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Bi Quang Tuyn:
LI NI U
Bi ging mn Trc c c bin son tng hp t nhiu sch v gio trnh ca nhiu tc gi nhm phc v cho vic ging dy mn Trc c cho sinh vin cc ngnh k thut nh: Cng thn, Thy cng, C kh, Qun l t ai .v.v... Bi ging nhm trang b cho sinh vin nhng kin thc c bn v o v bn . Ni dung bi ging gm c 14 chng nh sau: Chng I: M u & nhng kin thc c bn v trc a Chng II: Khi nim v sai s o c Chng III: nh hng ng thng Chng IV: o chiu di Chng V: o cao Chng VI: o gc Chng VII: Li khng ch Chng VIII: o v bn t l ln Chng IX: S dng bn a hnh Chng X: Cc yu t c bn trong b tr cng trnh Chng XI: o c xy dng Chng XII: o c cng trnh giao thng Chng XIII: o c cng trnh thy li Chng XIV: o bin dng v chuyn dch cng trnh.
Bi c son t nhiu gio trnh nn khng trnh khi nhng thiu st. Tc gi rt mong nhng kin ng gp, ph bnh ca cc bn ng nghip v cc bn sinh vin c tham kho bi ging ny.
Cn Th, ngy 22 thng 9 nm 2005 Tc gi Bi Quang Tuyn Nguyn Phc Cng Trn V An
Bi Ging Mn Trc c
Bi Quang Tuyn:
Bi Ging Mn Trc c
Bi Quang Tuyn:
PHN I:
CHNG I:
Bi Ging Mn Trc c
Bi Quang Tuyn:
thc hin c mt cng trnh trn mt t, cng vic phi ln lt tri qua 5 giai on qui hoch, kho st, thit k, thi cng v nghim thu: - giai on qui hoch : th d qui hoch thy li ngi k s phi s dng nhng bn t l nh, trn s vch ra cc phng n xy dng cng trnh, vch ra k hoch tng qut nht v khai thc v s dng cng trnh. - giai on kho st : ngi k s phi bit xut cc yu cu o v bn t l ln ti nhng khu vc giai on qui hoch d kin xy dng cng trnh. - giai on thit k : ngi k s phi c kin thc v trc c tnh ton thit k cc cng trnh trn bn , v cc mt ct a hnh. - giai on thi cng : ngi k s phi c kin thc v kinh nghim v cng tc trc c a cng trnh thit k ra mt t, theo di tin thi cng hng ngay. - giai on nghim thu v qun l cng trnh : l giai on cui cng, ngi k s phi c hiu bit v cng tc o c kim tra li v tr, kch thc ca cng trnh xy dng, p dng mt s phng php trc lng theo di s bin dng ca cng trnh trong qu trnh khai thc v s dng. - i vi cng tc qun l ti nguyn thin nhin: Cc loi bn a hnh rt cn thit cho cng tc thm d, s dng v qun l cc ti nguyn thin nhin. Cng tc t chc qun l v khai thc cc ngun ti nguyn thin nhin ca mt quc gia. I.3. Lch s pht trin ca ngnh trc a: I.3.1. Trn th gii: S pht sinh v pht trin ca ngnh trc c gn lin vi qu trnh pht trin ca x hi loi ngi. Trc CN ngi Ai cp thng phi phn chia li t ai sau nhng trn l lt ca sng Nil, xc nh li ranh gii gia cc b tc, do ngi ta sng to ra phng php o t. Thut ng trc a theo ting Hy lp (geodesie) cng c ngha l phn chia t ai v khoa hc v trc a ra i t . Tri qua nhiu thi i, cng vi nhng pht minh pht trin khng ngng ca khoa hc v k thut, mn hc v trc a ngy cng pht trin. Nhng pht minh ra knh vin vng, kim nam chm, logarit, tam gic cu .. to iu kin vng chc cho s pht trin ca ngnh trc c Trong nhng thp k gn y, nhng thnh tu mi v khoa hc k thut lm cho ngnh trc a c mt bc pht trin mnh, thay i v cht: nhng k thut thm d t xa (vin thm) cho php thnh lp bn t nh chp my bay, v tinh. Nhiu nc cng nghip pht trin ch to ra nhng my trc a kch thc nh, nhng c nhiu tnh nng hay v kt hp gia phn c v phn in t lm cho my o c tr nn nh gn chnh xc cao v nhiu tnh nng hn. Vic dng my tnh in t gii cc bi ton trc a c khi lng ln, vic s dng cc nh chp t v tinh hay cc con tu v tr thnh lp bn a hnh l nhng thnh tu mi nht ca khoa hc c p dng trong ngnh trc a. I.3.2. Trong nc: nc ta ngnh trc a pht trin t lu, nhn dn ta p dng nhng hiu bit v trc lng vo sn xut, quc phng: nhng cng trnh xy dng c nh thnh C loa l mt minh chng v s hiu bit trc lng ca nhn dn ta. u th k 20 sau khi thn tnh v lp nn h, ngi php tin hnh cng tc o v bn ton ng Dng nhm mc ch khai thc tt ti nguyn vng ny. Vic o c c tin hnh rt qui m, p dng cc phng php o khoa hc v cc my mc o c cht lng cao, nhng bn , nhng h s cn lu tr ni ln iu . Trong thi khng chin chng thc dn, cng tc trc a ch yu phc v cho mc ch qun s nh trc a pho binh, cng binh, trinh st ... Sau khi cuc khng chin thnh cng, nh nc ta rt quan tm n cng tc trc a, Cc o c bn nh nc c ra i nm 1959 nh du mt bc trng thnh ca ngnh trc a Vit nam.
Bi Ging Mn Trc c
Bi Quang Tuyn:
i ng nhng ngi lm cng tc trc a cng ngy cng ln mnh. Trc nm 1960 t ch trong nc ch c vi chc k thut vin c o to trong thi k Php thuc ang lm vic trong cc ngnh giao thng, thy li, xy dng... ti nay i ng cc cn b trc a ln ti hng ngn ngi t mi trnh : s cp, trung cp, k s, tin s v trc a. Song song vi vic c ngi i hc nc ngoi, nh nc quyt nh m kha K s Trc a u tin ti Trng i hc Bch Khoa H Ni vo nm 1962. Hin nay khoa Trc a Trng i hc M a cht l mt trung tm ln nht trn c nc v o to v nghin cu khoa hc v chuyn ngnh ny. Vic o to khng ngng li bc i hc m bt u o to cn b Trc a sau i hc. Cc o c bn nh nc l c quan c chc nng o v bn ton quc ban hnh cc qui phm Trc a chung cho ton quc. Cc b ngnh cng c nhng t chc trc a ring, phc v cho cng tc o v bn t l ln nhm p ng yu cu cng tc thit k, thi cng v qun l cng trnh cho n v mnh. I.4. Cng tc Trc c i vi K s Xy dng: Trong xy dng c th lp cc t thc hin cng tc o c theo cc hnh thc sau: * i hoc t Trc a chuyn nghip trc thuc ban ch huy cng trng, thc hin tt c cc cng tc Trc lng, K s Xy dng c nhim v duyt k honh, d ton chi ph v kim tra qui trnh thc hin cng tc Trc a ca n v. Hnh thc ny thng c p dng cho nhng cng trnh ln, phc tp nh khu cng ngh, khu trm thy in ... * i hoc t trc a chuyn nghip thc hin cc dng cng tc Trc a phc tp, cn K s v Trung cp Xy dng tin hnh cng tc Trc lng n gin hn, ng thi c nhim v nh nhng mc trn. Hnh thc ny thng c p dng cho nhng cng trnh xy dng nh trong thnh ph. * Tt c cc cng tc Trc c u K s hay Trung cp Xy dng m nhn. Hnh thc ny ch p dng cho cc cng trnh xy dng n gin, nh. Ty theo tng cng v m nhn m ngi K s Xy dng c nhng nhim v khc nhau nh dng cng, d tr kinh ph, tin hnh cng tc o kim tra, nghim thu hoc trc tip lm cng tc o. V th, khi cn i hc, Sinh vin ngnh Xy dng phi trang b nhng kin thc ti thiu c th t mnh tin hnh o v bnh khu vc mt cng trnh xy dng loi nh, tin hnh cng tc b tr cng trnh vi chnh xc va, ng thi phi thng hiu ngha ni dung ca cng tc o v c bn trong xy dng c kh nng tham gia vo duyt cng, k hoch thc hin, d tr kinh ph v theo di cng tc ca cc n v Trc a chuyn nghip. I.5. Cc dng cng tc Trc c trong Xy dng: Cc giai on kho st thit k, thi cng v vn hnh cng trnh u cn ti cng tc trc c hoc nhng thnh qu ca n. * Cc cng tc u c xy dng theo cn bn thit k. Nu s dng cc bn thit k nh hnh th cng tc thit k tin hnh thnh hai giai on: thit k nhim v v bn v thi cng. lp bn thit k nhim v phi tin hnh kho st kinh t k thut, trong c kho st Trc c m ch yu l vic lp bnh t l ln 1/10.000; 1/5.000, lp thit k k thut v bn v phi c bnh t l 1/2000; 1/1000. * Trong cng tc qui hoch, c qui hoch mt bng v qui hoch cao. Qui hoch mt bng c tin hnh bng phng php gii tch da vo cc cng trnh c, trong cao v ta cc gc nh v cng trnh c xc nh t cc mc trc a. Phng php gii da vo cc s liu o trc tip trn bnh a hnh. Qui hoch cao v tnh ton khi lng o p c tin hnh trn bnh v mt ct a hnh. * Trc c thi cng cng trnh c tin hnh theo hai giai on: - Thi cng trc chnh v trc c bn. - Thi cng cc trc ph v cc yu t thnh phn cng trnh. 5
Bi Ging Mn Trc c
Bi Quang Tuyn:
Cc trc chnh v trc c bn c b tr da vo cc mc trc a. Cc trc ny v sau s l c s thi cng cc trc ph v cc chi tit cng trnh. Cn ch l cht lng thi cng ph thuc rt ln vo cng tc o dc. * Sau khi hon thnh cng trnh cn t chc o v nghim thu lp tng bnh hon cng cn thit cho vic vn hnh cng trnh. * Vic quan st bin dng cng trnh (ln) bng cc phng php Trc c phi tin hnh mt cch c h thng t lc o mng cho n qu trnh vn hnh. II. NHNG KIN THC C BN V TRC A: II.1. Mc thy chun gc: Mt ngoi ca qu t c dng gh gh, bao gm cc i dng v lc a, trong bin chim ti 71%; cn lc a ch c 29%. Ni Mc nc bin yn lng ko di xuyn qua cc lc a v hi o to thnh mt mt cong kn gi l mc nc gc. Mc nc gc c tnh cht thng gc vi phng ca dy di.
Sng
Trong ngnh Trc a, mc nc gc hay cn gi l mc thy chun c dng lm mt chiu khi o lp bn v cng c dng lm mt so snh cao gia cc im trn mt t. Mi Quc gia u qui c mt mt thy chun c cao l 0m cho nc v c gi l mt thy chun gc, n c dng lm c s so snh cao trn ton b lnh th ca nc . Th d Vit Nam dng mt thy chun gc Hn Du, Sn. cao ca mt im trn mt t l khong cch tnh theo ng dy di t im ti mt thy chun gc. Nhng im nm pha trn mt nc gc c cao dng (+) v d im A, B. Nhng im nm pha di mt nc gc c cao m (-) v d im C. Khong cch t A ti mt nc gc l HA: l cao tuyt i ca im A. Khong cch t A ti mt h l HA/: c gi l cao tng i ca im A ti mt h.
A
HA/ H HA - H B
HA HB
Mc nc gc Bin
Mc nc gc ca qu t
Hnh I.2 Chnh lch cao gia A v B l on HA - HB : c gi l hiu cao gia A v B v c k hiu bng: hAB.
Bi Ging Mn Trc c
Bi Quang Tuyn:
Bn ca Vit Nam u dng h thng cao ly t mt thy chun gc Sn. Khi o v nhng khu vc ho lnh c din tch nh, chng ta c th dng mt nc gc gi nh, tc l dng h thng cao gi nh. Lc y ton b cao tnh c gi l cao tng i. Mc nc gi nh l mc nc song song vi gc v s c cao chn. V d khi o v bn mt khu vc ho lnh, ngi ta c th gn cho mt im c bit no mt cao ty v t mi im trong cng trng u ly cao t im va cho trn. S phn b vt cht trong lng lp t khng ng u v lun thay i cng vi vn tc v v tr trc quay cng lun thay i nn hnh dng ca qu t cng lun thay i khng theo mt dng ton hc no. a b tin gii cc bi ton Trc a, ta c th coi nh mc nc gc c dng bu dc hi dt hai cc. Mt bu u xoay c c trng bng bn knh ln a v bn knh nh b v dt . Dng bu dc a b ca qu t = a c mt bu dc xoay gn ging vi mt nc gc Hnh I.3 Quc gia mnh th mi nc u chn mt mt elipsoit cc b. Hnh bu dc xoay c ngha quc t nht l do nh bc hc Nga Krasowski tm ra nm 1940 vi kt qu: a = 6378245m = 1/298,3 v R = 6371,11 km b = 6356.863m II.2. nh hng cong ca qu t ti cng tc o c: Mt mt cu khi c khai trin thnh mt mt phng lun b rch hay b nhn. Khi biu din qu t hnh cu ln t giy phng, tt nhin cng xut hin nhng bin dng. Nhng bin dng ny s to ra cc sai lch m ta s ln lt xt ti sau y: t A C II.2.1. Dn n sai s khong cch trn b mt tri t. h d Xt hai im A v B cng nm trn mc B thy chun ca qu t; khong cch d trn mt t c biu din bng b di cung AB. Nu coi mt thy chun l mt phng th R khong cch gia A v b l chiu di tip tuyn AC = t. Sai s v khong cch do vic gi thit mt thy chun l mt phng s l: d = t - d. Hnh I.4 t = R.tg vi = d/R. Vy d = R(tg - ). Tnh gn ng: d3 d 3R 2 Thay R = 6371 km v cho d cc gi tr khc nhau, ta s c cc gi tr d tng ng c ghi trong bng sau: Trong thc t o c, vi cc cng c hin i dng o khong cch m con ngi ang c, th vic o chiu di ch t chnh xc cao nht l 1/1.000.000; do trong khu vc o v 7
Bi Ging Mn Trc c
Bi Quang Tuyn:
c bn knh di 10 km, ta c th coi nh mt thy chun l mt phng m hon ton khng nh hng g ti chnh xc o chiu di. d(Km) 10 50 100
II.2.2. Dn n sai s v cao: Theo nh ngha v cao th hai im A v B c cng cao v chng cng nm trn mt mt thy chun. Nhng nu gi thit mt thy chun qua A l mt mt phng ( l tip tuyn At) th ngi quan st ti A s thy im C m khng thy im B, on BC = h chnh l sai s v cao. Theo hnh v, ta c: (R + h)2 = R2+ + t2. h2 + 2R.h = t2. t2 h = 2R + h V h v cng nh so vi 2R nn c th b qua h mu s, coi t d, ta s c: t2 h 2R Vi R = 6371 km, ta s tnh c h ng vi nhng khong cch d khc nhau (theo bng di): d (km) h (mm) 0,05 0,2 0,50 20 1,00 78 2,00 314 Do h tng nhanh khi khong cch d tng, hn na do yu cu v chnh xc trong o cao kh cao nn ta phi xt n nh hng ca sai s ny v tm cch khc phc. Mt thy chun c dng lm mt chiu, dng php chiu xuyn tm c tm chiu l tm O ca tri t. Do khu vc o v nh so vi kch thc ca qu t nn cc tia chiu coi nh song song vi nhau v cng vung gc vi (H). V th hnh chiu abcde ca a gic ABCDE coi nh hnh chiu ln mt bng (H), khng b bin dng v rt ging nh hnh thc. cc v tuyn thnh cc ng nm ngang song song nhng khng cch u nhau: cng xa xch o cc v tuyn cng tha dn, tc l bin dng nhiu (hnh I.13).
III. XC NH V CC IM TRN MT T xc nh v cc im trn mt t, v d A, B, C, D (Hnh 1.2) ta chiu chng xung mt Geoid (Ellipsoid) theo phng dy di c cc im a, b, c, d. V tr khng gian ca cc im A, B, C, D c xc nh bng hai yu t: 1. Ta a l , hoc ta phng vung gc Gauss Kruger (hay UTM) X, Y ca cc im a, b, c, d trn mt qui chiu l Ellipsoid.
8
Bi Ging Mn Trc c
Bi Quang Tuyn:
2. cao HA, HB, HC, HD ca cc im A, B, C, D so vi mt Geoid. a vt, a hnh trn mt t t nhin l tp hp ca v s im. Ta chiu v s im theo phng dy di ln mt Geoid ta c hnh nh ca cc a vt, a hnh trn mt ny. xc nh v tr khng gian ca cc im A, B, C, D trn mt t t nhin ta phi o: -Chiu di cc cnh: AB, BC, CD, DA -Cc gc ng: V1, V2, V3, V4 -Cc gc bng: 1, 2, 3, 4 -Xc nh cc cao: HA, HB, HC, HD.
K E 180 T
o
Hn
m a t a
K1 C
n
180 P1
Hnh 1.2
ao xcho
E1
III.1. H TA A L H ta a l ly mt Geoid c dng mt Ellipsoid lm mt chiu v ly phng dy di lm ng chiu. ng ta c bn ca h ta a l l kinh tuyn v v tuyn. Kinh tuyn l giao tuyn ca mt phng i qua trc quay tri t PP1 v mt Ellipsoid. Kinh tuyn gc l kinh tuyn i qua i Thin vn Greenwich ngoi London.
B
Greenwich
59 60 1 8 2 3 4 5 6 7
N
Hnh 1.3
9
Bi Ging Mn Trc c
Bi Quang Tuyn:
V tuyn l giao tuyn ca mt phng vung gc vi trc quay tri t v mt Ellipsoid. V tuyn gc chnh l ng xch o. V tr im N bt k trn mt t c xc nh bng ta a l ca hnh chiu n ca n trn mt Ellipsoid v cao Hn. Ta a l ca im n l kinh a l n v v a l n. kinh a l n ca im n l gc nh din hp bi mt phng cha kinh tuyn gc v mt phng cha kinh tuyn qua im n. kinh a l nh s t kinh tuyn gc 0o sang ty 180o gi l kinh ng v t kinh tuyn gc 0o sang ty 180o gi l kinh ty. v a l n ca im n l gc hp bi mt phng xch o v ng dy di qua im n. v a l nh s t xch o 0o ln pha Bc 90o gi l v bc, v t xch o 0o xung pha Nam 90o gi l v nam. im n trn Hnh 1.3 c tnh theo kinh ng v v bc. Thnh ph H Ch Minh c ta a l t 106o22 n 106o55 kinh ng v t 10o38 n 11o10 v bc. kinh v v a l c xc nh t kt qu o thin vn nn ta a l cn c gi l ta thin vn. II1.2. PHP CHIU V H TA PHNG Trong giai on thit k v thi cng cng trnh, ngi k s xy dng phi bit to (x, y) thit k ca cng trnh l bao nhiu ri tip theo phi b tr cng trnh ngoi thc a ng nh v tr cho trong bn thit k. Mi sai lm c lin quan n to (x, y), tc l c lin quan n v tr, kch thc ca cng trnh, hoc do thit k gy ra, hoc do thi cng gy ra u lm cho x hi gnh chu tn tht rt nng n, nghim trng. Trc ht cn thy rng khi nim v to (x, y) c trn cc t bn a hnh Quc gia (trong trc a) khc vi khi nim thng thng trong ton hc. Chng hn: trong h to vung gc phng cc ( trong ton hc) c trc x nm ngang, trc y thng ng. Nhng trong h to vung gc phng Gauss-Kruger hoc h to vung gc phng UTM-VN2000 (trong trc a) li c trc x thng ng, trc y nm ngang. Trong ngnh trc a bn trn th gii v ngay c Vit Nam, qua cc thi k khc nhau cng tng tn ti nhiu loi h to vung gc phng khc nhau. Vo na cui th k 20, Vit Nam chnh thc s dng h to vung gc phng Gauss-Kruger v c gi l h to vung gc phng Gauss-Kruger-HN72 (H Ni 1972). Va qua chnh ph ban hnh quyt nh s dng h quy chiu v h to Quc gia Vit Nam
10
Bi Ging Mn Trc c
Bi Quang Tuyn:
mi, c hiu lc thi hnh k t ngy 12 thng 08 nm 2000 v c gi l h to vung gc phng UTM-VN2000 (Universal Transversal Mecators - Vit Nam 2000). III.2.1 Php chiu Gauss v h ta phng vung gc Gauss Kruger + Php chiu Gauss th hin mt khu vc ln trn b mt tri t ln mt phng ngi ta s dng php chiu Gauss. Php chiu Gauss l php chiu hnh tr ngang u gc. Trong php chiu Gauss, tri t c chia thnh 60 mi chiu 60 mang s th t t 1 n 60 k t tuyn gc Greenwich sang ng, vng qua ty bn cu ri tr v kinh tuyn gc (Hnh 1.4). Mi mi chiu c gii hn bi kinh tuyn ty v kinh tuyn ng. Kinh tuyn gia ca cc mi chiu c gi l kinh tuyn trc, chia mi chiu lm hai phn i xng (H.1.6). kinh a l ca cc tuyn ty, ng v gia cc mi chiu 60 th n c tnh theo cng thc sau: T = 60 (n 1); D = 60 n; D = 60 n - 30 Trong : n l s th t ca mi chiu (1.2)
B
kinh tuyen goc
Greenwich
P C O Q1
59 60 1 8 2 3 4 5 6 7
N Hnh 1.4 x
kinh tuyen ong
P1 Hnh 1.5 x x x
xch ao
Hnh 1.6
11
Bi Ging Mn Trc c
Bi Quang Tuyn:
c cc mi chiu 60 trn mt phng ta lm nh sau: dng mt hnh tr ngang ngoi tip vi Ellipsoid tri t theo kinh tuyn trc POP1 (Hnh 1.5) ca mi chiu th nht (c kinh tuyn ty l kinh tuyn gc). Ly tm C tri t lm tm chiu, chiu mi ny ln mt trong ng tr, sau tnh itn ng tr v phi tri t mt on tng ng vi chiu di mt cung trn mt t theo xch o chn gc tm bng 60:
R. 6 0 3,14 6374,11km 6 0 L= = = 666,84km 180 0 180 0
(1.3)
V xoay tri t i mt gc 60 chiu mi th hai. Bng cch tng t ta ln lt chiu cc mi cn li ri ct ng tr thnh mt phng (Hnh 1.6). Xch o tr thnh trung ngang Y, kim tuyn gia ca mi mi chiu tr thnh trc X ca h ta phng.
+ Tnh ng gc
Php chiu Gauss l php chiu mang tnh ng gc, ngha l cc gc trn mt Ellipsoid vn gi nguyn trn mt chiu, cn chiu di c bin dng nhng rt t. H s bin dng chiu di trn kinh tuyn gia bng 1, h s bin dng chiu di ti bt k v tr no khc u ln hn 1. cng v tuyn nhng cng xa kinh tuyn trc hoc cng mt kinh tuyn nhng cng xa xch o th h s bin dng chiu di cng ln. bin mi 6o h s bin dng chiu di l 1,0014, ngha l cnh di 1000m trn Ellipsoid khi chiu ln mt phng Gauss s l 1000m + 1,4m. gim s bin dng ca chiu di ta c th p dng mt trong ba cch sau y: 1- Chia mi 60 thnh cc mi 30 hoc 1030. H s bin dng chiu di vng bin mi 30 v 1030 ti xch o l 1,00035 v 1,00009. 2- Tnh s hiu chnh S v cng vo chiu di on thng S trn mt Ellipsoid theo cng thc:
S = 2 Ym S 2 2 R
(1.4)
Trong : Ym =
X1, Y1 v X2, Y2 - ta im u v im cui ca on. R Bn knh tri t bng 6371,11km. S - Chiu di on thng trn mt Ellipsoid.
12
Bi Ging Mn Trc c
Bi Quang Tuyn:
khu o
O
Hnh 1.7
+ H thng ta vung gc phng Gauss-Kruger Mi mi chiu l mt ta phng vung gc. khng c tr s honh m, thun li cho vic tnh ton, ngi ta qui c chuyn trc X v bn tri 500km (Hnh 1.8). Tung c tr s dng k t gc ta 0 v pha bc v tr s m t gc ta v pha nam. Tri t chia thnh 60 mi chiu 6o nn c 60 mi ta . ch r ta ca mt im trn mt t nm mi ta no ngi ta ghi bn tri honh s th t ca cc mi chiu. V d: ta ca im M l XM = 2.209km, YM = 18.646km c ngha l M nm na bn phi mi ta th 18, cch xch o v pha Bc 2.209km v cch kinh tuyn trc ca pha bc 2.209km v cch kinh tuyn trc ca mi th 18 mt khong bng 646 500 146km (Hnh 1.8).
x
146 km M 500km 2209 km
Hnh 1.8
13
Bi Ging Mn Trc c
Bi Quang Tuyn:
Nc ta nm Bc bn cu, trn mi ta th 18, 19 nn c tr s X lun lun dng v hai ch s u ca Y l 18 hoc 19. tin cho vic s dng bn a hnh, ti khu vc bin gip nhau gia hai mi chiu thng th hin c hai li ta rng bng mt mnh bn mi bn. H ta Gauss Vit Nam c thnh lp nm 1972 c gi l h ta Nh nc H Ni 72. H ny chn Ellipsoid quy chiu Krasovski. Gc ta t ti i thin vn Punkovo (Lin X c), truyn ta vi Vit Nam thng qua li ta quc gia Trung Quc. + Php chiu v h ta vung gc phng UTM VN.2000 - Php chiu UTM Php chiu UTM (Universal Transverse Mecator) cng l php chiu hnh tr ngang ng gc nhng khng tip xc vi mt Ellipsoid ti kinh tuyn trc nh trong php chiu Gauss m ct n nh trong php chiu Gauss m ct n theo hai ct tuyn cch u kinh tuyn trc 180km (Hnh 1.9). H s bin dng chiu di m = 1 trn hai ct tuyn, m = 0,9996 trn kinh tuyn trc v m > 1 vng bin mi chiu. Cch chiu nh vy s gim c sai s bin dng gn bin v phn b u trong phm vi mi chiu 6o. y chnh l u im ca php chiu UTM so vi php chiu Gauss.
x(N)
180km 0 500km 10.000km 180km
y(N)
Hnh 1.9
14
Bi Ging Mn Trc c
Bi Quang Tuyn:
- H ta thng vung gc UTM Trong h ta thng vung gc UTM trc tung c k hiu l X hoc N (vit tt ca ch North l hng Bc), trc honh c k hiu l Y hoc E (vit tt ca ch East l hng ng). H ta ny cng qui c chuyn trc X v bn trai cch kinh tuyn trc 500km (Hnh 1.9). Cn tr s qui c ca gc tung bc bn cu cng l 0, nam bn cu l 10.000km, c ngha l gc 0 tung nam bn cu c di xung nh nam cc. Nc ta nm bc bn cu nn d tnh theo h ta Gauss hay h ta UTM th gc ta cng nh nhau. Hin nay ti cc tnh pha nam vn cn s dng cc loi bn do Cc Bn ca qun i M sn xut trc nm 1975 theo php chiu v h ta UTM, ly Ellipsoid Everest lm Ellipsoid quy chiu, c im gc ti n . Bt u t gia nm 2001 nc ta chnh thc a vo s dng h ta quc gia VN2000 thay cho h ta H Ni-72. H ta quc gia VN2000 s dng php chiu UTM, Ellipsoid WGS-84 v gc ta t ti Vin nghin cu a chnh H Ni. III.3 H CAO cao HA, HB, HC, HD ca cc im A, B, C, D trn mt t l cc khong cch Aa, Bb, Cc, Dd theo phng dy di n mt Geoid (Hnh 1.2). cao HA, HB ca cc im A, B so vi mt Geoid (Hnh 1.10) gi l cao tuyt i hay l cao quc gia. H thng cao quc gia Vit Nam ly mc nc bin trung bnh nhiu nm trm nghim triu Hn Du Sn Hi Phng lm cao gc 0 (mt Geoid Vit Nam). Hin nay trong mt s trng hp cn s dng h cao c ly mc nc bin trung bnh ti trm nghim triu Mi Nai H Tin lm im gc. cao Mi Nai cao hn cao Hn Du khong 0,167m. cao HA, HB ca cc im A, B so vi mt nc gc gi nh (thng chn mt phng i qua im a vt r rng c cao c trng hoc cao trung bnh ca khu t), gi l cao gi nh. Hiu cao tuyt i hoc cao gi nh: HAB = HA HB = HA - HB c gi l chnh cao. Trong trc a ch o chnh cao ch khng o c cao. Mun c cao mt im no trn mt t t nhin, ta ly cao im gc cng vi tng chnh cao gia cc im gc, cc im trung gian v im . V d: HA = HG + hBG + hAB (1.5)
15
Bi Ging Mn Trc c
Bi Quang Tuyn:
IV. MT CT A HNH:
Mt ct a hnh l hnh chiu ng ca mt t dc theo hng bit. V d theo hnh v l mt ct ngang sng, biu din s thay i ca a hnh y sng theo hng vung gc vi dng chy. Mt ct a hnh c s dng nhiu trong cng tc thit k ng, knh, mng ....
Hnh I.8
V. T L BN :
T l bn l t s gia chiu di mt on thng trn bn vi chiu di nm ngang ca on thng ngoi mt t. T l bn c biu din di dng mt phn s c t bng 1 v mu s M. M c chn l nhng s chn nh: 100, 200, 500, 1000, 2000, 5000, 10.000, ... d dng cho vic ni suy.
16
Bi Ging Mn Trc c
Bi Quang Tuyn:
Bn t l nh: c M khong 10.000, 25.000 hay nh hn. Bn t l ln hay cn gi l bnh c M khong 100, 500, 1000, 5000, .... Bn t l cng ln th trn bn cng th hin c nhiu chi tit a hnh, a vt, ngc li t l cng nh th a hnh v a vt ch th hin khi qut. Bn t l ln rt tt cho ngi s dng v n th hin mt t rt ging thc t. Song khi t l bn cng ln th cng o v rt ln; gi thnh bn s tng ln, mt khc khng th chn t l bn mt cch ty tin, kch thc t bn s tng ln khi t l cng ln, gy bt tin cho ngi s dng. V nhng l do trn m khi quyt nh chn t l o v cho mt khu vc cn phi cn nhc gia nhng chi tit nh nht ca cng trnh c th th hin c trn bn vi qui m kch thc ca t bn . Mt s la chn sai t l - qu ln hoc qu nh - u gy ra lng ph. Cn ch l mt ngi ch c th phn bit c chiu di ln hn hay bng 0,1 mm, ngha l nu c hai im cch nhau mt khong nh hn 0,1 mm th coi nh hai im trng nhau. V th di 0,1 mm trn giy c coi lm chun xc nh chnh xc ca t l bn .V d: bn t l 1/1000 c chnh xc 0,1 m, bn 1/2000 c chnh xc 0,2 m. o v v kch thc ln t bn cho d v chnh xc, ngi ta dng hai loi thc t l: - T l thng. a b c 1175 d e f g h
l
250
250
500
1000
1250
1500
1750
- T l xin. M p Q
a2 b2 a1 b1
C Hnh I.10
VI. CCH BIU DIN A HNH, A VT LN BN : a hnh v a vt l hai yu t c bn ca mt t cn c biu din trn bn . biu din dng phng php sau: V.1. Phng php k vn: Theo phng php ny th ni no mt t bng phng s c biu th bng cc vn mnh, di v tha; ni no mt t dc s c biu th bng cc vn m, xt nhau cc vn nm theo hng dc mt t.
17
Bi Ging Mn Trc c
Bi Quang Tuyn:
V.2. Phng php t mu: Theo phng php ny th ni no cao s c biu th bng mu vng xm, cng xung thp mu vng cng nht dn; vng bng phng c mu trng, cc thy h (sng, h...) c mu xanh l, cng su mu xanh cng xm. Hai cch biu th trn c u im l ngi c bn c khi nim trc quan v hnh dng g gh li lm ca mt t nhng hon ton c tnh cht nh tnh, ngha l mun bit cao ca qu ni l bao nhiu mt, dc mt t l bao nhiu th bn khng cho kt qu bng con s. V.3. Phng php ng ng mc: ng ng mc hay cn gi l ng bnh ca mt t l ng ni lin cc im c cng cao trn mt t; hay ni mt cch khc i "ng ng mc ca a hnh l giao tuyn gia mt t t nhin vi cc mt phng song song vi mt nc gc nhng cao khc nhau". Hnh I.16 cho thy qu ni c biu th bng ng ng mc. Ct qu ni bng nhng mt phng p1, p2, p3 ... song song vi mt nc gc. Cc mt ny nm nhng cao 100m, 90m, 80m ... cch u nhau mt khong E = 10m. Giao tuyn ca cc mt ny vi qu ni chiu xung mt nc gc H, ta s c hnh v qu ni di dng cc ng ng mc khp kn. Nhn hnh v ny c th hnh dung mt cch chnh xc kch thc, cao, dc ca ni. cao ca ng ng mc c gi tr chn, khong cch E gia cc ng ng mc c gi l "khong cao u". ng ng mc c mt s c tnh: - Nhng im nm trn cng ng ng mc th c cng cao.
18
Bi Ging Mn Trc c
Bi Quang Tuyn:
p1 p2 p3
Hnh I.16
100 H 90 80
100 H
90
80
- ng ng mc phi lin tc, khp kn; nu v kch thc t giy v b hn ch m ng ng mc khng khp kn c, th phi ko di ti tn bin t giy v. - Ch no ng ng mc xa nhau (tha) th ni mt t thoai thoi; ni no ng ng mc gn nhau th ni mt t dc. Ni no ng ng mc trng nhau th ni l vch ni thng ng hay b vc. - Cc ng ng mc khng c ct nhau, tr trng hp ni c dng hm ch. Cc a vt c biu din ln bn theo nhiu dng khc nhau: i vi cc a vt ln nh sng, cu ln, khu dn c ln ...phi biu din chng theo ng hnh dng ngoi thc t v
19
Bi Ging Mn Trc c
Bi Quang Tuyn:
c thu nh li theo t l; cn c a vt nh nh ging nc, h khoan, cng nh ... th biu din chng theo cc k hiu qui c. Hnh I.18
M
60 50 40 30 Dng qu ni Dng trng Dng yn nga
VI. BIU DIN A VT TRN BN : a vt l mt vt tn ti trn Tri t, hoc do thin nhin to ra, hoc do con ngi xy dng nn nh: sng, rng, lng xm, thnh ph, nh ca, , ng, v.v... Vic biu din a vt trn bn phi tun theo ng nhng k hiu quy c bn do Cc o c v Bn Nh nc quy nh. Cc k hiu phi n gin, r rng, d lin tng, d ghi nh v thng nht. Cc k hiu a vt trn cc bn t l khc nhau c th c kch thc khc nhau, nhng phi cng mt hnh dng. 1. K hiu theo t l (k hiu din) thng biu din nhng a vt c din tch ln nh rng cy, rung la, h, ... nhng a vt c din tch rng ny khi biu din trn bn c thu nh li ng dng theo t l ca bn . Nu a vt c ranh gii r rng nh khu dn c, khu cng nghip, .v.v... th ng bin bao quanh c v bng nt lin. Nu a vt c ranh gii khng r rng nh ng bin gia ng c v m ly v bng nt t on. Bn trong cc ng bin v cc k hiu nht nh (hnh 1-19). 2. K hiu khng theo t l (k hiu im) biu din nhng a vt nh, l nhng a vt m nu thu nh li theo t l bn th chng s chp li thnh mt chm im hay mt ng nt nh cy c th, ging, ct km, nh th, ... k hiu khng theo t l l cc k hiu khng m bo tnh ng dng ca a vt m ch cho bit v tr ca a vt theo chm im ca k hiu ny. Chng hn v tr ca cc ging nc c xc nh bi tm vng trn (hnh 1-19).
iem tam giac Gieng ao Cot cay so Cay oc lap
Nha
Chua
Rng cay la nhon Rng cay la tron Rng hon hp Bai lay qua c
Chua
Vn rau
Tram kh tng
Nha th
Hnh 1-19
20
Bi Ging Mn Trc c
Bi Quang Tuyn:
Nhng a vt nh sng, ng t, ng st, ng bin gii, ... s c biu din bng k hiu kt hp va theo t l va khng theo t l (k hiu tuyn). Khi chiu di ca chng c th hin theo t l bn , cn chiu rng c tng ln so vi thc (hnh 1-19).
3. K hiu ch gii
biu din a vt c y , ngi ta cn dng k hiu ch gii, l nhng s v ch c ghi km theo k hiu. Cc con s, cc dng ch c vit theo tiu chun cn c vo chnh kiu ch m bit c ni dung ch gii. Chng hn con s ghi ch cch qung ca k hiu con ng ch chiu rng ca con ng. Phn s ghi cnh k hiu cu c t s ch chiu di v chiu rng ca cu tnh bng mt, mu s ch trng ti ca cu chu c tnh bng tn. Bn cnh a danh mi ghi c a danh c trong ngoc n.
K hiu ch gii dng b sung c im vt biu th trn bn . V d, bn 6 17 th c ngha l cu c xy dng bng st, c chiu rng cnh k hiu cu c ghi S 25 24 8 6m, chiu di 17m v ti trng 25 tn. Hay nh Hnh 6, bn cnh cy thng c ghi 0,3 c ngha l cy c chiu cao 24m, ng knh 0,3m v khong cch gia hai cy k nhau l 8m... Rt nhiu trng hp cng mt a vt, trn bn t l ln biu din bng k hiu theo t l, nhng trn bn nh li biu din bng k hiu khng theo t l nh cha, nh , nh th..., bng k hiu na t l nh ng t, ng st... Khi v bn cc loi t l phi tun theo cc k hiu qui nh trong tp k hiu bn a hnh do Tng cc a chnh ban hnh.
bn r rng, d c, c sc din t cao, ngi ta dng mu sc khc nhau biu din a vt. Chng hn ng t v bng mu nu, ng st v bng mu en, sng v bng mu xanh. Tu thuc vo t l bn m a vt c biu din vi mc chi tit khc nhau. Chng hn trn bn t l 1 : 2.000 im dn c c biu din hnh dng ca c khu dn c thi. Bn t l cng ln th cng biu din a vt c y , chi tit v chnh xc hn. Cc o c bn nh nc ban hnh cun: K hiu qui c bn a hnh cc loi t l, trong c qui nh r cc biu din cc loi a hnh, a vt ln bn - qui nh v hnh v, mu sc, ... i vi tng loi a vt. Cc t chc lm cng tc o c khi tin hnh o v bn u phi chp hnh ng theo cc qui nh trong bn k hiu ny thun li cho ngi s dng ti liu.Hnh sau l trch trong cun: K hiu qui c bn a hnh t l ln do cc o c v bn nh nc xut bn.
VII. CC N V O LNG DNG TRONG TRC A: - o chiu di: mt (m) ly 3 s l: (325m417), Km o gc: ,pht,giy (67o 34 30) o din tch: m2, ha, Km2 - Khi tnh hm lng gic phi ly 06 s l : sin 67o 34 30 = 0.924379
21
Bi Ging Mn Trc c
Bi Quang Tuyn:
K HIU BN A HNH (trch) 1 im tam gic v im ng chuyn nh nc ( cao mc / cao mt t) 2 im ng chuyn kinh v ( cao mc 60m,5)
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
im thy chun ( cao mc / cao mt t) Nh gch (nn mu ) Nh l ng khi nh my Nh my in Trm bin th Ming hm m Ging thm d nh, cha Nh th a gii tnh thnh huyn
401,29 421,79
Ga
ng st v ga 15 ng st v hm (cao 8m, di 55m) 16 ng t (ri nha 8m, nn rng 12m) 17 18 Cc cng trnh trn sng (nn xanh l) 1. Cu thp 2. Ph 3. p ngn sng 4. Hng nc chy - vn tc dng chy (m/sec) 5. Ghnh
Hnh 7
1A
8 (12) nhua
Hm 8/55
1 2
3 4 0,4 5
22
Bi Ging Mn Trc c
Bi Quang Tuyn:
CHNG II:
L + L = (d + d) Do : L = d Nh vy sai s thc ca i lng o gin tip cng l hm ca sai s thc ca cc c trng o trc tip c lin quan. II. NGUYN NHN SINH RA SAI S & PHN LOI SAI S: II.1. Nguyn nhn sinh ra sai s: Nh chng ta bit hu ht cc php o trong trc a u tin hnh trong nhng iu kin phc tp nn c nhiu nguyn nhn sinh ra sai s trong cc kt qu o. Cc nguyn nhn chnh l: a) Do dng c v my mc o: Nguyn nhn ny ch yu l do bn thn dng c o km chnh xc. V d nh thc thp c chiu di danh ngha l 20m, nhng khi so snh vi thc mu, thc ch di l 19,99m. Nh vy, nu khng kim nghim thc th c mi ln o u phm phi sai s l -1cm (thiu 1 cm). b) Do ngi o: Nguyn nhn ny ch yu do gic quan ngi o gy ra c) Do mi trng: Nguyn nhn ch yu l do thi tit v a hnh vng o lm nh hng n chnh xc ca kt qu o.
23
Bi Ging Mn Trc c
Bi Quang Tuyn:
II.2. Phn loi sai s: C th phn loi sai s theo nguyn nhn v tnh cht ca sai s. Trong thc t khng th tch c sai s theo tng nguyn nhn sinh ra sai s. V th ch nn phn loi theo tnh cht ca sai s. a) Sai s th: Sai s ny ch yu l do s nhm ln hay do thiu thn trng lc o hay lc tnh kt qu o sinh ra. Sai s th thng c kt qu rt ln v rt d pht hin nu tin hnh o hay tnh kim tra. b) Sai s h thng: Sai s ny sinh ra do nhng nguyn nhn xc nh v tr s cng nh v du. Sai s h thng thng o my mc, dng c o gy ra. V d khi dng thc thp c chiu di ngn hn so vi thc tiu chun 1cm o mt on thng th c mi ln t thc s phm phi sai s l -1cm. Nh vy, nu phi t thc 5 ln mi ht chiu di on o th kt qu nhn c ca php o ny c sai s l 5 . (-1cm) = -5 cm Sai s h thng cng c th do nhit thay i gy nn nh trng hp kim nghim thc nhit 200C nhng khi o thc t nhit l 250C. nhit 250C bn thn thc di thm mt lng l l = l (250 - 200) trong l h s n di ca thc, l l chiu di ca thc. Nhn chung, ta thy a s sai s h thng u c th bit c nu trc khi o u kim nghim li dng c, my mc o. c) Sai s ngu nhin: Sai s ny sinh ra do nhng nguyn nhn khc nhau tc ng n kt qu o theo nhng chiu hng v ln khc nhau. V th sai s ngu nhin xut hin khng c qui lut nht nh. V d khi o chiu di bng thc thp th ngoi nguyn nhn do thc sai hay km chnh xc, nhit lc o khc lc kim nghim cn c th c nguyn nhn khc na l lc ko thc khng u hay khng ng vi lc cn v lm cng thc, thc c ko trn t bng phng hay g gh, gi thi mnh hay yu, ngi c s o hai u thc c kp thi v chnh xc hay khng v.v... Tt c cc nghuyn nhn tc ng ng thi trong khonh khc ln s c hai u thc theo nhng chiu hng v ln khc nhau. Chnh v th m ta khng th bit c sai s ngu nhin s xut hin nh th no, nn khng th c bin php loi tr sai s ngu nhin. Nh vy, sai s ngu nhin l sai s khng th trnh c trong kt qu o. N ng vai tr quyt nh mc chnh xc ca kt qu o. Sai s ngu nhin tuy xut hin trong cc kt qu o khng c qui lut nhng khi nghin cu nhiu di kt qu o c s ln o kh ln th thng thy sai s ngu nhin tun theo lut thng k v c nhng tnh cht c bit l: 1. V tr s tuyt i, sai s ngu nhin khng vt qu mt gii hn nht nh. Gii hn ny ph thuc vo iu kin o v phng php o. 2. Nhng sai s ngu nhin c tr tuyt i nh thng xut hin nhiu hn nhng sai s ngu nhin c tr tuyt i ln. 3. Nhng sai s ngu nhin c du dng v sai s ngu nhin c du m thng xut hin vi s ln v ln nh nhau khi s ln o kh ln. 4. S trung bnh cng ca sai s ngu nhin s tin n "0" khi s ln o tng ln v hn. Tnh cht th t l kt qu ca 3 tnh cht u v c th vit di dng biu thc [ ] = 0 lim n n Trong sai s thng dng du tng tr s l [ ] thay th du . III. CC TIU CHUN NH GI CHNH XC KT QU O TRC TIP:
24
Bi Ging Mn Trc c
Bi Quang Tuyn:
Trong trc a mt i lng thng c o nhiu ln. Mi ln o cho mt kt qu v nhng kt qu o thng khc nhau cht t. Mun bit mc chnh xc ca php o v tin cy ca gi tr cui cng la chn cho i lng o , ta c th da vo cc tiu chun nh gi chnh xc sau y: III.1. Sai s trung bnh bnh cng: L tr trung bnh ca tr tuyt i cc sai s thc trong di kt qu o, ngha l 1 + 2 + ... + n (3.1) = n hay l [1 ] (3.2) = n
III.2. Sai s trung phng: Bnh phng sai s trung bnh l tr trung ca bnh phng cc sai s thc trong dy o, ngha l 2 2 2 2 1 + 2 + ... + n m = n hay l [2 ] m2 = n Do
(3.3) n Sai s trung phng cng nh sai s trung bnh u l sai s i din cho mi ln o. Thc t, trong mt di o th kt qu o th nht c sai s 1, kt qu o th hai 2 v.v... nhng nhn chung th mi kt qu o u c sai s l m hay l . Vi th khi so snh kt qu o ca i lng ny vi kt qu o ca i lng khc hay so snh kt qu ca nhm ny vi kt qu o cng i lng nhng ca nhm khc, chng ta khng th so snh kt qu ca tng ln o c th vi nhau m ch c th so snh cc i din vi nhau m thi. Sai s trung bnh v sai s trung phng u l tiu chun nh gi chnh xc ca mt di o nhng sai s trung phng lm ni bt nhng sai s c gi tr ln, ngha l lm ni bt c tnh tn mn ca kt qu o hn, nn c dng nhiu hn. Sai s trung phng bao gi cng cho gi tr tuyt i ln hn sai s trung bnh. Trong l thuyt sai s ngi ta chng minh c l khi s ln o trong mt di o ln th 3 = m 4 V D 2.1: Khi kim nghim thc thp ngi ta o 8 ln mt on thng bit chiu di chnh xc l 20,134m bng mt thc cn kim nghim chiu di c cc kt qu l: 20,138m; 20,133m; 20,137m; 20,136m; 20,131m; 20,133m; 20,135m; 20,136m. Hy tnh sai s trung bnh v sai s trung phng ca cc kt qu o . GII: Sai s thc ca cc kt qu o tnh theo cng thc 3.1 trong trng hp ny l: 1 = +4mm; 3 = +3mm; 5 = -3mm; 7 = +1mm; 2 = -1mm; 4 = +2mm; 6 = -1mm; 8 = +2mm; Theo cng thc 3.2 v 3.3 ta tnh c 4 + 1 + 3 + 2 + 3 + 1 + 1 + 2 17 = = = 2.1mm 8 8
m=
[ ]
2
25
Bi Ging Mn Trc c
Bi Quang Tuyn:
16 + 1 + 9 + 4 + 9 + 1 + 1 + 4 45 = = 2.37mm 8 8 Trong trng hp ny quan h gia v m khng ng theo cng thc 3.4 v s ln o trong dy o cn t.
v
m=
V D 2.2: Hai nhm A v B cng o mt i lng c sai s thc l: Nhm A: -1; +3; +1; -6; -1; 0 Nhm B: -2; +3; -3; +1; -1; +2 Hy dng sai s trung bnh v sai s trung phng so snh mc chnh xc kt qu o gia hai nhm. GII: - Tnh sai s trung bnh theo cng thc 3.2 1 + 3 + 1 + 6 + 1 + 0 12 A = = =2 6 6 2 + 3 + 3 + 1 + 1 + 2 12 B = = =2 6 6 - Tnh sai s trung phng theo cng thc 3.3 1 + 9 + 1 + 36 + 1 + 0 48 mA = = = 2.83 6 6
2+ 9+ 3+ 1+ 1+ 4 28 = = 2.16 6 6 Tuy A = B nhng mA > mB nn c th khng ijnh kt qu o ca nhm B l tt hn. III.3. Sai s gii hn: Trong l thuyt sai s ngi ta chng minh c nu tin hnh o mt i lng no trong nhng iu kin nh nhau ti 1000 ln th sau khi tnh sai s trung phng ca cc kt qu o theo cng thc 3.3 v lm thng k s thy: C 320 sai s o c gi tr tuyt i ln hn 1m; -- 50 ---2m; -- 3 ---3m; Nh vy cc trng hp c sai s o c tr tuyt i ln hn 3 ln sai s trung phng l rt hn hu. Bi th, trong trc a ngi ta qui nh ly 3 sai s trung phng (3m) lm sai s gii hn cho dy o c cng iu kin v gi l sai s gii hn hay l sai s cho php v k hiu l: gh = 3m III.4. Sai s tng i: Sai s trung bnh v sai s trung phng cn gi l sai s tuyt i v n th hin tr tuyt i ca i lng sai. Nhiu trng hp cho thy sai s tuyt i cha ni ln mc chnh xc ca kt qu o nh trng hp mt nhm o mt chiu di 1km c sai s trung phng l 0.1m cn mt nhm khc o mt on thng 100m c sai s trung phng l 0.05m r rng trong trng hp ny khng th dng ngay sai s trung phng so snh cht lng o ca 2 nhm c m phi ch n ln ca i lng o. Nu lp t s m/x, trong x l gi tr ca 0.1 1 i lng o, c th l: i vi nhm u c cn i vi nhm sau l = 1000 .0 10000 0.05 1 = , s d dng nhn thy cht lng o nhm u tt hn. 100.00 2000 mB =
26
Bi Ging Mn Trc c
Bi Quang Tuyn:
IV. CC TIU CHUN NH GI CHNH XC CA CC I LNG O GIN TIP: Nh ni phn trc i lng o gin tip l hm ca cc i lng o trc tip lin quan, nn mun nh gi chnh xc cc i lng o gian tip cn tm sai s trung phng ca hm cc i lng o trc tip. 1. Hm c dng Z=kx (3.5) Trong k l hng s cn x l ai lng o trc tip c sai s trung phng l mx. Sai s trung phng mZ ca hm 3.5 s c tnh theo cng thc mz = k mx (3.6) 2. Hm c dng Z = x1 x2 (3.7) trong x1, x2 l hai i lng o trc tip c sai s trung phng tng ng l m1 v m2. Sai s trung phng mZ ca hm 3.7 s c tnh theo cng thc mZ2 = m12 + m22 (3.8) Nu m1 = m2 th 3.8 s thnh mZ =m 2 (3.9) 3. Hm c dng Z = k1x1 + k2x2 + ... + knxn (3.10) Trong k1, k2,...., kn l nhng hng s cn x1, x2, ... , xn l nhng i lng o trc tip c sai s trung phng tng ng l m1, m2,..., mn. Sai s trung phng mZ ca cng thc 3.10 s c tnh theo cng thc m12 = (k1m1)2 + (k2m2)2 + ... + (knmn)2 (3.11) 4. Hm c dng Z = f(x1, x2, ... , xn) (3.12) Trong x1, x2, ..., xn l nhng i lng o c lp c sai s trung phng tng ng l m1, m2, ... , mn. Sai s trung phng mZ ca hm 3.12 s c tnh theo cng thc
f f f m = x m n + .... + x m 2 + x m 1 n 2 1
2 Z
(3.13)
f l cc o hm ring ca hm 3.12 theo tng bin xi , ng vai tr cc hng s ki x i trong cng thc 3.11. V D 2.3: o bn knh ca mt vng trn c 45,3cm 0,4cm. Tnh chu vi vng trn, sai s trung phng v sai s tng i ca chu vi . GII : Chu vi vng trn c tnh theo cng thc L=2r Thay s vo s c: L = 2 . 3,14 . 45,3 cm = 284,48 cm. Chu vi L = 2 r c dng hm s 3.5 nn theo cng thc 3.6, trng hp ny s l mL = 2 mr Theo u bi th mr = 0,4 nn mL = 2 . 3,14 . 0,4cm = 2,51cm Sai s tng i ca chu vi vng trn ny l mL 2,51 1 = = L 248,48 113
y cc
27
Bi Ging Mn Trc c
Bi Quang Tuyn:
V. TR TRUNG BNH CNG V SAI S TRUNG PHNG CA N: Trong trng hp cha bit c gi tr thc ca mt i lng no , ngi ta thng tin hnh o n ln chnh i lng nhn c n gi tr l1, l2, .. ,ln. Trong trng hp ny r rng l cha th khng nh gi tr no l ng hn c. Do vn y l cn tm trong n kt qu o li mt gi tr c th xem l ng tin cy hn c, ngha l gi tr tm c phi c sai s trung phng nh nht. V.1. Tr trung bnh cng: T n kt qu o li c th nhn c l + l 2 + ... + l n [l ] = x= 1 n n Nh vy x l s trung bnh cng tnh t kt qu o ca i lng cn tm. V.2. Sai s trung phng ca s trung bnh cng: S trung bnh cng ca x c th vit di dng 1 1 1 x = l 1 + l 2 + ... + l n n n n Nh vy x l hm ca l theo dng 3.10, nn theo cng thc 3.11 s c 2 2 2 1 1 1 2 m x = m 1 + m 2 + ... + m n n n n y cc kt qu o li nhn c trong nhng iu kin o ging nhau nn c sai s i din ging nhau, ngha l m1 = m2 = ... = mn = m Do m2 2 = mx n m (3.14) hay l mx = n V.3. Tr xc sut nht v sai s xc sut nht: T 3.14 cho thy sai s trung phng ca tr trung bnh cng mx nh hn sai s trung phng ca mt ln o n ln. iu khng nh tr trung bnh cng x tnh t kt qu o li l ng tin cy nht. Trong ton hc, tr ng tin cy nht cn gi l tr xc sut nht. Cho nn x cng cn c gi l tr xc sut nht V.4. Cng thc tnh sai s trung phng trong trng hp dng tr trung bnh x thay gi tr thc X ca i lng cn o: Trong trng hp khng bit gi tr thc X ca i lng o th khng th tnh c sai s theo 3.1, do khng th tnh c sai s trung phng m theo cng thc 3.3, nhng lun lun tm c cc hiu li - x = vi (3.15) V x cn c gi l tr xc sut nht v 3.15 c dng ging nh 3.1 nn v tnh theo 3.15 c gi l sai s xc sut nht. Sai s xc sut v ngoi cc tnh cht ging sai s thc cn c tnh cht c bit l [v] = 0 vi bt k s ln o n bng bao nhiu. Trong l thuyt sai s ngi ta chng minh c l c th dng sai s xc sut nht v tnh sai s trung phng m. Khi cng thc s l m=
[v ]
2
n 1
(3.16)
trong n l s ln o. V D 2.4: o cnh AB tt c 5 ln c kt qu l 48,39m; 48,35m; 48,40m; 48,37m; 48,39m. Tnh gi tr trung bnh cng chiu di cnh AB v sai s trung phng ca n.
28
Bi Ging Mn Trc c
Bi Quang Tuyn:
Th t o 1 2 3 4 5
l (m) 48,39
v (cm) +1 -3 +2 -1 +1 0
v2 1 9 4 1 1 16
Tnh x v m
x=
[l ] = 241,90 = 48,38m
n 5
m=
[v ]
2
n1 m 2 mx = = = 0,9cm n 5
16 = 2cm 4
29
Bi Ging Mn Trc c
Bi Quang Tuyn:
CHNG III:
NH HNG NG THNG
I. KHI NIM: Mt ng thng mun c xc nh ln bn cn phi bit chiu di v hng ca n. Trong o c, nh hng mt ng thng ngi ta qui c chn mt hng lm chun: hng Nam Bc ca ng kinh tuyn qu t. Da vo hng chun ny xc nh hng ca mt ng thng. II. GC PHNG V (A): B II.1. nh ngha. Hnh III.1 Gc phng v ca mt ng thng l mt gc bng k t hng Bc theo chiu kim ng h n hng ca ng thng . A Gc phng v ng thng MN l gc A. A c gi tr t 0 0 M 0 < A < 360 (hnh III.1). II.2. Tnh cht. - Nu gc phng v ly kinh tuyn ca qu t lm chun th N c gi l gc phng v thc.Gc phng v thc mun c xc nh phi tin hnh o c thin vn. thc - Nu gc phng v ca mt ng thng nu ly hng Bc t ca kinh tuyn t lm chun s c gi l gc phng v t (hnh III.2). Kinh tuyn thc v kinh tuyn t thng khng trng nhau m to vi nhau thnh mt gc lch v c gi l gc t thin. Nu kim nam chm lch v pha ng ca kinh tuyn thc kim th c tn gi l gc t thin ng v c du +. Nu nam chm lch v pha Ty th c tn gi l gc t thin tr a Ty v c du m (-). Do t thin bin ng theo v l, theo Hnh III.2 tnh hnh a cht, v cc bin ng trn mt tri: gi tr v du ca thng c ghi ch T vo pha di tm bn : l gi tr trung bnh ca trong vng nm trong phm vi ca t bn . - gn kinh tuyn:
Xt hai im A v B trn mt t c cng v . V cc ng kinh tuyn gp nhau hai cc ca qu t, nn cc kinh tuyn i qua A v B thng khng song song nhau m hp vi nhau thnh mt gc , gc ny c gi l gn kinh tuyn (hnh III.3a). V AB = d l mt cung nh so vi kch thc ca qu t nn ta c th xem AB l mt cung trn tm T bn knh AT v d v th: = AT
Hnh III.3a
d R o
30
Bi Ging Mn Trc c
Bi Quang Tuyn:
d .tg . R Ti H Ni: = 210 vi d = 1 km th: 1 '' = tg 210. 2062665 = 12/Km. 6371 Kt qu tnh trn y cho thy rng khi o c trn mt khu vc nh; khong cch gia hai im khng ln lm th c th coi nh ng kinh tuyn ti mi im trn mt t u song song nhau. - Gc phng v thun v gc phng v nghch: V ng thng c hai hng thun v nghch, v d hng MN v NM (hnh III.3b). B
B AMN M
N ANM
Hnh III.3b
Vy ng thng ny c hai gc phng v AMN v ANM: ANM : gc phng v thun. AMN : gc phng v nghch. Nu b qua gn kinh tuyn: AMN = ANM 1800.
III. GC HAI PHNG (R): III.1. nh ngha. Gc hai phng ca mt ng thng l mt gc bng c tnh t hng Bc hay hng Nam ti hng ca ng thng . Gc hai phng c k hiu l ch R, c gi tr: 00 < R < 900 (hnh III.4). B I IV Ty ng RAB Bc Bc
Bi Ging Mn Trc c
Bi Quang Tuyn:
Trong o c c hng Nam Bc v ng Ty c chia lm 4 phn th: - Phn t th I : hng ng Bc. - Phn t th II : hng ng Nam. - Phn t th III : hng Ty Nam. - Phn t th IV : hng Ty Bc. Gc hai phng ca ng thng nu hng v pha Bc s ly hng Bc lm chun (RAB). Gc hai phng ca ng thng nu hng v pha Nam s ly hng Nam lm chun (RAC). III.2. Tnh cht gc hai phng ca mt ng thng: gm gc hai phng thc (R) v gc hai phng t (r), hai gc ny chnh nhau mt gc .
IV. GC NH HNG (): IV.1. nh ngha: Nu chn hng gc l kinh tuyn trc ca mi chiu, tc l trc x, ta c khi nim gc nh hng (hnh III.5a). Gc nh hng ca mt ng thng l gc bng tnh t hng Bc ca kinh tuyn trc theo chiu kim ng h n hng ng thng. IV.2. Tnh cht: Gc nh hng c gi tr t 0 n 3600. Khc vi gc phng v , gc nh hng khng thay i ti cc im khc nhau ca mt ng thng. c im ny lm cho vic s dng gc nh hng tr nn thun tin trong tnh ton ta . Kinh tuyn trc chnh l mt kinh tuyn thc gia mi chiu, do vy ti mt im trn ng thng ni chung gc nh hng v gc phng v thc khc nhau mt lng bng hi t kinh tuyn gia kinh tuyn thc i qua im v kinh tuyn trc, ngha l = A , ty theo v tr tng quan gia hai kinh tuyn ( : l gc nh hng; A : l gc phng v, : t kinh tuyn). Gc nh hng ngc ca on thng AB c k hiu l BA = AB 1800 (hnh III.5b). Du + hay - c chn sao cho gi tr BA nm trong khong t 0 n 3600. IV.3. Tnh chuyn gc nh hng: tnh chuyn cc gc nh hng ta cn bit lin h gia gc bng v gc nh hng. T hnh III.5b d dng tm c mi lin h ny bng cc cng thc tng qut: 23 = T 0 12 + b 180 hoc 23 = 12 - bp 1800 T P trong b v b tng ng l gc bng bn tri hoc bn phi ng chuyn ni cc im 1, 2, 3,.... Ly du cng hoc du tr sao cho gi tr ca tnh c lun lun trong khong t 0 n 3600. Gia cc gc phng v v cc gc nh hng ca ng thng c mt mi lin h vi nhau ty thuc vo tng quan gia kinh tuyn thc, kinh tuyn t v kinh tuyn trc, tc l gi tr lch t v hi t kinh tuyn . Trn mi t bn ngi ta u cho bit gi tr trung bnh ca cc i lng ny.
32
Bi Ging Mn Trc c
Bi Quang Tuyn:
x
K/t trc
AB
A
AB A
K/t trc
AB
A
AB
A A
B
x x x x x
a)
T2 BA
1
23
2
AB
A
12
T3
3
34
b)
Hnh III.5
V. S LIN QUAN GIA GC NH HNG() v GC HAI PHNG (R):
Bit c tr s ca gc nh hng hay tr s ca gc hai phng ta c th hon chuyn t gc ny qua gc kia c (hnh III.6). I B
=R
R
= 1800 - R
II
B
Hnh III.6 III R
IV
= 3600 - R
33
= 1800 + R
Bi Ging Mn Trc c
Bi Quang Tuyn:
VI. BI TON THUN NGHCH TRONG O C: Trong o c, tnh ta cc im, ta c dng tnh ton c bn sau: VI.1. Bi ton thun: (hnh III.7a) Bit ta im A (xA, yA), bit khong cch SAB, bit gc nh hng AB. Tm ta im B.
xB = xA + x yB = yA + y x = 2540,806 m
x xB x
Tm ta B
AB SAB A y yA
xA a) x xM xN
yB MN ? SMN ?
M x
N VI.2. Bi ton nghch: y Cho hai im M v N c ta (hnh III.7b): x = 3019,754 m. x = 2744,538 m. yM yN y M N y = 5647,226 m. b) y = 5248,032 m. Tm chiu di SM v MN. Hnh III.7 x = xN - xM = - 275,216 m. y = yN - yM = +399,194 m. Thuc gc phn t th II y R MN = ARCtg = 550 25'00' ' x Nhng y ta thy khi x v y c du khng ging nhau; lc th RMN y ch mi l gc hai phng; gi y ta phi chuyn i gc hai phng ny ra thnh gc nh hng. Mun chuyn i ta phi xem cnh MN nm phn t th my. Khi x < 0 v y > 0 th MN nm trong phn t th II; vy: MN = 1800 - 5502500 = 12403500
SMN =
x 2 + y 2 = 484,87 m.
34
Bi Ging Mn Trc c
Bi Quang Tuyn:
VII. DNG C O GC PHNG V T: A. M T KIM NGHIM, O GC PHNG V T, NGI TA DNG MT DNG C N GIN L A BN: a bn gm cc b phn chnh nh sau: 1. Kim t: Lm bng nam chm; c dng mi tn hay hnh thoi, u Bc thng sn mu en, xanh hay vng, cn u Nam thng c sn trng. Ring u Nam cn thng c gn cc khoanh dy ng gip cn bng thanh nam chm (iu chnh t khuynh). Kim c quay t do trn mt trc c nh (thng trc ny c lm bng Saphir hay mt hp kim tht cng). Khi khng dng a bn na, ta phi vn cht kha kim li bo qun cho kim khng b lc lc v chn ng sinh ra h hng. 2. Hp a bn: Hp thng lm bng hp kim khng c tnh t, mt trn lm bng king, bn trong l vng khc . Nu a bn c dng o gc phng v th vng chia c khc theo hnh III.8a, cn nu a bn o gc hai phng th theo hnh III.8b.
u xanh vng
00
Khoanh dy ng
B
u xanh vng
00 B
900
u trng
2700
900
T 900
N
u trng
N 00 Hnh III.8b
3. B phn nhm: B phn nhm ca a bn cng gm c hai b phn: l chiu mn, nh rui (ging nh ca sng). 4. Bt nc: Gip thng bng a bn,lc kim nam chm nhy, xc nh hng Bc chnh xc hn. 5. Kim nghim a bn: s dng t kt qu tt, a bn phi c kim nghim: Ngoi kim nam chm, khng c b phn no c lm bng kim loi c t tnh. kim nghim, ta t 2 a bn gn st nhau, xem kim trn a bn c dao ng khng, nu khng th t yu cu. Kim nam chm phi nm ngang. t a bn nm ngang (nh bt nc trn a bn kim tra) nu thy kim nm ngang th c cn nu kim nm chnh th dng tay x dch cun dy ng ti lui hiu chnh. Kim nam chm phi tht nhy. Nhy y c ngha l khi cho kim dao ng th khi lc ngng li phi nm cng mt v tr. kim nghim, ta lm nh sau: a bn nm cn bng, ch kim ng yn, dng mt que st gn a bn lm cho kim di chuyn, sau ly que st ra xa, xem kim nam chm di ng. Sau nhiu ln xem khi kim ng yn c nm ng v tr lc u khng; nu ng th kim nam chm rt nhy. 35
Bi Ging Mn Trc c
Bi Quang Tuyn: