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ANALYSIS OF FINANCIAL STATEMENTS
Reviewing and Assessing Financial Information
Starting Point
Go to www.wiley.com/college/Melicher to assess your knowledge of the basics of financial statement analysis. Determine where you need to concentrate your effort.

What Youll Learn in This Chapter

The five basic types of financial ratios How to use financial ratios properly in order to achieve financial growth When to use specific ratios in different situations How internally generated financing occurs The effect of ratio analysis on long-term financial planning How to read a financial statement The application of the cost-volume-profit analysis concept

After Studying This Chapter, Youll Be Able To

Distinguish the three categories of ratio analysis Compare and contrast financial statements from different companies Examine the link between asset investment and sales growth Apply the major components of Du Pont analysis Analyze the quality of financial reports Use analysis methods to evaluate profit levels

Goals and Outcomes

Analyze and interpret financial statements Explain the categories of ratio analysis Perform the basic types of financial ratios Manage the application of ratios to evaluate business performance Prepare the requirements for external financing Evaluate the financial viability of particular business alternatives

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INTRODUCTION
Now that you have studied the structure of business organizations and learned about financial data and how it is presented, it is time to move on to the next step in financial management. Analyzing financial statements is a skill shared by bankers, investors, bondholders, and stockholders as well as the firms managers. Reviewing and assessing financial information helps us to recognize a companys strengths and weaknesses, which leads to good investment strategies and good financial planning.

5.1 Financial Statement Analysis

A countless number of financial market participants will use and analyze financial statement information, particularly bankers, other lenders, suppliers, investors, and even some of the firms customers. Often firms make their financial data available to the public to show workers and investors how well the company is doing. For private firms, statement analysis and industry comparisons are done for internal use. A few simple ratio calculations can shed light on how well a company is doing and how it is making profits. Those same ratio calculations are done by lenders on personal financial data when individuals apply for a mortgage or an auto loan. Successful financial analysis and planning require an understanding of a companys external and internal environments. External factors that affect a firms profitability may be issues such as inflation, interest rates, exchange rates, and government policy. The firms internal environment includes items that can be affected by management, such as organizational structure, employee motivation and productivity, cost control, and the companys plant and operations. Sales are affected one way or the other by the state of the economy, managements ability to handle growth, and the quality and marketing of the companys product. Pricing decisions are also influenced by the state of the economy, actions by competitors, and the firms production costs. The joint impact of the external and internal environment on a firm should be reflected in its financial statements. These statements are a good way to assess the success or failure of the companys strategies and operations.

FOR EXAMPLE
Using Financial Statements Different groups use financial statements for different purposes. Banks use financial statements to determine if they should loan money to a firm. Stock brokers use financial statements to determine if the stock of the company is going to be profitable and if the stock is a good buy. Manufacturers use financial statements to determine if they should work with a firm on a credit basis.

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The information found on the financial statements is valuable to the companys managers, to stock and bond analysts, bank loan officers, and competitors. However, the way that investors view the results that come from analyzing financial statements often depends upon the current state of the economy. For example, a firm with high debt ratios may be an attractive investment at the end of a recession. Thats because as economic growth begins, increased sales will generate cash to pay interest, leaving high levels of profits. Of course, the same debt ratios at the end of a period of economic growth, with a recession growing near, may make investors turn away. Keep in mind that many individuals and organizations analyze financial statements. A company that seeks credit, either from a supplier or a bank, is usually required to submit financial statements for examination. Potential purchasers of a firms stocks or bonds will analyze financial statements in order to judge the firms ability to make timely payments of interest or dividends.

SELF-CHECK
Describe how financial statements are used by a variety of different groups to discover information about a firm. Identify the external factors that affect a businesss profitably. What are the internal factors that have an effect on the firms profitably? How investors view the analysis of financial statements is affected by what current aspect?

5.2 Ratio Analysis

In this section we discuss ratio analysis as a means by which to gain insight into a firms strengths and weaknesses. Ratio analysis is a financial technique that involves dividing various financial statement numbers into one another. Ratios are computed by dividing one amount on the financial statements into another. They are percentages that are easily obtained by entering the numbers from financial data into a calculator. The ratios can then be examined to determine trends and reasons for changes in the financial statement from month to month. Ratios are valuable tools, as they standardize balance sheet and income statement

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FOR EXAMPLE
Ratios Ratios are used in Chapter 2 to produce the common-size financial statements that made it possible for us to compare Walgreens, Microsoft, and ExxonMobil despite the differences in their sizes and business activities.

numbers. A firm with $10 billion in sales can be easily compared to a firm with $1 billion or $200 million in sales. Three basic categories of ratio analysis are used. Trend or time-series analysis uses ratios to evaluate a firms performance over time. Cross-section analysis uses ratios to compare different companies at the same point in time. Industry-comparative analysis is used to compare a firms ratios against average ratios for other companies in the same industry. Comparing a firms ratios to average industry ratios requires a degree of caution. Thats because some sources of industry data report the average for each ratio; others report the median; others report the interquartile range for each ratio, which is the range for the middle 50% of ratio values reported by firms in the industry. The analyst must also be aware that industry ratios may be narrowly focused on a specific industry, but the operations of large firms such as GE, ExxonMobil, and IBM often cross many industry boundaries. Also, accounting standards often differ among firms in an industry. This can create confusion, particularly when some firms in the industry adopt new accounting standards set forth by the Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB) before others. Adopting standards early can affect a firms ratios by making them appear unusually high or low compared to the industry average. Care also must be taken when comparing different types of firms in the same industry. In one industry there may be a mixture of very large and very small firms; multinational and domestic companies that operate nationally as opposed to those that focus only on limited geographic markets. Analysts and sources of public information on ratios may compute ratios differently. Some may use after-tax earnings, some pre-tax earnings; others may assume debt refers only to long-term debt while others include all liabilities as debt. Therefore, when comparing ratios make sure you know how a resource defines its ratios before using it. Sometimes how a ratio is interpreted depends on who has requested itthat is, whether a ratio appears favorable or unfavorable depends on the perspective

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FOR EXAMPLE
Interpreting Ratios If a short-term creditor such as a bank loan officer wants to see a high degree of liquidity, the analyst would be somewhat less concerned with a firms profitability than if the user was an equity holder who would rather see less liquidity and more profitability. of the user. Therefore, the analyst must keep in mind the viewpoint of the user in evaluating and interpreting the information contained in financial ratios.

SELF-CHECK
Define ratio analysis and explain what it is used for. Explain why ratios are used for financial analysis. List and briefly explain the three basic categories of ratio analysis. Why must caution be used in comparing ratios of different companies?

5.3 Types of Financial Ratios

Many types of ratios can be calculated from financial statement data or stock market information. However, it is common practice to group ratios into five basic categories: Liquidity ratios Asset-management ratios Financial-leverage ratios Profitability ratios Market-value ratios

The first four categories are based on information taken from a firms income statements and balance sheets. The fifth category relates stock market information to financial statement items. We will use the financial statements for Walgreens that were introduced in Chapter 2 to illustrate how financial statement analysis is conducted. Tables 5-1 and 5-2 contain the balance sheets and income statements for several years for Walgreens. For each ratio group, we present graphs of Walgreenss ratio as well as the average ratio for the retail drug store industry over the 19972003 time period.

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Table 5-1: Balance Sheet for Walgreens ($ in Millions) 2003 ASSETS Cash & Marketable Securities Accounts Receivable Inventories $ Other Current Assets Total Current Assets Net Fixed Assets Other Long-Term Assets Total Fixed Assets Total Assets Accounts Payable Notes Payable Other Current Liabilities Total Current Liabilities Long-Term Debt Other Liabilities Total Liabilities Common Equity Retained Earnings Total Stockholders Equity Total Liabilities and Equity $1,017.10 $1,017.80 $4,202.70 $120.50 $6,358.10 $4,940.00 $107.80 $5,047.80 $11,405.90 $2,077.00 $0.00 $1,343.50 $3,420.50 $0.00 $789.70 $4,210.20 $777.90 $6,417.80 $7,195.70 $11,405.90 $449.90 $954.80 $3,645.20 $116.60 $5,166.50 $4,591.40 $120.90 $4,712.30 $9,878.80 $1,836.40 $0.00 $1,118.80 $2,955.20 $0.00 $693.40 $3,648.60 $828.50 $5,401.70 $6,230.20 $9,878.80 $16.90 $798.30 $3,482.40 $96.30 $4,393.90 $4,345.30 $94.60 $4,439.90 $8,833.80 $1,546.80 $440.70 $1,024.10 $3,011.60 $0.00 $615.00 $3,626.60 $676.30 $4,530.90 $5,207.20 $8,833.80 $12.80 $614.50 $2,830.80 $92.00 $3,550.10 $3,428.20 $125.40 $3,553.60 $7,103.70 $1,364.00 $0.00 $939.70 $2,303.70 $0.00 $566.00 $2,869.70 $446.20 $3,787.80 $4,234.00 $7,103.70 2002 2001 2000

LIABILITIES AND EQUITY

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Table 5-2: Income Statement for Walgreens ($ in Millions) 2003 Revenue Cost of Goods Sold Gross Profit Selling, General & Administrative Depreciation Operating Income Interest Expense Other Expenses (Income) Income Before Taxes Income Net Income Number of Shares Outstanding (000s) Earnings Per Share $32,505.40 $23,360.10 $9,145.30 $6,950.90 $346.10 $1,848.30 $0.00 ($40.40) $1,888.70 $713.00 $1,175.70 1,031,580 $1.14 2002 $28,681.10 $20,768.80 $7,912.30 $5,980.80 $307.30 $1,624.20 $0.00 ($13.10) $1,637.30 $618.10 $1,019.20 1,032,271 $0.99 2001 $24,623.00 $17,779.70 $6,843.30 $5,175.80 $269.20 $1,398.30 $3.10 ($27.50) $1,422.70 $537.10 $885.60 1,028,947 $0.86 2000 $21,206.90 $15,235.80 $5,971.10 $4,516.90 $230.10 $1,224.10 $0.40 ($39.60) $1,263.30 $486.40 $776.90 1,019,889 $0.76

5.3.1 Liquidity Ratios

Liquidity refers to how quickly a firm can turn its assets into cash. A firm, for example, that has only cash assets is completely liquid. On the opposite extreme would be a firm whose only assets are real estate. Because real estate sales can take months, or even years, and may even take a loss on the transaction, the firm is illiquid. Liquidity is important because of the changing business climate. A firm must be able to pay its financial obligations when needed. If a firm cannot pay its financial obligations, it will go bankrupt. The less liquid the firm, the greater the risk of insolvency or default. Because debt obligations are paid with cash, the firms cash flows ultimately determine solvency. We can estimate the firms liquidity position by examining specific balance sheet items. Liquidity ratios indicate the ability to meet short-term obligations to creditors as they mature or come due.

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This form of liquidity analysis focuses on the relationship between current assets and current liabilities, and the speed with which receivables and inventory turn into cash during normal business operations. This means that the immediate source of cash funds for paying bills must be cash on hand, proceeds from the sale of marketable securities, or the collection of accounts receivable. Additional liquidity also comes from inventory that can be sold and thus converted into cash either directly through cash sales or indirectly through credit sales (accounts receivable). The dollar amount of a firms net working capital is sometimes used as a measure of liquidity. The net working capital of a firm is its current assets minus current liabilities. However, two popular ratios are also used to gauge a firms liquidity position. The current ratio is a measure of a companys ability to pay off its short-term debt as it comes due. The current ratio is computed by dividing the current assets by the current liabilities. Both assets and liabilities with maturities of 1 year or less are considered to be current for financial statement purposes. A low current ratio (low relative to industry norms) may indicate that a company faces difficulty in paying its bills. A high value for the current ratio, however, does not necessarily imply greater liquidity. It may suggest that funds are not being efficiently employed within the firm. Excessive amounts of inventory, accounts receivable, or idle cash balances could contribute to a high current ratio. The current ratio for 2003 and 2002 is calculated as follows:
CURRENT RATIO 2003: (Current assets/current liabilities) $6,358.1/$3,420.5 1.86 times 2002: $5,166.5/$2,955.2 1.75 times

The balance sheet shows a large increase in Walgreenss cash account in 2003, and both accounts receivables and inventory rose. At first glance, analysts may think Walgreens has slow-paying accounts or sales slowdowns (because of the inventory rise). But the income statement in Table 5-2 shows that Walgreens had a healthy sales increase of over 13% in 2003. The quick ratio, or acid-test ratio, is computed by dividing the sum of cash, marketable securities, and accounts receivable by the current liabilities. This comparison eliminates inventories from consideration since inventories are among the least liquid of the major current asset categories because they must first be converted to sales.

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In general, a ratio of 1.0 indicates a reasonably liquid position in that an immediate liquidation of marketable securities at their current values and the collection of all accounts receivable, plus cash on hand, would be adequate to cover the firms current liabilities. However, as this ratio declines, the firm must increasingly rely on converting inventories to sales in order to meet current liabilities as they come due. Walgreenss quick ratios for 2003 and 2002 are
QUICK RATIO 2003: (Cash accounts receivable/current liabilities) ($1,017.1 $1,017.8)/$3,420.5 0.59 times 2002: ($449.9 $954.8)/$2,955.2 0.48 times

According to the financial statement data, Walgreenss quick ratio is well below 1.0. As we will soon see, this is not a major cause for concern in the retail drugstore industry. In this industry, we expect lower quick ratios, as much of their current assets are inventory items awaiting sale on their store shelves and warehouses. When assessing the firms liquidity position, financial managers also are interested in how trade credit from suppliers, which we call accounts payable, is being used and paid for. This analysis requires taking data from a firms income statement in addition to the balance sheet. The average payment period is computed by dividing the year-end accounts payable amount by the firms average cost of goods sold per day. We calculate the average daily cost of goods sold by dividing the income statements cost of goods sold amount by 365 days in a year. The average payment period is calculated as follows:
AVERAGE PAYMENT PERIOD Accounts Payable Cost of Goods Sold/365 2003: 2002: Accounts Payable/Cost of Goods Sold per Day:

$2,077.0 $2,077.0/$64.00 32.5 days $23,360.1/365 $1,836.4 $1,836.4/$56.90 32.3 days $20,768.8/365

On average, it takes Walgreens a little over 1 month to pay its suppliers. Figure 5-1 shows the liquidity ratios for Walgreens compared to the industry averages. The industrys current and quick ratios rose slightly while the average payment period fell over the 19972003 period. Walgreenss current and quick ratios are above those of the industry in 1997 and 1998, but their relative positions reversed in 2000. Between 2000 and 2003, Walgreenss liquidity ratios recovered and moved closer to those of the industry. Walgreenss average payment period remained constant, about 32 days, during this period. This is about 10 days quicker than the industry until 2000, when

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Figure 5-1 Current Ratio 2.00 1.50 1.00 0.50 0.00 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 Industry Walgreens

Quick Ratio 0.80 0.60 0.40 0.20 0.00 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 Industry Walgreens

50.00 40.00 30.00 20.00 10.00 0.00

Average Payment Period Industry Walgreens

1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 Liquidity ratios.

the industry average decreased so that both the industry and Walgreens paid their bills, on average, in 32 days.
5.3.2 Asset-Management Ratios

Asset-management ratios indicate the extent to which assets are used to support sales. These are sometimes referred to as activity or utilization ratios, and each ratio in this category relates financial performance on the income statement with items on the balance sheet. Once again, we will be using the information for Walgreens from Tables 5-1 and 5-2.

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The total-assets-turnover ratio is computed by dividing net sales by the companys total assets. This ratio indicates how efficiently the firm is utilizing its assets to produce revenues or sales. It is a measure of the dollars of sales generated by $1 of the firms assets. Generally, the more efficiently assets are used, the higher a firms profits. The size of the ratio is significantly influenced by characteristics of the industry within which the firm operates. Capital-intensive electric utilities might have asset turnover ratios as low as 0.33, indicating that they require $3 of investment in assets in order to produce $1 in revenues. In contrast, retail food chains with asset turnovers as high as 10 would require a $0.10 investment in assets to produce $1 in sales. A typical manufacturing firm has an asset turnover of about 1.5. Walgreenss 2002 and 2003 total-assets-turnover ratios are calculated as follows:
TOTAL ASSETS TURNOVER 2003: (Net sales/total assets) $32,505.4/$11,405.9 2.85 times 2002: $28,681.1/$9,878.8 2.90 times

Asset utilization was consistent between 2002 and 2003, with each $1 in assets supporting slightly less than $3 in sales. The fixed-assets-turnover ratio is computed by dividing net sales by the fixed assets and indicates the extent to which long-term assets are being used to produce sales. Similar to the interpretation given to the total asset turnover, the fixed assets turnover represents the dollars of sales generated by each dollar of fixed assets. Investment in plant and equipment is usually quite expensive. Consequently unused or idle capacity is very costly and often represents a major factor in a firms poor operating performance. On the other hand, a high (compared to competitors or the industry average) fixed-assets-turnover ratio is not necessarily a favorable sign. It may come about because of efficient use of assets (good), or it may come about because of the firms use of obsolete equipment with reduced book values because of the effects of accumulated depreciation (poor). Therefore, it is usually necessary for an analyst to do some research to determine the true meaning of the ratio. The fixed-assets-turnover ratio is computed as follows:
FIXED ASSETS TURNOVER 2003: (Net sales/fixed assets) $32,505.4/$4,940.0 6.58 times 2002: $28,681.1/$4,591.4 6.25 times

As you can see, Walgreenss fixed assets turnover increased from 6.25 to 6.58 between 2002 and 2003, indicating that sales increased more rapidly than

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fixed assets. In percentage terms, net fixed assets increased 7.6% [i.e., ($4,940.0 $4,591.4)/$4,591.4] compared to 13.3% for sales [i.e., ($32,505.4 $28,681.1)/$28,681.1]. In light of an increase in the fixed asset turnover, it may be surprising that total asset turnover fell slightly from 2002 to 2003. This is an indication that Walgreens used its working capital less efficiently. The average collection period is calculated by taking the year-end accounts receivable divided by the average net sales per day. This indicates the average number of days that sales are outstanding. In other words, it reports the number of days it takes, on average, to collect credit sales. The average collection period measures the days of financing that a company extends to its customers. Obviously, a shorter average collection period is usually preferred to a longer one. Another measure that can be used to provide this same information is the receivables turnover. The receivables turnover is computed by dividing annual sales, preferably credit sales, by the year-end accounts receivable. If the receivables turnover is six, this means the average collection period is about 2 months (12 months divided by the turnover ratio of 6). If the turnover is four times, the firm has an average collection period of about 3 months (12 months divided by the turnover ratio of four). Walgreenss average collection periods for 2003 and 2002 were:
AVERAGE COLLECTION PERIOD Accounts Receivable (Accounts Receivable/Net Sales per Day): Net Sales/365 2003: 2002: $1,017.8 $1,017.8/$89.06 11.43 days $32,505.4/365 $954.8 $954.8/$78.58 12.15 days $28,681.1/365

Walgreenss average collection period fell slightly from 2002 to 2003. Comparing the average collection and payment periods, Walgreens is in a positive situation, as it collects from its customers about 20 days faster than it pays its suppliers. This has positive implications for Walgreenss asset efficiency and for its liquidity. When comparing these figures to an industry average, an unusually low number of days required to collect sales may indicate that the company uses a rigid internal credit policy that might result in lost sales. On the other hand, a very high average collection period may indicate that the firm has too lax a credit

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FOR EXAMPLE
Cash In/Cash Out The ratios computed on accounts receivable and accounts payable give an analyst a good sense of how well a company is operating. A steady collection of receivables coupled with a steady stream of bill payments shows that the management has both under control.

policy and may be in danger of experiencing a larger number of credit accounts that cannot be collected. Remember that these ratios are only guides, and it is important to monitor trends over time in addition to comparing a companys ratio numbers to the industry averages. The inventory-turnover ratio is computed by dividing the cost of goods sold by the year-end inventory. Here we are seeking to determine how efficiently the amount of inventory is being managed. With inventory management, it is prudent to have an adequate amount to avoid running out of products while avoiding the accumulation of too many products that may necessitate extra financing. The turnover ratio indicates whether the inventory is out of line in relation to the volume of sales when compared against industry norms or when tracked over time for a specific company. Cost of goods sold is often used to compute this ratio instead of sales in order to remove the impact of profit margins on inventory turnover. Profit margins can vary over time, making it more difficult to interpret the relationship between volume and inventory. The inventory-turnover ratio is computed as follows:
INVENTORY TURNOVER 2003: (Cost of goods sold/inventory) $23,360.1/$4,202.7 5.56 times 2002: $20,768.8/3,645.2 5.70 times

Walgreenss annual inventory turnover decreased slightly from 5.70 in 2002 to 5.56 in 2003. Inventory management also requires a delicate balance between having too low an inventory turnover, which increases the likelihood of holding obsolete inventory, and too high an inventory turnover, which could lead to stock-outs and lost sales. When a firm is growing rapidly (or even shrinking rapidly), the use of yearend data may distort the comparison of ratios over time. To avoid such possible distortions, analysts can use the average inventory (beginning inventory balance plus ending inventory balance divided by two) to calculate inventory turnovers for comparison purposes. Likewise, average data for other balance

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sheet accounts should be used when rapid growth or contraction is taking place for a specific firm. Figure 5-2 illustrates Walgreenss asset-management ratios in comparison to the industry average between 1997 and 2003. With the exception of the fixed-assets-turnover ratio, Walgreens had more favorable asset-management ratios than the industry.
5.3.3 Financial-Leverage Ratios

To assess the extent to which borrowed money or debt is used to finance assets, analysts use financial-leverage ratios. Financial-leverage ratios indicate the extent to which borrowed or debt funds are used to finance assets. These ratios are also a good way to assess the ability of the firm to meet its debt payment obligations. The total-debt-to-total-assets ratio is computed by dividing the total debt or total liabilities of the business by its total assets. This ratio shows the portion of the total assets financed by all creditors and debtors. Taking the relevant information from the Walgreens balance sheet (Table 5-1), the computation is done as follows:
TOTAL DEBT TO TOTAL ASSETS 2003: (Total debt/total assets) $4,210.2/$11,405.9 0.369 36.9% 2002: $3,648.6/$9,878.8 0.369 36.9%

Walgreenss total debt ratio has not changed, meaning that the firms debt load grew at approximately the same rate as its asset base. Compared to industry averages, a total-debt-to-asset ratio that is relatively high tells the financial manager that the opportunities for securing additional borrowed funds are limited. Additional debt funds may be more costly in terms of the rate of interest that will have to be paid. Lenders will want higher expected returns to compensate for their risk of lending to a firm that has a high proportion of debt to assets. It is also possible to have too low a ratio of total debt to total assets. This can be quite costly to a corporation. Since interest expenses are deductible for income tax purposes, the government in effect pays a portion of the debt-financing costs. Sometimes a debt ratio is calculated to show the total debt in relation to the dollars the owners have put in the firm. This is referred to as the total-debt-toequity ratio. The total-debt-to-equity ratio shows a firms total debt in relation to the total dollar amount owners have invested in the firm.

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Figure 5-2 Total Asset Turnover 4.00 3.00 2.00 1.00 0.00 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 Walgreens Industry

10.00 8.00 6.00 4.00 2.00 0.00

Fixed Asset Turnover Industry Walgreens

1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003

Average Collection Period 20.00 15.00 10.00 5.00 0.00 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 Industry Walgreens

Inventory Turnover 6.00 4.00 2.00 0.00

Walgreens Industry

1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 Asset-management ratios.

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Walgreenss ratio for 2003 was 0.59 ($4,210.2/$7,195.7) and 0.59 ($3,648.6/ $6,230.2) in 2002. This means for every dollar of equity, the firm has borrowed about 59 cents. The equity multiplier ratio provides another way of looking at the firms debt burden. The equity multiplier ratio is calculated by dividing total assets by the firms total equity.
EQUITY MULTIPLIER 2003: (Total assets/total equity) $11,405.9/$7,195.7 1.59 2002: $9,878.8/$6,230.2 1.59

Similar to the total-debt-to-total-assets ratio, the equity multiplier was unchanged between 2002 and 2003. Since Walgreens does not have long-term debt outstanding, these modest changes in the debt ratios occur because of changes in short-term debt or Walgreenss other liabilities, such as pension fund or health care benefits for workers. At first glance, this last ratio appears to have little to do with leverage; it is simply the total assets divided by stockholders equity. However, recall the concept behind the balance sheet. The concept is simple. In order to acquire assets, a firm must pay for them with either debt (liabilities) or with the owners capital (shareholders equity). Therefore the following equation must hold true: Assets Liabilities Equity. This is also known as the accounting identity. This formula shows that more assets relative to equity suggest greater use of debt. Thus, larger values of the equity multiplier imply a greater use of leverage by the firm. This can also be seen by rewriting the equity multiplier using the accounting identity:
(Total assets/equity) [(liabilities equity)/equity] (liabilities/equity) 1

This is simply one plus the debt-to-equity ratio. Clearly, more reliance on debt results in a larger equity multiplier. While the equity multiplier does not add to the information derived from the other debt ratios, it is useful when financial analysis is conducted using certain financial models. In addition to calculating debt ratios, the financial manager should be interested in the firms ability to meet or service its interest and principal repayment obligations on the borrowed funds. This is accomplished through the calculation of interest coverage and fixed-charge-coverage ratios. These ratios make use of information directly from the income statement or from footnotes to a firms financial statements. The interest coverage, or times-interest-earned ratio, is calculated by dividing the firms operating income or earnings before interest and taxes (EBIT) by the annual interest expense.

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Using data from Walgreenss 2000 and 2001 financial statements, we have:
INTEREST COVERAGE 2001: (Earnings before interest & taxes/interest expense) $1,398.3/$3.10 451.1 times 2000: $1,224.10/$0.40 3,060.3 times

Walgreenss interest coverage ratios are not defined for 2002 and 2003 since interest-paying notes payable and long-term debt are both zero on the firms balance sheet in 2002 and 2003. The interest coverage figure indicates the extent to which the operating income or EBIT level could decline before the ability to pay interest obligations would be impeded. Suppose a firms interest coverage ratio is 5.0. This would mean that Walgreenss operating income could drop to 20%, or one-fifth of its current level, and interest payments still could be met. In addition to interest payments, there may be other fixed charges, such as rental or lease payments and periodic bond principal repayments, the sinking fund payments that we learn about in section 14.4.4. The fixed-charge-coverage ratio indicates the ability of a firm to meet its contractual obligations for interest, leases, and debt principal repayments out of its operating income. Rental or lease payments are deductible on the income statement prior to the payment of income taxes just as is the case with interest expenses. In contrast, a sinking fund payment is a repayment of debt and thus is not a deductible expense for income tax purposes. However, to be consistent with the other data, we must adjust the sinking fund payment to a before-tax basis. We do this by dividing the after-tax amount by one minus the effective tax rate. While footnotes to Walgreenss balance sheets are not provided, examination of the footnotes in Walgreenss annual reports shows property lease payments of $1,187.0 million in 2003 and $897.9 million in 2002. Walgreens has no interestbearing liabilities, and it has no sinking fund obligations. We compute the fixed-charge-coverage ratio as follows: First, the numerator in the ratio must reflect earnings before interest, lease payments, and taxes, which we determine by adding the lease payment amount to the operating income or EBIT amount. Second, the denominator needs to show all relevant expenses on a before-tax basis. Fixed Charge Coverage would be computed as follows:
FIXED-CHARGE COVERAGE Earnings before Interest, Lease Payments, and Taxes Interest lease payments (sinking fund payment)/(1 tax rate) 2003: $1,843.3 $1,187.0 2002: $1,624.2 $897.9 $3,035.3/$1,187.0 2.56 $2,522.1/$897.9 2.81 $0 $897.9 $0 $0 $1,187.0 $0

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Figure 5-3 Total Debt to Total Assets 0.80 0.60 0.40 0.20 0.00 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 Industry Walgreens

Equity Multiplier 4.00 3.00 2.00 1.00 0.00 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 Industry Walgreens

Interest Coverage 15.00 10.00 5.00 0.00 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 Financial-leverage ratios. Industry

This is a marked difference from the interest coverage ratio. Information in Walgreenss annual report to shareholders tells us that the firm usually leases its store space rather than purchasing it. These long-term leases are a substitute for debt financing for Walgreens. The graphs of Walgreenss financial-leverage ratios in Figure 5-3 show industry debt ratios declining slightly during the 19972003 time period. The deterioration in the industrys interest coverage, from about 9 in 1998 to about 3 in 2000, was a concern. Since the industry debt load rose only slightly until 2000, the decline in interest coverage was due to falling earnings. Since then, however, the industrys interest coverage ratio recovered. In contrast to the retail drug store industry, Walgreens debt ratio declined slightly while its interest-coverage ratio was either at extremely high levels or

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was undefined because of the absence of interest-bearing debt (thus, we dont show Walgreenss interest-coverage ratio in Figure 5-3). From looking at Walgreens, we can come to three important conclusions. First, not all liabilities are contractual debt. Walgreens has a debt-to-assets ratio of about 40% but has no interest-bearing short-term (notes payable) or long-term (long-term debt) on its balance sheet. Second, not all liabilities require interest to be paid. Again, Walgreens has a debt ratio of 40% but virtually no interest payments. Third, to get a truer perspective of a companys financial situation, all contractual fixed charges, including interest, lease payments, and sinking fund payments, should be examined. This requires some reading of the footnotes and other information in the firms financial statements. Walgreenss sky-high interest coverage ratio is brought back to earth when fixed charges are considered and a fixed charge-coverage ratio is computed.

5.3.4 Profitability Ratios

To determine a firms ability to generate returns on its sales, assets, and equity, analysts use profitability ratios. Profitability ratios indicate the firms ability to generate returns on its sales, assets, and equity. Two basic profit margin ratios are important to the financial manager, the operating profit margin and the net profit margin. The operating profit margin is calculated on the firms earnings before interest and taxes divided by net sales. This ratio indicates the firms ability to control operating expenses relative to sales. Table 5-2 contains income statement information for Walgreens and provides the necessary information for determining the operating profit margin.
OPERATING PROFIT MARGIN 2003: (Earnings before interest & taxes/net sales) $1,848.3/$32,505.4 0.0569 5.69% 2002: $1,624.2/$28,681.1 0.0566 5.66%

These results indicate that Walgreens was able to slightly improve its operating profitability from 2002 to 2003. Whether it was because of higher selling prices or lower costs, operating profit (EBIT) rose about 13.8% on a sales increase of about 13.3%. The net profit margin, a widely used measure of a companys profitability, is calculated as the firms net income after taxes divided by net sales.

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In addition to considering operating expenses, this ratio also indicates the ability to earn a return after meeting interest and tax obligations. Walgreenss net profit margin shows a slight improvement in 2003 over 2002:
NET PROFIT MARGIN 2003: (Net income/net sales) $1,175.7/$32,505.4 0.0362 3.62% 2002: $1,019.2/$28,681.1 0.0355 3.55%

Three basic rates-of-return measures on assets and equity are important to the financial manager. The operating return on assets is computed as the earnings before interest and taxes divided by total assets. Notice that this ratio focuses on the firms operating performance and ignores how the firm is financed and taxed. Relevant data for Walgreens must be taken from both the balance sheets and the income statement:
OPERATING RETURN ON ASSETS 2003: (Earnings before interest & taxes/total assets) $1,848.3/$11,405.9 0.162 16.2% 2002: $1,624.2/$9,878.8 0.164 16.4%

Walgreenss operating return on assets was consistent in these 2 years. The net return on total assets, commonly referred to as the return on total assets, is measured as the firms net income divided by total assets. Here we measure the return on investment in assets after a firm has covered its operating expenses, interest costs, and tax obligations. Walgreenss return on total assets remained constant in 2002 and 2003:
RETURN ON TOTAL ASSETS 2003: (Net income/total assets) $1,175.7/$11,405.9 0.103 10.3% 2002: $1,019.2/$9,878.8 0.103 10.3%

Since Walgreens leases many of its stores, this not only reduces its financing needs but also reduces its level of fixed and total assets. In turn, this can help to increase asset-based profitability ratios, such as the return on total assets, if indeed the firm is profitable. A final profitability ratio is the return on equity. The return on equity measures the return that shareholders earned on their equity invested in the firm. The return on equity is measured as the firms net income divided by stockholders equity. This ratio reflects the fact that a portion of a firms total assets

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FOR EXAMPLE
Cost Efficiency Based on Figure 5-4, you can see that as of 2003, Walgreens is more costefficient (as seen in its higher operating and net profit margins) and generates more profit from its asset and equity base (as seen in the operating return on assets, return on total assets, and return on equity) than the retail drugstore industry as a whole.

are financed with borrowed funds. As with the return on assets, Walgreenss return on equity remained virtually the same from 2002 to 2003:
RETURN ON EQUITY 2003: (Net income/common equity) $1,175.7/$7,195.7 0.163 16.3% 2002: $1,019.2/$6,230.2 0.164 16.4%

Figure 5-4 indicates that industry profitability ratios were below those of Walgreens during 19972003. Industry profitability fell sharply in 1999 and 2000 while Walgreens was able to maintain its profitability.
5.3.5 Market-Value Ratios

Market-value ratios indicate the willingness of investors to value a firm in the marketplace relative to financial statement values. A firms profitability, risk, quality of management, and many other factors are reflected in its stock and security prices by the efficient financial markets. Financial statements are historical in nature, but the financial markets look to the future. We know that stock prices seem to reflect much of the known information about a company and are fairly good indicators of a companys true value. Hence, marketvalue ratios indicate the markets assessment of the value of the firms securities. The price/earnings ratio, or P/ E ratio, is simply the market price of the firms common stock divided by its annual earnings per share. Sometimes called the earnings multiple, the P/E ratio shows how much investors are willing to pay for each dollar of the firms earnings per share. Earnings per share come from the income statement, so it is sensitive to the many factors that affect net income. Though earnings per share cannot reflect the value of the firms patents or assets, human resources, culture, quality of management, or its risk, stock prices can and do reflect all these factors. Comparing a firms P/E relative to that of the stock market as a whole, or the firms competitors, indicates the markets perceptions of the true value of the company.

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Figure 5-4
Operating Profit Margin 8.00% 6.00% 4.00% 2.00% 0.00% 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 Walgreens Industry

Net Profit Margin 4.00% 3.00% 2.00% 1.00% 0.00% 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 Walgreens Industry

Operating Return on Assets 20.00% 15.00% 10.00% 5.00% 0.00% 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 Walgreens Industry

Return on Assets 15.00% 10.00% 5.00% 0.00% 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 Walgreens Industry

Return on Equity 20.00% 15.00% 10.00% 5.00% 0.00% 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 Walgreens Industry

Profitability ratios.

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Figure 5-5 Price/Earnings Ratio 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 Walgreens Industry

Price/Book Ratio 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 Walgreens Industry 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 Market-value ratios.

The price-to-book-value ratio measures the markets value of the firm relative to balance sheet equity. The book value of equity is simply the difference between the book values of assets and liabilities appearing on the balance sheet. The price-to-book-value ratio is the market price per share divided by the book value of equity per share. A higher ratio suggests that investors are more optimistic about the market value of a firms assets, its intangible assets, and its managers abilities. Figure 5-5 shows levels and trends in the P/E ratio and price/book ratio for Walgreens and the retail drugstore industry. Just as our analysis of financial statement ratios pointed out, Walgreenss higher profitability and

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consistency in its ratios over time has translated into higher relative market valuations. The market is optimistic in its valuation of Walgreenss future prospects. Both the earnings multiple and price/book ratios have fallen for Walgreens and the industry, but Walgreenss ratios continue to exceed those of the industry. Financial managers and analysts often talk about the quality of a firms earnings or the quality of its balance sheet. This has nothing to do with the size of a companys earnings or assets or who audited the financial statements. Quality financial statements are those that accurately reflect the firms true economic condition. In other words, accounting methods were not used to inflate its earnings or assets to make the firm look stronger than it really is. Therefore, based on a quality income statement, the companys sales revenues are likely to be repeated in the future. Earnings are not affected by one-time charges. A quality balance sheet will represent inventory that is marketable, not out of fashion or technologically obsolete. It will represent limited debt, indicating the firm could easily borrow money should the need arise. The firms assets will have market values that exceed their accounting book values; in other words, the firms assets will not be inflated by intangible assets such as goodwill or patents. All else constant, a firm with higher-quality financial statements will have higher market-value ratios. This occurs because the market will recognize and reward the economic reality of a firms earnings and assets that are not temporarily bloated by accounting gimmicks. Attempts to play accounting tricks will affect the firms ratios. Overstating existing inventory can have the effect of making current cost of goods sold appear lower, thus inflating profits. Booking revenue in advance of true sales to customers will inflate both sales and profits. The effect of such actions will be to increase profitability and asset-management ratios. Unfortunately, watching for accounting tricks or outright fraud is necessary for investors, as problems with companies in different industries such as telecommunications equipment (Lucent), dot-com firms (many), and energy trading (Enron) have shown in recent years.
5.3.6 Summing up Ratios

Heres what weve learned about Walgreens by computing their ratios and comparing them to the industry averages. The liquidity ratios show consistency over time, but the favorable gap between Walgreens and its industry-average ratios has narrowed or been reversed. This is also true of the asset-management ratios. Walgreenss historical advantages have disappeared. Should Walgreens need to raise money quickly, it should be able to issue debt, as Walgreenss debt ratios are lower than the industry averages (debt to assets, equity multiplier) and its interest coverage. But a truer picture would include fixed charges such as lease payments in the analysis. Walgreenss fixedcharge-coverage ratio shows that the firm does have an income cushion before it would have trouble meeting its stated lease payments.

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Part of Walgreenss success can be traced to good control and, until recently, superior asset-management. The receivables collection period is shorter than average as well. The combination of good cost control and efficient asset management has resulted in good profitability compared to the industry averages. The stock market has recognized Walgreenss abilities, and Walgreenss marketvalue ratios are above those of the industry.

SELF-CHECK
What do liquidity ratios measure? Name three liquidity ratios and describe what they tell about a firm. What do asset-management ratios measure? List three asset-management ratios and describe what they tell analysts about a firm. What do financial-leverage ratios tell analysts about a firm? What do profitability ratios measure?

5.4 Du Pont Method of Ratio Analysis

How does a supermarket generate profits? In general, supermarkets have very low profit margins. Many of its goods are sold for pennies above cost. Profits are generated by rapid turnover. The shelves are restocked daily with new items to take the place of items that were purchased. Thus, supermarkets generally have high asset-turnover ratios. Jewelry stores generate their profits differently. They typically have very high profit margins but low turnover. Jewelry items may sit on the shelf for months at a time until they are sold. This indicates there are two basic methods by which a firm can generate a return on its assets. It can offer low prices and low profit margins seeking high sales volumes on commodity products, like a supermarket, or it can sell its quality or differentiated goods at high prices and rely mainly on high profit margins to generate returns on low sales, like a jewelry store. The return on total-assets ratio can be used to examine this relationship and to determine how a given firm generates profits. The return on assets can be broken into two components. It equals the product of the profit margin and total asset turnover ratio:
Return on total assets profit margin total asset turnover (Net income/assets) (net income/sales) (sales/total assets)

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A supermarkets profit margin may be 1%, but its total asset turnover may be 10. This would give it a return on total assets of 1% 10 or 10%. A jewelry store may have a 25% profit margin and have a very low asset turnover of 0.40, also giving it a return on total assets of 10% (25% 0.40). Year-to-year variations in a firms return on total assets can be explained by changes in its profit margin, total asset turnover, or both. Like the return on total assets, return on equity can be broken down into component parts to tell us why the level of return changes from year to year or why two firms returns on equity differ. The return on equity is identical to return on total assets multiplied by the equity multiplier:
(Net income/equity) (net income/total assets) (total assets/equity)

We just saw how the return on total assets is itself comprised of two other ratios, so return on equity can be expanded to
Return on equity profit margin asset turnover equity multiplier (Net income/equity) (net income/sales) (sales/total assets) (total assets/equity)

Thus, a firms return on equity may differ from one year to the next, or from a competitors, as a result of differences in profit margin, asset turnover, or leverage. Unlike the other measures of profitability, return on equity directly reflects a firms use of leverage or debt. If a firm uses relatively more liabilities to finance assets, the equity multiplier will rise, and, holding other factors constant, the firms return on equity will increase. This leveraging of a firms return on equity does not imply greater operating efficiency, only a greater use of debt financing. This technique of breaking return on total assets, and return on equity into their component parts is called Du Pont analysis, named after the company that popularized it. The Du Pont analysis is the technique of breaking down return on total assets and return on equity into their component parts. Figure 5-6 illustrates how Du Pont analysis can break return on equity and return on total assets into different components (profit margin, total asset turnover, and equity multiplier) and how these components can then be broken into their constituent parts for analysis. Therefore, an indication that a firms return on equity has increased as a result of higher turnover can lead to study of the turnover ratio, using data from several years, to determine if the increase has resulted from higher sales volume, better management of assets, or some combination of the two. Table 5-3 illustrates the use of Du Pont analysis to explain the changes in Walgreenss return on equity during 20002003. Between 2000 and 2001, the main reason for the decrease in Walgreenss return on equity was a decrease in

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Figure 5-6 Examine Current and Prior Y ears Income Statements to Determine Source of Change: Sales Expenses Product Mix

Net Income Profit Margin Divided by Sales Return on Assets Multiplied by Sales Asset Turnover Return on Equity Multiplied by Divided by Total Assets

Examine Product and Territorial Mixes

Current Assets plus Fixed Assets

Current Assets Total Assets Equity Multiplier Divided by Examine Changes in Subaccounts and Retained Earnings plus Fixed Assets

Stockholders Equity

The Du Pont system of financial analysis.

the net profit margin and asset efficiency. Between 20012003, Walgreenss profit margin and asset-efficiency ratios recovered, but return on equity fell as its use of leverage declined. Managers and analysts generally prefer to see increases in the return on equity arising from increased profitability or increased asset efficiency and decreases in return of equity occurring because of reductions in leverage.

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Table 5-3: Du Pont Analysis of Walgreens, Inc. TOTAL ASSESTS NET INCOME* NET INCOME SALES TOTAL ASSETS EQUITY YEAR SALES EQUITY 2000 2001 2002 2003 3.66% 3.60 3.55 3.62 2.99 2.79 2.90 2.85 1.68 1.70 1.59 1.59 18.35 17.01 16.36 16.34

* Return on equity is as reported in the text. The product of the three components may not equal this number exactly because of rounding.

SELF-CHECK
What is Du Pont analysis? Describe the reasons why a firms return on equity might increase from one year to the next. What is the total-turnover-asset ratio?

5.5 Long-Term Financial Planning

Financial ratios and financial statement relationships can be used to analyze firms and their competitors, but they have another more practical use for managers who use them in the companys financial planning process. Financial planning requires foresight. Long-range plans covering several years must be prepared to project growth in sales, assets, and employees. A sales

FOR EXAMPLE
Return on Equity and Investing Return on equity is an important factor for many investors when they choose stocks to buy. The return on equity is the quickest way to determine if a firm is an asset creator or cash consumer. For example, if the return on equity is 15%, this means that 15 cents of assets are created for each dollar that was originally invested.

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FOR EXAMPLE
External Financing A manufacturing firm may need to invest in a plant and equipment to produce an inventory that will fill forecasted sales orders.

forecast is the first step, and it should take into consideration expected developments in the economy and competition from other similar businesses. The sales forecast then must be supported by plans for adequate investment in assets. After determining the size of the necessary investment, plans must be made for estimating the amount of financing needed and how to acquire it. Managers must also recognize and plan for additional employees as part of the growth process. In addition to long-range financial plans or budgets, the financial manager should also be concerned with cash inflows and outflows associated with the business. Cash flows are often monitored on a daily basis for large firms, while small firms may make only monthly cash budgets. Using the ratios we have just learned about goes hand in hand with successful financial planning. An established firm should conduct a financial ratio analysis of past performance to aid in developing realistic future plans. The new firm should analyze the performance characteristics of other firms in the same industry before making plans.

SELF-CHECK
How can ratios be used to help managers do financial planning? What should long-range plans project?

5.6 Cost-Volume-Profit Analysis

Cost-volume-profit analysis represents another tool used by managers for financial planning purposes. Cost-volume-profit analysis is used by managers for financial planning to estimate the firms operating profits at different levels of unit sales. A variation, called break-even analysis, can be used to estimate how many units of product must be sold in order for the firm to break even or have a zero profit.

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Break-even analysis is used to estimate how many units of product must be sold in order for the firm to break even or have a zero profit. As an example of cost-volume-profit analysis, lets assume that a Walgreens store is considering adding a new product to its stores. It will be sold for $10 per item. The variable costsin this case, the cost of purchasing the item from its manufacturerwill be $6. Fixed costsmostly various administrative overhead expenses of tracking inventory and dealing with the supplierare expected to be $1,000 annually. Management is interested in knowing what level of operating profit will occur if unit sales are 2,000 per year. From the format of an income statement, we know that sales revenues minus various costs gives us operating profit or earnings before interest and taxes (EBIT). Sales can be expressed as unit price multiplied by quantity sold. The costs can be expressed by variable costs and fixed costs. The variable cost per unit (VC) times the quantity sold (Q) gives us total variable cost: (VC)(Q). Total fixed costs, FC, are constant; they are called fixed because they do not change with increases or decreases in output. Thus, we can find operating income as follows:
EBIT sales variable costs fixed costs

We can expand this formula as follows:

EBIT (Price per item quantity) (variable costs quantity) fixed costs

In terms of our symbols, this becomes

EBIT (P)(Q) (VC)(Q) FC.

For our new product example, we have

EBIT ($10 2,000) ($6 2,000) $1,000 $20,000 $12,000 $1,000 $20,000 $13,000 $7,000

If sales reach 2,000 units per year, the firm expects an increase in operating profit of $7,000. Management also may want to know how many units will have to be sold in order to break eventhat is, what volume needs to be reached so that the amount of total revenues equals total cost (variable costs plus fixed costs). The quantity of unit sales that solves this equation is the break-even quantity (QBE). Using data from the new product example, we have the following calculation:
Quantity break even fixed costs Price variable costs (per item)

This equalis:
QBE $1,000 $10 $6.00

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FOR EXAMPLE
General Motors Fails to Break Even In 2005, the automaker General Motors failed to break even. In fact, General Motors lost $8.6 billion. The losses were due to lower market share, higher labor costs, and higher health care costs. Due to the poor performance, General Motors, was forced to lay off tens of thousands of workers worldwide and decrease benefits. General Motors hopes to break even or post a small profit in 2006.

This equals:
$1,000 $4.00

Dividing $1,000 by $4.00 gives us 250 units. Walgreens must sell 250 units of the new product in order to break even. The break-even point occurs when total revenues equal total costs. The break-even point in sales dollars is equal to the selling price per unit times the break-even point in units. In our example, we have $10 times 250 units or $2,500. Since a companys sales revenues are rarely constant, the variability of sales or revenues over time indicates a basic operating business risk that must be considered when developing financial plans. In addition, changes in the amount of income shown on the income statement are affected by both changes in sales and the use of fixed versus variable costs.

SELF-CHECK
What does cost-volume-profit analysis measure? What does break-even analysis measure? How do you calculate EBIT?

SUMMARY
Good financial planning is essential to the success of any business. It requires an understanding of the financial statements and the ability to analyze them and interpret the ratios. As you have seen in this chapter, the ratios are helpful tools that can pinpoint problem areas that require deeper examination of the business entity.

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KEY TERMS
Asset-management ratios Average collection period Measure that indicates the extent to which assets are used to support sales. Measure that indicates how long it takes a company to collect its accounts receivables. It is calculated by taking the year-end accounts receivable divided by the average net sales per day. Measure that includes all of a companys financial obligations and how long, in terms of days, it will take the company to fulfill their obligations. It is computed by dividing the year-end accounts payable amount by the firms average cost of goods sold per day. Financial technique used to estimate how many units of product must be sold in order for the firm to break even or have a zero profit. Financial technique used by managers for financial planning to estimate the firms operating profits at different levels of unit sales. Financial technique that uses ratios to compare different companies at the same point in time. Measure of a companys ability to pay off its short-term debt as it comes due. The technique of breaking down return on total assets and return on equity into their component parts. Measure of a companys financial leverage. Measure is determined by dividing total assets by total stockholders equity. The higher the rate, the more the company is using debt to finance its asset base. Measure that indicates the extent to which borrowed or debt funds are used to finance assets. Measure of how efficiently a company uses its fixed assets to generate sales. It is computed by dividing net sales by the fixed assets. Measure that indicates the ability of a firm to meet its contractual obligations for interest, leases, and debt principal repayments out of its operating income.

Average payment period

Break-even analysis

Cost-volume-profit analysis

Cross-section analysis Current ratio Du Pont analysis

Equity multiplier ratio

Financial-leverage ratios Fixed-assets-turnover ratio

Fixed-charge-coverage ratio

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Industry-comparative analysis Financial technique used to compare a firms ratios against average ratios for other companies in the same industry. Interest coverage Measures the ability of the firm to service all debts. It is calculated by dividing the firms operating income or earnings before interest and taxes (EBIT) by the annual interest expense. It is commonly referred to as times-interest-earned ratio. Inventory-turnover ratio Measures the number of times in a year that a company replaces its inventory. It is computed by dividing the cost of goods sold by total inventory. Liquidity ratios Measures that indicate the ability to meet shortterm obligations to creditors as they mature or come due. Market-value ratios Measure that indicates the willingness of investors to value a firm in the marketplace relative to financial statement values. Net profit margin A widely used measure of a companys profitability; it is calculated as the firms net income after taxes divided by net sales. Net return on total assets Firms net income divided by total assets. Commonly referred to as the return on total assets. Net working capital Measure of a firms liquidity. The measure is the firms current assets minus current liabilities. Operating profit margin Indicates the profits of the company before interest and taxes are deducted from a firms operations. It is calculated on the firms earnings before interest and taxes divided by net sales. Operating return on assets Earnings before interest and taxes divided by total assets. Price/earnings ratio The market price of the firms common stock divided by its annual earnings per share. Also referred to as the P/E ratio. Price-to-book-value ratio Measures the markets value of the firm relative to balance sheet equity. Profitability ratios Measure that indicates the firms ability to generate returns on its sales, assets, and equity.

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Quick ratio

Ratio analysis Receivables turnover

Return on equity Total-assets-turnover ratio

Total-debt-to-equity ratio

Trend analysis

Used to gauge a firms liquidity. The measure is computed by dividing the sum of cash, marketable securities, and accounts receivable by the current liabilities. Also referred to as the acid-test ratio. Financial technique that involves dividing various financial statement numbers into one another. Measure of how effectively a firm extends credit and collects debts. It is computed by dividing annual sales, preferably credit sales, by the yearend accounts receivable. Measures the return that shareholders earned on their equity invested in the firm. Measure of how efficiently a company uses its assets to generate sales. Measure that is computed by dividing net sales by the companys total assets. Measure that shows a firms total debt in relation to the total dollar amount owners have invested in the firm. Measure that uses ratios to evaluate a firms performance over time. Also referred to as timeseries analysis.

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ASSESS YOUR UNDERSTANDING

Go to www.wiley.com/college/Melicher to evaluate your knowledge of the basics of financial statement analysis. Measure your learning by comparing pretest and post-test results.

Summary Questions
1. It would be possible for financial statement analysis to affect nonfinance operations of a firm. True or false? 2. Ratio analysis is a financial technique that involves dividing various financial statements numbers into one another. True or false? 3. Cross-sectional analysis is used to evaluate a firms performance over time. True or false? 4. Ratios standardize balance sheet and income statement numbers, thus minimizing the effect of firm size. True or false? 5. Asset management ratios indicate the ability to meet short-term obligations to creditors as they come due. True or false? 6. Financial-leverage ratios indicate the extent to which borrowed funds are used to finance assets. True or false? 7. The market-value ratios indicate the willingness of investors to value a firm in the marketplace relative to financial statement values. True or false? 8. The net profit margin is an example of a market-value ratio. True or false? 9. Liquidity ratios indicate the extent to which assets are used to support sales. True or false? 10. The ability of a firm to meet its short-term debt obligations as they come due is indicated by which of the following ratios? (a) Liquidity ratios (b) Asset-utilization ratios (c) Financial-leverage ratios (d) Profitability ratios 11. The extent to which assets are used to support sales is indicated by which of the following ratios? (a) Liquidity ratios (b) Asset-utilization ratios (c) Financial-leverage ratios (d) Profitability ratios

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12. Which item is not included in the calculation for both the quick ratio and the current ratio? (a) Accounts receivable (b) Current assets (c) Inventories (d) Current liabilities 13. Management of current assets does not involve which one of the following areas? (a) Cash and marketable securities (b) Accounts receivable (c) Inventory (d) Plant and equipment 14. The equity multiplier is calculated as (a) total assets divided by owners equity. (b) net income divided by owners equity. (c) net income divided by total assets. (d) net sales divided by total assets. 15. The extent to which assets are financed by borrowed funds and other liabilities is indicated by (a) liquidity ratios. (b) asset-utilization ratios. (c) financial-leverage ratios. (d) profitability ratios. 16. The price/earnings ratio (P/E) is calculated as (a) stock price divided by earnings per share. (b) stock price times earnings per share. (c) earnings per share divided by stock price. (d) stock price divided by the difference between earnings per share and cash dividends per share. 17. Financial analysis using ratios can assist managers in the firms long-term financial-planning process. True or false? 18. The method of calculating return on assets, which highlights the importance of sales, profit margin, and asset turnover, is known as (a) the Gordon model. (b) cost-volume profit analysis.

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ANALYSIS OF FINANCIAL STATEMENTS

(c) Du Pont analysis. (d) break-even analysis. 19. In employing Du Pont analysis, the user would break the return on total assets into the profit margin, total asset turnover, and an equity multiplier. True or false? 20. Cost-volume-profit analysis can be used to estimate the firms operating profits at different levels of (a) dollar sales. (b) unit sales. (c) dollar fixed costs. (d) unit variable costs. 21. The break-even quantity is inversely related to the level of a firms variable costs. True or false?

Review Questions
1. List some reasons why financial statement analysis is conducted. Identify some of the participants that analyze firms financial statements. 2. What is ratio analysis? Also, briefly describe the three basic categories or ways that ratio analysis is used. 3. Identify the types of ratios that are used to analyze a firms financial performance based on its income statements and balance sheets. Which type or category of ratios relates stock market information to financial statement items? 4. What do liquidity ratios indicate? Identify some basic liquidity ratios. 5. What do asset-management ratios indicate? Identify some basic assetmanagement ratios. 6. What do financial-leverage ratios indicate? Identify some measures of financial leverage. 7. What do profitability ratios indicate? Identify some measures of profitability. 8. What do market-value ratios indicate? Identify some market-value ratios. 9. Describe the Du Pont method or system of ratio analysis. What are the two major components of the system? How is the system related to both the balance sheet and the income statement? 10. How is the process of financial planning used to estimate asset investment requirements? 11. What is cost-volume-profit analysis? How can it be used by a firm?

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Applying This Chapter

1. Find the average payment period if accounts payable is $20,000, cost of goods sold is $200,000, and sales are $500,000. 2. Find the net profit if margin earnings before interest and taxes is $20,000, net income is $10,000, sales are $50,000, and total assets are $100,000. 3. What would be the return on total assets of a firm if net income is $50,000, total sales are $100,000, and total assets are $175,000? 4. If the total asset turnover of a firm is 1.5, total assets are $500,000, and net income is $50,000, what is the profit margin? 5. Assume a firm is developing, manufacturing, and selling a basic software package at $500 per copy. Raw materials and direct labor total $200 per copy. Fixed costs are $250,000. If the firm sells 5,000 units per year, what will be the operating profit? 6. Assume a firm is developing, manufacturing, and selling a basic software package at $300 per copy. Raw material and direct labor total $100 per unit. Fixed costs are $150,000. If unit sales are 3,000 per year, what will be the break-even point in units? 7. What is the current ratio of a firm with current assets of $300,000, current liabilities of $100,000, and inventory of $100,000? 8. What is the quick ratio of a firm with current assets of $300,000, current liabilities of $100,000 and inventory of $100,000? 9. If a firms sales are $2,000,000, its cost of goods sold is $1,500,000, and its total assets are $1,000,000, what is total asset turnover? 10. If a firms sales are $2,000,000, its cost of goods sold is $1,500,000, and its fixed assets are $1,000,000, what is fixed asset turnover? 11. If a firms inventories on hand are $200,000, its cost of goods sold is $600,000, and its sales are $800,000, what is the inventory turnover using cost of goods sold? 12. If a firm has an after-tax profit margin of 5%, an asset turnover of 2.5 times, and no debt, what is the return on equity? 13. Given the following financial datanet income/sales 6%; sales/total assets 3.5; debt/total assets 30%what is the return on total assets? 14. What is the total asset turnover of a firm with total liabilities and owners equity of $100,000 and net sales of $50,000? 15. If a firm has a receivables turnover of 12, on average, which of the following would be the firms average collection period? 16. If a firm has sales of $100, total expenses (including interest and taxes) of $50, has a stock that is selling at $50 per share and has 10 share of stock outstanding, what is the firms P/E ratio?

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YOU TRY IT

Good Managers
Part of being a good manager is managing both people and assets well, and doing so often results in larger profits for a company. Review the companies listed on the New York Stock Exchange; based on the price of their stock, choose the companies that you think are managing assets and people well.

Leases versus Long-Term Debt

Consider whether long-term debt on buildings is a better option than leasing property for business operations. Long-term debt on a building results in interest charges, and the building must be maintained. Major repairs on leased properties are usually paid for by the owner, and the rental payments are a deductible business expense.

Average Inventory Calculation

Using the Walgreenss balance sheets that appear in this chapter, take the beginning inventory figure plus the ending inventory figure divided by two and use the result to calculate the inventory turnover ratio and see how it compares to the figures in the sample.

Stock Quotes for Walgreenss Competitors

Review the stock quotes in the Wall Street Journal for other companies in the retail drug industry like Osco and CVS and see which companies currently have the highest price per share of stock.

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