FOREWORD

The present course aims at providing further knowledge and insight into the syntax of contemporary English language by focusing on the second level of syntactic description namely the transformational level! The main envisaged ob"ectives are# a! to revise basic concepts used within the general framework of Transformational $ %enerative %rammar! b! to revise knowledge concerning the constituent structure of the English sentence! c! to introduce discuss and illustrate the concepts which are held responsible for such syntactic phenomena as movement operations within transformations! d! to analy&e the basic types of transformations undergone by the English sentence! These aims are to be achieved by both studying the theoretical part of each and every chapter and by doing the practical applications as suggested by the exercises!

Contemporary English Language. Introducing Transformations

Contents

'hapter (# The Transformational )evel (!(! +asic 'oncepts (!,! Exercises 'hapter ,# +asic Elementary Operations ,!(! Deletions ,!(!(! 'onstant Deletion ,!(!,! /dentity Deletion ,!(!1! %apping ,!(!2! E3ui456Deletion! 'ontrol 'onstructions ,!(!*! 7ubcategori&ation of 'ontrol 8erbs ,!(!9! Exercises ,!,! /nsertions ,!,!(! Exercises ,!1! 7ubstitutions ,!1!(! Exercises ,!2! :d"unctions ,!2!(! Exercises 'hapter 1# ;ovement Rules 1!(! Raising 1!(!(! 7ub"ect4to4 7ub"ect Raising 1!(!,! Exercises 1!,! 7ub"ect $to $Ob"ect Raising 1!,!(! Exercises 1!1! 'left4 'onstructions 1!1!(! Exercises %lossary of Terms References! Recommended +ibliography

* * . . . 0 0 (( (1 (((0 (0 ,( ,( ,1 ,2 ,2 ,2 ,9 ,9 1< 1< 1( 19 1-

Contemporary English Language. Introducing Transformations

Chapter 1: The Transformational Level

Chapter 1: The Transformational Level

The first level of syntactic description is the 6hrase 7tructure =67> level operating with categories a lexicon and phrase structure rules based on concatenation! The second level of syntactic description is the transformational level whose primitives are 6hrase ;arkers =6;s> upon which elementary operations are performed!

1.1. Basic Concepts

The concept of transformation is understood as that formal linguistic operation which enables the two levels of structural representation Deep(D)Structure and Surface(S)-Structure to be interrelated by a set of movement rules! =see Figure (!(!> +:7E D $ structure ;O8E;E5T TR:57FOR;:T/O57 7 $ structure Figure (!(! Technically considered a transformational rule (T-rule, transformation, transform) consists of a se3uence of symbols which is rewritten as another se3uence according to certain conventions! Each T4rule consists of an input denominated Structural Description (SD), structural analysis or ?structure index which defines the class of phrase4markers =6;s> to which the rule can apply@ and an output denominated Structural Change =7'> which refers to the operations involved in applying a T4rule upon the input! :s an illustration consider the phrase4 structure tree representations =the 6;s> in Figure(!, resulted after applying T4passive to sentence =(> a # =(> a! They painted the house! b! The house was painted by them!

Contemporary English Language. Introducing Transformations

Chapter 1: The Transformational Level

6;( 56(

7 86 :ux

T A B 6assive

6;, 56,

7 86 :ux ;8 66 56, 6 56

;8 8 Det 56, 5

Det

5 T

They (

4ed ,

paint 1

the house! The house 4ed be paint C D 2 2 ,Ebe 1Eed F

by by

them (

Figure (! ,! The passive transformation illustrated above can be formulated in terms of Aspects-style as it is seen in Figure (!1! T4passive 56( 7D ( 7' 2 :ux 8 56, , 1 2 ,Ebe 1Eed G byE( Figure(! 1! The general property of transformations is that they are meaningpreser ing i!e! the deep structure and the surface structure of a sentence are semantically e3uivalent irrespective of the operations performed! /n this respect the meaning of (!a an active sentence has not been changed by applying the passive transformation identified in (!b! The difference is only formal involving the movement of the 56 occupying the place of the direct ob"ect in (b to that of sub"ect in (a! The empty place is symboli&ed by F in 6;, and the agent is introduced by the preposition !y" /n order to both revise previously ac3uired knowledge and understand new concepts and phenomena we have resorted to a synthesis made by 'homsky in connection to the theory of transformational $ generative grammar # # $%& a general theory of linguistic le els is de eloped in an a!stract and uniform 'ay , 'ith phrase structure and transformations each constituting a linguistic le el" (n each le el ,mar)ers are constructed that represent a sentence" *n particular, deri ed phrase-mar)ers and T-mar)ers fill this function on the phrase-structure and transformational le els, respecti ely" +ach le el is a system of representation in terms of certain primes (elementary atomic sym!ols of this le el )" (n the le el of phrasestructure, the primes are category and terminal sym!ols" (n the le el of transformations, the primes are !ase phrase mar)ers and transformations" A mar)er is a string of primes or a set of such strings" ,oth phrase-mar)ers and transformation-mar)ers can !e represented in this 'ay" -e els are organi.ed in a hierarchy , and 'e may thin) of the mar)ers of each le el as !eing

Contemporary English Language. Introducing Transformations

Chapter 1: The Transformational Level mapped into the mar)ers of the next lo'est le el and as representing the lo'est le el mar)er ( that is, the phonetic representation $%& ),'hich is associated directly 'ith an actual signal" $%&/ ( 0121 3 45 )" :fter clarifying upon the two levels of syntactic description we again resort to 'homsky in order to underline the role played by the transformational rules in relating the dualistic concepts deep structure and surface structure # # The general re6uirement on a syntactic theory is that it define the notions deep structure and surface structure, representing the inputs to the semantic and phonological components of a grammar , respecti ely $%&, and state precisely ho' a syntactic description consisting of a deep and surface structure is generated !y the syntactic rules" These re6uirements are met !y the theory outlined a!o e in the follo'ing 'ay" $%& 7e ta)e a T-mar)er to !e the deep structure8 'e ta)e the deri ed phrase 9mar)er that is the final output of the operations represented in the T-mar)er to !e the surface structure"/ (0121 341 )" The theoretical considerations outlined above are supported by a series of exercises meant to increase studentsH awareness of the most important concepts used in transformational $generative grammar!

1.".E#ercises
(! Explain what a 6; is and give examples of your own! ,! 7pecify if true or false # a! Deep 7tructure is the syntactic level upon which meaning is determined! b! 7urface 7tructure changes the form of the sentence! 1! Draw up the phrase4structure trees for the following sentences and discuss upon the constituentsH structure! a! The bla&e of light on her heart was too beautiful and da&&ling! b! +ut the summer drifted in with the silence of a miracle she was almost always alone! c! The +rangwens received a fair some of money from this trespass across their land! d! The house stood bare from the road approached by a straight garden path! e! Iis life was shifting its centre becoming more superficial! 2 !:pply T-passi e to the following sentences by following the model given in Figure (!,! a! :nd he closed the door behind her! b! Wendy and ;ichael fitted their trees at the first try! c! 7he tied the unhappy dog up again! d! They "ust tweaked 6eterHs nose and passed on! e! The children had discovered the glittering hoard!

Contemporary English Language. Introducing Transformations

Chapter ": Basic Elementary %perations

Chapter ": Basic Elementary %perations

Transformational rules can effect basic elementary operations such as movement deletion insertion and substitution! That is a T4rule can move delete insert or substitute constituents as represented in basic and derived 6;s # J The function of the transformational rules is to map generali.ed phrase-mar)ers into deri ed phrase-mar)ers" *f the transformational rules map the generali.ed phrase-mar)er :D into the final deri ed phrase 9mar)er :S of the sentence ; , then :D is the deep structure of ; and :S is its surface structure/ = 'homsky (090 # 90 >! :o ement operations reorder or permute the elements of the input 6;! When this operation ad"oins one of the moving elements to another constituent within the 6; it is called ad<unction! Deletions eliminate elements from the input structure! *nsertions add new structural elements to the input structure! Su!stitutions allow the moved category to replace an empty category of the same kind according to the structure4preserving constraint 3 #$%& 'hich imposes the condition that a C(=ST*T>+=T can !e :(?+D only into another CAT+@(AB of the same structural type, 'hich has !een independently generated!K= 'rystal (00*# 11, >! Out of all these elementary operations substitution and ad"unction are the basic contributors to a wide range of transformations such as WI4movement 56 movement 84 movement raising extraposition etc! /n this chapter we introduce and analy&e deletions substitutions insertions and ad"unctions! /n the next chapter we shall consider other transformations such as raising and clefts!

".1. &eletions
Deletions eliminate a constituent of an input 6; which must specify the elements to be deleted while its effects must be clearly indicated in the output 6;! :ll deletions must be recoverable i!e! if something is deleted from a se3uence it always has to be possible to tell what that something was# #Deletion is a structure-destroying operation su!<ect to a reco era!ility condition, 'hich prohi!its the elimination of information from a phrase mar)er that cannot !e reconstructed from 'hat remains after the operation !K= Freidin in +rown L ;iller ,<<*# (,,>! Depending upon the approach we can speak of several types of deletions# constant deletion identity deletion e3ui4 56 deletion!

".1.1.Constant &eletion
/n classical T% constant deletion is accounted for imperative sentences following the rule # J %iven a sentence whose first element is /;6=erative> followed by the word ?youH and a 86 you must delete the word ?youHK!The phrase4structure trees illustrating this rule are seen in Figure ,!(! with reference to sentence =(>! =(> Run M
Contemporary English Language. Introducing Transformations '

Chapter ": Basic Elementary %perations

6;( =input> 7: /mp G

7 56 6ro you 86 8 run

T AB /mp4deletion

6;, =output> 7: /mp G

7 56 86 6ro G 8 run

Figure ,!(! /mperative construction is a coding property universally targeting sub"ects! /n this construction the second $person sub"ect is interpreted as the addressee in a speech4act= 7: > indexing a declarative affirmative sentence as represented in the 6;s in Figure ,!(! The element 6RO is omitted under constant deletion!

".1.". Identity &eletion

/n identity deletion recoverability is insured by the condition that the surface structure must contain an element identical to the element deleted from the deep structure! For example there is the rule of 864deletion which will apply to derive sentence ,b from ,a as formali&ed in =,> in the labeled !bracketed representations following the sentences! =,>77 a! 7usan drank "uice and Doris drank coffee! D7 b! 7usan drank "uice and Doris $ coffee! C7C56C57usanDDC86C8drankDC56C5"uiceDDDDandC7C56C5DorisDDC86C8drankDC56C5coffeeDDDD C7C56C57usanDD C86C8drankDC56C5"uiceDDDD and C7C56C5DorisDDC86C8GDC56C5coffeeDDDD Every native speaker of English knows that the sentence Susan dran) <uice and Doris coffee can only mean that the two sub"ects performed the activity of drinking =e!g! Susan dran) <uice and Doris dran) coffee> and thus the deletion is recoverable! This rule cannot apply to a 77 sentence like Susan dran) <uice and Doris made coffee because deletion of made would immediately change the meaning! We cannot interpret Susan dran) <uice and Doris coffee to mean Susan dran) <uice and Doris made coffee under no circumstances whatsoever! 'ornilescu (00* supports the idea that the effect of deleting certain lexical material follows from the optionality of lexical insertion such as the case of complementi&ers deletion e!g " 7e hope that the 'eather 'ill !e fine NvsN 7e hope the 'eather 'ill !e fine !

".1.3. (apping
/f the deleted constituents are not recoverable there would come out a change of meaning with the violation of the recoverability condition as exemplified in =1>! =1>!a! ;ary watered the flowers and Oohn watered the drinks!
Contemporary English Language. Introducing Transformations )

Chapter ": Basic Elementary %perations b! ;ary watered the flowers and Oohn the drinks! The simple reading of sentence 1a proves the violation of the recoverability condition by a disregard of selectional restrictions rules! The meaning of 'ater in the second clause to dilute is different from its meaning in the first clause which is to nourish and the deletion operated in 1b brings about a humorous effect! This type of deletion has been called gapping! 7uch contexts as provided by the sentences under =1> and =2> can first elude the listener into a perfect understanding of the message followed by an immediate non4understanding transposed into ama&ement and laughter # =2> a! ;r +rown took his hat and his leave! b! :ll the girls were in tears and in muslin! c! Ie was in high feather and spirits! d! The young lady went straight home in a roar of laughter and a sedan chair! %apping is a sentence4bound ellipsis and its functional province is the interface between the syntax semantics and the information structure of ellipsis! :s a syntactic phenomenon ?gappingH was first proposed by Ross =(09b> with reference to the 'omplex 56 4 'onstraint and 'oordinate 7tructure 'onstraint and it has been succeedingly treated under various headings # 86 $ :naphora = Oackendoff (0-, >@ Derived 'on"unction = 7tockwell 7chachter 6artee (0-1 >@ Deletion = 7ag (0--@ Tancredi (00,>@ 'oreference and the 'omplement 7ystem = Oackendoff (0-, Reinhart (0.1 >@ 'oordination ='ornilescu (0.9>@ the 6honological Deletion :ccount = 'homsky (00*>@ Ellipsis = Radford (00,@ Iardt (001@ )obeck (00*@ Oohnson ,<<(@ Winkler in +rown ,<<9>! The characteristic feature of gapping is the ?parallelism re3uirementH =Winkler ,<<9> according to which it must occur in coordinate structures and must trigger a contrastive relationship between the remnants and their antecedents as seen under =*># =*> Doris speaks %erman and :nn C 86Cv speaks D OapaneseD! 8iolation of this re3uirement leads to anomalous sentences as shown under =1> and =2> thus creating puns! :s a semantic phenomenon gapping focuses on selectional restrictions imposed upon by the semantics of the verb in the first con"unct of the examples under =2># a! ta)e b! !e c! !e d! go! The verbs 3uoted operate at the level of the sentence both as single word forms and as multi4word forms as represented under =9># =9> 4 single verb form E D!O! AB denotative meaning a! first con"unct # too) his hat 4 single verb form E :d"unct AB denotative meaning b! second con"unct # G ('ere) in 'hite muslin! c! G ('ent straight home in ) a sedan chair 4 multi4word form AB figurative meaning b! first con"unct # were in tears AB sadCdepressed c! first con"unct # was in high feather AB elegantly dressed second con"unct # G =was in high> spirits AB ery energetic and <oyful d! first con"unct # went straight home in a roar of laughter AB highly amused

Contemporary English Language. Introducing Transformations

1*

Chapter ": Basic Elementary %perations 8iolation of the selectional restrictions concerning the matching of the semantic features C P abstract D C P concrete D of the verb and its modifiers leads to obtaining humorous effects as previously demonstrated!

".1.4. E+ui, -.,&eletion. Control Constructions.

E3ui4564deletion is another example of identity deletion! /t is an obligatory rule in classical T% which deletes an 56 from a complement clause in a sentence when it is identical in meaning =Aco4referential> with another 56 in the main clause of the same sentence! =(> a! D7# the children C86 tried Cthe children to solve the exerciseDD 77# the children C86 tried Cto solve the exerciseDD b! D7# the guide C86 persuaded the tourists Cthe tourists to greet the welcomersDD 77# the guide C86 persuaded the tourists Cto greet the welcomersDD /n the examples the sub"ect of the embedded infinitival complement is paired with an e3uivalent sub"ect 56 =(>a or ob"ect 56 =(>b in the matrix clause followed by the deletion of the lower rank =i!e! infinitival> sub"ect at 77 under identity with its higher rank counterpart! Rosenbaum (09- argues that sentential complementation is achieved by common transformations such as complementi.er specification or deletion of su!<ects, by complement meaning ?an 7 introduced into the structure as right sister of some head itemH as represented in =,># =,> 54'O;6 56 @ :DO4'O;6 :6 @ 84'O;6 86
N S ADJ S V S

/n what concerns infinitival complementation he distinguishes between intransitive and transitive 864'O;6 as shown by the derivational trees in =1> a b as reproduced from 7tockwell 7chachter 6artee =(0-1#*2># =1> a! /ntransitive 864'omplementation e!g! The doctor condescended to examine Oohn! b> Transitive 864'omplementation e!g! They commanded the doctor to examine Oohn!

Contemporary English Language. Introducing Transformations

11

Chapter ": Basic Elementary %perations

S NP AUX PRED

VP

ADV

NP

They commanded the doctor to examine John.

! /n both cases the 56 sub"ect of the infinitival complement has been deleted on =2> co4referentiality condition =2># a!C7C56(ThedoctorDC86C8 condescendedDC7 C56( the doctorDC86 to examine OohnDDDD
NP1 T-Deletion

A B C7C56(The doctorDC86C8 condescendedDC7 C56(ODC86 to examine OohnDDDD b! C7 C56(TheyDC86C8commandedDC56,the doctorDC7 C56, the doctorD C86 to examine OohnDDDD
NP2 T-Deletion

AB C7 C56( TheyDC86 C8 commandedDC7 C56,the doctorDCsC 56,GC 86 to examine OohnDDDD 7tockwell 7chachter 6artee emphasi&e the role played by the recoverability principle in the case of 56 deletion in sentential complements as one way of avoiding sentence ambiguity# J *t is a general principle of transformational theory that deletions in the course of a deri ation must !e reco era!le" (ther'ise an am!iguous sentence 'hose deri ation included a deletion could ha e an infinite num!er of different sources" The )ind of deletion that commonly occurs in complement structures is erasure under an identity condition3 e"g" for a 'hole host of reasons the deep structure of a sentence li)e De tried to lea e is assumed to contain t'o occurrences of the su!<ect he3 De tried E De A>; lea e" The su!<ect of the em!edded sentence is erased !y the higher identical su!<ect in this instance/ =(0-1#*11> /n later approaches this transformation was eliminated and referred to as control sentences! /n %+ Theory the missing sub"ect is analysed as 6RO! Thus it was 'homsky (0-1 who replaced EQR/ by 6RO a null pronominal generated as the sub"ect of the infinitival complement clause in the underlying structure and interpreted by co4indexation with the controller in the matrix clause as seen in the examples under =*># =*> a! the childreni tried C6ROi to solve the exerciseD b! the guide persuaded the touristsi C6ROi to greet the welcomersD The 56 7ub"ect in =*>a or the 56 Direct Ob"ect in =*>b is said to control the 6ROi in the infinitival clause thus establishing a causal relationship
Contemporary English Language. Introducing Transformations 1"

Chapter ": Basic Elementary %perations between controller and controlled in performing the action type of relationship much discussed in the literature both along syntactic and semantic coordinates !

".1. . /u0categori1ation of Control 2er0s

?'ontrol propensityH of verbs has been at the core of the ma"ority of studies elaborated within various syntactic approaches including %overnment and +inding Theory =%+> )exical Functional %rammar =)F%> Iead4driven 6hrase 7tructure %rammar =I67%> Rnification 'onstruction %rammar =R'%> as Dubinsky and Davies rightly acknowledge# J The FA( analysis of control 'as strengthened and extended to all cases of control in @, and is currently the most 'idely accepted analysis in deri ational approaches to syntax/ =,<<9#(1*>! ? 'ontrolH is a lexically governed construction and it is particularly determined by the nature of the matrix verb and ?the potential for reference of some abstract pronominal element 6RO 3/$%& a FA( 'hich is the su!<ect of an em!edded infiniti e clause is said to !e under the control of the main clause su!<ect (its controller) after a er! li)e promise e"g" *0 promised Gohn FA(0 to go, !ut after a er! li)e persuade it is controlled !y the o!<ect of that er! (it is non-su!<ect controlled), e"g" * persuaded GohnH FA(H to go/ ='rystal (00*#.,>! 'rystalHs definition of control puts forth the task of elucidating the following 3uestions raised within ?controlH theory# =(> a! controlling SvsS controlled itemsNpositions in a sentence b! the nature of the relation holding between 6RO and its controller c!?controlH typology d! control verbs subcategori&ation +oth former and present approaches to control theory debate over control verb typology ='homsky and )asnik (0--@ +resnan (0-.@ 'homsky (0.<@ 'ornilescu (0.9 ,<<1@ Farkas (0..@ Dubinsky and Davies ,<<9 among others> distinguishing between verbs of obligatory control and verbs of non4 obligatory control! Further subcategories are schemati&ed in 'ornilescu ! *ontrol
!li"atory Non-o!li"atory # $tional%

Exha&'ti(e

Partial

)on" Di'tance

Ar!itrary

Figure ,! The dichotomy between obligatory and non4obligatory or optional control can be retrieved by analy&ing the selective verb subcategori&ation in Table ,!(! where focus has been placed on both the type of controller i!e! sub"ect or ob"ect and whether coreference between controller and 6RO is obligatory or optional! Table ,!(!
8erb 'ontroller 7ub"ect Ob"ect 'ontrol Obligatory Optional 'ontextuali&ation

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Chapter ": Basic Elementary %perations

wait pray hope decide try learn condescend permit persuade force promise agree =with 56> learn =from 56> get bother E E E E E E E 4 4 4 E E E EN4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 E E E 4 4 4 EN4 E 4 4 4 4 E E E E E E E E E E 4 E E E E 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 E e!g! /Hm 'aiting to use the phone N for Oohn to come! e!g! The old man prayed to leave N for Oohn to come! e!g! / hope to come N for ;ary to come! e!g! They decided to move out N we should stay! e!g! ;ary tried to open the door =but she couldnHt>! e!g! The little girl learnt to ski very 3uickly! e!g! The lawyer condescended to listen to his client! e!g! Oohn permitted +ill to come! e!g! ;other persuaded her child to have some rest! e!g! The commander forced his troops to march on! e!g! They promised to fetch the car back! e!g! ;ary agreed to write back N with Oohn to write back! e!g! They learnt to skate N from +ill to skate! e!g! The teacher got to leave N the students to leave! e!g! =For +ill> To leave so early would !other everybody!

/n the table optional control is assigned to such verbs as 'ait , pray, hope, decide and !other indicating non4obligatory co4reference between 56 matrix controller and the infinitival 6RO phenomenon reali&ed at the syntactic level by the use of the for-to construction or the sub"unctive with that4deletion! Obligatory control is assigned to such verbs as try, condescend, permit, persuade, force, and get emphasi&ing the matrix 56 controllerHs full authority over the infinitival 6RO =i!e! absolute co4reference>!

".1.!. E#ercises
(!Define deletion and exemplify cases of deletion! , !/dentify the type of deletion in the following sentences# a! ;ary planted roses and Oessica forget4me4nots! b! The children wrote letters and their parents invitations! c! / have read all morning! d! 7he said she would come later! e! They tried to open the door! 1!Describe the changes in meaning due to gapping# a! Disco was working in all his shore dignity and a pair of beautiful carpet slippers! b! The fat boy went into the next room@ and having been absent about a minute returned with the snuff4box and the palest face that ever a fat boy wore!

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Chapter ": Basic Elementary %perations c! : young girl who had a yellow smock and a cold in the head that did not go on too well together was helping an old lady! d! ;r! 7mangle was still engaged in relating a long story the chief point of which appeared that on some occasion particularly stated and set forth he had JdoneK a bill and a gentleman at the same time! e! 7ophia lay between blankets in the room overhead with a feverish cold! This cold and her new dress were ;rs! +aineHs sole consolation at the moment! 2! Define 6RO and the phenomenon of control by resorting to the information contained within the course! *! 'omment upon Jcontrol typology Jin the following contextuali&ations# a! 7heHs 'aiting to take a cab N for the cab to come! b! The commander condescended to listen to his troopHs demands! c! The little child tried to climb up the tree =but he couldnHt>! d! The old woman prayed to be healthy N for her relatives to take care of her! t e! The committee agreed to change the regulations N with the president to change the regulations !

".". Insertions
/nsertions are syntactic operations which introduce a new structural element to the input 6; without any change in meaning since transformations are meaning4preserving! /t follows that the only type of element that can be inserted by a T4rule is a meaningless one! 7pecific types of insertion are# do-insertion, negati e-insertion, there-insertion, lexical insertion =which inserts lexical items at particular places in grammatical structures> as exemplified in paired4sentences under=(>! =(>! a! They go skiing every winter! aH! Do they go skiing every winterT b! 7he will come early tonight! bH! 7he will not come early tonight! c! : cat was in the box! cH There was a cat in the box! d! +ill grows carrots! dH! +ill grows tired! The paired$sentence (c is an example of there-insertion and it is described in Figure ,!,!

Contemporary English Language. Introducing Transformations

Chapter ": Basic Elementary %perations 6;( 56 Det 5 :ux 7 86 ;8 8 6;, 564;ovement 56 66 :ux 8 Det : cat 4ed T4There4insertion be in the box G 4ed be 7 86 ;8 56 5 66

a cat in the box

6;1 56

7 86 :ux 8 Det There Figure ,!,! 4ed be a ;8 56 5 cat in the box 66

/n order to get there insertion 56 movement has become obligatory by moving the 56 a cat from its initial position to a lower position under the 86! There -insertion has been applied by filling up the empty place under the initial 56 in 6;,!/nsertion rules are ordinarily obligatory rules!

Contemporary English Language. Introducing Transformations

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Chapter ": Basic Elementary %perations

".".1. E#ercises
(! Define insertion and illustrate its typology! ,! /dentify cases of insertion in the following sentences! Represent them by using derivational 6;s! a! There was a turkey in the courtyard! b! Uou are not proud of yourself! c! Do you like sending postcards T d! That / had lost the ticket offended Oessica!

".3. /u0stitutions
7ince no T4rule is allowed to change meaning substitution rules can only replace an element with one having an identical meaning # J Su!stitution is a structure-preser ing operation 'hich replaces one category( phrasal pro<ection or head ) 'ith a corresponding category under a condition of non -distinctness that essentially prohi!its the operation from eliminating information from the phrase mar)er to 'hich it applies"/ =Freidin in +rown ,<<*# (,,>! 7ubstitution is at the base of various types of movement transformations out of which we here specify # 84movement which moves 8 out of 86 into an empty finite / @ / movement which moves an / containing an :uxiliary into an empty '@ 56 movement which moves an 56 into an empty 56 position etc! /n this chapter we shall treat substitution only from the classical T% point of view anticipating the discussion in the next chapter! /n classical transformational grammar substitution rules are pronominali&ation rules which replace a lexical 56 with a pronoun since only pronouns can meet this criterion =that is you cannot use a substitution rule to substitute Junmarried womanK for JspinsterK! The meanings are very close but not identical>! 6RO5O;/5:)/V:T/O5 can be best described as a feature-matching operation which substitutes one of a set of forms called pronouns for 56s with identical features! 7o if you have two instances of Gohn in a sentence you may substitute he for one of them because both Gohn and he have the features contained in the matrix under =(> # =(> E male E singular E human E sub"ect

This process will derive sentence ,b from ,a as represented in Figure ,!1! =,> a! W Oohni said that Oohni was sick! W b! Oohn said that he was sick! Remark## Ci "D are called subscripts# when two instances of Gohn in some sentence are marked Gohni and Gohn< they refer to some individual@ if marked Gohni and Gohn< do not refer to the same individual but to Gohn Smith and Gohn Gones, etc!D

Contemporary English Language. Introducing Transformations

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Chapter ": Basic Elementary %perations

7 56i 5 Oohn 8 said 56i 5 he Figure ,!1! The rule of 6RO5O;/5:)/V:T/O5 operates in English under strict constraints! From a practical point of view the rules must operate from left to right so that the derivation shown in sentence =1> is allowed but that in =2> is forbidden! 7entence =2> b cannot be derived from =2> a! =1> a! W ;aryi reported that ;aryi had lost the ball W b! ;ary reported that she had lost the ball! =2> a! W ;aryi reported that ;ary" has lost the ball! b! X7he reported that ;ary had lost the ball! /n another example e!g! She said that :ary 'as sic) the words she and :ary have to refer to different individuals! /n :ary said that she 'as sic), on the other hand :ary and she may be the same individual although they do not have to be! 7ome substitution rules are special cases of 6RO5O;/5:)/V:T/O5! We here mention the REF)EY/8E rule which introduces reflexive pronouns into sentences by changing the syntactic feature on the ob"ect personal pronoun from C 4 reflexive D to CEreflexiveD when it is co4referential with the sub"ect! :s an illustration consider the derivation under =*> and its tree4 representation in Figure ,!2! =*> a! W Oohn shaved him! W b! Oohn shaved himself" Oohn was sick 86 56 7 86

Contemporary English Language. Introducing Transformations

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Chapter ": Basic Elementary %perations 7 56i 86

56

5 Oohn shaved him Figure ,!2! :nother substitution rule is that of do-so pronominalisation which derives example =-> from =9>! =9> W Oohn picked up the ball and ;ary picked up the ball too! W =-> Oohn picked up the ball and ;ary did so too!! /n %O8ER5;E5T4+/5D/5% theory 564 traces 6RO and reflexives are base4 generated anaphors a class of 56s ! himself

".3.1. E#ercises
(! Define substitution! %ive examples! ,! Explain why pronominali&ation can be described as a feature4matching operation! 1! ;ake changes so that the following sentences should contain cases of substitution! a! ;ary claimed that 7usan had fooled her! b! Tom saw )ily in the mirror! c! )eslie talked about her mother! d! +renda said that she was in the blues! e! 6aul read a book and his daughter read a book too!

".4. 3d4unctions
:d"unctions are basic syntactic operations referring to a rule which places certain elements of structure in ad"acent positions with the aim of specifying how these structures fit together in larger units ='rystal (00*>! /n other words ad"unction involves the moved category replacing an empty category of the same kind in accordance with the 7TRR'TRRE4 6RE7ER8/5% 'O57TR:/5T imposing the condition that a constituent can be moved only into another category of the same structural type which has been independently generated! :ccording to Freidin# J Ad<unction is a structure- !uilding operation$% & it creates ne' hierarchical structure in a phrase mar)er !K = in +rown ,<<*# (,,>!

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Chapter ": Basic Elementary %perations :d"unctions have several sub4directives indicating the placement of the ad"oined term! /n classical T% several types of ad"unctions were recogni&ed# sister-ad<unction, daughter-ad<unction, Choms)ys ad<unction ! Daughter4ad"unction is a type of derivation whereby some constituent is ad"oined in such a way as to become a daughter of another constituent e!g! in one derivation of the 86 !e and its past participle marker are ad"oined as daughters of Aux = auxiliary > = see Figure ,!*> 7ister4ad"unction is a type of ad"unction in %enerative %rammar in which two elements are ad"oined under a node as sister constituents of the node =see Figure ,!*!>! 'homskyHs ad"unction is a special type of ad"unction which involves a copying of the node to which another node is being ad"oined i!e! 'homsky4 ad"oin + as right daughter of : =see Figure ,!*!> 7 7 : % D I ' + Z : % I : + Z D I ' + Z

Figure ,!*! The Aspects4rule which we have used to represent the passive transformation in 'hapter ( is now useful in formali&ing ad"unction# =(> 7D # 56( $ Aux $ 8 $ 56, 7' # 56, $ AuxE !e Een $ 84 !y E 56( The relative positions of the two 56s are interchanged the morpheme !y is ad"oined to the left of 56( in its new position and the morphemes !e and en are ad"oined to the right of Aux # !y is linked to the agent complement 56=the former sub"ect> by a copy of the 56 being made on the level above the original 56 which copy dominates both !y and the agent and is sister4 ad"oined to the 86! :nother illustration of 'homskyHs ad"unction is provided by the contexts under =,> and the representation of the derivation in Figure ,!9! =,> a! +oys come with flowers! b! W +oys with flowers come with flowers W
7 56 5 8 6 +oys come with 86 66 56 flowers 'homskyHs :d"unction 56 5 +oys 6 with 56 66 56 8 6 7 86 66 56 flowers

flowers come with

:d"unction is responsible for such transformational rules as extraposition which ad"oins a 66 or '6 = 74bar > to the minimal Y6 containing
Contemporary English Language. Introducing Transformations "*

Chapter ": Basic Elementary %perations the 6hrase out of which it moves ! Freidin is of the opinion that J *n terms of ;!ar structure, ad<unction sites appear to !e limited to maximal phrasal pro<ections, and in particular those 'hich are not complements to the ma<or lexical heads (=,?, A and F)" +xample (04) illustrates an ad<unction 'hich results in the mo ement of a relati e clause (CF) 'hile example (02) sho's the effects of an ad<unction 'hich inserts a grammatical formati e (s) into a phrase- mar)er" (04) $ = Fan article on string theory CFi& $?F$?F <ust appeared& $CFi 'hich" * 'ant to read&& (02) $=F$=F the $= philosopher$FF$F from$=F$= Frinceton&&&s& !eard"/ = in +rown ,<<*# (,1 > :d"unction like substitution can be used to perform insertion as well as movement!

".4.1. E#ercises
(! Define and illustrate ad"unction! ,! Explain the 7tructure46reserving $ 'onstraint! 1 !/dentify sister4ad"unction daughter4ad"unction or 'homskyHs ad"unction in in the following sentences# a! : young woman has "ust entered with a tall feathered hat! b! Their house has "ust been redecorated! c! The tourists longed for their homes whose trip got to a final sightseeing tour!

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Chapter 3: 5ovement 6ules

Chapter 3: 5ovement 6ules

3.1. 6aising
Raising rules operate on infinitive clause sub"ects or ob"ects! :ccording to 6ostal =(0-2> raising is a rule that moves the sub"ect of an embedded clause into the ;' where it becomes the sub"ect of the ;' =for intransitive verbs> or the DO or the ;' =for transitive verbs>! The former case is studied under the heading Su!<ect-to-Su!<ect Aaising =77R> whereas the latter is studied under the heading Su!<ect-to-(!<ect Aaising =7OR>! /n the literature raising has been discussed in contrast with control constructions =e!g! Dubinsky and Davies in +rown ,<<9> being lexically governed constructions and having identical surface strings 564 8=456>4to4 86! There are still some features that distinguishes one from the other! a! /n raising constructions there is an overt 56 which is syntactically disconnected from the element that assigns it its semantic role! =(>! a! The little girl seemed to understand the story! b! 7he expected everybody to buy the products! /n (a the little girl is the semantic sub"ect of understand and the syntactic sub"ect of seem while in (b e ery!ody is the semantic sub"ect of !uy but the syntactic ob"ect of expect " b! When the infinitival complement clause is passive it becomes synonymous with the active one under raising! =,>! a!The mother seemed to have forgotten the child outdoors! b! The child seemed to have been forgotten outdoors by the mother! c! /n raising the selectional restrictions of embedded predicates affect the well4formedness of the sentence = see examples under= 1>>! =1> a! The statue seems to be porcelain! b!XThe statue seems to look over the matter! /n (b the semantics of the verb look asks for a CE human D sub"ect so there is a violation of selectional rules! /n the subchapters to follow we present a subcategori&ation of verbs which allow either sub"ect4to $sub"ect or sub"ect4to $ob"ect raising in English!

3.1.1. /u04ect,to 7/u04ect 6aising

7ub"ect4to $sub"ect raising is a behavioral property of sub"ects in complex sentences in English! The listing below is meant to subcategori&e verbs which trigger 77R and to graphically represent the way this transformation changes the structure of the input 6;(! The derived sentence =output> 6;, is paired with the input 6;(! a!The first category of 77R triggers includes a=ppear> verbsN ad"ectives =6ostal (0-2> such as # appear, seem, chance, happen, turn out8 li)ely, unli)ely, sure, certain! 'ontextuali&ations are provided in =2>! =2>a! /t seems that ;elvin speaks fluent Oapanese = see Figure 1!(> aH! ;elvin seems to speak fluent Oapanese! b! /t turns out that nobody has experienced that dilemma! bH! 5obody turns out to have experienced that dilemma! c! /t is sure that ;ary will win the competition =see Figure 1!,>
Contemporary English Language. Introducing Transformations ""

Chapter 3: 5ovement 6ules cH! ;ary is sure to win the competition!

a! 56 5 /t

7 86 8 seems 56 74 'O;6 that

aH 56 5

7 86 8 74 86

;elvin seems 7

;elvin speaks fluent Oapanese

cH! 7 56 56 5 ;ary 7 :ux 4s

to speak fluent Oapanese

86 ;W 8 be :d" sure 74 86 to win the competition

c! 56 5 /t

7 86 :ux 4s 8 be ;W :d" sure

74 'O;6

that ;ary will win the competition

b! The second category of 77R triggers is provided by aspectual verbs# !egin, continue, commence, start, stop, etc! 'ontextuali&ations are provided in =*>! =*> a! The noise !egan to annoy Oohn = see Figure 1!1!> aH! Oohn !egan to be annoyed by the noise! b! They stopped to greet their neighbors! bH! Their neighbors stopped to be greeted by them!
a! 56 Det The 5 :ux 7 86 ;W begin 74 86 Oohn to annoy Oohn 4ed begin to be annoyed by the noise aH! 56 5 :ux 7 86 ;W v noise 4ed 74 86

c! The third category of 77R includes the constructions had !etter C had !est =E short infinitive>! =9> There had !etter be no flows in your argument!

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Chapter 3: 5ovement 6ules d! The fourth category of 77R triggers includes !e E ad<ecti e combinations# !e a!out to8 !e !ound to8 !e apt to8 !e going t8, !e set to3 =-> a! 7he is a!out to cry!= Figure 1!2! > b! /t is going to rain! c! )ittle headway is apt to be made on that problem! e! The fifth category of 77R triggers are dicendi verbs# say, rumour, estimate, certify, deduce, discern etc! =1> a! They say that she is the apple of his eyes! aH! 7he is said to be the apple of his eyes!= Figure 1!-!> b! They certified that he was the best in the team! bH! Ie 'as certified to be the best in the team!

aH! 56 5 4s 7he be 4ed :ux

7 86 ;8 8 say 74 86 to be the apple of his eyes

3.1.". E#ercises (! /dentify the concept of sub"ect 4to4 sub"ect raising and provide example sentences in which it occurs! ,! 6rovide examples of 77R triggers in sentences of your own! 1! Draw the trees for the base forms of the following sentences! 7how how surface structures are produced! a! /t happened that ;ary had won the competition! b! /t appears that the weather is changing! c! /t is unlikely that the bridge will be built! d! The rain began to annoy everybody! e! 7he is bound to deliver the goods earlier! f! /t looks like our car is going to break down!

3.". /u04ect,to,%04ect 6aising

7ub"ect4to4ob"ect raising is a behavioral property of direct ob"ects in complex sentences in English! The subcategori&ation presented below includes various classes of verbs triggers of 7OR! 'ontextuali&ations and graphical representations follow the listing of the verbs! The input 6;( is paired with the output 6;, after applying the transformation! a! 8erbs of propositional attitude with a human 7ub"ect and a propositional DO in the D7! =i> account, assert, admit, assume, !elie e, consider, imagine, understand, thin), guess, suppose etc! =(> a! Ie asserted that the charge was incorrect! aH!Ie asserted the charge to be incorrect = see Figure 1!*!> b! Ie imagined himself that he was sought after by the English!
Contemporary English Language. Introducing Transformations "4

Chapter 3: 5ovement 6ules bH Ie imagined himself =to> be sought after by the English = see Figure1!*! c! They admitted that the task was difficult! cH! They admitted the task to be difficult! d ! / )no' that he is a fool! dH! / )no' him to be a fool!
aH! 56 5 :ux ;8 7 86 56 Det 5 74 86 bH! 56 5 Ie :ux 4ed ;8 imagine 7 86 56 5 74 86

himself Ie 4ed assert the charge to be incorrect to be sought after by the English

=ii> ac)no'ledge, affirm, attest, conclude, deny, pronounce =,> a! Ie concluded that she was a witch! aH Ie concluded her to be a witch! =Figure1! 9> b! Ie attested that this was the same which had been taken from him! bH Ie attested this to be the same which had been taken from him!

aH! 56 5 :ux

7 86 ;8 56 5 74 86

Ie

4ed

conclude her to be a witch

b! 'ausative 8erbs =i> cause, set, occasion, necessitate, get,ha e (ii) ma)e, let, ha e (E short infiniti e> =iii> verbs of negative causation# pre ent, stop =2>! / had my tooth extracted!

Contemporary English Language. Introducing Transformations

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Chapter 3: 5ovement 6ules 7 56 5 8 86 56 74 86 / had my tooth extracted 7 86 8 56 74 86 / had my tooth extracted Figure 1! .! c! /llocutionary 8erbs of 6ermission and 'ommand allo', !id, !eg, as), comment, dictate, direct, for!id, instruct, order, permit, prescri!e! 'ontextuali&ations and the transformational cycle are taken from 'ornilescu (0.9 # ,.*! =*> a! / allo'ed Oohn to interrogate the witness! aH! / allo'ed the witness to be interrogated by Oohn!= Figure 1! 0!> b! / for!id Oohn to visit you! bH! / for!id you to be visited by Oohn! a! 56 8 + allowed 'O;6 for to 56 Oohn 7 86 56 7H 7 86 56 66 to Oohn

56 5

8 the witness interrogate

Contemporary English Language. Introducing Transformations

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Chapter 3: 5ovement 6ules aH! 56 8 + allowed 'O;6 for to 56 7 86 56 7H 7 86 66 to Oohn

the witness is interrogated by Oohn

d! 8erbs of liking and disliking li)e, lo e, prefer, 'ant, 'ish, desire, need, expect, mean, intend, prefer, choose =9> a! /Hd li)e you to come earlier! b! / didnHt expect that to happen! c! / want someone to redecorate the house! =Figure =1!(<!>

c! 56 5 + 8 want

7 86 56 7 56 5 86

to redecorate the house someone e! 8erbs of physical perception see, hear, listen to, 'atch, feel, find, percei e, note, notice, o!ser e =-> a! We sa' Oohn cross the street!= see Figure 1!((!> b! / noticed them walk across the lane!

Contemporary English Language. Introducing Transformations

"$

Chapter 3: 5ovement 6ules a! 56 5 We :ux 4ed 7 86 ;8 see 56 86 5 Oohn cross the street 74

3.".1. E#ercises
(! /dentify the concept of raising 4 to4 ob"ect and provide example sentences in which it occurs! ,! %ive examples of 7OR triggers in sentences of your own! 1! Draw trees for the base forms of the following sentences and show how surface structures are produced# a! The captain ordered the soldiers to march on! b! The old man believed the street to be empty! c! 7he denied his behavior to be of a good common sense! d! The bear is said to have left the circus! e! Dark caused them to stumble and fall down! f! /Hd prefer you to play 'inderellaHs part! g! The girls watched the swans fly over the river! h! The teacher didnHt mean the pupils to read the whole story! i! / have never expected her to run away from home! " ! /Hd like you to get yourself a "ob!

3.3. Cleft 7 Constructions

'left sentences are specific constructions which give certain prominence or focus to a particular element of a sentence@ they are called JcleftK because they seem to divide a single clause into two separate parts each with its verb! There are at least two basic types of cleft4constructions in English# 'h-clefts and it-clefts! 'left analysis assumes that the focus constituent is initially in a non4 cleft sentence from where it is extracted by means of the cleft transformation ='ornilescu (0.9>! 7entences b4c under =(> are cleft sentences# =(> a! ;ary fed her dog!= Figure 1! (,!> b! 7hat ;ary fed was her dog! c! *t was her dog that ;ary fed!

Contemporary English Language. Introducing Transformations

"'

Chapter 3: 5ovement 6ules a! 56 5 8 7 86 56 the dog! b! 56 5 74 8 was 7 ;ary fed 7 86 56 c! 56 5 8 7 86 56 74 that ;ary fed

;ary fed

her dog! /t was her dog

'O;6 What

3.3.1. E#ercises
(! Define cleft4constructions and provide examples of your own! ,! 'omment upon the focused constituent in the following sentences! a! /tH s in the library that / prefer studying! b! /tHs happiness that ;ary wants! c! What she said was that we shouldnHt leave the house! d! Where we lost the key was in the cupboard! e! /t might be +en who stole the car!

Contemporary English Language. Introducing Transformations

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Contemporary English Language. Introducing Transformations

3*

(lossary of Terms
am0iguity the condition whereby any linguistic form has two or more interpretations anomalous sentence a meaningless se3uence of words which deviates from the rules for sentence formation co,inde#ation in %% the process of marking the identity of constituents =e!g! in the deep structure of a sentence> by using subscript letters or numbers complement a functional label which denotes a constituent whose presence is re3uired by a verb noun ad"ective or preposition con4unct a con"oined element =e!g! in T% con"oining transformation> constituent a string of words which syntactically behaves as a unit part of a larger linguistic construction deep structure in T% the abstract underlying representation of a sentence specifying the syntactic facts upon which meaning interpretation is applied derived structure in %% an output phrase4marker resulting after the application of a transformational rule ellipsis omission of a part of a sentence structure em0ed 8,ing 9,ed: in %% a process or construction where one sentence is included =? embeddedH> into another i!e! traditionally in syntactic subordination e#traposition a movement rule or transformation involving ad"unction e !g! a 66 moved out of a 56 and attached to the end of the clause gapping the omission of an identical part in coordinate clauses le#icon the lexical component of a generative grammar containing morphological syntactic and semantic specifications movement in T% a basic type of transformation which moves a constituent from one part of a phrase4marker to another@ a constituency test phrase, structure 8./: level the level of sentence constituency structure primitive a concept which refers to axiomatic terms =i!e!H trueH ?givenH H basic>H used in the description of various linguistic theories = e!g! grammars> recovera0ility a term which takes into account the retrieving of elements which have been deleted by means of the linguistic context selectional restriction a semantic feature specifying a restriction on the collocations of lexical items e!g! learn generally has a human sub"ect surface structure in T% the stage in the derivation of a sentence that occurs after applying transformational rules and which constitutes the input for the phonological component!

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31

6eferences. 6ecommended Bi0liography

6eferences. 6ecommended Bi0liography

(! +resnan O! (0-. A Aealistic Transformational @rammar in -inguistic *n6uiry and Fsychological Aeality edited by ;orris Ialle et al! 'ambridge ;/T 6ress ,! +rown Z and O ;iller ,<<* Concise +ncyclopedia of Syntactic Theories 6ergamon 1! +rown Z! et al ,<<9 +ncyclopedia of -anguage and -inguistics ! 7econd Edition Elsevier 2! 'homsky 5! (0.< (n ,inding, -inguistic *n6uiry ((#(429; in Eugene :! Fong Current Trends in American Syntactic Theory +ucuresti (0., *! 'homsky 5! (09* Aspects of the Theory of Syntax ;/T 6ress 9! 'homsky 5! (090 Topics in the Theory of @enerati e @rammar ;outon -! 'homsky 5! I! )asnik (0-- Iilters and Control -inguistic *n6uiry .#2,*4*<2 in Eugene :! Fong Current Trends in American Syntactic Theory +ucuresti (0., .! 'homsky 5! (0-1 Conditions on Transformations in :ndersen 7!R! and 6! Ziparski eds! 0! 'homsky 5! (00* The minimalist program 'ambridge ;: # ;/T 6ress (<! 'ornilescu :l! (0.9 +nglish Syntax +ucuresti ((! 'ornilescu :l! ,<<1 Complementation in +nglish ER+ +ucuresti (,! 'ornilescu :l! (00* Concept of :odern @rammar +ucuresti (1! 'roitoru El! ,<<, The +nglish Sentence Structure ed! Funda[iei Rniversitare JDun\rea de OosK %alati (2! 'rystal D! (00* A Dictionary of -inguistics and Fhonetics +lackwell (*! Dubinsky 7!W! W!D! Davies ,<<9 Control and Aaising in +ncyclopedia of -anguage and -inguistics 7econd Edition Editor4in4 'hief, Zeith +rown 8olume 1 Elsevier! (9! Farkas D! (0.- (n (!ligatory Control -inguistics and Fhilosophy (-! Freidin R! ,<<* @enerati e @rammar3 Frinciples and Farameters in +rown Z! and O! ;iller (.! Iardt D! (001 ?er! phrase ellipsis3 form, meaning, and processing ! 6h!D! Diss! Rniversity of 6ennsylvania (0! Oackendoff Ray 7! (0-, Semantic *nterpretation in @enerati e @rammar The ;/T 6ress ,<! Oohnson Z! ,<<( 7hat ?F ellipsis can do, and 'hat it cant, !ut not 'hy" /n +altin ; L 'ollins ' =eds!> The hand!oo) of contemporary syntactic theory! ;alden ;:# +lackwell ,(! )obeck :! (00* +llipsis3 functional heads, licensing and identification ! 5ew UorkNOxford# Oxford Rniversity 6ress ,,! 6ostal 6! (0-2 (n Aaising ;/T 6ress 'ambridge ;ass ,1! Radford :! (00, Transformational @rammar" A Iirst Course 'ambridge Rniversity 6ress ,2! Reinhart T! (0.1 Coreference and !ound anaphora3 a restatement of anaphora 6uestions in -inguistics and Fhilosophy 9

Contemporary English Language. Introducing Transformations

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6eferences. 6ecommended Bi0liography ,*! Rosenbaum 6eters 7! (09-a The @rammar of +nglish Fredicate Complement Constructions Research ;onograph 5o 2- The ;/T 6ress 'ambridge ,9! Ross O!R! (09- Constraints on aria!les in syntax 6h!D ;/T ,-! 7ag /! (0-- Deletion and logical form +loomington /5 # /ndiana Rniversity )inguistic 'lub 6ublications ,.! 7tockwell R!6! 6aul 7chachter +arbara Iall 6artee (0-1 The :a<or Syntactic Structures of +nglish, Iolt Rinchart Winston /5' ,0! ]erban E! +nglish Syntax vol!/ +ucure^ti (0.9 1<! Tancredi '! (00, Deletion, deaccenting and presupposition ;/T 1(! Winkler ,<<9 +llipsis in +rown Z! et al +ncyclopedia of -anguage and -inguistics! 7econd Edition Elsevier

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