017

10 12

,





( )
( )

11 to 15.75 kV

66 132 kV

11 kV
230-400 V


( )


(66 132 kV).

.

I2R,
.



() (11 kV)


() (230/400 V)

.

.



:

( ) =>
.


.

,
,
.











( -1)

(%)

(2011)

97.7

2.3

(2010
)

26

68

(2001)

65

16

8.2

10.7

0.1

-25 (2002)

30

32

17

(1979)

48.2

13.6

11.6

14.1

12.7

(1990)

55.5

4.2

20.6

9.4

10

0.4

(2000)

53.6

1.3

20

9.4

7.1

(1971)

40

20.9

2.1

13.3

23

0.7

(2003)

40.1

6.9

15.8

19.4

15.9

1.9

17


: 1100 W (2012)
: 1144 MW ( 2010)
: 4423 GWh (2005), 4987 GWh (2011)

: 15 /kWh

(Conventional)

(Steam turbines)

(Nuclear)
U235


(Internal combustion)

(Combined cycle)

(Gas turbines)


(Steam turbines):
(, ,
)
, . ( 30-45%,
( ), ).

(Gas turbines):

diesel .

. ( 25-35%, ,
, ).


(Combined cycle):
.

. (
50%).
(Internal combustion):
()
. diesel
.
.
( 50%).
.

(pumped storage)

 ()
Renewable Energy Sources (RES)
(wind energy)
(solar energy)
(geothermal energy)
(hydroelectric energy)
(biomass)
(tidal energy)


Conventional Energy Sources
() (heavy fuel oil)
(coal)
(natural gas)
(nuclear energy)

: http://www.tva.gov/power/coalart.htm


,
.
: ~11-15.75 kV

66 132 kV
.


/
(OPGW)

132 kV



() (11 kV)


() (230/400 V)

.

.


11 kV

(D-fuse)

230/400 V

(R, Y, B)


.
:
-- (
)
-- (circuit breakers) (
)
-- (disconnect switches)
-- (voltage and
current transformers) ( )
-- (surge arresters)
(
)

, ,


.
, ,
.

( ).

( ,
,
(.. ).

.


,
4 .
.

 (FUEL CELLS)

( 40-60%).

.

Alcaline Fuel Cells (AFC)
Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells (PEMFC)
Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells (MCFC)
Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell (PAFC)
Solid Oxide Fuel Cell (SOFC)


PEMFC

AFC

PAFC

MCFC

SOFC

H+

H-

H+

O2-

(reforming)

65-85 C

90-260 C

190-210 C 650-700 C

750-1000 C

70%

40-80%

45-65%

40-50%

CO32

60-80%


,
.

.
,

.





.

.
http://fuelcellsworks.com/Typesoffuelcells.html


(impedance)

a
i(t)

Z = R + j L

vs(t)
L

X = L

(reactance)


, v (t ) = V p cos(t + )
Vrms =

Vp
2

2
= 2f =
T

, i (t ) = I p cos(t + )
I rms =

Ip
2

p (t ) = v(t )i (t )
= V p cos(t + ) I p cos(t + )
...
= Vrms I rms cos {1 + cos[2(t + )]} + Vrms I rms sin sin[2(t + )]


p(t ) = Vrms I rms cos {1 + cos[2(t + )]}+ Vrms I rms sin sin[2(t + )]

: P = Vrms I rms cos

: 0

P: , real power, active power : Q

= Vrms I rms sin

: W (kW, MW)

Q: , imaginary power, reactive power

: V I

: VAr (kVAr, MVAr)


, > 0 => Q > 0
, < 0 => Q < 0
, = 0 => Q = 0

S = P + jQ
S: (apparent power)
: VA (kVA, MVA)

Kirchhoff,
.



V = V e j = V = V cos + j V sin

V = Vrms , : (phase angle)

I = I

S = VI = V I = V I ( ) = V I
= V I cos + j V I sin = P + jQ
2

S = P +Q


: power factor
P
P
p.f. =
=
= cos
Vrms I rms
S

.
(leading)
(lagging)
.


: V = 12000 V
Z1 = 60 + j 0
Z 2 = 6 + j12
Z 3 = 30 j 30

.
I
I2

I1
V

Z1

Z2

I3
Z3

 ()
I
I2

I1
Z1

Z2

I3
Z3

*
2
V

1200
V
VV
=
=
= 24 kW
S1 = VI1* = V =
*
*
60
Z1
Z1
Z1
2

2
1200
=
= 48 + j 96 kVA S 2 = 107.331 kVA
S 2 = VI 2* =
*
6 j12
Z2

S 3 = VI 3*

1200 2
=
=
= 24 j 24 kVA S 3 = 33.941 kVA
*
30 + j 30
Z3
V

STOTAL = S1 + S 2 + S 3 = 96 kW + j 72 kVAr = 12036.87 kVA


;
--
(.. ).
--
.
--

.
--
.



( ).
va (t ) = 2V sin(t )

Va = V0

vb (t ) = 2V sin(t 120)

Vb = V 120

vc (t ) = 2V sin(t 240)

Vc = V 240

-- 120
-- : a-b-c
( , positive sequence)

Vc

Va

Vb


Z = Z
V
I =
Z
Va V0
= I
Ia =
=
Z
Z
I b = I( 120 )
I c = I( 240 )

,
. ,
.
: (Y) (star
wye) () (delta).



(neutral).
ia

ian

van
in
n

vcn

vbn
icn

In = Ia + Ib + Ic

Z
ib

ibn
ic

,
.



I a = I an
I b = I bn

I line = I phase

I c = I cn

VLL = 3V p 30

30.


ia

ica

iab
Z

Z
ib

Z
ibc
ic

VLL = V p
I L = 3 I p 30


:
pa (t ) = Vrms I rms [cos cos(2t )]
pb (t ) = Vrms I rms [cos cos(2t 240 )]
pc (t ) = Vrms I rms [cos cos(2t 480 )]
:
ptotal (t ) = pa (t ) + pb (t ) + pc (t ) = 3Vrms I rms cos
,
.
P3 = 3V p I p cos


:
Q3 = 3V p I p sin

:
S3 = P3 + Q3 = 3V p I p cos + j 3V p I p sin = 3V p I *p

.
:
P3 = 3 VLL I L cos
Q3 = 3 VLL I L sin


120 V rms
10 A rms 60 (lagging).
,
Pavg = Vrms I rms cos = 120 10 0.5 = 600 W

,
S = Vrms I rms = 120 10 = 1200 VA

,
0 (
600 W).

.



.
S1
Q1

P1

1.
Q1.

,

.


S1

P1 = 100 kW, Q1 = 75 kVAr

S1 = P12 + Q12 S1 = 125 kVA
P1 100
cos 1 =
=
p.f. = cos 1 = 0.8 lagging
S1 125

Q1

P1

0.95 lagging.
;



Q1 Q2.

S1

p.f. = 0.95 = cos 2 2 = 18.19

Q2
tan 2 =
P2

S2
1

Q2 = 32.87 kVAr
,
Qc = Q1 - Q2 => Qc = 42.13 kVAr.

, S 2 =
125 kVA.

P2
= 105.26 kVA ,
cos 2

Q1

Q2
P1 = P2

Qc





,
.
(
).
.
-- ,
(
).
--
.



(, , )
i1(t)
+
v1(t)
-

i2(t)
+
e1
-

+
e2
-

+
v2(t)
-

N 1 N2

:
-- .
--
--
.
-- ,
.


E1 N1
=
=
E2 N 2
I1 N 2 1
=
=
I 2 N1
E1I1 = E2 I 2

, V = E


I1

R1

R2

X1

+
V1

Rc Xm

I2
+

Ie
Ic

X2

Im

+
E1
-

+
E2
-

V2
-

N 1 N2

-- R1 R2:
-- X1 X2:

-- Xm: ,

.
-- Rc: ( , core
losses) (hysteresis) Eddy
(eddy currents).


:
.

e, i

T, n


(alternating current) (ac)

(direct current) (dc)

(generators)

(motors)


Rotating magnetic field
;

, ,
.
.
ac.

 ac
Ac motor
:
(stator)
(rotor)

:
,

.

120,

.


Rotating magnetic field


120 .

(2, 4, ).

: http://www.powerditto.de/Schemaengl.html

 ;

:
iaa (t ) = I M sin t A

ibb (t ) = I M sin(t 120) A

icc (t ) = I M sin(t 240) A

=> H

H aa (t ) = H M sin t0 AT/m
H M sin t :
0 :
: , .


Rotating magnetic field

:
H bb (t ) = H M sin(t 120)120 AT/m

H cc (t ) = H M sin(t 240)240 AT/m

:

B = H
,

Baa (t ) = BM sin t0 T
Bbb (t ) = BM sin(t 120)120 T
Bcc (t ) = BM sin(t 240)240 T


Rotating magnetic field
:

Btotal (t ) = Baa (t ) + Bbb (t ) + Bcc (t )

= BM sin t0 + BM sin(t 120)120 + BM sin(t 240)240
= 1.5BM [sin t j cos t ]
: 1.5BM

 (induced voltage)
ac

:

eind = N c sin t V

Nc:
:
:
:

eaa (t ) = N c sin t V
ebb (t ) = N c sin(t 120) V
ecc (t ) = N c sin(t 240) V

 (induced voltage)
ac
:

Emax = N c
= 2f Emax = 2 N c f

(rms) :

Erms

2
=
N c f Erms = 2 N cf
2

Pout
=
100%
Pin

Pout
=
100%
Pout + Plosses

 ac
() (copper losses, I2R losses)
.
(stator copper losses):

PSCL = 3I12 R1

2
P
=
3
I
(rotor copper losses):
RCL
2 R2

() (core losses)
eddy
.

 ac
() (friction losses)
(bearings)
(brushes)
() (windage losses)

() (stray losses, miscellaneous losses)


Voltage regulation and speed regulation
:

.

VNL VFL
100%
VR =
VFL

:

(shaft) .

nNL nFL
100%
SR =
nFL
(n: rpm, : rad/s)

NL FL
SR =
100%
FL

Synchronous machines
ac
Ac machines

Induction machines



.

.
: (stator) (rotor)
:
(slots)
.
: ,
( )

( )

 :
,
(field current).
.
(.. ),

.
,
(
Faraday) (induced voltage).
(

)
120 (
120 ).

 DC (DC MACHINES)

dc

dc
dc.
dc:
- dc
(, , )
-
.
- (,
, ).


- dc ac,
ac .
- (
) dc. ac/dc

(commutator).
: (rotor) (stator)

()


(slots)
.

dc [2]

dc [2]

ac:
dc

(armature) .

-
(dc
)
-
.
-

.

e = (v B) l
v:
B:
l:

v B = v B sin ,


.
(commutator)
(brushes).




.






.
: P. C. Sen, Principles of electric machines and power electronics, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1997.


,
(
).


dc
=>
: (N) (S)
.
brushes
dc.
v

30

.
Lorentz .

S

.

.
, ,

.

commutator

Ir_dc

Vdc


,
.
,
(commutator).
B

30

,
.

Ir_dc

,
.

Vdc

 DC

Pout
=
100%
Pin

Pout
=
100%
Pout + Plosses
Pin Plosses
=
100%
Pin

 DC
() (copper losses, I2R losses)
.

Pcu = I A2 RA + I F2 RF
copper

armature

field

() (core losses)
eddy
.
() (brush losses)
.
Vb 2 V (
Pb = Vb I A

brush
)

 DC
()
(friction)
(windage).
.

() (stray losses, miscellaneous losses)

( 1% ).

 DC

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

(separately excited)
(shunt)
(series)
(compounded)
Dc (permanent-magnet dc motor)


S. J. Chapman, Electric machinery and power system
fundamentals, New York: McGraw Hill, 2002.
T. Wildi, Electrical machines, drives, and power systems, 5th ed.,
Upper Saddle River: Prentice Hall, 2002.
G. G. Karady and K. Holbert, Electrical energy conversion and
transport: an interactive computer-based approach, Piscataway:
IEEE Press, 2005.
Z. A. Yamayee and J. L. Bala Jr., Electromechanical energy
devices and power systems John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1994.
J. D. Glover and M. S. Sarma, Power System Analysis and
Design, 3rd ed., Pacific Grove: Thomson Learning, 2002.