The City of the Sun by Tommaso Campanella

The City of the Sun by Tommaso Campanella

Biography
Born in Stignano (in the county of Stilo) in the province of Reggio di Calabria in southern Italy, Campanella as a child prodigy! Son of a poor and illiterate cobbler, he entered the "ominican #rder before age fifteen, ta$ing the name of fra% Tommaso in honour of Thomas &'uinas! (e studied theology and philosophy ith several masters! )arly on, he became disenchanted ith the &ristotelian orthodo*y and attracted by the empiricism of Bernardino Telesio (+,-.+,//), ho taught that $no ledge is sensation and that all things in nature possess sensation! Campanella rote his first or$, 0hilosophia sensibus demonstrata (10hilosophy demonstrated by the senses1), published in +,.2, in defence of Telesio! In 3aples he as also initiated in astrology4 astrological speculations ould become a constant feature in his ritings! Campanella%s heterodo* vie s, especially his opposition to the authority of &ristotle, brought him into conflict ith the ecclesiastical authorities! "enounced to the In'uisition and cited before the (oly #ffice in Rome, he as confined in a convent until +,.5! &fter his liberation, Campanella returned to Calabria, here he became the leader of a conspiracy against the Spanish rule! Campanella%s aim as to establish a society based on the community of goods and ives, for on the basis of the prophecies of 6oachim of 7iore and his o n astrological observations, he foresa the advent of the &ge of the Spirit in the year +8--! Betrayed by t o of his fello conspirators, he as captured and incarcerated in 3aples! 7eigning insanity, he managed to escape the death penalty and as sentenced to life imprisonment! Campanella spent t enty9seven years imprisoned! "uring his detention, he rote his most important or$s: The ;onarchy in Spain (+8--), 0olitical &forisms (+8-+), &theismus triumphatus (Triumph over &theism, +8-,9+8-5), <uod reminiscetur (+8-8=), ;etaphysica (+8-.9+82>), Theologia (+8+>9+82?), and his most famous or$, The City of the Sun (+8-2@+82>)! (e even intervened in the first trial against Aalileo Aalilei ith his courageous The "efense of Aalileo ( ritten in +8+8, published in +822)! Ironically, Aalileo himself probably ould not have anted Campanella%s assistance because of Campanella%s sometimes outlandish ideas and prior conviction of heresy!

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The City of the Sun by Tommaso Campanella Campanella as finally released from his prison in +828, through 0ope Brban CIII, ho personally interceded on his behalf ith 0hilip IC of Spain! Ta$en to Rome and held for a time by the (oly #ffice, Campanella as restored to full liberty in +82.! (e lived for five years in Rome, here he as Brban%s advisor in astrological matters! In +8>?, ho ever, a ne conspiracy in Calabria, led by one of his follo ers, threatened fresh troubles! Dith the aid of Cardinal Barberini and the 7rench &mbassador de 3oailles, he fled to 7rance, here he as received at the court of Eouis FIII ith mar$ed favour! 0rotected by Cardinal Richelieu and granted a liberal pension by the $ing, he spent the rest of his days in the convent of Saint9(onorG in 0aris! (is last or$ as a poem celebrating the birth of the future Eouis FIC ()cloga in portentosam "elphini nativitatem)!

A Poetical Dialogue between a Grandmaster of the Knights Hospitallers and a Genoese Sea-Captain, his guest. G.M. 0rithee, no , tell me hat happened to you during that voyage= Capt. I have already told you ho I andered over the hole earth! In the course of my Hourneying I came to Taprobane, and as compelled to go ashore at a place, here through fear of the inhabitants I remained in a ood! Dhen I stepped out of this I found myself on a large plain immediately under the e'uator! G.M. &nd hat befell you here= Capt. I came upon a large cro d of men and armed omen, many of hom did not understand our language, and they conducted me forth ith to the City of the Sun! G.M. Tell me after hat plan this city is built and ho it is governed! Capt. The greater part of the city is built upon a high hill, hich rises from an e*tensive plain, but several of its circles e*tend for some distance beyond the base of the hill, hich is of such a siIe that the diameter of the city is up ard of t o miles, so that its circumference becomes about seven! #n account of the humped shape of the mountain, ho ever, the diameter of the city is really more than if it ere built on a plain! It is divided into seven rings or huge circles named from the seven planets, and the ay from one to the other of these is by four streets and through four gates, that loo$ to ard the four points of the compass! 7urthermore, it is so built that if the first circle ere stormed, it ould of necessity entail a double amount of energy to storm the second4 still more to storm the third4 and in each succeeding case the strength and energy ould have to be doubled4 so that he ho ishes to capture that city must, as it ere, storm it seven times! 7or my o n part, ho ever, I thin$ that not even the first all could be occupied, so thic$ are the earth or$s and so ell fortified is it ith breast or$s, to ers, guns, and ditches! Dhen I had been ta$en through the northern gate ( hich is shut ith an iron door so rought that it can be raised and let do n, and loc$ed in easily and strongly, its proHections running into the grooves of the thic$ posts by a marvellous device), I sa a

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The City of the Sun by Tommaso Campanella level space seventy pacesJ+K ide bet een the first and second alls! 7rom hence can be seen large palaces, all Hoined to the all of the second circuit in such a manner as to appear all one palace! &rches run on a level ith the middle height of the palaces, and are continued round the hole ring! There are galleries for promenading upon these arches, hich are supported from beneath by thic$ and ell9shaped columns, enclosing arcades li$e peristyles, or cloisters of an abbey!
[1] A pace was 1-9/25 yard, 1,000 paces making a mile

But the palaces have no entrances from belo , e*cept on the inner or concave partition, from hich one enters directly to the lo er parts of the building! The higher parts, ho ever, are reached by flights of marble steps, hich lead to galleries for promenading on the inside similar to those on the outside! 7rom these one enters the higher rooms, hich are very beautiful, and have indo s on the concave and conve* partitions! These rooms are divided from one another by richly decorated alls! The conve* or outer all of the ring is about eight spans thic$4 the concave, three4 the intermediate alls are one, or perhaps one and a half! Eeaving this circle one gets to the second plain, hich is nearly three paces narro er than the first! Then the first all of the second ring is seen adorned above and belo ith similar galleries for al$ing, and there is on the inside of it another interior all enclosing palaces! It has also similar peristyles supported by columns in the lo er part, but above are e*cellent pictures, round the ays into the upper houses! &nd so on after ard through similar spaces and double alls, enclosing palaces, and adorned ith galleries for al$ing, e*tending along their outer side, and supported by columns, till the last circuit is reached, the ay being still over a level plain! But hen the t o gates, that is to say, those of the outmost and the inmost alls, have been passed, one mounts by means of steps so formed that an ascent is scarcely discernible, since it proceeds in a slanting direction, and the steps succeed one another at almost imperceptible heights! #n the top of the hill is a rather spacious plain, and in the midst of this there rises a temple built ith ondrous art! G.M. Tell on, I pray youL Tell onL I am dying to hear more! Capt. The temple is built in the form of a circle4 it is not girt ith alls, but stands upon thic$ columns, beautifully grouped! & very large dome, built ith great care in the centre or pole, contains another small vault as it ere rising out of it, and in this is a spiracle, hich is right over the altar! There is but one altar in the middle of the temple, and this is hedged round by columns! The temple itself is on a space of more than >,- paces! Dithout it, arches measuring about eight paces e*tend from the heads of the columns out ard, hence other columns rise about three paces from the thic$, strong, and erect all! Bet een these and the former columns there are galleries for al$ing, ith beautiful pavements, and in the recess of the all, hich is adorned ith numerous large doors, there are immovable seats, placed as it ere bet een the inside columns, supporting the temple! 0ortable chairs are not anting, many and ell adorned! 3othing is seen over the altar but a large globe, upon hich the heavenly bodies are painted, and another globe upon hich there is a representation of the earth! 7urthermore, in the vault of the dome there can be discerned representations of all the stars of heaven from the first to the si*th magnitude, ith their proper names and po er to influence terrestrial things mar$ed in three little verses for each! There are the poles and greater and lesser circles according to

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The City of the Sun by Tommaso Campanella the right latitude of the place, but these are not perfect because there is no all belo ! They seem, too, to be made in their relation to the globes on the altar! The pavement of the temple is bright ith precious stones! Its seven golden lamps hang al ays burning, and these bear the names of the seven planets! &t the top of the building several small and beautiful cells surround the small dome, and behind the level space above the bands or arches of the e*terior and interior columns there are many cells, both small and large, here the priests and religious officers d ell to the number of forty9nine! & revolving flag proHects from the smaller dome, and this sho s in hat 'uarter the ind is! The flag is mar$ed ith figures up to thirty9si*, and the priests $no hat sort of year the different $inds of inds bring and hat ill be the changes of eather on land and sea! 7urthermore, under the flag a boo$ is al ays $ept ritten ith letters of gold! G.M. I pray you, orthy hero, e*plain to me their hole system of government4 for I am an*ious to hear it! Capt. The great ruler among them is a priest hom they call by the name (oh, though e should call him ;etaphysic! (e is head over all, in temporal and spiritual matters, and all business and la suits are settled by him, as the supreme authority! Three princes of e'ual po er 99 viI!, 0on, Sin, and ;or 99 assist him, and these in our tongue e should call 0o er, Disdom, and Eove! To 0o er belongs the care of all matters relating to ar and peace! (e attends to the military arts, and, ne*t to (oh, he is ruler in every affair of a arli$e nature! (e governs the military magistrates and the soldiers, and has the management of the munitions, the fortifications, the storming of places, the implements of ar, the armories, the smiths and or$men connected ith matters of this sort! But Disdom is the ruler of the liberal arts, of mechanics, of all sciences ith their magistrates and doctors, and of the discipline of the schools! &s many doctors as there are, are under his control! There is one doctor ho is called &strologus4 a second, Cosmographus4 a third, &rithmeticus4 a fourth, Aeometra4 a fifth, (istoriographus4 a si*th, 0oeta4 a seventh, Eogicus4 an eighth, Rhetor4 a ninth, Arammaticus4 a tenth, ;edicus4 an eleventh, 0hysiologus4 a t elfth, 0oliticus4 a thirteenth, ;oralis! They have but one boo$, hich they call Disdom, and in it all the sciences are ritten ith conciseness and marvellous fluency of e*pression! This they read to the people after the custom of the 0ythagoreans! It is Disdom ho causes the e*terior and interior, the higher and lo er alls of the city to be adorned ith the finest pictures, and to have all the sciences painted upon them in an admirable manner! #n the alls of the temple and on the dome, hich is let do n hen the priest gives an address, lest the sounds of his voice, being scattered, should fly a ay from his audience, there are pictures of stars in their different magnitudes, ith the po ers and motions of each, e*pressed separately in three little verses! #n the interior all of the first circuit all the mathematical figures are conspicuously painted 99 figures more in number than &rchimedes or )uclid discovered, mar$ed symmetrically, and ith the e*planation of them neatly ritten and contained each in a little verse! There are definitions and propositions, etc! #n the e*terior conve* all is first an immense dra ing of the hole earth, given at one vie ! 7ollo ing upon this, there are tablets setting forth for every separate country the customs both public and private, the

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The City of the Sun by Tommaso Campanella la s, the origins and the po er of the inhabitants4 and the alphabets the different people use can be seen above that of the City of the Sun! #n the inside of the second circuit, that is to say of the second ring of buildings, paintings of all $inds of precious and common stones, of minerals and metals, are seen4 and a little piece of the metal itself is also there ith an apposite e*planation in t o small verses for each metal or stone! #n the outside are mar$ed all the seas, rivers, la$es, and streams hich are on the face of the earth4 as are also the ines and the oils and the different li'uids, ith the sources from hich the last are e*tracted, their 'ualities and strength! There are also vessels built into the all above the arches, and these are full of li'uids from one to >-- years old, hich cure all diseases! (ail and sno , storms and thunder, and hatever else ta$es place in the air, are represented ith suitable figures and little verses! The inhabitants even have the art of representing in stone all the phenomena of the air, such as the ind, rain, thunder, the rainbo , etc! #n the interior of the third circuit all the different families of trees and herbs are depicted, and there is a live specimen of each plant in earthen are vessels placed upon the outer partition of the arches! Dith the specimens there are e*planations as to here they ere first found, hat are their po ers and natures, and resemblances to celestial things and to metals, to parts of the human body and to things in the sea, and also as to their uses in medicine, etc! #n the e*terior all are all the races of fish found in rivers, la$es, and seas, and their habits and values, and ays of breeding, training, and living, the purposes for hich they e*ist in the orld, and their uses to man! 7urther, their resemblances to celestial and terrestrial things, produced both by nature and art, are so given that I as astonished hen I sa a fish hich as li$e a bishop, one li$e a chain, another li$e a garment, a fourth li$e a nail, a fifth li$e a star, and others li$e images of those things e*isting among us, the relation in each case being completely manifest! There are sea9urchins to be seen, and the purple shell9fish and mussels4 and hatever the atery orld possesses orthy of being $no n is there fully sho n in marvellous characters of painting and dra ing! #n the fourth interior all all the different $inds of birds are painted, ith their natures, siIes, customs, colors, manner of living, etc!4 and the only real phoeni* is possessed by the inhabitants of this city! #n the e*terior are sho n all the races of creeping animals, serpents, dragons, and orms4 the insects, the flies, gnats, beetles, etc!, in their different states, strength, venoms, and uses, and a great deal more than you or I can thin$ of! #n the fifth interior they have all the larger animals of the earth, as many in number as ould astonish you! De indeed $no not the thousandth part of them, for on the e*terior all also a great many of immense siIe are also portrayed! To be sure, of horses alone, ho great a number of breeds there is and ho beautiful are the forms there cleverly displayedL #n the si*th interior are painted all the mechanical arts, ith the several instruments for each and their manner of use among different nations! &longside, the dignity of such is placed, and their several inventors are named! But on the e*terior all the inventors in science, in arfare, and in la are represented! There I sa ;oses, #siris, 6upiter, ;ercury, Eycurgus, 0ompilius, 0ythagoras, Mamol*is, Solon, Charondas, 0horoneus, ith very many others! They even have ;ahomet, hom nevertheless they hate as a false and sordid legislator! In the most dignified position I sa a representation of 6esus Christ and

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The City of the Sun by Tommaso Campanella of the t elve &postles, hom they consider very orthy and hold to be great! #f the representations of men, I perceived Caesar, &le*ander, 0yrrhus, and (annibal in the highest place4 and other very reno ned heroes in peace and ar, especially Roman heroes, ere painted in lo er positions, under the galleries! &nd hen I as$ed ith astonishment hence they had obtained our history, they told me that among them there as a $no ledge of all languages, and that by perseverance they continually send e*plorers and ambassadors over the hole earth, ho learn thoroughly the customs, forces, rule and histories of the nations, bad and good ali$e! These they apply all to their o n republic, and ith this they are ell pleased! I learned that cannon and typography ere invented by the Chinese before e $ne of them! There are magistrates ho announce the meaning of the pictures, and boys are accustomed to learn all the sciences, ithout toil and as if for pleasure4 but in the ay of history only until they are ten years old! Eove is foremost in attending to the charge of the race! (e sees that men and omen are so Hoined together, that they bring forth the best offspring! Indeed, they laugh at us ho e*hibit a studious care for our breed of horses and dogs, but neglect the breeding of human beings! Thus the education of the children is under his rule! So also is the medicine that is sold, the so ing and collecting of fruits of the earth and of trees, agriculture, pasturage, the preparations for the months, the coo$ing arrangements, and hatever has any reference to food, clothing, and the intercourse of the se*es! Eove himself is ruler, but there are many male and female magistrates dedicated to these arts! ;etaphysic, then, ith these three rulers, manages all the above9named matters, and even by himself alone nothing is done4 all business is discharged by the four together, but in hatever ;etaphysic inclines to the rest are sure to agree! G.M. Tell me, please, of the magistrates, their services and duties, of the education and mode of living, hether the government is a monarchy, a republic, or an aristocracy! Capt. This race of men came there from India, flying from the s ord of the ;agi, a race of plunderers and tyrants ho laid aste their country, and they determined to lead a philosophic life in fello ship ith one another! &lthough the community of ives is not instituted among the other inhabitants of their province, among them it is in use after this manner: &ll things are common ith them, and their dispensation is by the authority of the magistrates! &rts and honors and pleasures are common, and are held in such a manner that no one can appropriate anything to himself! They say that all private property is ac'uired and improved for the reason that each one of us by himself has his o n home and ife and children! 7rom this, self9love springs! 7or hen e raise a son to riches and dignities, and leave an heir to much ealth, e become either ready to grasp at the property of the State, if in any case fear should be removed from the po er hich belongs to riches and ran$4 or avaricious, crafty, and hypocritical, if anyone is of slender purse, little strength, and mean ancestry! But hen e have ta$en a ay self9love, there remains only love for the State! G.M. Bnder such circumstances no one ill be illing to labor, hile he e*pects others to or$, on the fruit of hose labors he can live, as &ristotle argues against 0lato! Capt. I do not $no ho to deal ith that argument, but I declare to you that they burn ith so great a love for their fatherland, as I could scarcely have believed possible4 and

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The City of the Sun by Tommaso Campanella indeed ith much more than the histories tell us belonged to the Romans, ho fell illingly for their country, inasmuch as they have to a greater e*tent surrendered their private property! I thin$ truly that the friars and mon$s and clergy of our country, if they ere not ea$ened by love for their $indred and friends or by the ambition to rise to higher dignities, ould be less fond of property, and more imbued ith a spirit of charity to ard all, as it as in the time of the apostles, and is no in a great many cases! G.M. St! &ugustine may say that, but I say that among this race of men, friendship is orth nothing, since they have not the chance of conferring mutual benefits on one another! Capt. 3ay, indeed! 7or it is orth the trouble to see that no one can receive gifts from another! Dhatever is necessary they have, they receive it from the community, and the magistrate ta$es care that no one receives more than he deserves! Net nothing necessary is denied to anyone! 7riendship is recogniIed among them in ar, in infirmity, in the art contests, by hich means they aid one another mutually by teaching! Sometimes they improve themselves mutually ith praises, ith conversation, ith actions, and out of the things they need! &ll those of the same age call one another brothers! They call all over t enty9t o years of age, fathers4 those that are less than t enty9t o are named sons! ;oreover, the magistrates govern ell, so that no one in the fraternity can do inHury to another! G.M. &nd ho = Capt. &s many names of virtues as there are among us, so many magistrates there are among them! There is a magistrate ho is named ;agnanimity, another 7ortitude, a third Chastity, a fourth Eiberality, a fifth Criminal and Civil 6ustice, a si*th Comfort, a seventh Truth, an eighth Oindness, a tenth Aratitude, an eleventh Cheerfulness, a t elfth )*ercise, a thirteenth Sobriety, etc! They are elected to duties of that $ind, each one to that duty for e*cellence in hich he is $no n from boyhood to be most suitable! Dherefore among them neither robbery nor clever murders, nor le dness, incest, adultery, or other crimes of hich e accuse one another, can be found! They accuse themselves of ingratitude and malignity hen anyone denies a la ful satisfaction to another of indolence, of sadness, of anger, of scurrility, of slander, and of lying, hich curseful thing they thoroughly hate! &ccused persons undergoing punishment are deprived of the common table, and other honors, until the Hudge thin$s that they agree ith their correction! G.M. Tell me the manner in hich the magistrates are chosen! Capt. Nou ould not rightly understand this, unless you first learned their manner of living! That you may $no , then, men and omen ear the same $ind of garment, suited for ar! The omen ear the toga belo the $nee, but the men above4 and both se*es are instructed in all the arts together! Dhen this has been done as a start, and before their third year, the boys learn the language and the alphabet on the alls by al$ing round them! They have four leaders, and four elders, the first to direct them, the second to teach them, and these are men approved beyond all others! &fter some time they e*ercise themselves ith gymnastics, running, 'uoits, and other games, by means of hich all their muscles are strengthened ali$e! Their feet are al ays bare, and so are their heads as far as the seventh ring! &fter ard they lead them to the offices of the trades, such as shoema$ing, coo$ing, metal9 or$ing, carpentry, painting, etc! In order to find out the bent of the genius of each

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The City of the Sun by Tommaso Campanella one, after their seventh year, hen they have already gone through the mathematics on the alls, they ta$e them to the readings of all the sciences4 there are four lectures at each reading, and in the course of four hours the four in their order e*plain everything! 7or some ta$e physical e*ercise or busy themselves ith public services or functions, others apply themselves to reading! Eeaving these studies all are devoted to the more abstruse subHects, to mathematics, to medicine, and to other sciences! There are continual debate and studied argument among them, and after a time they become magistrates of those sciences or mechanical arts in hich they are the most proficient4 for everyone follo s the opinion of his leader and Hudge, and goes out to the plains to the or$s of the field, and for the purpose of becoming ac'uainted ith the pasturage of the dumb animals! &nd they consider him the more noble and reno ned ho has dedicated himself to the study of the most arts and $no s ho to practise them isely! Dherefore they laugh at us in that e consider our or$men ignoble, and hold those to be noble ho have mastered no pursuit, but live in ease and are so many slaves given over to their o n pleasure and lasciviousness4 and thus, as it ere, from a school of vices so many idle and ic$ed fello s go forth for the ruin of the State! The rest of the officials, ho ever, are chosen by the four chiefs, (oh, 0on, Sin and ;or, and by the teachers of that art over hich they are fit to preside! &nd these teachers $no ell ho is most suited for rule! Certain men are proposed by the magistrates in council, they themselves not see$ing to become candidates, and he opposes ho $no s anything against those brought for ard for election, or, if not, spea$s in favor of them! But no one attains to the dignity of (oh e*cept him ho $no s the histories of the nations, and their customs and sacrifices and la s, and their form of government, hether a republic or a monarchy! (e must also $no the names of the la givers and the inventors in science, and the la s and the history of the earth and the heavenly bodies! They thin$ it also necessary that he should understand all the mechanical arts, the physical sciences, astrology and mathematics! 3early every t o days they teach our mechanical art! They are not allo ed to over or$ themselves, but fre'uent practice and the paintings render learning easy to them! 3ot too much care is given to the cultivation of languages, as they have a goodly number of interpreters ho are grammarians in the State! But beyond everything else it is necessary that (oh should understand metaphysics and theology4 that he should $no thoroughly the derivations, foundations, and demonstrations of all the arts and sciences4 the li$eness and difference of things4 necessity, fate, and the harmonies of the universe4 po er, isdom, and the love of things and of Aod4 the stages of life and its symbols4 everything relating to the heavens, the earth, and the sea4 and the ideas of Aod, as much as mortal man can $no of him! (e must also be ell read in the prophets and in astrology! &nd thus they $no long beforehand ho ill be (oh! (e is not chosen to so great a dignity unless he has attained his thirty9fifth year! &nd this office is perpetual, because it is not $no n ho may be too ise for it or ho too s$illed in ruling! G.M. Dho indeed can be so ise= If even anyone has a $no ledge of the sciences it seems that he must be uns$illed in ruling! Capt. This very 'uestion I as$ed them and they replied thus: 1De, indeed, are more certain that such a very learned man has the $no ledge of governing, than you ho place ignorant persons in authority, and consider them suitable merely because they have sprung from rulers or have been chosen by a po erful faction! But our (oh, a man really the most

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The City of the Sun by Tommaso Campanella capable to rule, is for all that never cruel nor ic$ed, nor a tyrant, inasmuch as he possesses so much isdom! This, moreover, is not un$no n to you, that the same argument cannot apply among you, hen you consider that man the most learned ho $no s most of grammar, or logic, or of &ristotle or any other author! 7or such $no ledge as this of yours much servile labor and memory or$ are re'uired, so that a man is rendered uns$ilful, since he has contemplated nothing but the ords of boo$s and has given his mind ith useless result to the consideration of the dead signs of things! (ence he $no s not in hat ay Aod rules the universe, nor the ays and customs of nature and the nations! Dherefore he is not e'ual to our (oh! 7or that one cannot $no so many arts and sciences thoroughly, ho is not esteemed for s$illed ingenuity, very apt at all things, and therefore at ruling especially! This also is plain to us that he ho $no s only one science, does not really $no either that or the others, and he ho is suited for only one science and has gathered his $no ledge from boo$s, is unlearned and uns$illed! But this is not the case ith intellects prompt and e*pert in every branch of $no ledge and suitable for the consideration of natural obHects, as it is necessary that our (oh should be! Besides in our State the sciences are taught ith a facility (as you have seen) by hich more scholars are turned out by us in one year than by you in ten, or even fifteen! ;a$e trial, I pray you, of these boys!1 In this matter I as struc$ ith astonishment at their truthful discourse and at the trial of their boys, ho did not understand my language ell! Indeed it is necessary that three of them should be s$illed in our tongue, three in &rabic, three in 0olish, and three in each of the other languages, and no recreation is allo ed them unless they become more learned! 7or that they go out to the plain for the sa$e of running about and hurling arro s and lances, and of firing har'uebuses, and for the sa$e of hunting the ild animals and getting a $no ledge of plants and stones, and agriculture and pasturage4 sometimes the band of boys does one thing, sometimes another! They do not consider it necessary that the three rulers assisting (oh should $no other than the arts having reference to their rule, and so they have only a historical $no ledge of the arts hich are common to all! But their o n they $no ell, to hich certainly one is dedicated more than another! Thus 0o er is the most learned in the e'uestrian art, in marshalling the army, in the mar$ing out of camps, in the manufacture of every $ind of eapon and of arli$e machines, in planning stratagems, and in every affair of a military nature! &nd for these reasons, they consider it necessary that these chiefs should have been philosophers, historians, politicians, and physicists! Concerning the other t o triumvirs, understand remar$s similar to those I have made about 0o er! G.M. I really ish that you ould recount all their public duties, and ould distinguish bet een them, and also that you ould tell clearly ho they are all taught in common! Capt. They have d ellings in common and dormitories, and couches and other necessaries! But at the end of every si* months they are separated by the masters! Some shall sleep in this ring, some in another4 some in the first apartment, and some in the second4 and these apartments are mar$ed by means of the alphabet on the lintel! There are occupations, mechanical and theoretical, common to both men and omen, ith this difference, that the occupations hich re'uire more hard or$, and al$ing a long distance, are practised by men, such as ploughing, so ing, gathering the fruits, or$ing at the threshing9floor, and perchance at the vintage! But it is customary to choose omen for

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The City of the Sun by Tommaso Campanella mil$ing the co s and for ma$ing cheese! In li$e manner, they go to the gardens near to the outs$irts of the city both for collecting the plants and for cultivating them! In fact, all sedentary and stationary pursuits are practised by the omen, such as eaving, spinning, se ing, cutting the hair, shaving, dispensing medicines, and ma$ing all $inds of garments! They are, ho ever, e*cluded from or$ing in ood and the manufacture of arms! If a oman is fit to paint, she is not prevented from doing so4 nevertheless, music is given over to the omen alone, because they please the more, and of a truth to boys also! But the omen have not the practise of the drum and the horn! &nd they prepare their feasts and arrange the tables in the follo ing manner! It is the peculiar or$ of the boys and girls under t enty to ait at the tables! In every ring there are suitable $itchens, barns, and stores of utensils for eating and drin$ing, and over every department an old man and an old oman preside! These t o have at once the command of those ho serve, and the po er of chastising, or causing to be chastised, those ho are negligent or disobedient4 and they also e*amine and mar$ each one, both male and female, ho e*cels in his or her duties! &ll the young people ait upon the older ones ho have passed the age of forty, and in the evening hen they go to sleep the master and mistress command that those should be sent to or$ in the morning, upon hom in succession the duty falls, one or t o to separate apartments! The young people, ho ever, ait upon one another, and that alasL ith some un illingness! They have first and second tables, and on both sides there are seats! #n one side sit the omen, on the other the men4 and as in the refectories of the mon$s, there is no noise! Dhile they are eating a young man reads a boo$ from a platform, intoning distinctly and sonorously, and often the magistrates 'uestion them upon the more important parts of the reading! &nd truly it is pleasant to observe in hat manner these young people, so beautiful and clothed in garments so suitable, attend to them, and to see at the same time so many friends, brothers, sons, fathers, and mothers all in their turn living together ith so much honesty, propriety, and love! So each one is given a nap$in, a plate, fish, and a dish of food! It is the duty of the medical officers to tell the coo$s hat repasts shall be prepared on each day, and hat food for the old, hat for the young, and hat for the sic$! The magistrates receive the full9gro n and fatter portion, and they from their share al ays distribute something to the boys at the table ho have sho n themselves more studious in the morning at the lectures and debates concerning isdom and arms! &nd this is held to be one of the most distinguished honors! 7or si* days they ordain to sing ith music at table! #nly a fe , ho ever, sing4 or there is one voice accompanying the lute and one for each other instrument! &nd hen all ali$e in service Hoin their hands, nothing is found to be anting! The old men placed at the head of the coo$ing business and of the refectories of the servants praise the cleanliness of the streets, the houses, the vessels, the garments, the or$shops, and the arehouses! They ear hite under9garments to hich adheres a covering, hich is at once coat and legging, ithout rin$les! The borders of the fastenings are furnished ith globular buttons, e*tended round and caught up here and there by chains! The coverings of the legs descend to the shoes and are continued even to the heels! Then they cover the feet ith large soc$s, or, as it ere, half9bus$ins fastened by buc$les, over hich they ear a half9 boot, and besides, as I have already said, they are clothed ith a toga! &nd so aptly fitting are the garments, that hen the toga is destroyed, the different parts of the hole body are

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The City of the Sun by Tommaso Campanella straight ay discerned, no part being concealed! They change their clothes for different ones four times in the year, that is hen the sun enters respectively the constellations &ries, Cancer, Eibra, and Capricorn, and according to the circumstances and necessity as decided by the officer of health! The $eepers of clothes for the different rings are ont to distribute them, and it is marvellous that they have at the same time as many garments as there is need for, some heavy and some slight, according to the eather! They all use hite clothing, and this is ashed in each month ith lye or soap, as are also the or$shops of the lo er trades, the $itchens, the pantries the barns, the store9houses, the armories, the refectories, and the baths! ;oreover, the clothes are ashed at the pillars of the peristyles, and the ater is brought do n by means of canals hich are continued as se ers! In every street of the different rings there are suitable fountains, hich send forth their ater by means of canals, the ater being dra n up from nearly the bottom of the mountain by the sole movement of a cleverly contrived handle! There is ater in fountains and in cisterns, hither the rain9 ater collected from the roofs of the houses is brought through pipes full of sand! They ash their bodies often, according as the doctor and master command! &ll the mechanical arts are practised under the peristyles, but the speculative are carried on above in the al$ing galleries and ramparts here are the more splendid paintings, but the more sacred ones are taught in the temple! In the halls and ings of the rings there are solar time9pieces and bells, and hands by hich the hours and seasons are mar$ed off! G.M. Tell me about their children! Capt. Dhen their omen have brought forth children, they suc$le and rear them in temples set apart for all! They give mil$ for t o years or more as the physician orders! &fter that time the eaned child is given into the charge of the mistresses, if it is a female, and to the masters, if it is a male! &nd then ith other young children they are pleasantly instructed in the alphabet, and in the $no ledge of the pictures, and in running, al$ing, and restling4 also in the historical dra ings, and in languages4 and they are adorned ith a suitable garment of different colors! &fter their si*th year they are taught natural science, and then the mechanical sciences! The men ho are ea$ in intellect are sent to farms, and hen they have become more proficient some of them are received into the State! &nd those of the same age and born under the same constellation are especially li$e one another in strength and in appearance, and hence arises much lasting concord in the State, these men honoring one another ith mutual love and help! 3ames are given to them by ;etaphysicus, and that not by chance, but designedly, and according to each one%s peculiarity, as as the custom among the ancient Romans! Dherefore one is called Beautiful (0ulcher), another the Big9nosed (3aso), another the 7at9legged (Cranipes), another Croo$ed (Torvus), another Eean (;acer), and so on! But hen they have become very s$illed in their professions and done any great deed in ar or in time of peace, a cognomen from art is given to them, such as Beautiful the Areat 0ainter (0ulcher, 0ictor ;agnus), the Aolden #ne (&ureus), the )*cellent #ne ()*cellens), or the Strong (Strenuus)4 or from their deeds, such as 3aso the Brave (3ason 7ortis), or the Cunning, or the Areat, or Cery Areat Con'ueror4 or from the enemy anyone has overcome, &fricanus, &siaticus, )truscus4 or if anyone has overcome ;anfred or Tortelius, he is called ;acer ;anfred or Tortelius, and so on! &ll these cognomens are added by the higher magistrates, and very often ith a cro n suitable to the deed or art, and ith the flourish of music! 7or

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The City of the Sun by Tommaso Campanella gold and silver are rec$oned of little value among them e*cept as material for their vessels and ornaments, hich are common to all! G.M. Tell me, I pray you, is there no Healousy among them or disappointment to that one ho has not been elected to a magistracy, or to any other dignity to hich he aspires= Capt. Certainly not! 7or no one ants either necessaries or lu*uries! ;oreover, the race is managed for the good of the common ealth, and not of private individuals, and the magistrates must be obeyed! They deny hat e hold 99 viI!, that it is natural to man to recogniIe his offspring and to educate them, and to use his ife and house and children as his o n! 7or they say that children are bred for the preservation of the species and not for individual pleasure, as St! Thomas also asserts! Therefore the breeding of children has reference to the common ealth, and not to individuals, e*cept in so far as they are constituents of the common ealth! &nd since individuals for the most part bring forth children rongly and educate them rongly, they consider that they remove destruction from the State, and therefore for this reason, ith most sacred fear, they commit the education of the children, ho, as it ere, are the element of the republic, to the care of magistrates4 for the safety of the community is not that of a fe ! &nd thus they distribute male and female breeders of the best natures according to philosophical rules! 0lato thin$s that this distribution ought to be made by lot, lest some men seeing that they are $ept a ay from the beautiful omen, should rise up ith anger and hatred against the magistrates4 and he thin$s further that those ho do not deserve cohabitation ith the more beautiful omen, should be deceived hile the lots are being led out of the city by the magistrates, so that at all times the omen ho are suitable should fall to their lot, not those hom they desire! This shre dness, ho ever, is not necessary among the inhabitants of the City of the Sun! 7or ith them deformity is un$no n! Dhen the omen are e*ercised they get a clear comple*ion, and become strong of limb, tall and agile, and ith them beauty consists in tallness and strength! Therefore, if any oman dyes her face, so that it may become beautiful, or uses high9heeled boots so that she may appear tall, or garments ith trains to cover her ooden shoes, she is condemned to capital punishment! But if the omen should even desire them they have no facility for doing these things! 7or ho indeed ould give them this facility= 7urther, they assert that among us abuses of this $ind arise from the leisure and sloth of omen! By these means they lose their color and have pale comple*ions, and become feeble and small! 7or this reason they are ithout proper comple*ions, use high sandals, and become beautiful not from strength, but from slothful tenderness! &nd thus they ruin their o n tempers and natures, and conse'uently those of their offspring! 7urthermore, if at any time a man is ta$en captive ith ardent love for a certain oman, the t o are allo ed to converse and Ho$e together and to give one another garlands of flo ers or leaves, and to ma$e verses! But if the race is endangered, by no means is further union bet een them permitted! ;oreover, the love born of eager desire is not $no n among them4 only that born of friendship! "omestic affairs and partnerships are of little account, because, e*cepting the sign of honor, each one receives hat he is in need of! To the heroes and heroines of the republic, it is customary to give the pleasing gifts of honor, beautiful reaths, s eet food, or splendid clothes, hile they are feasting! In the daytime all use hite garments ithin the city, but at night or outside the city they use red garments either of ool or sil$! They hate blac$ as they do dung, and therefore they disli$e the 6apanese, ho are fond of blac$! 0ride

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The City of the Sun by Tommaso Campanella they consider the most e*ecrable vice, and one ho acts proudly is chastised ith the most ruthless correction! Dherefore no one thin$s it lo ering to ait at table or to or$ in the $itchen or fields! &ll or$ they call discipline, and thus they say that it is honorable to go on foot, to do any act of nature, to see ith the eye, and to spea$ ith the tongue4 and hen there is need, they distinguish philosophically bet een tears and spittle! )very man ho, hen he is told off to or$, does his duty, is considered very honorable! It is not the custom to $eep slaves! 7or they are enough, and more than enough, for themselves! But ith us, alasL it is not so! In 3aples there e*ist 5-,--- souls, and out of these scarcely +-,--- or +,,--- do any or$, and they are al ays lean from over or$ and are getting ea$er every day! The rest become a prey to idleness, avarice, ill9health, lasciviousness, usury, and other vices, and contaminate and corrupt very many families by holding them in servitude for their o n use, by $eeping them in poverty and slavishness, and by imparting to them their o n vices! Therefore public slavery ruins them4 useful or$s, in the field, in military service, and in arts, e*cept those hich are debasing, are not cultivated, the fe ho do practise them doing so ith much aversion! But in the City of the Sun, hile duty and or$ are distributed among all, it only falls to each one to or$ for about four hours every day! The remaining hours are spent in learning Hoyously, in debating, in reading, in reciting, in riting, in al$ing, in e*ercising the mind and body, and ith play! They allo no game hich is played hile sitting, neither the single die nor dice, nor chess, nor others li$e these! But they play ith the ball, ith the sac$, ith the hoop, ith restling, ith hurling at the sta$e! They say, moreover, that grinding poverty renders men orthless, cunning, sul$y, thievish, insidious, vagabonds, liars, false itnesses, etc!4 and that ealth ma$es them insolent, proud, ignorant, traitors, assumers of hat they $no not, deceivers, boasters, anting in affection, slanderers, etc! But ith them all the rich and poor together ma$e up the community! They are rich because they ant nothing, poor because they possess nothing4 and conse'uently they are not slaves to circumstances, but circumstances serve them! &nd on this point they strongly recommend the religion of the Christians, and especially the life of the apostles! G.M. This seems e*cellent and sacred, but the community of omen is a thing too difficult to attain! The holy Roman Clement says that ives ought to be common in accordance ith the apostolic institution, and praises 0lato and Socrates, ho thus teach, but the Alossary interprets this community ith regard to obedience! &nd Tertullian agrees ith the Alossary, that the first Christians had everything in common e*cept ives! Capt. These things I $no little of! But this I sa among the inhabitants of the City of the Sun, that they did not ma$e this e*ception! &nd they defend themselves by the opinion of Socrates, of Cato, of 0lato, and of St! Clement4 but, as you say, they misunderstand the opinions of these thin$ers! &nd the inhabitants of the solar city ascribe this to their ant of education, since they are by no means learned in philosophy! 3ever9 theless, they send abroad to discover the customs of nations, and the best of these they al ays adopt! 0ractice ma$es the omen suitable for ar and other duties! Thus they agree ith 0lato, in hom I have read these same things! The reasoning of our CaHetan does not convince me, and least of all that of &ristotle! This thing, ho ever, e*isting among them is e*cellent and orthy of imitation 99 viI!, that no physical defect renders a man incapable of being serviceable e*cept the decrepitude of old age, since even the deformed are useful for consultation! The lame serve as guards, atching ith the eyes hich they possess! The blind card ool ith

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The City of the Sun by Tommaso Campanella their hands, separating the do n from the hairs, ith hich latter they stuff the couches and sofas4 those ho are ithout the use of eyes and hands give the use of their ears or their voice for the convenience of the State, and if one has only one sense he uses it in the farms! &nd these cripples are ell treated, and some become spies, telling the officers of the State hat they have heard! G.M. Tell me no , I pray you, of their military affairs! Then you may e*plain their arts, ays of life and sciences, and lastly their religion! Capt. The triumvir, 0o er, has under him all the magistrates of arms, of artillery, of cavalry, of foot9soldiers, of architects, and of strategists4 and the masters and many of the most e*cellent or$men obey the magistrates, the men of each art paying allegiance to their respective chiefs! ;oreover, 0o er is at the head of all the professors of gymnastics, ho teach military e*ercise, and ho are prudent generals, advanced in age! By these the boys are trained after their t elfth year! Before this age, ho ever, they have been accustomed to restling, running, thro ing the eight, and other minor e*ercises, under inferior masters! But at t elve they are taught ho to stri$e at the enemy, at horses and elephants, to handle the spear, the s ord, the arro , and the sling4 to manage the horse, to advance and to retreat, to remain in order of battle, to help a comrade in arms, to anticipate the enemy by cunning, and to con'uer! The omen also are taught these arts under their o n magistrates and mistresses, so that they may be able if need be to render assistance to the males in battles near the city! They are taught to atch the fortifications lest at some time a hasty attac$ should suddenly be made! In this respect they praise the Spartans and &maIons! The omen $no ell also ho to let fly fiery balls, and ho to ma$e them from lead4 ho to thro stones from pinnacles and to go in the ay of an attac$! They are accustomed also to give up ine unmi*ed altogether, and that one is punished most severely ho sho s any fear! The inhabitants of the City of the Sun do not fear death, because they all believe that the soul is immortal, and that hen it has left the body it is associated ith other spirits, ic$ed or good, according to the merits of this present life! &lthough they are partly follo ers of Brahma and 0ythagoras, they do not believe in the transmigration of souls, e*cept in some cases by a distinct decree of Aod! They do not abstain from inHuring an enemy of the republic and of religion, ho is un orthy of pity! "uring the second month the army is revie ed, and every day there is practice of arms, either in the cavalry plain or ithin the alls! 3or are they ever ithout lectures on the science of ar! They ta$e care that the accounts of ;oses, of 6oshua, of "avid, of 6udas ;accabaeus, of Caesar, of &le*ander, of Scipio, of (annibal, and other great soldiers should be read! &nd then each one gives his o n opinion as to hether these generals acted ell or ill, usefully or honorably, and then the teacher ans ers and says ho are right! G.M. Dith hom do they age ar, and for hat reasons, since they are so prosperous= Capt. Dars might never occur, nevertheless they are e*ercised in military tactics and in hunting, lest perchance they should become effeminate and unprepared for any emergency! Besides, there are four $ingdoms in the island, hich are very envious of their prosperity, for this reason that the people desire to live after the manner of the inhabitants of the City of the Sun, and to be under their rule rather than that of their o n $ings! Dherefore the State often ma$es ar upon these because, being neighbors, they are usurpers and live

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The City of the Sun by Tommaso Campanella impiously, since they have not an obHect of orship and do not observe the religion of other nations or of the Brahmins! &nd other nations of India, to hich formerly they ere subHect, rise up as it ere in rebellion, as also do the Taprobanese, hom they anted to Hoin them at first! The arriors of the City of the Sun, ho ever, are al ays the victors! &s soon as they suffered from insult or disgrace or plunder, or hen their allies have been harassed, or a people have been oppressed by a tyrant of the State (for they are al ays the advocates of liberty), they go immediately to the Council for deliberation! &fter they have $nelt in the presence of Aod, that he might inspire their consultation, they proceed to e*amine the merits of the business, and thus ar is decided on! Immediately after, a priest, hom they call 7orensic, is sent a ay! (e demands from the enemy the restitution of the plunder, as$s that the allies should be freed from oppression, or that the tyrant should be deposed! If they deny these things ar is declared by invo$ing the vengeance of Aod 99 the Aod of Sabaoth 99 for destruction of those ho maintain an unHust cause! But if the enemy refuse to reply, the priest gives him the space of one hour for his ans er, if he is a $ing, but three if it is a republic, so that they cannot escape giving a response! &nd in this manner is ar underta$en against the insolent enemies of natural rights and of religion! Dhen ar has been declared, the deputy of 0o er performs everything, but 0o er, li$e the Roman dictator, plans and ills everything, so that hurtful tardiness may be avoided! &nd hen anything of great moment arises he consults (oh and Disdom and Eove! Before this, ho ever, the occasion of ar and the Hustice of ma$ing an e*pedition are declared by a herald in the great Council! &ll from t enty years and up ard are admitted to this Council, and thus the necessaries are agreed upon! &ll $inds of eapons stand in the armories, and these they use often in sham fights! The e*terior alls of each ring are full of guns prepared by their labors, and they have other engines for hurling hich are called cannons, and hich they ta$e into battle upon mules and asses and carriages! Dhen they have arrived in an open plain they enclose in the middle the provisions, engines of ar, chariots, ladders, and machines, and all fight courageously! Then each one returns to the standards, and the enemy thin$ing that they are giving and preparing to flee, are deceived and rela* their order: then the arriors of the City of the Sun, heeling into ings and columns on each side, regain their breath and strength, and ordering the artillery to discharge their bullets they resume the fight against a disorganiIed host! &nd they observe many ruses of this $ind! They overcome all mortals ith their stratagems and engines! Their camp is fortified after the manner of the Romans! They pitch their tents and fortify ith all and ditch ith onderful 'uic$ness! The masters of or$s, of engines and hurling machines, stand ready, and the soldiers understand the use of the spade and the a*e! 7ive, eight, or ten leaders learned in the order of battle and in strategy consult together concerning the business of ar, and command their bands after consultation! It is their ont to ta$e out ith them a body of boys, armed and on horses, so that they may learn to fight, Hust as the helps of lions and olves are accustomed to blood! &nd these in time of danger beta$e themselves to a place of safety, along ith many armed omen! &fter the battle the omen and boys soothe and relieve the pain of the arriors, and ait upon them and encourage them ith embraces and pleasant ords! (o onderful a help is thisL 7or the soldiers, in order that they may ac'uit themselves as sturdy men in the eyes of their ives and offspring, endure hardships, and so love ma$es them con'uerors! (e ho in the fight first scales the enemy%s alls receives after the battle of a cro n of grass, as a to$en

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The City of the Sun by Tommaso Campanella of honor, and at the presentation the omen and boys applaud loudly4 that one ho affords aid to an ally gets a civic cro n of oa$9leaves4 he ho $ills a tyrant dedicates his arms in the temple and receives from (oh the cognomen of his deed, and other arriors obtain other $inds of cro ns! )very horse9soldier carries a spear and t o strongly tempered pistols, narro at the mouth, hanging from his saddle! &nd to get the barrels of their pistols narro they pierce the metal hich they intend to convert into arms! 7urther, every cavalry soldier has a s ord and a dagger! But the rest, ho form the light9armed troops, carry a metal cudgel! 7or if the foe cannot pierce their metal for pistols and cannot ma$e s ords, they attac$ him ith clubs, shatter and overthro him! T o chains of si* spans length hang from the club, and at the end of these are iron balls, and hen these are aimed at the enemy they surround his nec$ and drag him to the ground4 and in order that they may be able to use the club more easily, they do not hold the reins ith their hands, but use them by means of the feet! If perchance the reins are interchanged above the trappings of the saddle, the ends are fastened to the stirrups ith buc$les, and not to the feet! &nd the stirrups have an arrangement for s ift movement of the bridle, so that they dra in or let out the rein ith marvellous celerity! Dith the right foot they turn the horse to the left, and ith the left to the right! This secret, moreover, is not $no n to the Tartars! 7or, although they govern the reins ith their feet, they are ignorant nevertheless of turning them and dra ing them in and letting them out by means of the bloc$ of the stirrups! The lightarmed cavalry ith them are the first to engage in battle, then the men forming the phalan* ith their spears, then the archers for hose services a great price is paid, and ho are accustomed to fight in lines crossing one another as the threads of cloth, some rushing for ard in their turn and others receding! They have a band of lancers strengthening the line of battle, but they ma$e trial of the s ords only at the end! &fter the battle they celebrate the military triumphs after the manner of the Romans, and even in a more magnificent ay! 0rayers by the ay of than$9offerings are made to Aod, and then the general presents himself in the temple, and the deeds, good and bad, are related by the poet or historian, ho according to custom as ith the e*pedition! &nd the greatest chief, (oh, cro ns the general ith laurel and distributes little gifts and honors to all the valorous soldiers, ho are for some days free from public duties! But this e*emption from or$ is by no means pleasing to them, since they $no not hat it is to be at leisure, and so they help their companions! #n the other hand, they ho have been con'uered through their o n fault, or have lost the victory, are blamed4 and they ho ere the first to ta$e to flight are in no ay orthy to escape death, unless hen the hole army as$s their lives, and each one ta$es upon himself a part of their punishment! But this indulgence is rarely granted, e*cept hen there are good reasons favoring it! But he ho did not bear help to an ally or friend is beaten ith rods! That one ho did not obey orders is given to the beasts, in an enclosure, to be devoured, and a staff is put in his hand, and if he should con'uer the lions and the bears that are there, hich is almost impossible, he is received into favor again! The con'uered States or those illingly delivered up to them, forth ith have all things in common, and receive a garrison and magistrates from the City of the Sun, and by degrees they are accustomed to the ays of the city, the mistress of all, to hich they even send their sons to be taught ithout contributing anything for e*pense!

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The City of the Sun by Tommaso Campanella It ould be too great trouble to tell you about the spies and their master, and about the guards and la s and ceremonies, both ithin and ithout the State, hich you can of yourself imagine! Since from childhood they are chosen according to their inclination and the star under hich they ere born, therefore each one or$ing according to his natural propensity does his duty ell and pleasantly, because naturally! The same things I may say concerning strategy and the other functions! There are guards in the city by day and by night, and they are placed at the four gates, and outside the alls of the seventh ring, above the breast or$s and to ers and inside mounds! These places are guarded in the day by omen, in the night by men! &nd lest the guard should become eary of atching, and in case of a surprise, they change them every three hours, as is the custom ith our soldiers! &t sunset, hen the drum and symphonia sound, the armed guards are distributed! Cavalry and infantry ma$e use of hunting as the symbol of ar and practise games and hold festivities in the plains! Then the music stri$es up, and freely they pardon the offences and faults of the enemy, and after the victories they are $ind to them, if it has been decreed that they should destroy the alls of the enemy%s city and ta$e their lives! &ll these things are done on the same day as the victory, and after ard they never cease to load the con'uered ith favors, for they say that there ought to be no fighting, e*cept hen the con'uerors give up the con'uered, not hen they $ill them! If there is a dispute among them concerning inHury or any other matter (for they themselves scarcely ever contend e*cept in matters of honor), the chief and his magistrates chastise the accused one secretly, if he has done harm in deeds after he has been first angry! If they ait until the time of the battle for the verbal decision, they must give vent to their anger against the enemy, and he ho in battle sho s the most daring deeds is considered to have defended the better and truer cause in the struggle, and the other yields, and they are punished Hustly! 3evertheless, they are not allo ed to come to single combat, since right is maintained by the tribunal, and because the unHust cause is often apparent hen the more Hust succumbs, and he ho professes to be the better man sho s this in public fight! G.M. This is orth hile, so that factions should not be cherished for the harm of the fatherland, and so that civil ars might not occur, for by means of these a tyrant often arises, as the e*amples of Rome and &thens sho ! 3o , I pray you, tell me of their or$s and matter connected there ith! Capt. I believe that you have already heard about their military affairs and about their agricultural and pastoral life, and in hat ay these are common to them, and ho they honor ith the first grade of nobility hoever is considered to have $no ledge of these! They ho are s$ilful in more arts than these they consider still nobler, and they set that one apart for teaching the art in hich he is most s$ilful! The occupations hich re'uire the most labor, such as or$ing in metals and building, are the most praise orthy among them! 3o one declines to go to these occupations, for the reason that from the beginning their propensities are ell $no n, and among them, on account of the distribution of labor, no one does or$ harmful to him, but only that hich is necessary for him! The occupations entailing less labor belong to the omen! &ll of them are e*pected to $no ho to s im, and for this reason ponds are dug outside the alls of the city and ithin them near to the fountains! Commerce is of little use to them, but they $no the value of money, and they count for the use of their ambassadors and e*plorers, so that ith it they may have the means of

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The City of the Sun by Tommaso Campanella living! They receive merchants into their States from the different countries of the orld, and these buy the superfluous goods of the city! The people of the City of the Sun refuse to ta$e money, but in importing they accept in e*change those things of hich they are in need, and sometimes they buy ith money4 and the young people in the City of the Sun are much amused hen they see that for a small price they receive so many things in e*change! The old men, ho ever, do not laugh! They are un illing that the State should be corrupted by the vicious customs of slaves and foreigners! Therefore they do business at the gates, and sell those hom they have ta$en in ar or $eep them for digging ditches and other hard or$ ithout the city, and for this reason they al ays send four bands of soldiers to ta$e care of the fields, and ith them there are the laborers! They go out of the four gates from hich roads ith alls on both sides of them lead to the sea, so that goods might easily be carried over them and foreigners might not meet ith difficulty on their ay! To strangers they are $ind and polite4 they $eep them for three days at the public e*pense4 after they have first ashed their feet, they sho them their city and its customs, and they honor them ith a seat at the Council and public table, and there are men hose duty it is to ta$e care of and guard the guests! But if strangers should ish to become citiIens of their State, they try them first for a month on a farm, and for another month in the city, then they decide concerning them, and admit them ith certain ceremonies and oaths! &griculture is much follo ed among them4 there is not a span of earth ithout cultivation, and they observe the inds and propitious stars! Dith the e*ception of a fe left in the city all go out armed, and ith flags and drums and trumpets sounding, to the fields, for the purposes of ploughing, so ing, digging, hoeing, reaping, gathering fruit and grapes4 and they set in order everything, and do their or$ in a very fe hours and ith much care! They use agons fitted ith sails hich are borne along by the ind even hen it is contrary, by the marvellous contrivance of heels ithin heels! &nd hen there is no ind a beast dra s along a huge cart, hich is a grand sight! The guardians of the land move about in the meantime, armed and al ays in their proper turn! They do not use dung and filth for manuring the fields, thin$ing that the fruit contracts something of their rottenness, and hen eaten gives a short and poor subsistence, as omen ho are beautiful ith rouge and from ant of e*ercise bring forth feeble offspring! Dherefore they do not as it ere paint the earth, but dig it up ell and use secret remedies, so that fruit is borne 'uic$ly and multiplies, and is not destroyed! They have a boo$ for this or$, hich they call the Aeorgics! &s much of the land as is necessary is cultivated, and the rest is used for the pasturage of cattle! The e*cellent occupation of breeding and rearing horses, o*en, sheep, dogs, and all $inds of domestic and tame animals is in the highest esteem among them as it as in the time of &braham! &nd the animals are led so to pair that they may be able to breed ell! 7ine pictures of o*en, horses, sheep, and other animals are placed before them! They do not turn out horses ith mares to feed, but at the proper time they bring them together in an enclosure of the stables in their fields! &nd this is done hen they observe that the constellation &rcher is in favorable conHunction ith ;ars and 6upiter! 7or the o*en they observe the Bull, for the sheep the Ram, and so on in accordance ith art! Bnder the 0leiades they $eep a drove of hens and duc$s and geese, hich are driven out by the

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The City of the Sun by Tommaso Campanella omen to feed near the city! The omen only do this hen it is a pleasure to them! There are also places enclosed, here they ma$e cheese, butter, and mil$9food! They also $eep capons, fruit, and other things, and for all these matters there is a boo$ hich they call the Bucolics! They have an abundance of all things, since everyone li$es to be industrious, their labors being slight and profitable! They are docile, and that one among them ho is head of the rest in duties of this $ind they call $ing! 7or they say that this is the proper name of the leaders, and it does not belong to ignorant persons! It is onderful to see ho men and omen march together collectively, and al ays in obedience to the voice of the $ing! 3or do they regard him ith loathing as e do, for they $no that although he is greater than themselves, he is for all that their father and brother! They $eep groves and oods for ild animals, and they often hunt! The science of navigation is considered very dignified by them, and they possess rafts and triremes, hich go over the aters ithout ro ers or the force of the ind, but by a marvellous contrivance! &nd other vessels they have hich are moved by the inds! They have a correct $no ledge of the stars, and of the ebb and flo of the tide! They navigate for the sa$e of becoming ac'uainted ith nations and different countries and things! They inHure nobody, and they do not put up ith inHury, and they never go to battle unless hen provo$ed! They assert that the hole earth ill in time come to live in accordance ith their customs, and conse'uently they al ays find out hether there be a nation hose manner of living is better and more approved than the rest! They admire the Christian institutions and loo$ for a realiIation of the apostolic life in vogue among themselves and in us! There are treaties bet een them and the Chinese and many other nations, both insular and continental, such as Siam and Calicut, hich they are only Hust able to e*plore! 7urthermore, they have artificial fires, battles on sea and land, and many strategic secrets! Therefore they are nearly al ays victorious! G.M. 3o it ould be very pleasant to learn ith hat foods and drin$s they are nourished, and in hat ay and for ho long they live! Capt. Their food consists of flesh, butter, honey, cheese, garden herbs, and vegetables of various $inds! They ere un illing at first to slay animals, because it seemed cruel4 but thin$ing after ard that is as also cruel to destroy herbs hich have a share of sensitive feeling, they sa that they ould perish from hunger unless they did an unHustifiable action for the sa$e of Hustifiable ones, and so no they all eat meat! 3evertheless, they do not $ill illingly useful animals, such as o*en and horses! They observe the difference bet een useful and harmful foods, and for this they employ the science of medicine! They al ays change their food! 7irst they eat flesh, then fish, then after ard they go bac$ to flesh, and nature is never incommoded or ea$ened! The old people use the more digestible $ind of food, and ta$e three meals a day, eating only a little! But the general community eat t ice, and the boys four times, that they may satisfy nature! The length of their lives is generally +-- years, but often they reach 2--! &s regards drin$ing, they are e*tremely moderate! Dine is never given to young people until they are ten years old, unless the state of their health demands it! &fter their tenth year they ta$e it diluted ith ater, and so do the omen, but the old men of fifty and up ard use little or no ater! They eat the most healthy things, according to the time of the year!

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The City of the Sun by Tommaso Campanella They thin$ nothing harmful hich is brought forth by Aod, e*cept hen there has been abuse by ta$ing too much! &nd therefore in the summer they feed on fruits, because they are moist and Huicy and cool, and counteract the heat and dryness! In the inter they feed on dry articles, and in the autumn they eat grapes, since they are given by Aod to remove melancholy and sadness4 and they also ma$e use of scents to a great degree! In the morning, hen they have all risen they comb their hair and ash their faces and hands ith cold ater! Then they che thyme or roc$9parsley or fennel, or rub their hands ith these plants! The old men ma$e incense, and ith their faces to the east repeat the short prayer hich 6esus Christ taught us! &fter this they go to ait upon the old men, some go to the dance, and others to the duties of the State! Eater on they meet at the early lectures, then in the temple, then for bodily e*ercise! Then for a little hile they sit do n to rest, and at length they go to dinner! &mong them there is never gout in the hands or feet, nor catarrh, nor sciatica, nor grievous colics, nor flatulency, nor hard breathing! 7or these diseases are caused by indigestion and flatulency, and by frugality and e*ercise they remove every humor and spasm! Therefore it is unseemly in the e*treme to be seen vomiting or spitting, since they say that this is a sign either of little e*ercise, or of ignoble sloth, or of drun$enness, or gluttony! They suffer rather from s ellings or from the dry spasm, hich they relieve ith plenty of good and Huicy food! They heal fevers ith pleasant baths and ith mil$food, and ith a pleasant habitation in the country and by gradual e*ercise! Bnclean diseases cannot be prevalent ith them because they often clean their bodies by bathing in ine, and soothe them ith aromatic oil, and by the s eat of e*ercise they diffuse the poisonous vapor hich corrupts the blood and the marro ! They do suffer a little from consumption, because they cannot perspire at the breast, but they never have asthma, for the humid nature of hich a heavy man is re'uired! They cure hot fevers ith cold potations of ater, but slight ones ith s eet smells, ith cheese9bread or sleep, ith music or dancing! Tertiary fevers are cured by bleeding, by rhubarb or by a similar dra ing remedy, or by ater soa$ed in the roots of plants, ith purgative and sharp9tasting 'ualities! But it is rarely that they ta$e purgative medicines! 7evers occurring every fourth day are cured easily by suddenly startling the unprepared patients, and by means of herbs producing effects opposite to the humors of this fever! &ll these secrets they told me in opposition to their o n ishes! They ta$e more diligent pains to cure the lasting fevers, hich they fear more, and they strive to counteract these by the observation of stars and of plants, and by prayers to Aod! 7evers recurring every fifth, si*th, eighth or more days, you never find henever heavy humors are anting! They use baths, and moreover they have arm ones according to the Roman custom, and they ma$e use also of olive oil! They have found out, too, a great many secret cures for the preservation of cleanliness and health! &nd in other ays they labor to cure the epilepsy, ith hich they are often troubled! G.M. & sign this disease is of onderful cleverness, for from it (ercules, Scotus, Socrates, Callimachus, and ;ahomet have suffered! Capt. They cure by means of prayers to heaven, by strengthening the head, by acids, by planned gymnastics, and ith fat cheese9bread sprin$led ith the flour of heaten corn! They are very s$illed in ma$ing dishes, and in them they put spice, honey, butter, and many highly strengthening spices, and they temper their richness ith acids, so that they

0age 2- of 28

The City of the Sun by Tommaso Campanella never vomit! They do not drin$ ice9cold drin$s nor artificial hot drin$s, as the Chinese do4 for they are not ithout aid against the humors of the body, on account of the help they get from the natural heat of the ater4 but they strengthen it ith crushed garlic, ith vinegar, ith ild thyme, ith mint, and ith basil, in the summer or in time of special heaviness! They $no also a secret for renovating life after about the seventieth year, and for ridding it of affliction, and this they do by a pleasing and indeed onderful art! G.M. Thus far you have said nothing concerning their sciences and magistrates! Capt. Bndoubtedly I have But since you are so curious I ill add more! Both hen it is ne moon and full moon they call a council after a sacrifice! To this all from t enty years up ard are admitted, and each one is as$ed separately to say hat is anting in the State, and hich of the magistrates have discharged their duties rightly and hich rongly! Then after eight days all the magistrates assemble, to it, (oh first, and ith him 0o er, Disdom, and Eove! )ach one of the three last has three magistrates under him, ma$ing in all thirteen, and they consider the affairs of the arts pertaining to each one of them: 0o er, of ar4 Disdom, of the sciences4 Eove, of food, clothing, education, and breeding! The masters of all the bands, ho are captains of tens, of fifties, of hundreds, also assemble, the omen first and then the men! They argue about those things hich are for the elfare of the State, and they choose the magistrates from among those ho have already been named in the great Council! In this manner they assemble daily, (oh and his three princes, and they correct, confirm, and e*ecute the matters passing to them, as decisions in the elections4 other necessary 'uestions they provide of themselves! They do not use lots unless hen they are altogether doubtful ho to decide! The eight magistrates under (oh, 0o er, Disdom, and Eove are changed according to the ish of the people, but the first four are never changed, unless they, ta$ing counsel ith themselves, give up the dignity of one to another, hom among them they $no to be iser, more reno ned, and more nearly perfect! &nd then they are obedient and honorable, since they yield illingly to the iser man and are taught by him! This, ho ever, rarely happens! The principals of the sciences, e*cept ;etaphysic, ho is (oh himself, and is, as it ere, the architect of all science, having rule over all, are attached to Disdom! (oh is ashamed to be ignorant of any possible thing! Bnder Disdom therefore are Arammar, Eogic, 0hysics, ;edicine, &strology, &stronomy, Aeometry, Cosmography, ;usic, 0erspective, &rithmetic, 0oetry, Rhetoric, 0ainting, Sculpture! Bnder the triumvir Eove are Breeding, &griculture, )ducation, ;edicine, Clothing, 0asturage, Coining! G.M. Dhat about their Hudges= Capt. This is the point I as Hust thin$ing of e*plaining! )veryone is Hudged by the first master of his trade, and thus all the head artificers are Hudges! They punish ith e*ile, ith flogging, ith blame, ith deprivation of the common table, ith e*clusion from the church and from the company of omen! Dhen there is a case in hich great inHury has been done, it is punished ith death, and they repay an eye ith an eye, a nose for a nose, a tooth for a tooth, and so on, according to the la of retaliation! If the offence is ilful the Council decides! Dhen there is strife and it ta$es place undesignedly, the sentence is mitigated4 nevertheless, not by the Hudge but by the triumvirate, from hom even it may be referred to (oh, not on account of Hustice but of mercy, for (oh is able to pardon! They have no prisons, e*cept one to er for shutting up rebellious enemies, and there is no ritten statement of a case, hich e commonly call a la suit! But the accusation and

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The City of the Sun by Tommaso Campanella itnesses are produced in the presence of the Hudge and 0o er4 the accused person ma$es his defence, and he is immediately ac'uitted or condemned by the Hudge4 and if he appeals to the triumvirate, on the follo ing day he is ac'uitted or condemned! #n the third day he is dismissed through the mercy and clemency of (oh, or receives the inviolable rigor of his sentence! &n accused person is reconciled to his accuser and to his itnesses, as it ere, ith the medicine of his complaint, that is, ith embracing and $issing! 3o one is $illed or stoned unless by the hands of the people, the accuser and the itnesses beginning first! 7or they have no e*ecutioners and lictors, lest the State should sin$ into ruin! The choice of death is given to the rest of the people, ho enclose the lifeless remains in little bags and burn them by the application of fire, hile e*horters are present for the purpose of advising concerning a good death! 3evertheless, the hole nation laments and beseeches Aod that his anger may be appeased, being in grief that it should, as it ere, have to cut off a rotten member of the State! Certain officers tal$ to and convince the accused man by means of arguments until he himself ac'uiesces in the sentence of death passed upon him, or else he does not die! But if a crime has been committed against the liberty of the republic, or against Aod, or against the supreme magistrates, there is immediate censure ithout pity! These only are punished ith death! (e ho is about to die is compelled to state in the presence of the people and ith religious scrupulousness the reasons for hich he does not deserve death, and also the sins of the others ho ought to die instead of him, and further the mista$es of the magistrates! If, moreover, it should seem right to the person thus asserting, he must say hy the accused ones are deserving of less punishment than he! &nd if by his arguments he gains the victory he is sent into e*ile, and appeases the State by means of prayers and sacrifices and good life ensuing! They do not torture those named by the accused person, but they arn them! Sins of frailty and ignorance are punished only ith blaming, and ith compulsory continuation as learners under the la and discipline of those sciences or arts against hich they have sinned! &nd all these things they have mutually among themselves, since they seem to be in very truth members of the same body, and one of another! This further I ould have you $no , that if a transgressor, ithout aiting to be accused, goes of his o n accord before a magistrate, accusing himself and see$ing to ma$e amends, that one is liberated from the punishment of a secret crime, and since he has not been accused of such a crime, his punishment is changed into another! They ta$e special care that no one should invent slander, and if this should happen they meet the offence ith the punishment of retaliation! Since they al ays al$ about and or$ in cro ds, five itnesses are re'uired for the conviction of a transgressor! If the case is other ise, after having threatened him, he is released after he has s orn an oath as the arrant of good conduct! #r if he is accused a second or third time, his increased punishment rests on the testimony of three or t o itnesses! They have but fe la s, and these short and plain, and ritten upon a flat table and hanging to the doors of the temple, that is bet een the columns! &nd on single columns can be seen the essences of things described in the very terse style of ;etaphysic 99 viI!, the essences of Aod, of the angels, of the orld, of the stars, of man, of fate, of virtue, all done ith great isdom! The definitions of all the virtues are also delineated here, and here is the tribunal, here the Hudges of all the virtues have their seat! The definition of a certain virtue is ritten under that column here the Hudges for the aforesaid virtue sit, and hen a Hudge gives Hudgment he sits and spea$s

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The City of the Sun by Tommaso Campanella thus: # son, thou hast sinned against this sacred definition of beneficence, or of magnanimity, or of another virtue, as the case may be! &nd after discussion the Hudge legally condemns him to the punishment for the crime of hich he is accused 99 viI!, for inHury, for despondency, for pride, for ingratitude, for sloth, etc! But the sentences are certain and true correctives, savoring more of clemency than of actual punishment! G.M. 3o you ought to tell me about their priests, their sacrifices, their religion, and their belief! Capt. The chief priest is (oh, and it is the duty of all the superior magistrates to pardon sins! Therefore the hole State by secret confession, hich e also use, tell their sins to the magistrates, ho at once purge their souls and teach those that are inimical to the people! Then the sacred magistrates themselves confess their o n sinfulness to the three supreme chiefs, and together they confess the faults of one another, though no special one is named, and they confess especially the heavier faults and those harmful to the State! &t length the triumvirs confess their sinfulness to (oh himself, ho forth ith recogniIes the $inds of sins that are harmful to the State, and succors ith timely remedies! Then he offers sacrifices and prayers to Aod! &nd before this he confesses the sins of the hole people, in the presence of Aod, and publicly in the temple, above the altar, as often as it had been necessary that the fault should be corrected! 3evertheless, no transgressor is spo$en of by his name! In this manner he absolves the people by advising them that they should be are of sins of the aforesaid $ind! &fter ard he offers sacrifice to Aod, that he should pardon the State and absolve it of its sins, and to teach and defend it! #nce in every year the chief priests of each separate subordinate State confess their sins in the presence of (oh! Thus he is not ignorant of the rongdoings of the provinces, and forth ith he removes them ith all human and heavenly remedies! Sacrifice is conducted after the follo ing manner: (oh as$s the people hich one among them ishes to give himself as a sacrifice to Aod for the sa$e of his fello s! (e is then placed upon the fourth table, ith ceremonies and the offering up of prayers: the table is hung up in a onderful manner by means of four ropes passing through four cords attached to firm pulley9bloc$s in the small dome of the temple! This done they cry to the Aod of mercy, that he may accept the offering, not of a beast as among the heathen, but of a human being! Then (oh orders the ropes to be dra n and the sacrifice is pulled up above to the centre of the small dome, and there it dedicates itself ith the most fervent supplications! 7ood is given to it through a indo by the priests, ho live around the dome, but it is allo ed a very little to eat, until it has atoned for the sins of the State! There ith prayer and fasting he cries to the Aod of heaven that he might accept its illing offering! &nd after t enty or thirty days, the anger of Aod being appeased, the sacrifice becomes a priest, or sometimes, though rarely, returns belo by means of the outer ay for the priests! )ver after, this man is treated ith great benevolence and much honor, for the reason that he offered himself unto death for the sa$e of his country! But Aod does not re'uire death! The priests above t enty9four years of age offer praises from their places in the top of the temple! This they do in the middle of the night, at noon, in the morning and in the evening, to it, four times a day they sing their chants in the presence of Aod! It is also their or$ to observe the stars and to note ith the astrolabe their motions and influences upon human things, and to find out their po ers! Thus they $no in hat part of the earth any change

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The City of the Sun by Tommaso Campanella has been or ill be, and at hat time it has ta$en place, and they send to find hether the matter be as they have it! They ma$e a note of predictions, true and false, so that they may be able from e*perience to predict most correctly! The priests, moreover, determine the hours for breeding and the days for so ing, reaping, and gathering the vintage, and are, as it ere, the ambassadors and intercessors and connection bet een Aod and man! &nd it is from among them mostly that (oh is elected! They rite very learned treatises and search into the sciences! Belo they never descend, unless for their dinner and supper, so that the essence of their heads do not descend to the stomachs and liver! #nly very seldom, and that as a cure for the ills of solitude, do they have converse ith omen! #n certain days (oh goes up to them and deliberates ith them concerning the matters hich he has lately investigated for the benefit of the State and all the nations of the orld! In the temple beneath, one priest al ays stands near the altar praying for the people, and at the end of every hour another succeeds him, Hust as e are accustomed in solemn prayer to change every fourth hour! &nd this method of supplication they call perpetual prayer! &fter a meal they return than$s to Aod! Then they sing the deeds of the Christian, 6e ish, and Aentile heroes, and of those of all other nations, and this is very delightful to them! 7orsooth, no one is envious of another! They sing a hymn to Eove, one to Disdom, and one each to all the other virtues, and this they do under the direction of the ruler of each virtue! )ach one ta$es the oman he loves most, and they dance for e*ercise ith propriety and stateliness under the peristyles! The omen ear their long hair all t isted together and collected into one $not on the cro n of the head, but in rolling it they leave one curl! The men, ho ever, have one curl only and the rest of their hair around the head is shaven off! 7urther, they ear a slight covering, and above this a round hat a little larger than the siIe of their head! In the fields they use caps, but at home each one ears a biretta, hite, red, or another color according to his trade or occupation! ;oreover, the magistrates use grander and more imposing9loo$ing coverings for the head! They hold great festivities hen the sun enters the four car9 dinal points of the heavens, that is, hen he enters Cancer, Eibra, Capricorn, and &ries! #n these occasions they have very learned, splendid, and, as it ere, comic performances! They celebrate also every full and every ne moon ith a festival, as also they do the anniversaries of the founding of the city, and of the days hen they have on victories or done any other great achievement! The celebrations ta$e place ith the music of female voices, ith the noise of trumpets and drums, and the firing of salutations! The poets sing the praises of the most reno ned leaders and the victories! 3evertheless, if any of them should deceive even by disparaging a foreign hero, he is punished! 3o one can e*ercise the function of a poet ho invents that hich is not true, and a license li$e this they thin$ to be a pest of our orld, for the reason that it puts a premium upon virtue and often assigns it to un orthy persons, either from fear of flattery, or ambition, or avarice! 7or the praise of no one is a statue erected until after his death4 but hile he is alive, ho has found out ne arts and very useful secrets, or ho has rendered great service to the State either at home or on the battle9field, his name is ritten in the boo$ of heroes! They do not bury dead bodies, but burn them, so that a plague may not arise from them, and so that they may be converted into fire, a very noble and po erful thing, hich has its coming from the sun and returns to it! &nd for the above reasons no chance is given for idolatry! The statues and pictures of the heroes, ho ever, are there, and the splendid omen set

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The City of the Sun by Tommaso Campanella apart to become mothers often loo$ at them! 0rayers are made from the State to the four horiIontal corners of the orld 99 in the morning to the rising sun, then to the setting sun, then to the south, and lastly to the north4 and in the contrary order in the evening, first to the setting sun, to the rising sun, to the north, and at length to the south! They repeat but one prayer, hich as$s for health of body and of mind, and happiness for themselves and all people, and they conclude it ith the petition 1&s it seems best to Aod!1 The public prayer for all is long, and it is poured forth to heaven! 7or this reason the altar is round and is divided cross ise by ays at right angles to one another! By these ays (oh enters after he has repeated the four prayers, and he prays loo$ing up to heaven! &nd then a great mystery is seen by them! The priestly vestments are of a beauty and meaning li$e to those of &aron! They resemble nature and they surpass &rt! They divide the seasons according to the revolution of the sun, and not of the stars, and they observe yearly by ho much time the one precedes the other! They hold that the sun approaches nearer and nearer, and therefore by ever9lessening circles reaches the tropics and the e'uator every year a little sooner! They measure months by the course of the moon, years by that of the sun! They praise 0tolemy, admire Copernicus, but place &ristarchus and 0hilolaus before him! They ta$e great pains in endeavoring to understand the construction of the orld, and hether or not it ill perish, and at hat time! They believe that the true oracle of 6esus Christ is by the signs in the sun, in the moon, and in the stars, hich signs do not thus appear to many of us foolish ones! Therefore they ait for the rene ing of the age, and perchance for its end! They say that it is very doubtful hether the orld as made from nothing, or from the ruins of other orlds, or from chaos, but they certainly thin$ that it as made, and did not e*ist from eternity! Therefore they disbelieve in &ristotle, hom they consider a logican and not a philosopher! 7rom analogies, they can dra many arguments against the eternity of the orld! The sun and the stars they, so to spea$, regard as the living representatives and signs of Aod, as the temples and holy living altars, and they honor but do not orship them! Beyond all other things they venerate the sun, but they consider no created thing orthy the adoration of orship! This they give to Aod alone, and thus they serve (im, that they may not come into the po er of a tyrant and fall into misery by undergoing punishment by creatures of revenge! They contemplate and $no Aod under the image of the Sun, and they call it the sign of Aod, (is face and living image, by means of hich light, heat, life, and the ma$ing of all things good and bad proceed! Therefore they have built an altar li$e to the sun in shape, and the priests praise Aod in the sun and in the stars, as it ere (is altars, and in the heavens, (is temple as it ere4 and they pray to good angels, ho are, so to spea$, the intercessors living in the stars, their strong abodes! 7or Aod long since set signs of their beauty in heaven, and of (is glory in the sun! They say there is but one heaven, and that the planets move and rise of themselves hen they approach the sun or are in conHunction ith it! They assert t o principles of the physics of things belo , namely, that the sun is the father, and the earth the mother4 the air is an impure part of the heavens4 all fire is derived from the sun! The sea is the s eat of earth, or the fluid of earth combusted, and fused ithin its bo els, but is the bond of union bet een air and earth, as the blood is of the spirit and flesh of animals! The orld is a great animal, and e live ithin it as orms live ithin us! Therefore e do not belong to the system of stars, sun, and earth, but to Aod only4 for in

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The City of the Sun by Tommaso Campanella respect to them hich see$ only to amplify themselves, e are born and live by chance4 but in respect to Aod, hose instruments e are, e are formed by prescience and design, and for a high end! Therefore e are bound to no father but Aod, and receive all things from (im! They hold as beyond 'uestion the immortality of souls, and that these associate ith good angels after death, or ith bad angels, according as they have li$ened themselves in this life to either! 7or all things see$ their li$e! They differ little from us as to places of re ard and punishment! They are in doubt hether there are other orlds beyond ours, and account it madness to say there is nothing! 3onentity is incompatible ith the infinite entity of Aod! They lay do n t o principles of metaphysics, entity hich is the highest Aod, and nothingness hich is the defect of entity! )vil and sin come of the propensity to nothingness4 the sin having its cause not efficient, but in deficiency! "eficiency is, they say, of po er, isdom, or ill! Sin they place in the last of these three, because he ho $no s and has the po er to do good is bound also to have the ill, for ill arises out of them! They orship Aod in trinity, saying Aod is the Supreme 0o er, hence proceeds the highest Disdom, hich is the same ith Aod, and from these comes Eove, hich is both po er and isdom4 but they do not distinguish persons by name, as in our Christian la , hich has not been revealed to them! This religion, hen its abuses have been removed, ill be the future mistress of the orld, as great theologians teach and hope! Therefore Spain found the 3e Dorld (though its first discoverer, Columbus, greatest of heroes, as a Aenoese), that all nations should be gathered under one la ! De $no not hat e do, but Aod $no s, hose instruments e are! They sought ne regions for lust of gold and riches, but Aod or$s to a higher end! The sun strives to burn up the earth, not to produce plants and men, but Aod guides the battle to great issues! (is the praise, to (im the gloryL G.M. #h, if you $ne hat our astrologers say of the coming age, and of our age, that has in it more history ithin +-- years than all the orld had in ?,--- years beforeL of the onderful inventions of printing and guns, and the use of the magnet, and ho it all comes of ;ercury, ;ars, the ;oon, and the ScorpionL Capt. &h, ellL Aod gives all in (is good time! They astrologiIe too much!

nd of !he Cit" of the Sun, b" !ommaso Campanella

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