Determinants ...

: Permutations ...

:
X : X X
. X

XS X
) (S X ,
.

 } X {1,2,..., n n N

S X Sn
Sn
n

( n)

2
3 ....
) (2) (3

) 1 (1

Sn X

!Sn n

:
: S3 X {1,2,3}

1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
1
2
3
,
,
,
,
,
}
S {

3 1 2 3 1 3 2 3 2 1 21 3 2 31 3 1 2
(23) (13) (12) (123) (132)
e

:
Sn (r cycle) r
} {i1,i2,i3,....,ir }{1,2,..., n
:

(i1) i2 , (i2 ) i3,...., (ir ) i1 -1

-2

} ( j) j j {1,2,..., n}{i1,i2,...,ir

) (i1i2 i3....ir

 r 2 ) (i1i2 -

) (i1i2 i3....ir ) ( j1 j2 j3.... js

{i1,i2,i3,....,ir} { j1, j2, j3,...., js}

123 (23) 2 123 S -1

1
3
2

13 2

1 23 4 5 6 (1432)S
4 314 2 5 6
6

-2

:
Sn

.
:

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11

4 3 1 2 6 7 8 510 9 11

) (1423)(5678)(9 10

:
) (i1i2 i3....ir r
:

) (i1ir )(i1ir 1)...(i1i2

:

Sn

Sn

:
(134) (14)(13) -1

(1234) (14)(13)(12) -2

-1 Sn
.
-2 Sn
.

-1 .
-2
.
:
Sn (sgn ) :

1
sgn
1

sgn( ) (sgn )(sgn )

:
, Sn

 : .

:
F ) A (aij )M n (F

) (sgn ) a1 (1) a2 (2) ...an (n

Sn

(det er min ant of A) A

) d ( A A )det( A
( d ( A) F )

-1
Sn
(sgn ) -2
.

a
n=2 A
a

11

21

a12
M ( F )
2
a22

S {e, (12)}
2

d ( A) (sgn e)a
a
(sgn ) a
a
1e(1) 2e(2)
1 (1) 2 (2)

a a a a
11 22 12 21

n 3

a
11
A a
21
a
31

a
12
a
22
a
32

a
13
a M (F )
23
3
a
33

S {e, (12), (13), (23), (123), (132)}

5
3
1
2
3
4
d ( A) a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a
11 22 33 12 21 33 13 22 31 11 23 32 12 23 31 13 21 32

a
11
A a
21
a
31

a
12
a
22
a
32

a
13
a
23
a
33

a
11
a
21
a
31

a
12
a
23
a
32

d ( A) a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a
11 22 33 12 23 31 13 21 32 12 21 33 11 23 32 13 22 31

2 1 3

A 1 0 1

1
1
1

2 1
1 0
1 1

d ( A) (2)(0)(1) (1)(1)(1) (2)(1)(1) (3)(0)(1) (3)(1)(1)

2 1 2 0 1 3 3

 :
(:)1

) A M n (F

( ) :

:
) A (a ) At (b
ij
ij

b a 1 i, j n
ji

ij

) d ( A) d ( At

d ( At ) (sgn )b
b
...b
1 (1) 2 (2) n (n)
Sn
(sgn )a
a
...a
(1)1 (2)2 (n)n
Sn
i 1( j) (i) j 1 i, j n

sgn( ) sgn( 1)

(sgn )a

sgn( 1)a
a
...a
a
...a
1 1(1) 2 1(2) n 1(n)
(1)1 (2)2 (n)n

Sn Sn 1

d ( At ) (sgn )a
a
...a
(1)1 (2)2 (n)n
Sn
(sgn )a
a
...a
1 1(1) 2 1(2) n 1(n)
Sn
(sgn )a
a
...a
1 (1) 2 (2) n (n)
Sn

d (A)

( :)2
() A ( ) :
) A M n (F

d ( A) 0
() A ( ) ) d (A
.

() ) A (aij i
a 0 j 1,2,3,..., n a 0 , a 0 ,..., a 0
ij
in
i1
i2

d ( A) (sgn )a
a
...a
....a
0
)1 (1) 2 (2) i (i) n (n
Sn

t
d
(
A
A )

d ( At ) 0

) d ( A) d ( At

d ( A) 0

()
) d ( A) d ( At

.
) A (aij

a 0 i j
ij

d ( A) (sgn )a
a
...a
....a
)1 (1) 2 (2) i (i) n (n
Sn

(sgn )a
a
...a
....a
)1 (1) 2 (2) i (i) n (n

Sn
if (1) 1 (1) 1 a
0
)1 (1
)d (A

. (1) 1
(1) 1 ) (2

if (2) 2 (2) 2 a
0
)2 (2
) d (A

(1) 1 , (2) 2
) d (A

 (1) 1, (2) 2,..., (n) n

e
d ( A) a a a ...ann
11 22 33

a
11

A a
21
a
31

0
a
22
a
32

0 M (F )
3

a
33

d ( A) a a a
11 22 33

I d (I ) 1 :

:

A (a ) 1 i, j n
ij

) A (r , r ,...,rn ) M n (F
1 2

r row

) A (c , c ,...,cn ) M n (F
1 2

c column

:
A (a ) (r , r ,...,rn ) M n (F )
ij
1 2

d (r , r ,..., r , r , r ,..., rn ) d ( A) F , 1 i n
1 2
i1 i i1

r r (1) r (2) M n ( F )

i i
i
(
2
)
(
1
)
d ( A) d (r , r ,..., r ,..., rn ) d (r , r ,..., r ,..., rn )
i
i
1 2
1 2

)(

)(

 () :

B (r , r ,..., r , r , r ,..., rn )
1 2
i1 i i1

a
11
.

.
a
i 11

a
i1
.

an1

a
... a
12
1n

a
a
i 12
i 1n

a
a
i2
in

a ........ a
n2
nn

d (B) (sgn ) a
a
....a
(a
)...a
1 (1) 2 (2) i1 (i1) i (i) n (n)
Sn
(sgn ) a
a
....a
a
...a
1 (1) 2 (2) i1 (i1) i (i) n (n)
Sn
d (A)

()

B (r , r ,..., r , r (1) r (2) , r ,..., rn )

1 2 i1 i i i1

a
... .
11

.
.
a
.....
i 11

a (1) i1 a (2)
.....

i1
.

a
........
n1

a
1n

a
i 1n

(1)
( 2)
a in a
in

a
nn

d (C ) (sgn ) a
a
....a
(a(1) a(2) )...a
1 (1) 2 (2) i1 (i1) i (i) i (i) n (n)
Sn
(
1
)
[(sgn ) a
a
....a
a
...a

1 (1) 2 (2) i 1 (i 1) i (i) n (n)

S
n
(sgn ) a
a
....a
a(2) ...a
]
1 (1) 2 (2) i 1 (i 1) i (i) n (n)

(sgn ) a
a
....a
a(1) ...a
1 (1) 2 (2) i1 (i1) i (i) n (n)
Sn
(sgn ) a
a
....a
a(2) ...a
1 (1) 2 (2) i1 (i1) i (i) n (n)
Sn

 d (r , r ,..., r , r (1) , r ,..., rn ) d (r , r ,..., r , r (2) , r ,..., rn )

1 2 i1 i i1
1 2 i1 i i1

:)4(
A M n (F )

( )

d ( A) 0

:
) A (a ) (r , r ,...,rn
ij
1 2

r r
i j

1 i, j n
d ( A) (sgn )a
a
...a
....a
...a
)1 (1) 2 (2) i (i
)j ( j) n (n
Sn

d ( A) 0 (*)

.

. ( (i), ( j)) Sn
()
(sgn ) a
a
....a
...a
....a
(1)
1 (1) 2 (2) i (i) j ( j) n (n)
(sgn ) a
a
....a
...a
....a
(2)
1 ( (1)) 2 ( (2)) i ( (i)) j ( ( j)) n ( (n))
r r
i j

a
a
a
i ( j )
j ( j )
i ( (i))

a
a
a
j (i) i (i)
j ( (i))

 ) (i ) ( j
}p {1,2,..., n} {i, j

)p ( p

))p ( ( p

(sgn ) (sgn )(sgn ) sgn

d ( A) 0
(1) (2) 0

} Sn { ,

) ( (i), ( j ,
) d (A
.

d ( A) 0

:
d (A)

A 1

2 3

1 2
1 2

() ,)3(
1

d (A) det 0

1 2 3
2 3

1 2 det 1 0 0

1` 2
0
1
2

0 1(0) 2(2 0) 3(1 0) 0 4 3 1

:
) A (r , r ,...,rn ) M n (F Sn
1 2
A A
A

:
)

,...,r

) (n

,r

A (r

) (1) (2

:
) (12
.
) (123

.

(:)5
) A (r1, r2,...,rn ) M n (F Sn:
)d (A) (sgn )d ( A

:
Sn
) (ij 1 i, j n

) C (r ,....., r , r r , r ,..., r , r r , r ,..., rn
1
i1 i, j i1
j1 i j j1

r r
i j

C
d (C ) 0

i, j

)4(

() ) , )3( (
0 d (C ) d (r ,....., r , r , r ,..., r , r , r ,..., rn )
1
i1 i, i1
j1 j j1
d (r ,....., r , r , r ,..., r , r , r ,..., rn )
1
i1 j i1
j1 i j1
d (r ,....., r , r , r ,..., r , r , r ,..., rn )
1
i1 i i1
j1 i j1
d (r ,....., r , r , r ,..., r , r , r ,..., rn )
1
i1 j i1
j1 j j1

. =
d (r ,....., r , r , r ,..., r , r , r ,..., rn )
1
i1 j i1
j1 i j1
d (r ,....., r , r , r ,..., r , r , r ,..., rn )
1
i1 i, i1
j1 j j1

d (r

,r

(1) (2)

) d (r , r ,...,r ) (sgn )d ( A)
n
(n)
1 2

,...,r

(:)6
) A, B M n (F

)d ( AB) d ( A).d (B

:
) A, B M n (F :

-1 B

A A

)d (B) d ( A

 -2 B A i
2 0 F j
)d (B) d ( A

-1 ) A, B M n (R :
)d ( A) d (B

-2 ) A M n (R R :
)d (A) nd ( A

 :
:
) A (a ) M n (F
ij

1 i, j n

Aij M n1(F ) -1

-2 ) d ( A a
ij
ij
i

j
a
-3 ) d ( A
) cij (1 ij
ij

A 2

1 4

5 6
4 8

5 6
d(A )
40 24 16 c (1)11d ( A ) 16
11 6 8
11
11
2 6
d(A )
16 6 10 c (1)12 d ( A ) 10
12 1 8
12
12
2 5
d(A )
8 5 3 c (1)13 d ( A ) 3
13 1 4
13
13

1 4
d(A )
8 16 24 c (1)21d ( A ) 24
21 4 8
21
21
3 4
d(A )
24 4 28 c (1)22 d ( A ) 28
22 1 8
22
22
3
d(A )
23 1

1
12 1 11 c (1)23 d ( A ) 11
23
23
4

1
d(A )
31 5
3
d(A )
32 2

4
6 20 26 c (1)31d ( A ) 26
31
31
6
4
18 8 26 c (1)32 d ( A ) 26
32
32
6

3
d(A )
33 2

1
15 2 13 c (1)33 d ( A ) 13
33
33
5

:7
) A (aij ) M n (F
1 i, j n

n
n
d ( A) a c a c
j1 ij ij i1 ij ij

:
) d (A

( j )2

( i ) 1

1 3

1 2
3 1

)d (A

A 2

)d (A

) d (A
3
d ( A) a c a c a c a c
i1 i3 i3 13 13 23 23 33 33

2 1
3 1
3 1
(2)(1)5
(1)(1)6
4 3
4 3
2 1

3(1)4

3(2) 2(5) (1) 6 10 1 5

: d (A) :2
3
d ( A) a c a c a c a c
j1 2 j 2 j 21 21 22 22 23 23
1 3
3 3
3 1
3
4
5
2(1)
(1)(1)
(2)(1)
3 1
4 1
2 1

(2)(10) (15) (2)(5) 20 15 10 5

:2

13
1
3

8 9
12 13
5 1
4 3

11
B
0
2

d (B) 0

d (A)

11 1 1 1 1
d ( A) 2 1 2 2 1 2
2 1 2 1 0 0

0 (1)(1)4

1 1
2 1 1
1 2

A 2

1 1

1 2
1 2

:3

:
) A (aij ) M n (F
) (c )t M n ( F
ij

(The adjoint of A) A

adj A

:
adj A
c
adj A 11
c
21

c t
12
c
22

1 1
adjA

2 1

c 1 , c 1 , c 2 , c 1
11
12
21
22
t

1
A
1

1 2

1 1

:
1 0
2 3 0

3
d ( A) I
2
1 0 3
0 1

1 2 1
adjA.A
.
1 1 1

:8
) A M (F
n
n

adjA.A A.adjA d ( A)I

c
ij

A1

( ) ,
.

:
) A M n (F
:

d ( A) 0

A1 1 adjA
)d ( A

:
) ( A A1

A.A1 A1.A I n
)1 d (I n ) d ( A.A1) d ( A).d ( A1
d ( A)d ( A1) 1 d ( A) 0

 d ( A) 0 F :
A.adjA d ( A)I

, d ( A) 0

adjA
A.
I n A1 1 .adjA
d ( A)
d ( A)

()

A1
7

adjA 10

A 2

1 3

1 2
3 1

7
10 2
10 1

15 5 10 15 0 d ( A) 5
0 1 2
5 1

1
A adjA 10
5
5
2

A.adjA 5I

10 1

15 0
5 1

:
d ( A) 0 A .:
3
d ( A) 0
3

2
A
2

:9
) A M n (F ) ( F
n1
d ( A) 0
F
BM

AX B

d ( A) 0

A ( A1 )8

X A1B
.

AX B

 ( : 9 )Cramers Rule

a11x1 a12 x2 .... a1n xn b1

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
an1 x1 an 2 x2 .... ann xn bn
) d ( Ai
Xi
, i 1,2,...,n
)d ( A

A aij c1 , c2 ,...., cn

) (d ( A) 0 Ai c1 ,..,ci 1 , B, ci 1 ,.., cn
F

i B B

b1 , b2 ,....., bn

 :
* A .
* A .

) d ( A1 ) d ( B, c2 ,..., cn
) d ( A2 ) d (c1 , B,..., cn
X1

, X2

)d ( A
)d ( A
)d ( A
)d ( A
:
A , B

AX X A B

X1
X
1
2
1

X
A B
(adjA) B

)d ( A

Xn

 c11
c
1
12

d ( A)

c1n

c21
c22

c2 n

cn1 b1

cn 2 b2

cnn bn

b1c11 b2 c21 bn cn1

b c b c b c
1
1 12
2 22
n n2

d ( A)

b1c1n b2 c2 n bn cnn
1
b1c1i b2c2i bncni
1 i n X i
d ( A)

 a11 a12 a1i 1 b1 a1i 1 a1n

a a a

b
a

a
1
21
22
2
i

1
2
2
i

1
2n

X
d(
)

d ( A)

an1 an 2 ani1 bn ani1 ann

1

d c1 , c2 ,..,ci 1 , B, ci 1 ,.., cn
d ( A)

d(A )
i

d ( A)

x x 2x 1
1 2
3
x x x 2
1 2 3
2x x x 5
1 2 3

x ,x ,x

1 2 3


1 1 2 x 1
:

1 1 . x 2
2
1 1 x 5
3

: A
d A 1.21(1) 2(3) 216 5 0

A
x A1B

A1 1 .adjA ,
d ( A)

adjA 1

2 1 3
A1 1 1 3 1
5 3
1 2

3
1
3

1 1

x 1 3 1 .2 0
2 5 3 1 2 5 1

X 3, X 0, X 1
1
2
3

3
2

1
1

3
3 1

3
2

1
1

:
d(A )
d(A )
d(A )
3
1, x
2 , x
x
1 d ( A)
2 d ( A)
3 d ( A)
1 1 2
A 2 1 1 d ( A ) 2(1)(3) 2(7) 2314 15
1 5
1

1
1

x 15 3
1 5

1 1 2
A 1 21 d ( A ) 31 2 0 x 0 0
2
2 5
2 2 1
5

1 1 1
A 1 1 2 d ( A ) 7 13 5 x 5 1
3 2
3
3 5
1 5