen e2 ' ul#ture an Integral <lement in its (esigns/5he A##roa h of the so- alled ,.enaissan e, Period/(isturbed Convi tions/5he .evival of the Classi al 't$le/5he 5"o 't$les in Confli t for a 5ime1 their .es#e tive Chara teristi s .evie"ed/Carvers Be ome (e#endent u#on Ar hite ts and Painters/5he ,.evival, 'e#arates ,(esigner, and ,<%e utant., 5he #revailing ar hite tural fashion of a time or ountr$! kno"n as its st$le! has generall$ been determined b$ the influen e of more advan ed nations on those of a ruder onstitution1 ea h modif$ing the im#orted st$le to suit its o"n limati and so ial onditions! and imbuing it "ith its o"n individual tem#erament. 5he foreign idea "as thus develo#ed into a distin t and national st$le! "hi h in its turn bore fruit! and "as #assed on as an initiative for other nations and ne" st$les. )9L4+ 5he urrent of this influen e! generall$ s#eaking! trended from east to "est as though follo"ing the ourse of the sun! u#on "hose light it de#ended for the illumination of its beauties. 5here are so man$ st$les of ar hite ture! and onse&uentl$ of arving! both in "ood and other materials! that a histor$ of su h a sub6e t "ould be a life stud$ in itself! and be &uite barren of results e% e#t those of a #rofessional kind. It "ould in lude the hara teristi s of arvings from ever$ ountr$ under the sun! from the earliest times kno"n. <ngravings on boars> tusks found in #rehistori aves! arvings on 'outh 'ea Island anoe #addles! Peruvian monstrosities of terror! the refined barbarit$ of India and China! the enduring and monumental efforts of <g$#tian art! and a hundred others! do"n to times and ountries more "ithin rea h. In fa t! it "ould onl$ be another name for a histor$ of mankind from the beginning of the "orld. :othing ould be better for the student>s #ur#ose than to begin his studies of histor$ at that #oint "here the first indi ation of the Bothi or medieval #eriod of ar hite ture makes its a##earan e. For it "as )9L3+ from this great and revolutionar$ hange in the manner of building that all the subse&uent variet$ of st$le in arving as "ell as building in medieval <uro#e took its origin. 5he first rudiments of the great s hool of art! "hi h has been broadl$ lassified as having a ,Bothi , origin! began to make their a##earan e in B$7antium some three or four enturies after the birth of Christ. 5his it$! said to have been founded b$ a olon$ of Breek emigrants! be ame the seat of .oman government in their eastern em#ire! and is no" kno"n as Constantino#le2 it ontains a noted e%am#le of an ient art in the great hur h of 't. 'o#hia. From the date of the building of this hur h in the si%th entur$ A. (. to the beginning of the fifteenth entur$ in Ital$! and about a hundred $ears later! more or less! a ording to distan e from that enter! "e have roughl$ the #eriod during "hi h the ,medieval, s#irit ruled the arts of <uro#e. 5he "ork of this long #eriod is distinguished be$ond all others b$ the varied beaut$ and interest of its arvings! a #reeminen e it o"es in #art to the strong bias in this dire tion "hi h "as given )9L9+ b$ its earl$ founders! but still more to the unbroken allian e maintained bet"een builders and arvers throughout the entire #eriod. An inherited talent for s ul#ture! handed do"n! no doubt! from their lassi al forefathers! distin tl$
marks the ommen ement of the era1 but from that time until the a##earan e of the ,.enaissan e, influen e! builder and arver are no longer on eivable as being inde#endent of ea h other. ' ul#ture of one kind or another not onl$ #la$ed an im#ortant #art in the de oration of its buildings! but be ame a ne essar$ and integral element in ever$ ar hite tural on e#tion! be its im#ortan e little or great. 5he masons designed their stru tural features "ith a vie" to the embellishments to follo" from the hand of the arver1 the$ "ere in full s$m#ath$ "ith the artisti intention of the de oration! therefore their o"n ideas "ere in om#lete onformit$ "ith those of the s ul#tor! "hile even in some ases the$ did this #art of the "ork themselves. 5he s ul#tors! restrained b$ the severe la"s of stru tural design! never transgressed the due limits of their raft! or be ame insistent u#on the individualit$ of )9L;+ their o"n "ork. Hen e! throughout all the su essive hanges of st$le brought about b$ time and differen e of ountr$! limate! or material! the art of arving steadil$ #rogressed hand in hand "ith the art of building. 5he hanges "ere so ver$ gradual! and gre" so naturall$ from the onditions and re&uirements of so ial life! that am#le time "as allo"ed for the edu ation of #ubli feeling! "hi h be ame in this "a$ identified "ith the inventive #rogress of the raftsmen. As a ha##$ result! one aim and desire governed alike builders! arvers! and #eo#le! and one st$le at a time! en6o$ed and understood b$ all! "as the "holesome regimen b$ "hi h the ar hite tural a##etite of the #eriod "as sustained. Cathedral and ottage differed onl$ in their relative grades of im#ortan e1 ea h shared in due #ro#ortion the advantages of an ar hite tural st$le ommon to all forms of building! and ada#table in the highest degree to ever$ var$ing #ur#ose of design! from the sim#lest #ie e of "alling! "ith the barest indi ation of st$le! to the most elaborate arrangement of masonr$ and arving "hi h ould be devised to distinguish a statel$ and im#ortant stru ture. )9LG+ 5ime "as! ho"ever! #re#aring a revolution "hi h "as destined to s"ee# a"a$ man$ old beliefs and established institutions! and "ith them those familiar motives and habits of thought! "hi h had long formed the bountiful sour e of medieval ins#iration and invention. 5he #eriod bet"een the beginning of the fifteenth entur$ and the .eformation "as like a fier$ furna e! in "hi h the materials for a ne" "orld "ere being #re#ared1 it "as no time for the leisurel$ en6o$ment of the #leasures of art! "hi h #resu##oses settled onvi tions and im#er e#tible develo#ments. About this time man$ ne" forms of intelle tual a tivit$ began to engage the minds of the more gifted. '#e ulative #hiloso#h$! the o#ening fields of s ien e! the imaginative literature of the an ients1 these "ere among the sub6e ts "hi h! "hile the$ enlarged the s#here of individual thought! destro$ed that so ial ideal "hi h had its roots in a ommon belief! and "ith it! the se ret sour e of all #ast develo#ment in ar hite ture. -ith the dee#-l$ing auses and far-rea hing effe ts of the unrest "hi h disturbed this #eriod! "e are not here on erned! be$ond the #oint "here it tou hes our interest in )9LL+ ar hite ture and s ul#ture. 5hat drasti hanges "ere in #rogress affe ting the #o#ular regard for these arts is undeniable. <du ated and illiterate minds be ame alike indifferent to the authorit$ of established religion/either the$ su umbed to the t$rann$ of its #o"erful but orru#t ministers! or stood out in o#en rebellion against its dis#uted dogmas. In either ase! that ar hite ture "hi h had formerl$ been regarded as the hief s$mbol of united faith! shared the negle t of one se tion or the abhorren e of the other. 5hat strong sense of beaut$! on e the ommon #ossession of builders! s ul#tors! and #eo#le! "as no" bet"een the u##er and nether millstones of fate! being ground into the
fine dust "hi h has served for enturies as the #rin i#al ingredient in the manufa ture of an endless su ession of moral #uddings and #ies! kno"n in modern times as ,art riti ism., 5o earnest minds in all lasses at that time! an$ enthusiasm for ar hite tural st$les! old or ne"! must have a##eared as futile as an an%iet$ about a##earan es "hile one>s house "as burning. 5o the art of this #eriod the title )9L?+ ,.enaissan e, has been foolishl$ a##lied. -hen used in asso iation "ith the arts of ar hite ture and s ul#ture! it is essentiall$ a misnomer. For these arts it "as merel$ a time of revival! not in an$ sense one of rebirth! as the "ord im#lies. In no "a$ an this #eriod laim to have onferred vitalit$ along "ith the resus itation of out"ard form. 5he revival of a lassi al st$le in ar hite tural design! "hi h began in the earl$ $ears of the fifteenth entur$! "as the se&uel to a similar ,revival, in the stud$ of Breek and .oman literature! then o u#$ing the interests of ultivated s holars. It "as but a ste# further to desire also the reali7ation of those ar hite tural s#lendors "hi h "ere asso iated "ith these studies. 'u h dilettante dreams an not be su##osed to have dee#l$ interested the general #ubli ! "ith "hose on erns the$ had but a remote onne tion1 so under these ir umstan es! #robabl$ the lassi al st$le "as as suitable as an$ other! hosen on su h narro" and e% lusive grounds. 5here "as even a ertain fitness in it! a a#abilit$ of mu h e%#ansion on theatri al and grandiose lines. Its unbending demeanor to"ard )9LJ+ raft talent of the humbler kind at on e flattered the vanit$ of the ultured! and o"ed unedu ated minds. 5he (uomo at Floren e "as finished earl$ in that entur$! and "as one of the first buildings in "hi h the ne" st$le "as ado#ted. In this ase it "as used mainl$ in the om#letion of a building alread$ "ell advan ed on lines based u#on the older traditions. 5he hara ter of its design! although not of a stri tl$ imitative kind! "as distin tl$ based on a lassi al ideal. Imitations follo"ed! mingling! as in the ase of the (uomo! Bothi and lassi elements! often "ith fine effe t. It is &uite #ossible to believe that! had this intermarriage of the t"o s hools ontinued to bear fruit! some vertebrate st$le might have resulted from the union! #artaking of the nature of both #arents1 but the ho#e "as of short duration. Its ar hite ts! be oming enamored b$ the &ualit$ of s ientifi #re ision! "hi h is the fundamental #rin i#le of lassi al design! soon abandoned all #retense of attem#ting to amalgamate the native and im#orted st$les. 5he$ gave themselves u# "holl$ to the ongenial task of elaborating a s holarl$ s$stem of imitation1 so that! )9L*+ b$ the middle of the si%teenth entur$! no tra e "hatever remained of native feeling in the ar hite ture of its im#ortant buildings. (uring the #rogress of this revolution in st$le! the old medieval habits of oo#eration bet"een master mason and s ul#tor "ere slo"l$ being e% hanged for a om#lete de#enden e u#on a s#e ial ar hite t! "ho "as not ne essaril$ a raftsman himself1 but "hose designs must be arried out line for line "ith the most rigid adheren e to measurements. For a moment in histor$! the rival s#irits of the t"o great s hools of ar hite ture stand fa e to fa e like o##osing ideals. 5he lassi al one! re alled from the region of things #ast and forgotten! again to #la$ a #art on earth "ith at least the semblan e of life1 the Bothi s#irit! under noti e to &uit and betake itself to that oblivion from "hi h its rival is reemerging.
In the he$da$ of their #o"er! the first had sho"n a distin tl$ auto rati bearing to"ard its "orkmen1 offering to its s ul#tors of genius o##ortunities for the e%er ise of highl$ trained #o"ers! and to the subordinate "orkmen onl$ the )9L0+ more or less me hani al task of re#eating a limited number of #res ribed forms. 5he other! a more genial s#irit! had #ossessed the largest toleration for rude or untrained "orkmanshi#! #rovided that in its e%#ression the arver had a meaning "hi h "ould be generall$ understood and a##re iated. If skill ould be ommanded! either of design or te hni&ue! it "as "el omed1 but it gave no en ouragement to "ork "hi h "as either so distin tive as to be inde#endent of its surroundings! or of a kind "hi h ould have no other than a me hani al interest in its e%e ution. 5he abru#t ontrasts! the variet$ and m$ster$! hara teristi of Bothi ar hite ture! had been a dire t and irresistible invitation to the arver! and the freest #la$ground for his fan $. 5he formalit$ of the lassi al design! on the other hand! ne essaril$ onfined su h arving as it #ermitted to #arti ular lines and s#a es! follo"ing a re ogni7ed rule1 and e% e#t in the ase of bas-relief figure sub6e ts and deta hed statues! demanded no se#arate interest in the arvings themselves! further than the estheti one of relieving su h lines and s#a es as "ere other"ise un omfortabl$ bare. )9?4+ 'ome modifi ation of this e%treme arrogan e to"ard the de orative arver "as onl$ to be e%#e ted in the revived st$le! but the freedom allo"ed to the individual arver turned out to be more a##arent than real. A ne" ra e of arvers s#rang u#! imbued "ith the #rin i#les of lassi al design1 but being no longer in tou h "ith natural and #o#ular interests! nor stimulated b$ mutual oo#eration "ith their brother raftsmen! the mason builders! the$ ado#ted the fashionable mode of e%#ression invented b$ the ne" ar hite ts and the #ainters of the time. <laborate ,arabes&ue, and other formal designs gave em#lo$ment to the arvers! in making an infinite re#etition of fiddles! festoons! and ribbons! in the e%e ution of "hi h the$ be ame so #rofi ient! that their "ork is more often admired for its e%&uisite finish than for an$ intrinsi interest in the sub6e t or design. 8udged b$ its effe ts u#on the art of arving! "ithout the aid of "hi h a national st$le of ar hite ture is im#ossible! the revival of lassi al ar hite ture never had a real and enduring life in it. 'tri tl$ s#eaking! no organi st$le ever gre" out of its ambitious #romises1 the )9?3+ nearest a##roa h to su h a thing is to be found in those un outh minglings of Bothi tradition "ith fragments of lassi al detail "hi h distinguish mu h of the domesti ar hite ture during the si%teenth and seventeenth enturies. Amusing in their &uaint and often ri h and effe tive ombinations! humanl$ interesting in #ro#ortion to the #redominan e of the Bothi element! asso iation has gro"n u# around these homel$ re ords of a mi%ed influen e! until the$ have ome to be regarded "ith affe tion! if not "ith the highest admiration. 5he ,revival, brought nothing but harm to the arver himself/that is! to the arver "ho found it im#ossible to rea h the elevation of a s ul#tor of genius. He sa rifi ed his o"n small but #re ious talent as a reator of #leasant images for the attainment of a finesse in the e%e ution of other #eo#le>s ideas. 5o the ,.enaissan e, must be attributed that fatal se#aration of the raftsman>s fun tion into the hands of designer and e%e utant "hi h has so om#letel$ #aral$7ed the living s#irit of individual invention. It has taken lose u#on four enturies to o#en the e$es of our rafts )9?9+men to this in onsisten $! and ,revive, the medieval truth that invention and e%e ution are stri tl$ but one and the
same thing. Let us ho#e that the #resent a"akening to the im#ortan e of this fa t ma$ $et lead to "hat "ill be trul$ "orth$ of being alled a ,.enaissan e,1 not merel$ of out"ard forms! but of that reative energ$ "hi h alone 6ustifies the true meaning of the "ord. )9?L+
NOTES ON THE COLLOTYPE PLATES

PLA5< I./Old arved hest in 1or" athedral. 5he front of a hest of almost similar design! onl$ reversed! is to be seen in 'outh Aensington Museum! "hi h looks from its resemblan e both in design and te hni&ue to be the "ork of the same arver! or at least to have been done about the same time. :ote the absen e of an$ attem#t at elaborate #ers#e tive! and the ,de orative, as#e t of houses! ro ks! trees! et .! also the distin tive treatment of the Anight and Prin ess "ho a##ear in the #i ture several times! re#resenting various in idents of the stor$. PLA5< II./*igure 'rom the Tomb o' 2enr% #( in anterbur% athedral. 5his figure is one of the orner ornaments on the ano#$. 5he "hole of the u##er stru ture is of "ood! #ainted in olors "ith #arts #i ked out in gold. )9??+ PLA5< III./Aisle 3oo', Mildenhall hurch, Su''ol". 5his is one of the man$ beautiful arved roofs "hi h abound in :orfolk and 'uffolk. 5he nave roof is enri hed "ith arvings of angels "ith "ings outs#read. PLA5< ID./4ave 3oo', Sall hurch, 4or'ol". 5his is another ver$ beautiful timber roof sho"ing the union of #ra ti al ar#entr$ "ith arving to #erfe tion. PLA5< D./Portion o' a arved Oa" Panel5 The Sheep'old. 5he other #art is sho"n in Plate DI! as! o"ing to the #ro#ortion of this #anel and the ne essit$ for kee#ing the s ale of the #lates as large as #ossible! it has been divided and sho"n in t"o #ortions. It "as begun "ithout an$ #remeditated intention as to use! the slo#ing end being the sha#e of the board as it ame into the author>s hands! the other end being slo#ed off to mat h it. PLA5< DI./Portion o' a )9?J+ arved Oa" Panel5 The Sheep'old. 'ee des ri#tion of Plate D.
PLA5< DII./Preliminar% /ra&ing o' a +ion 'or arving. 5his #late is! as e%#lained in the te%t! from a dra"ing b$ Phili# -ebb! the "ell-kno"n ar hite t. It "as done b$ him to e%#lain ertain fa ts about the #ose of a lion "hen the author "as engaged in arving the book overs "hi h are sho"n in Plates DIII and IF. PLA5<' DIII and IF./Boo", overs carved in !nglish Oa". 5hese "ere done b$ the author for one of the ,Aelms ott Press, books! 5ale of 5ro$! at the instan e of Mr. Cobden'anderson. 5he relief is ver$ slight! and is rather e%aggerated b$ the light and shade of the #hotogra#h. 5he arved #ortion onl$ of these overs is sho"n! the si7e of "hi h is 33-3K9 % L-;KG ins. PLA5< F./Boo", overs carved in !nglish Oa". 5hese "ere done b$ the author for Mr. F. '. <llis>s translation of .e$nard the Fo%. 5he si7e of the arved #art is *-;KG % L-3KG ins. PLA5< FI./ arvings 'rom $inchester athedral. 5his #late is from sket hes )9?*+ made
b$ the author at -in hester Cathedral. 5he u##er one is a s#andrel #ie e from the tra eried ar ading of the stalls. 5he lo"er one is a #art of one of the arved Miserere seats. 5he s#andrel arving is #ier ed1 that is! has the ground ut right through. 5he other #ie e is elaboratel$ under ut. PLA5< FII./ arving 'rom hoir,Screen, $inchester athedral. 5his #late is from a sket h done for the #ur#ose of noting the general effe t of a large mass of arved foliage "ith #arti ular referen e to the distribution of lighted surfa es in the design. PLA5< FIII./*ont anop%, Trunch hurch, 4or'ol". 5he #late gives the u##er #ortion onl$ of this beautiful ano#$1 it is su##orted u#on si% #osts ri hl$ arved on all sides! of "hi h there are five to ea h #ost. 5he height of the "hole ano#$ is about fifteen or si%teen feet/it #resumabl$ dates some"here to"ard the end of the fourteenth entur$ or beginning of the fifteenth. PLA5< FID.//esigns 'or arving, b% )9?0+ Philip $ebb. 5his #late gives t"o e%am#les of designs for arving b$ Phili# -ebb. 5he u##er one is #art of a ri hl$ arved orni e "hi h "as done for a himne$-#ie e1 the arving "as e%e uted b$ Mr. Lauren e 5urner! from "hom the author got his first lesson in "oodarving. 5he other e%am#le is a design on #a#er for arving to be done in oak. 5his "as arried out in the #aneling of the dining-room at Clouds House! 'alisbur$! and looked e% eedingl$ effe tive. Mu h of the arti ulation on the surfa e of the leaves! it "ill be noti ed! is got b$ shar# fa ets #rodu ed b$ the interse tion of gouge uts. PLA5< FD./+eg o' a Settle carved in !nglish Oa". 5his "as begun b$ the author as forming #art of a large oak seat or ,settle!, but has never been om#leted. 5he "ood out of "hi h it is arved ame out of an old house at 5e"kesbur$ and "as full of ra ks "hi h "ere filled u# "ith sli#s of oak glued in and arved over. PLA5< FDI./Pe& !nds in arved Oa", Brent hurch, Somersetshire. 5he three )9J4+ ben h ends sho"n in this #late are from Brent Chur h! 'omersetshire. Although rude in e%e ution! the$ are e%tremel$ effe tive in design. 5he bounding form of the molded edges and gra efull$ sha#ed to# are "orth noti ing1 the "hole evidentl$ the out ome of a ni e and inherited sense of design! "ithout an$ #arti ular te hni al kno"ledge or e%#erien e. 5he termination of the finials "as unfortunatel$ omitted in the #hotogra#h! hen e the abru#t line at the to#. )9J3+
THE COLLOTYPE PLATES

)9J9+
I. O8d Car?ed Chest in Yor@ Cathedra8. )9JL+
II.0*igure from the Tom; of Henry I,. in Canter;ury Cathedra8. )9JJ+
III.0Ais8e Roof0(i8denha88 ChurAh, Suffo8@. )9J0+
I,.0Na?e Roof0Sa88 ChurAh, Norfo8@. )9*9+
,.0Portion of a Car?ed Oa@ Pane80The Sheepfo8d. )9*L+
,I0Portion of a Car?ed Oa@ Pane80The Sheepfo8d. )9*?+
,II.0Pre8iminary %raBing of a
&ion for Car?ing. $y Phi88ip 5e;;. )9*0+
,III.0$oo@ Co?er Car?ed in 'ng8ish Oa@ 0=Ta8e of Troy.= 9on8y Aar?ed portion shoBn.: )9**+
I-.0$oo@ Co?er Car?ed in 'ng8ish Oa@ 0=Ta8e of Troy.= 9on8y Aar?ed portion shoBn.: )903+
-.0$oo@ Co?er Car?ed in 'ng8ish Oa@0=Reynard the *oC. 9on8y Aar?ed portions shoBn.: )90;+
-I.0Car?ing from Choir Sta88s in 5inAhester Cathedra8. )90L+
-II.0Car?ing from Choir SAreen0 5inAhester Cathedra8. )90*+ Q
-III.0*ont Canopy0TrunAh ChurAh, Norfo8@. );44+
-I,.0TBo designs for Car?ing, ;y Phi8ip 5e;;. One eCeAuted, one in draBing. );49+
-,.0&eg of a Sett8e, Aar?ed in 'ng8ish Oa@. );4G+
-,I.0PeB 'nds in Car?ed Oa@0 $rent ChurAh, Somersetshire. );4L+ );4?+
INDEX
A anthus! the! 3L? Aims and onditions of "ork! 9L Ameri an "oods! G*
Animal arving! 3?3! 303 Animal arving! '"iss! 303 Animals! or figures! in arving! 3?3! 303 A##renti e and student! their aims and onditions of "ork! 9L Ar hite tural arving! 99;! 3L? ,Arkansas, sli#s! GG! L* Arms! oats of! 3JJ Aumonier! -.! 94G! 9;* Ba kground! #atterned! 0? Bass"ood! G* Beads and moldings to be arved! 330 Beam! arved! in 'outh Aensington Museum! 3G4! 3G9 Bear! dra"ing of Hfrontis#ie eI! 30J! 944 Beast and bird studies! 303 Bed! design and arving for a! 3?; Bee h "ood! G0 Ben h or settle! design and arving for! 3?*! 3JG! 9?0! ;49 Ben hes! GG Ben h s re"! G* Berne Cathedral! arved figure from! 303 Bevels! tool! L9 Be"i k! studies from! 30L Bird and beast studies! 303
Book- overs in oak! 9?J! 9*0! 903 Books! aid of! 303 Bo%"ood! L3 Bra kets! 3J9 Bread #lates! 33? Brent Chur h! #e" ends in! 9?0! ;4G Brier-"ood! L3 Builder and arver! notes on the im#ortan e of oo#eration bet"een! 9G0 ,Built-u#, "ork! 93G B$7antine design! 0? ,Candle!, L? Cano#$! Font! 9;;! 9?*! 90* Canterbur$ Cathedral! arved figure from! 3**! 9JL Car#enter>s imitation of stone onstru tion! 99; Car#enter>s influen e on arver! 99; Cartoons! har oal! 94G Carver and builder! notes on the im#ortan e of oo#eration bet"een! 9G0 );4J+ Carver and 6oiner! re i#ro al aims of! 3?3 Carving and s ul#ture! 9G0 Carving! ar hite tural! 99; Carving! , hi#!, ?; Carving! heraldi ! 3J? Carving! I elandi ! 3G;
Carving! :e" Nealand! ?; Carving! :orse! 3G; Carving! 'outh 'ea! ?; Carving! stone! 0?! 99; Carving! '"iss! 303 Cedar "ood! 3?? Chair! sket h of! et .! 3GL Chara ter! "orks vie"ed as re ords of! 3G0 Char oal artoons! 94G Cherr$ "ood! L3 Chest! arved! from =ork Cathedral! 3GJ! 9?L! 9J; Chestnut "ood! L4 ,Chi#, arving! ?; Chisels! ;3! ;G! ;L Choir-s reens! 99J! 990! 9?J! 90L Choir-stalls at -in hester Cathedral! 99J! 9?J! 90; Classi al st$le! revival of! 9G0 Cla$ models! 303 Cli#s! GJ Clo k! suggestion of design and arving for! 3JG Clo k ase! suggestion of design and arving for! 3J4 Coats of arms! 3J? Co k! suggestion for arving a! 3JG Collot$#e #lates! 9J;-;4G
Collot$#e #lates! notes on the! 9?L Colors noted on diagrams! 30J! 300 Colors of "oods! G* Contours of surfa e! 34; Corner u#boards! 330 Corni e! design for! b$ Phili# -ebb! 9?*! ;44 Craft s hools! #ast and #resent! 9G4 Craftsmen! old-time and modern! 9G4 Cram#s! G9! GJ Cross! design for! 3JJ Cu#boards! orner! 330 Cutting! learness of! L9! ?0! 9;L (esign! J3! ** (esign! a##li ation of! J9 (esign! B$7antine! 0? (esign! fa tors in the arrangement of! *9 (esign! outline! and suggestion of main masses! 303 ,(esigner, and ,<%e utant!, **! 9G0 (esigns! ada#tation of old! to modern #ur#oses! 34; (esigns! humor in! 3*4 (esigns! list of fruit! flo"er! and vegetable sub6e ts! 3L0 (esigns! ne essit$ for ever$ arver making his o"n! ** (esigns! transferring! J9
(etail! e onom$ in! *G (iagrams! olors noted on! 30J! 300 (istan e and light in design! *9 (rilling and sa"ing! 334 (uomo! the! at Floren e! 9LJ <bon$ "ood! L3 < onom$ in detail! *G <dges of tools! L9 <nvironment as im#ortant as handi raft! 3G0 );4*+ <%e ution and design! **! 9G0 <%ning! hair at! 3GL Figures! or animals! in arving! 3?3! 303 Finish! surfa e/te%ture! 9;G Floren e! the (uomo at! 9LJ Flo"ers as sub6e ts! 3L* Foliage! 33L! 3L;! 3L0 Font ano#$! 9;;! 9?*! 90* Foreshortening as a##lied to "ork in relief! 94L Forms! imitation of natural! *9 Forms! #lant! list of! 3L; Forms! rounded! ** Free rendering! 0?
Fruit sub6e ts! 0G! 3LJ! 3L0 Furniture! arving on! 3?3 Berrard>s ,Herbal!, a sour e of design! 3?4 Bibbons! Brinling! ?9! *L! 3L;! 93L Blass #a#er! 34J! 3?G Bothi Bothi a#ital in 'outh"ell Minster! 0? arvings! 0?! 3*4! 990! 9G0
Bothi influen e! 9G0 Bouges! ;3! ;G! ;L Bouges! shar#ening! L? Brain of the "ood! G*! ?0 Bra#es! 33L! 3L?! 3L0 Brindel"ald! arved bear from! 944 Brotes&ue in arving! 3*4 ,Brounders!, ;G! ;J Brounding! ?0 Handling tools! 9J! L9! J* ,Hard, "ood! G*! L3 Hard"ood arving! 33L Henr$ ID! figure from tomb of 3**! 9?L! 9JL Heraldi arving! 3J?
,Herbal!, Berrard>s! a sour e of design! 3?4 Heron! dra"ing of a! 30J

Holdfasts! G* Holl$"ood! G0 Ho#-vine! the! 3L? Humor in designs! 3*4 I elandi arving! 3G;
Imitation of natural forms! *9 ,India, oilstone! G9 8a#anese "ork! a hara teristi of! 39L 8oiner and arver! re i#ro al aims of! 3?3 8oiner! the amateur! 33L 8oiner>s tools! G3 Aauri #ine "ood! G* ,Aelms ott Press!, arved oak overs for! 9?J! 9**! 9*0 Lan e-"ood! L3 Lands a#e in arving! 993 Leather for stro##ing! LL Leaves! e%#edient for e%#laining onvolutions! 940 Leaves! list of! 3L0 Letters! arved! 3?L Light and distan e in design! *9 Lime "ood! G*
Lion! #reliminar$ dra"ing for arving a! 30?! 9?J! 9*? ,Ma aroni, tool! ;L! ;*! L0
Mahogan$ "ood! G* Mallets! GG );40+ Masses! right relationshi# of! 30? Masses! suggestion of main! 303 Masses! su#er#osition of! 94L Medieval and modern hoi e of form om#ared! 3L; Memoranda! methodi al! 3;J Memoranda! sket h-book! 3;J Method! 3;J Mildenhall Chur h! aisle roof! 99?! 9??! 9JJ Mirror frame! suggestion of design and arving for! 3?? Miserere seats! 3;0! 3G9! 3*L! 3*?! 3*J! 93?! 90; Miters! JJ Models! la$! 949 Morris! -illiam! 9G4 Moldings! to be arved! 330 Museums! 3;J! 3G4! 3GL! 3G0 :atural forms! imitation of! *9 :ature! studies from! 3L;! 303 :e" Nealand arving! ?; :orse #atterns! 3G;
:otes on oo#eration! 9G0 Oak! G*! 3LJ Oilstones! G9! L9 Old "ork! 3;J Originalit$! 34* Outline dra"ing! 303 Panel! arved! ,5he 'hee#fold!, 30J! 939! 9??! 9*9! 9*L Paneling! design for! b$ Phili# -ebb! 9?*! ;44 Panels! J9! 39L! 3J4! 30J ,Parting, tool! ;G! ;? Paste for stro##ing! L9 Pattern and free rendering om#ared! 0? Pattern! ba kground! 334 Pattern! im#ortan e of formal! 0? Pattern! medieval hoi e of natural forms governed b$ a &uestion of! 0? Pattern! Portuguese! 3GL Patterned ba kground! 0? Patterns! 393 Patterns! I elandi ! 3G; Patterns! :e" Nealand! ?; Patterns! :orse! 3G; Patterns! #ier ed! 334! 3GL
Patterns! 'outh 'ea! ?; Pear-tree "ood! L3 Period ,.enaissan e!, revival of the lassi al st$le! 9G0 Pers#e tive! 39J! 94L! 930 Pe" ends! 9?0! ;4G Photogra#hs! aid of! 303 Pi ture sub6e ts and #ers#e tive! 930 Pier ed #atterns! 334! 3GL ,Pier ed, "ork! 93G Pine "ood! G*! J3 Pine "ood! $ello"! G*! J3 Plant forms! list of! 3L; ,Planted, "ork! 93G Plums! 03 Polish! 3;*! 3?G Portuguese #attern! 3GL Position of tools! 9J! L9 Pra tise and theor$! 9L Preamble! 9L .elief! "ork in! 94L ,.enaissan e!, the! 9G0 ,.e$nard! the Fo%!, arved oak book- over! 9?J! 903 ,.ifler!, G3
.ounded forms! ** );34+ ,.outer!, G3 .uskin! 8ohn! 9G4 ,'!, #attern! 393 't. 'o#hia! hur h of! 9L3 'all Chur h! nave roof! 99?! 9??! 9J0 'andal"ood! L3 'a"ing and drilling! 334 ' hools! raft! #ast and #resent! 9G4 ' reens! hoir! 99J! 990! 9?*! 90L ' ul#ture and arving! 9G0 'ettle or ben h! design and arving for! 3?*! 3JG 'ettle! arved leg of! 9?0! ;49 'har#ening stones! G9 'har#ening tools! L9 'hee#! dra"ing of! 30J! 939! 9??! 9*9! 9*L 'hee#fold! the! ollot$#e #late! 9??! 9*9! 9*L 'ket h-book! use of the! 3;J! 303 'li#s! G;! L*! ?3 ,'oft, "ood! L3 'outh Aensington Museum! arvings from! 3G4! 3G3! 3G9 'outh 'ea arving! ?; 'outh"ell Minster! Bothi a#ital in! 0?
'#oon tools! L0 'talls! hoir! 99J! 9?J! 90; 'tone arving! 0?! 99; 'tones! shar#ening! G9 'tones Hshar#eningI! ase for! G9 'tro##ing! LG 'tudent and a##renti e! their aims and onditions of "ork! 9L 'tudents! the! o##ortunit$ lies on the side of design! 9L 'tudies! beast and bird! 303 'tudies from nature! 3L;! 303 'tud$! ne essit$ for variet$ in! 9G0 't$le! 9G0 'ub6e ts! animal! 3?3! 303 'ub6e ts! hoi e of! *9 'ub6e ts! flo"er! 3L* 'ub6e ts! foliage! 3L0 'ub6e ts! fruit! 3L0 'ub6e ts! in #ers#e tive! 930 'ub6e ts! #i ture! 930 'ub6e ts! still life! *; 'ub6e ts! vegetable! 3L0 'urfa e ontours! 34; 'urfa e finish! 9;G '"iss arving! 303
'$ amore "ood! G0 ,5ale of 5ro$!, arved oak book- over for! 9?J! 9**! 9*0 5em#ering tools! ;0 5e%ture and surfa e finish! 9;G 5heor$ and #ra tise! 9L 5himble #attern! 393 ,5hro"ing about!, 34? 5ime! arvers the historians of their! 3G0 5ool marks! the im#ortan e of their dire tion! 9;G 5ools! ;3 5ools! average number! ;3 5ools! blunted or broken! G4 5ools! des ri#tion of! 9J 5ools! handling! 9J! L9! J* 5ools! 6oiner>s! G3 5ools! #osition on oilstone! L9 5ools! #osition "hen in use! 9J 5ools! shar#ening! L9 5ools! s#oon! L0 5ools! stro##ing! LG 5ools! tem#ering! ;0 );33+ 5ra ing! J9 5run h Chur h! font ano#$ at! 9;;! 9?*! 90*
,5urke$!, oilstone! G9 5urner! Lauren e! 9?0 Cnder utting and ,built-u#, "ork! 93G ,D, tool! ;3! ;G! ;?! L0 Degetable designs! 3L0 ,Deiner!, ;3! ;G! ;?! L* Dines! the! 33L! 3L?! 3L0 -alnut "ood! G*! L4 ,-ashita, oilstone! G9 -ave #attern! 393 -ebb! Phili#! dra"ings and designs b$! 3JJ! 30?! 9?*! 9*?! ;44 -in hester Cathedral! arvings from! 304! 93?! 99J! 9?J! 90;! 90L -ood! hard! G*! L3 -ood! soft! G*! L3 -oods! G* -oods! Ameri an! G* -oods! olors of! G* -oods! grain of! G*! ?0 -oods! list of! G* -oods! ,soft, and ,hard!, G*! L3 -ork! riti al ins#e tion of! from a distan e! as it #ro eeds! 34;
=ello" #ine "ood! G*! J3 =ork Cathedral! old hest in! 9?L! 9J9 =orkshire settle! 3?* TH' 'N%

The Practice and Art of Woodcarving

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LEGAL NOTICE

WOOD-CARVING DESIGN AND WORKMANSHIP

A Suggestion from Nature and Photography. COPYRIGHT, $Y %. APP&'TON !"#,

All rights reserved Published October, 1903

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'%ITOR)S PR'*AC' A+THOR)S PR'*AC' CHAPT'R I

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Medieval and Modern Choi e of Form Com#ared/A Com#romise Ado#ted/A

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List of Plant Forms of Ada#table Chara ter CHAPT'R -,III

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TH' CO&&OTYP' P&AT'S IN%'-

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CHAPTER III SHARP'NING/STON'S0(A&&'T AN% $'NCH

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CHAPTER IV 5OO%S +S'% *OR CAR,ING

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CHAPTER V SHARP'NING TH' TOO&S

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CHAPTER VI CHIP CAR,ING

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CHAPTER VII TH' GRAIN O* TH' 5OO%

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CHAPTER VIII I(ITATION O* NAT+RA& *OR(S

CHAPTER IX RO+N%'% *OR(S

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CHAPTER X TH' PATT'RN'% $AC7GRO+N%

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CHAPTER XI CONTO+RS O* S+R*AC'

CHAPTER XII ORIGINA&ITY

CHAPTER XIII PI'RC'% PATT'RNS

CHAPTER XIV HAR%5OO% CAR,ING

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CHAPTER XV TH' S7'TCH/$OO7

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#ro#ortions. 5his hair is at <%ning in 'uffolk.

CHAPTER XVI (+S'+(S

CHAPTER XVII ST+%I'S *RO( NAT+R'0*O&IAG'

CHAPTER XVIII CAR,ING ON *+RNIT+R'

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*ig. 3.. )3*4+

CHAPTER XIX TH' GROT'S<+' IN CAR,ING

'%ITOR)S PR'AC' A+THOR)S PR'AC' CHAPT'R I

CHAPTER XVII ST+%I'S RO( NAT+R'0O&IAG'

ig. 3.. )34+

CHAPTER XXI OR'SHORT'NING AS APP&I'% TO 5OR7 IN R'&I'

CHAPTER XXV S+RAC' INISH0T'-T+R'