RAY OPTICS - I

1. Refraction of Light 2. Laws of Refraction 3. Principle of Re ersi!ilit" of Light #. Refraction thro$gh a Parallel Sla! %. Refraction thro$gh a Co&po$n' Sla! (. Apparent )epth of a Li*$i' +. Total Internal Reflection ,. Refraction at Spherical S$rfaces - Intro'$ction -. Ass$&ptions an' Sign Con entions 1.. Refraction at Con e/ an' Conca e S$rfaces 11. Lens 0a1er2s 3or&$la 12. 3irst an' Secon' Principal 3oc$s 13. Thin Lens 4*$ation 56a$ssian 3or&7 1#. Linear 0agnification

Refraction of Light8
Refraction is the pheno&enon of change in the path of light as it tra els fro& one &e'i$& to another 5when the ra" of light is inci'ent o!li*$el"7. It can also !e 'efine' as the pheno&enon of change in spee' of light fro& one &e'i$& to another.

Laws of Refraction8
I Law8 The inci'ent ra"9 the nor&al to the refracting s$rface at the point of inci'ence an' the refracte' ra" all lie in the sa&e plane.

Rarer : )enser r ; i Rarer

r :

the sine of the angle of inci'ence to the sine of the angle of refraction is a constant. 5Snell2s Law7
;< sin i sin r

5The constant ; is calle' refracti e in'e/ of the &e'i$&9 i is the angle of inci'ence an' r is the angle of refraction.7

TIPS8 1. ; of opticall" rarer &e'i$& is lower an' that of a 'enser &e'i$& is higher. 2. ; of 'enser &e'i$& w.r.t. rarer &e'i$& is &ore than 1 an' that of rarer &e'i$& w.r.t. 'enser &e'i$& is less than 1. 5;air < ; ac$$& < 17 3. In refraction9 the elocit" an' wa elength of light change. #. In refraction9 the fre*$enc" an' phase of light 'o not change. %.
a ;&

< ca = c&

an'

a ;&

< >a = >& sin r sin i r :

Principle of Re ersi!ilit" of Light8

a;! < a;!

sin i sin r or

!;a < a ;!

Rarer 5a7 )enser 5!7 ;

/ !;a < 1

< 1 = !;a

If a ra" of light9 after s$ffering an" n$&!er of reflections an'=or refractions has its path re erse' at an" stage9 it tra els !ac1 to the so$rce along the sa&e path in the opposite 'irection.

A nat$ral conse*$ence of the principle of re ersi!ilit" is that the i&age an' o!?ect positions can !e interchange'. These positions are calle' con?$gate positions.

Refraction thro$gh a Parallel Sla!8

a;!

<

sin i1 sin r1

!;a <

sin i2 sin r2

i1

: Rarer 5a7 : )enser 5!7 0 " r2

@$t a;! / !;a < 1 sin i1 sin r1 / sin i2 sin r2 <1 t

r1 A i2

It i&plies that i1 < r2 an' i2 < r1 since i1 B r1 an' i2 B r2.

Lateral Shift8
"< t sin A cos r1 or "< t sin5i1- r17 cos r 1

Rarer 5a7

Special Case8 If i1 is er" s&all9 then r1 is also er" s&all. i.e. sin5i1 C r17 < i1 C r1 an' cos r1 < 1 " < t 5i1 C r17 or " < t i151 C 1 =a;!7

Refraction thro$gh a Co&po$n' Sla!8

a ;! <

sin i1 sin r1 sin r1 sin r2 sin r2 sin i1 i1

;a Rarer 5a7 : )enser 5!7 r1 ;! r2 : ;c

!;c <

r1

c;a <

a ;!

/ ! ;c / c ;a < 1
a ;! ! ;c

)enser 5c7

or or

/ ! ;c < a;c < a;c = a;!

r2

Rarer 5a7

i1

;c D ;!

Apparent )epth of a Li*$i'8

!;a <

sin i sin r hr ha <

or

a ;! <

sin r sin i Rarer 5a7 r ;a

a;! <

Real 'epth Apparent 'epth ha

O2 O

Apparent )epth of a :$&!er of I&&isci!le Li*$i's8

h a < E h i = ;i
i<1 n

hr

r i

i ;! )enser 5!7

Apparent Shift8
Apparent shift < hr - ha < hr C 5hr = ;7 TIPS8 < hr F 1 - 1=;G

1. If the o!ser er is in rarer &e'i$& an' the o!?ect is in 'enser &e'i$& then ha H hr. 5To a !ir'9 the fish appears to !e nearer than act$al 'epth.7 2. If the o!ser er is in 'enser &e'i$& an' the o!?ect is in rarer &e'i$& then ha D hr. 5To a fish9 the !ir' appears to !e farther than act$al height.7

Total Internal Reflection8

Total Internal Reflection 5TIR7 is the pheno&enon of co&plete reflection of light !ac1 into the sa&e &e'i$& for angles of inci'ence greater than the critical angle of that &e'i$&. : : : :

r < -.I ic i D ic i

Rarer 5air7

;a

O Con'itions for TIR8

)enser 5glass7

;g

1. The inci'ent ra" &$st !e in opticall" 'enser &e'i$&. 2. The angle of inci'ence in the 'enser &e'i$& &$st !e greater than the critical angle for the pair of &e'ia in contact.

Relation !etween Critical Angle an' Refracti e In'e/8

Critical angle is the angle of inci'ence in the 'enser &e'i$& for which the angle of refraction in the rarer &e'i$& is -.I.
g;a

<

sin i sin r < 1 g ;a

<

sin ic sin -.I

a;g

< sin ic 1 sin ic or 1 sin ic < a;g >g >a

or

a ;g

<

Also

sin i c <

Re' colo$r has &a/i&$& al$e of critical angle an' Jiolet colo$r has &ini&$& al$e of critical angle since9 1 sin ic < a;g < 1 a K 5!= >27

Applications of T I R8
1. 0irage for&ation 2. Loo&ing 3. Totall" reflecting Pris&s #. Optical 3i!res %. Spar1ling of )ia&on's

Spherical Refracting S$rfaces8

A spherical refracting s$rface is a part of a sphere of refracting &aterial. A refracting s$rface which is con e/ towar's the rarer &e'i$& is calle' con e/ refracting s$rface. A refracting s$rface which is conca e towar's the rarer &e'i$& is calle' conca e refracting s$rface.

Rarer 0e'i$&

)enser 0e'i$&

Rarer 0e'i$&

)enser 0e'i$&

PL R

C R

LP

APC@ C Principal A/is C C Centre of C$r at$re P C Pole R C Ra'i$s of C$r at$re

Ass$&ptions8
1. O!?ect is the point o!?ect l"ing on the principal a/is. 2. The inci'ent an' the refracte' ra"s &a1e s&all angles with the principal a/is. 3. The apert$re 5'ia&eter of the c$r e' s$rface7 is s&all.

:ew Cartesian Sign Con entions8

1. The inci'ent ra" is ta1en fro& left to right. 2. All the 'istances are &eas$re' fro& the pole of the refracting s$rface. 3. The 'istances &eas$re' along the 'irection of the inci'ent ra" are ta1en positi e an' against the inci'ent ra" are ta1en negati e. #. The ertical 'istances &eas$re' fro& principal a/is in the $pwar' 'irection are ta1en positi e an' in the 'ownwar' 'irection are ta1en negati e.

Refraction at Con e/ S$rface8

53ro& Rarer 0e'i$& to )enser 0e'i$& - Real I&age7
i<MKN N<rKO tan M < tan O < tan N < or 0A 0O 0A 0I 0A 0C r<N-O or M < or O < or N < 0A 0O 0A 0I 0A 0C O $ ;1 : i A r N R ;2
)enser 0e'i$&

P 0

L
I

Rarer 0e'i$&

Accor'ing to Snell2s law9 ;2 ;2 sin i i < or < sin r r ;1 ;1

or

;1 i < ;2 r

S$!stit$ting for i9 r9 M9 O an' N9 replacing 0 !" P an' rearranging9 ;1 ;2 ;2 - ;1 Appl"ing sign con entions with al$es9 < K PO < - $9 PI < K an' PC < K R PO PI PC ;1 ;2 ;2 - ;1 < K -$ R

Refraction at Con e/ S$rface8

53ro& Rarer 0e'i$& to )enser 0e'i$& - Jirt$al I&age7
: i ;1 -$ K ;2 < ;2 - ;1 A r M N C ;2
)enser 0e'i$&

L
R I

O $P 0 ;1
Rarer 0e'i$&

Refraction at Conca e S$rface8

53ro& Rarer 0e'i$& to )enser 0e'i$& - Jirt$al I&age7
r A ;1 -$ K ;2 < ;2 - ;1 R
O

L OL
I C $

L 0 P
)enser 0e'i$&

Rarer 0e'i$&

;1

;2

Refraction at Con e/ S$rface8

53ro& )enser 0e'i$& to Rarer 0e'i$& - Real I&age7
A ;2 -$ ;1 ;1 - ;2 R M CL $ i N R : r O

<

0 LP

L
I

)enser 0e'i$& ;2

Rarer 0e'i$& ;1

Refraction at Con e/ S$rface8

53ro& )enser 0e'i$& to Rarer 0e'i$& - Jirt$al I&age7
;2 -$ K ;1 < ;1 - ;2 R

Refraction at Conca e S$rface8

53ro& )enser 0e'i$& to Rarer 0e'i$& - Jirt$al I&age7
;2 -$ K ;1 < ;1 - ;2 R

:ote8 1. 4/pression for Po!?ect in rarer &e'i$&2 is sa&e for whether it is real or irt$al i&age or con e/ or conca e s$rface. ;1 -$ K ;2 < ;2 - ;1 R

2. 4/pression for Po!?ect in 'enser &e'i$&2 is sa&e for whether it is real or irt$al i&age or con e/ or conca e s$rface. ;2 -$ K ;1 < ;1 - ;2 R

3. Qowe er the al$es of $9 9 R9 etc. &$st !e ta1en with proper sign con entions while sol ing the n$&erical pro!le&s. #. The refracti e in'ices ;1 an' ;2 get interchange' in the e/pressions.

Lens 0a1er2s 3or&$la8

3or refraction at LP1:9 ;1 ;2 ;2 - ;1 CC1 O C2 R2 $ < CO K CI1 :1 i L ;1 A ;1 :2

5as if the i&age is for&e' in the 'enser &e'i$&7 3or refraction at LP2:9 ;2 ;1 -5;1 - ;27 < K -CI1 CI CC2

P1L C ;2

LP

L
R1

C1

I1

: 5as if the o!?ect is in the 'enser &e'i$& an' the i&age is for&e' in the rarer &e'i$&7 Co&!ining the refractions at !oth the s$rfaces9 S$!stit$ting the al$es with sign con entions9 ;1 ;1 1 7 < 5;2 - ;175 1 K K 1 1 1 CC2 5; - ;17 1 CO CC1 CI 5 7 K < 2 ; 1 R2 -$ R1

Since ;2 = ;1 < ; 1 -$ or 1 -$ K 1 < 5; C 17 5 1 R1 1 R2 7 K 1 <5 ;2 1 - 17 5 ;1 R1 1 R2 7

Rhen the o!?ect is 1ept at infinit"9 the i&age is for&e' at the principal foc$s. i.e. $ < - S9 So9 1 f < K f. 1 R2 7

1 < 5; C 17 5 R1

This e*$ation is calle' PLens 0a1er2s 3or&$la2. Also9 fro& the a!o e e*$ations we get9 1 -$ 1 1 f

<

3irst Principal 3oc$s8

3irst Principal 3oc$s is the point on the principal a/is of the lens at which if an o!?ect is place'9 the i&age wo$l' !e for&e' at infinit".

31 f1 f1

31

Secon' Principal 3oc$s8

Secon' Principal 3oc$s is the point on the principal a/is of the lens at which the i&age is for&e' when the o!?ect is 1ept at infinit".

32 f2

32 f2

Thin Lens 3or&$la 56a$ssian 3or& of Lens 4*$ation78

3or Con e/ Lens8
A 0 231

31 @

L C
$ f C@2 C@ C@2 <

32

232

@2

R Triangles A@C an' A2@2C are si&ilar. A2@2 A@ < C@2 C@

@232 C32 C@2 - C32 A2

Triangles 0C32 an' A2@232 are si&ilar. A2@2 0C or A2@2 A@ < < @232 C32 @232 C32

C@ C32 Accor'ing to new Cartesian sign con entions9 C@ < - $9 C@2 < K 1 1 $ < an' 1 f C32 < K f.

<

Linear 0agnification8
Linear &agnification pro'$ce' !" a lens is 'efine' as the ratio of the siTe of the i&age to the siTe of the o!?ect. I & < 0agnification in ter&s of an' f8 O A2@2 C@2 f< & < C@ A@ f Accor'ing to new Cartesian sign con entions9 A2@2 < K I9 A@ < - O9 C@2 < K C@ < - $. KI -O < K -$ or &< I O < an'

0agnification in ter&s of
& < f f-$

an' f8

Power of a Lens8
Power of a lens is its a!ilit" to !en' a ra" of light falling on it an' is reciprocal of its focal length. Rhen f is in &etre9 power is &eas$re' in )ioptre 5)7. P < 1 f

RAY OPTICS - II
1. Refraction thro$gh a Pris& 2. 4/pression for Refracti e In'e/ of Pris& 3. )ispersion #. Ang$lar )ispersion an' )ispersi e Power %. @l$e Colo$r of the S1" an' Re' Colo$r of the S$n (. Co&po$n' 0icroscope +. Astrono&ical Telescope 5:or&al A'?$st&ent7 ,. Astrono&ical Telescope 5I&age at L))J7 -. :ewtonian Telescope 5Reflecting T"pe7 1.. Resol ing Power of 0icroscope an' Telescope

Refraction of Light thro$gh Pris&8

A :1 i P ) r1 O r2 @ ; C A U :2 e

Pris& Refracting S$rfaces 3ro& 517 an' 5279 A < r1 K r2 3ro& 5379 A < 5i K e7 C 5A7

In *$a'rilateral APOU9 A K O < 1,.I VV .517

5since :1 an' :2 are nor&al7 In triangle OPU9 r1 K r2 K O < 1,.I In triangle )PU9 A < 5i - r17 K 5e - r27 A < 5i K e7 C 5r1 K r27 VV.537 VV .527

or

iKe<AKA

S$& of angle of inci'ence an' angle of e&ergence is e*$al to the s$& of angle of pris& an' angle of 'e iation.

Jariation of angle of 'e iation with angle of inci'ence8

Rhen angle of inci'ence increases9 the angle of 'e iation 'ecreases. At a partic$lar al$e of angle of inci'ence the angle of 'e iation !eco&es &ini&$& an' is calle' Pangle of &ini&$& 'e iation2. At A&9 i<e an' r1 < r2 < r 5sa"7 A

A& . i<e i

After &ini&$& 'e iation9 angle of 'e iation increases with angle of inci'ence.

Refracti e In'e/ of 0aterial of Pris&8

A < r1 K r2 A < 2r r<A=2 iKe<AKA 2 i < A K A& i < 5A K A&7 = 2 ;< sin Accor'ing to Snell2s law9 ;< sin i sin r1 sin < sin i sin r

5A K A&7 2 A 2

Refraction !" a S&all-angle' Pris& for S&all angle of Inci'ence8

;< sin i sin r1 an' ;< sin e sin r2

If i is ass$&e' to !e s&all9 then r19 r2 an' e will also !e er" s&all. So9 replacing sines of the angles !" angles the&sel es9 we get ;< i r1 an' ; < e r2

i K e < ; 5r1 K r27 < ; A @$t i K e < A K A So9 A K A < ; A or A < A 5; C 17

)ispersion of Rhite Light thro$gh Pris&8

The pheno&enon of splitting a ra" of white light into its constit$ent colo$rs 5wa elengths7 is calle' 'ispersion an' the !an' of colo$rs fro& iolet to re' is calle' spectr$& 5JI@6YOR7. A

) A

Ar

Rhite light @ C Screen

Ca$se of )ispersion8
; < sin i sin r an' ;r < sin i sin rr Since ; D ;r 9 rr D r So9 the colo$rs are refracte' at 'ifferent angles an' hence get separate'.

)ispersion can also !e e/plaine' on the !asis of Ca$ch"2s e*$ation. ;<a K ! >2 K c ># 5where a9 ! an' c are constants for the &aterial7

Since > H > r 9 @$t A < A 5; C 17 Therefore9

; D ;r

A D Ar

So9 the colo$rs get separate' with 'ifferent angles of 'e iation. Jiolet is &ost 'e iate' an' Re' is least 'e iate'.

Ang$lar )ispersion8
1. The 'ifference in the 'e iations s$ffere' !" two colo$rs in passing thro$gh a pris& gi es the ang$lar 'ispersion for those colo$rs. 2. The angle !etween the e&ergent ra"s of an" two colo$rs is calle' ang$lar 'ispersion !etween those colo$rs. 3. It is the rate of change of angle of 'e iation with wa elength. 5W < 'A = '>7 W < A - Ar or W < 5; C ;r7 A

)ispersi e Power8
The 'ispersi e power of the &aterial of a pris& for an" two colo$rs is 'efine' as the ratio of the ang$lar 'ispersion for those two colo$rs to the &ean 'e iation pro'$ce' !" the pris&. It &a" also !e 'efine' as 'ispersion per $nit 'e iation. W A K Ar X< where A is the &ean 'e iation an' A < A 2 5; C ;r7 A 5; C ;r7 A - Ar or X < Also X < or X < 5; C 17 5;" C 17 A " A

Scattering of Light C @l$e colo$r of the s1" an' Re''ish appearance of the S$n at S$n-rise an' S$n-set8
The &olec$les of the at&osphere an' other particles that are s&aller than the longest wa elength of isi!le light are &ore effecti e in scattering light of shorter wa elengths than light of longer wa elengths. The a&o$nt of scattering is in ersel" proportional to the fo$rth power of the wa elength. 5Ra"leigh 4ffect7 Light fro& the S$n near the horiTon passes thro$gh a greater 'istance in the 4arth2s at&osphere than 'oes the light recei e' when the S$n is o erhea'. The correspon'ingl" greater scattering of short wa elengths acco$nts for the re''ish appearance of the S$n at rising an' at setting. Rhen loo1ing at the s1" in a 'irection awa" fro& the S$n9 we recei e scattere' s$nlight in which short wa elengths pre'o&inate gi ing the s1" its characteristic !l$ish colo$r.

Co&po$n' 0icroscope8
$o @ 23o A 3o fo 3o 23o
o

A222 23e

Po

L
fo

A22

A2

fe O
Pe

3e

4"e

O!?ecti e @2 L @22 O!?ecti e8 The con erging lens nearer to the o!?ect. 4"epiece8 The con erging lens thro$gh which the final i&age is seen. @oth are of short focal length. 3ocal length of e"epiece is slightl" greater than that of the o!?ecti e. ) 4"epiece

Ang$lar 0agnification or 0agnif"ing Power 5078

Ang$lar &agnification or &agnif"ing power of a co&po$n' &icroscope is 'efine' as the ratio of the angle O s$!ten'e' !" the final i&age at the e"e to the angle M s$!ten'e' !" the o!?ect seen 'irectl"9 when !oth are place' at the least 'istance of 'istinct ision. 0< O M 0e < 1 an' / / ) A22A222 ) A@
e

0 < 0e / 0 o or 0e < 1 K
o

Since angles are s&all9 M < tan M an' O < tan O 0< 0< 0< tan O tan M A22@22 ) A22@22 )

) fe
o

fe

5 e<-) < - 2% c&7 51K ) fe 7

0o <

- $o

0<

- $o

0 < A22@22 A@ A22@22 / 0< A2@2

Since the o!?ect is place' er" close to the principal foc$s of the o!?ecti e an' the i&age is for&e' er" close to the e"epiece9 $o Y fo an' o Y L ) -L 7 5 1 K 0< fe fo or 0Y -L fo / ) fe 5:or&al a'?$st&ent i.e. i&age at infinit"7

A2@2 A@

Astrono&ical Telescope8 5I&age for&e' at infinit" C :or&al A'?$st&ent7

fo K fe < L fo M 3o 3e Po M fe 4"e

Pe

I 4"epiece I&age at infinit"

O!?ecti e

3ocal length of the o!?ecti e is &$ch greater than that of the e"epiece. Apert$re of the o!?ecti e is also large to allow &ore light to pass thro$gh it.

Ang$lar &agnification or 0agnif"ing power of a telescope in nor&al a'?$st&ent is the ratio of the angle s$!ten'e' !" the i&age at the e"e as seen thro$gh the telescope to the angle s$!ten'e' !" the o!?ect as seen 'irectl"9 when !oth the o!?ect an' the i&age are at infinit". 0< O M

Since angles are s&all9 M < tan M an' O < tan O 0< 0< 0< tan O tan M 3e I Pe 3 e -I - fe = = 3e I Po 3 e -I fo - fo fe 5fo K fe < L is calle' the length of the telescope in nor&al a'?$st&ent7.

0<

Astrono&ical Telescope8 5I&age for&e' at L))J7

fo fe M Po M A

4"e 3 3

Le Lo
I

Pe

4"epiece $e O!?ecti e @ )

Ang$lar &agnification or &agnif"ing power of a telescope in this case is 'efine' as the ratio of the angle O s$!ten'e' at the e"e !" the final i&age for&e' at the least 'istance of 'istinct ision to the angle M s$!ten'e' at the e"e !" the o!?ect l"ing at infinit" when seen 'irectl". 0< O M or 1 -) 1 $e 1 - $e < 1 fe < 1 fe K 1 )

Since angles are s&all9 M < tan M an' O < tan O tan O 0< tan M 0< 0< 3o I Pe 3 o Po3o Pe 3 o = 3o I Po 3 o K fo - $e

0$ltipl"ing !" fo on !oth si'es an' rearranging9 we get 0< - fo fe 51K fe ) 7

or 0 <

Lens 4*$ation 1 1 $ < 1 f !eco&es

Clearl" focal length of o!?ecti e &$st !e greater than that of the e"epiece for larger &agnif"ing power. Also9 it is to !e note' that in this case 0 is larger than that in nor&al a'?$st&ent position.

:ewtonian Telescope8 5Reflecting T"pe7

Plane 0irror Light fro& star

0agnif"ing Power8 0< fo fe

4"epiece Conca e 0irror 4"e

Resol ing Power of a 0icroscope8

The resol ing power of a &icroscope is 'efine' as the reciprocal of the 'istance !etween two o!?ects which can !e ?$st resol e' when seen thro$gh the &icroscope. Resol ing Power < 1 Z' < 2 ; sin [ >

O!?ecti e

LL
Z'

Resol ing power 'epen's on i7 wa elength >9 ii7 refracti e in'e/ of the &e'i$& !etween the o!?ect an' the o!?ecti e an' iii7 half angle of the cone of light fro& one of the o!?ects [.

Resol ing Power of a Telescope8

The resol ing power of a telescope is 'efine' as the reciprocal of the s&allest ang$lar separation !etween two 'istant o!?ects whose i&ages are seen separatel". Resol ing Power < 1 '[ a < 1.22 >
O!?ecti e

LL
'[

Resol ing power 'epen's on i7 wa elength >9 ii7 'ia&eter of the o!?ecti e a.

RAJ4 OPTICS - I
1. 4lectro&agnetic Ra e 2. Ra efront 3. Q$"gens2 Principle #. Reflection of Light !ase' on Q$"gens2 Principle %. Refraction of Light !ase' on Q$"gens2 Principle (. @eha io$r of Ra efront in a 0irror9 Lens an' Pris& +. Coherent So$rces ,. Interference -. Yo$ng2s )o$!le Slit 4/peri&ent 1.. Colo$rs in Thin 3il&s

4lectro&agnetic Ra e8
Y
4.
.

@.

] 1. Jariations in !oth electric an' &agnetic fiel's occ$r si&$ltaneo$sl". Therefore9 the" attain their &a/i&a an' &ini&a at the sa&e place an' at the sa&e ti&e. 2. The 'irection of electric an' &agnetic fiel's are &$t$all" perpen'ic$lar to each other an' as well as to the 'irection of propagation of wa e. 3. The spee' of electro&agnetic wa e 'epen's entirel" on the electric an' &agnetic properties of the &e'i$&9 in which the wa e tra els an' not on the a&plit$'es of their ariations. Ra e is propagating along \ C a/is with spee' c < 1 = ^;._.

3or 'isc$ssion of optical propert" of 40 wa e9 &ore significance is gi en to 4lectric 3iel'9 4. Therefore9 4lectric 3iel' is calle' Plight ector2.

Ra efront8

A wa elet is the point of 'ist$r!ance '$e to propagation of light. A wa efront is the loc$s of points 5wa elets7 ha ing the sa&e phase of oscillations. A line perpen'ic$lar to a wa efront is calle' a Pra"2.

Spherical Ra efront fro& a point so$rce

C"lin'rical Ra efront fro& a linear so$rce

Plane Ra efront

Pin1 )ots C Ra elets @l$e 4n elopeC Ra efront Re' Line C Ra"

Q$"gens2 Constr$ction or Q$"gens2 Principle of Secon'ar" Ra elets8

. .
S

. .

. . .
:ew Ra efront 5Spherical7

. .

. . . . . . . .

:ew Ra efront 5Plane7

5Ra elets - Re' 'ots on the wa efront7 1. 4ach point on a wa efront acts as a fresh so$rce of 'ist$r!ance of light. 2. The new wa efront at an" ti&e later is o!taine' !" ta1ing the forwar' en elope of all the secon'ar" wa elets at that ti&e. :ote8 @ac1war' wa efront is re?ecte'. Rh"` A&plit$'e of secon'ar" wa elet is proportional to a 51Kcos[7. O! io$sl"9 for the !ac1war' wa elet [ < 1,.I an' 51Kcos [7 is ..

Laws of Reflection at a Plane S$rface 5On Q$"gens2 Principle78

If c !e the spee' of light9 t !e the ti&e ta1en !" light to go fro& @ to C or A to ) or 4 to 6 thro$gh 39 then t < t < t < 43 36 K c c A3 sin i c K 3C sin r c \ : @ i
4

: )
6

r Y

i A
3

AC sin r K A3 5sin i C sin r7 c

A@ C Inci'ent wa efront C) C Reflecte' wa efront \Y C Reflecting s$rface

3or ra"s of light fro& 'ifferent parts on the inci'ent wa efront9 the al$es of A3 are 'ifferent. @$t light fro& 'ifferent points of the inci'ent wa efront sho$l' ta1e the sa&e ti&e to reach the correspon'ing points on the reflecte' wa efront. So9 t sho$l' not 'epen' $pon A3. This is possi!le onl" if sin i C sin r < .. i.e. sin i < sin r or

i<r

Laws of Refraction at a Plane S$rface 5On Q$"gens2 Principle78

If c !e the spee' of light9 t !e the ti&e ta1en !" light to go fro& @ to C or A to ) or 4 to 6 thro$gh 39 then t < t < t < 43 36 K c A3 sin i c AC sin r K 3C sin r sin i sin r 7 c \ i A ) : @
4

:
Rarer

c9 ;1
3

C
)enser

9 ;2

K A3 5

A@ C Inci'ent wa efront C) C Refracte' wa efront \Y C Refracting s$rface

3or ra"s of light fro& 'ifferent parts on the inci'ent wa efront9 the al$es of A3 are 'ifferent. @$t light fro& 'ifferent points of the inci'ent wa efront sho$l' ta1e the sa&e ti&e to reach the correspon'ing points on the refracte' wa efront. So9 t sho$l' not 'epen' $pon A3. This is possi!le onl" sin i sin r sin i sin r sin i c if or < < . c or < c sin r

< ;

@eha io$r of a Plane Ra efront in a Conca e 0irror9 Con e/ 0irror9 Con e/ Lens9 Conca e Lens an' Pris&8
A C A C

) @ A Conca e 0irror C @ ) Con e/ 0irror A C

) Con e/ Lens A@ C Inci'ent wa efront

Conca e Lens )

C) C Reflecte' = Refracte' wa efront

@ Pris& A@ C Inci'ent wa efront

) Pris&

C) CRefracte' wa efront

Coherent So$rces8
Coherent So$rces of light are those so$rces of light which e&it light wa es of sa&e wa elength9 sa&e fre*$enc" an' in sa&e phase or ha ing constant phase 'ifference. Coherent so$rces can !e pro'$ce' !" two &etho's8 1. @" 'i ision of wa efront 5Yo$ng2s )o$!le Slit 4/peri&ent9 3resnel2s @ipris& an' Llo"'2s 0irror7 2. @" 'i ision of a&plit$'e 5Partial reflection or refraction7

Interference of Ra es8
41 K 42 41

@right @an' )ar1 @an'

42

S1 S2

@right @an' )ar1 @an' @right @an'

Constr$cti e Interference 4 < 41 K 42

41 41 - 42 42

)estr$cti e Interference 4 < 41 - 42 1st Ra e 5417 2n' Ra e 5427 Res$ltant Ra e Reference Line

Crest Tro$gh @right @an' )ar1 @an'

The pheno&enon of one wa e interfering with another an' the res$lting re'istri!$tion of energ" in the space aro$n' the two so$rces of 'ist$r!ance is calle' interference of wa es.

Theor" of Interference of Ra es8

41 < a sin Xt 42 < ! sin 5Xt K W7
The wa es are with sa&e spee'9 wa elength9 fre*$enc"9 ti&e perio'9 nearl" e*$al a&plit$'es9 tra elling in the sa&e 'irection with constant phase 'ifference of W. X is the ang$lar fre*$enc" of the wa es9 a9! are the a&plit$'es an' 419 42 are the instantaneo$s al$es of 4lectric 'isplace&ent.

Appl"ing s$perposition principle9 the &agnit$'e of the res$ltant 'isplace&ent of the wa es is 4 < 41 K 42 4 < a sin Xt K ! sin 5Xt K W7 4 < 5a K ! cos W7 sin Xt K ! sin W cos Xt P$tting a K ! cos W < A cos [ ! sin W < A sin [ Re get 4 < A sin 5Xt K [7
5where 4 is the res$ltant 'isplace&ent9 A is the res$ltant a&plit$'e an' [ is the res$ltant phase 'ifference7

A sin [ ! sin W

A < ^ 5a2 K !2 K 2a! cos W7 tan [ < ! sin W a K ! cos W

a ! cos W

A cos [

A < ^ 5a2 K !2 K 2a! cos W7 Intensit" I is proportional to the s*$are of the a&plit$'e of the wa e. So9 I M A2 i.e. I M 5a2 K !2 K 2a! cos W7

Con'ition for Constr$cti e Interference of Ra es8

3or constr$cti e interference9 I sho$l' !e &a/i&$& which is possi!le onl" if cos W < K1. i.e. W < 2nb where n < .9 19 29 39 VV.

Correspon'ing path 'ifference is Z < 5> = 2 b7 / 2nb Z<n> I&a/ M 5a K !72

Con'ition for )estr$cti e Interference of Ra es8

3or 'estr$cti e interference9 I sho$l' !e &ini&$& which is possi!le onl" if cos W < - 1. i.e. W < 52n K 17b where n < .9 19 29 39 VV.

Correspon'ing path 'ifference is Z < 5> = 2 b7 / 52n K 17b Z < 52n K 17 > = 2 I&inM 5a - !72

Co&parison of intensities of &a/i&a an' &ini&a8

I&a/ M 5a K !72 I&in M 5a - !72 I&a/ I&in I&a/ I&in < < 5a K !72 5a - !72 5r K 172 5r 172 < 5a=! K 172 5a=! - 172

where r < a = !

5ratio of the a&plit$'es7

Relation !etween Intensit" 5I79 A&plit$'e 5a7 of the wa e an' Ri'th 5w7 of the slit8
I M a2 a M ^w I1 I2 < 5a172 5a2 72 < w1 w2

Yo$ng2s )o$!le Slit 4/peri&ent8

Single Slit )o$!le Slit P

S1

" '
'=2 '=2

Screen

S2

The wa es fro& S1 an' S2 reach the point P with so&e phase 'ifference an' hence path 'ifference Z < S 2 P C S1 P S2P2 C S1P2 < F)2 K c" K 5'=27d2G - F)2 K c" - 5'=27d2G 5S2P C S1P7 5S2P K S1P7 < 2 "' Z 52)7 < 2 "' Z < "' = )

Positions of @right 3ringes8

3or a !right fringe at P9 Z < "' = ) < n> where n < .9 19 29 39 V "<n)>=' 3or n < .9 3or n < 19 3or n < 29 3or n < n9 ". < . "1 < ) > = ' "2 < 2 ) > = ' VV "n < n ) > = '

Positions of )ar1 3ringes8

3or a 'ar1 fringe at P9 Z < "' = ) < 52nK17>=2 where n < .9 19 29 39 V " < 52nK17 ) > = 2' 3or n < .9 3or n < 19 3or n < 29 3or n < n9 ".2 < ) > = 2' "12 < 3) > = 2' "22 < %) > = 2' V.. "n2 < 52nK17) > = 2'

4/pression for )ar1 3ringe Ri'th8 O) < "n C "n-1 < n ) > = ' C 5n C 17 ) > = ' <)>='

4/pression for @right 3ringe Ri'th8 O@ < "n2 C "n-12 < 52nK17 ) > = 2' C c25n-17K1d ) > = 2' <)>='

The e/pressions for fringe wi'th show that the fringes are e*$all" space' on the screen.

)istri!$tion of Intensit"8
Intensit"

S$ppose the two interfering wa es ha e sa&e a&plit$'e sa" Pa29 then I&a/ M 5aKa72 i.e. I&a/ M #a2

All the !right fringes ha e this sa&e intensit". I&in < . " . " All the 'ar1 fringes ha e Tero intensit".

Con'itions for s$staine' interference8

1. The two so$rces pro'$cing interference &$st !e coherent. 2. The two interfering wa e trains &$st ha e the sa&e plane of polarisation. 3. The two so$rces &$st !e er" close to each other an' the pattern &$st !e o!ser e' at a larger 'istance to ha e s$fficient wi'th of the fringe. 5) > = '7 #. The so$rces &$st !e &onochro&atic. Otherwise9 the fringes of 'ifferent colo$rs will o erlap. %. The two wa es &$st !e ha ing sa&e a&plit$'e for !etter contrast !etween !right an' 'ar1 fringes.

Colo$rs in Thin 3il&s8

It can !e pro e' that the path 'ifference !etween the light partiall" reflecte' fro& PU an' that fro& partiall" trans&itte' an' then reflecte' fro& RS is Z < 2;t cos r Since there is a reflection at O9 the ra" OA s$ffers an a''itional phase 'ifference of b an' hence the correspon'ing path 'ifference of >=2. 3or the ra"s OA an' @C to interfere constr$cti el" 5@right fringe79 the path 'ifference &$st !e 5n K a7 > So9 2;t cos r < 5n K a7 > R i P O r A C U ; t S

3or the ra"s OA an' @C to interfere 'estr$cti el" 5)ar1 fringe79 the path 'ifference &$st !e n> So9 2;t cos r < n >

Rhen white light fro& the s$n falls on thin la"er of oil sprea' o er water in the rain" season9 !ea$tif$l rain!ow colo$rs are for&e' '$e to interference of light.

RAJ4 OPTICS - II
1. 4lectro&agnetic Ra e 2. )iffraction 3. )iffraction at a Single Slit #. Theor" of )iffraction %. Ri'th of Central 0a/i&$& an' 3resnel2s )istance (. )ifference !etween Interference an' )iffraction +. Polarisation of 0echanical Ra es ,. Polarisation of Light -. 0al$s2 Law 1.. Polarisation !" Reflection C @rewster2s Law 11. Polaroi's an' their $ses

4lectro&agnetic Ra e8
Y
4.
.

@.

] 1. Jariations in !oth electric an' &agnetic fiel's occ$r si&$ltaneo$sl". Therefore9 the" attain their &a/i&a an' &ini&a at the sa&e place an' at the sa&e ti&e. 2. The 'irection of electric an' &agnetic fiel's are &$t$all" perpen'ic$lar to each other an' as well as to the 'irection of propagation of wa e. 3. The spee' of electro&agnetic wa e 'epen's entirel" on the electric an' &agnetic properties of the &e'i$&9 in which the wa e tra els an' not on the a&plit$'es of their ariations. Ra e is propagating along \ C a/is with spee' c < 1 = ^;._.

3or 'isc$ssion of 40 wa e9 &ore significance is gi en to 4lectric 3iel'9 4.

)iffraction of light8
The pheno&enon of !en'ing of light aro$n' the corners an' the encroach&ent of light within the geo&etrical sha'ow of the opa*$e o!stacles is calle' 'iffraction.

\ \

Slit

O!stacle

Screen )iffraction at a slit )iffraction at an o!stacle Screen

\ e Y C Region of 'iffraction

)iffraction of light at a single slit8

17 At an angle of 'iffraction [ < .I8

A
. 1 2 3 # % ( + , 1. 11 12

'

@ Plane Ra efront Slit

[ < .I

@right

) Screen

The wa elets fro& the single wa efront reach the centre O on the screen in sa&e phase an' hence interfere constr$cti el" to gi e Central or Pri&ar" 0a/i&$& 5@right fringe7.

27 At an angle of 'iffraction [ < [18 The slit is i&agine' to !e 'i i'e' into 2 e*$al hal es.

[1

. 1 2 3 # % ( + >=2 , 1. 11 12

@ > Plane Ra efront Slit The wa elets fro& the single wa efront 'iffract at an angle [1 s$ch that @: is > an' reach the point P1. The pairs 5.9(79 519+79 529,79 539-79 5#91.79 5%9117 an' 5(9127 interfere 'estr$cti el" with path 'ifference >=2 an' gi e 3irst Secon'ar" 0ini&$& 5)ar1 fringe7. Screen

[1

P1 )ar1 @right

[1

37 At an angle of 'iffraction [ < [28 The slit is i&agine' to !e 'i i'e' into # e*$al parts.

P2 P1 2 P1 O

)ar1

A
. 1 2 3 # % ( + , 1. 11 12

@ Plane Ra efront Slit

>=2 [2 > 3>=2 [2 2>

[2

)ar1

@right

The wa elets fro& the single wa efront 'iffract at an angle [2 s$ch that @: is 2> an' reach the point P2. The pairs 5.9379 519#79 529%79 539(79 5#9+79 5%9,79 5(9-79 5+91.79 5,9117 an' 5-9127 interfere 'estr$cti el" with path 'ifference >=2 an' gi e Secon' Secon'ar" 0ini&$& 5)ar1 fringe7.

Screen

#7 At an angle of 'iffraction [ < [128 The slit is i&agine' to !e 'i i'e' into 3 e*$al parts. [ 12

P2 P1 2 @right P1
)ar1

. 1 2 3 # % >=2 ( + , > 1. 11 12

@ Plane 3>=2 Ra efront Slit

The wa elets fro& the single wa efront 'iffract at an angle [12 s$ch that Screen @: is 3>=2 an' reach the point P12. The pairs 5.9,79 519-79 5291.79 539117 an' 5#9127 interfere constr$cti el" with path 'ifference > an' 5.9#79 519%79 529(79 VV an' 5,9127 interfere 'estr$cti el" with path 'ifference >=2. Qowe er '$e to a few wa elets interfering constr$cti el" 3irst Secon'ar" 0a/i&$& 5@right fringe7 is for&e'.

[1 2

@right

: [ 12

)iffraction at ario$s angles8 P2

[[ 2 AA [ < 1.1
. 1 2 3 # % ( + , 1. 11 12

[2 [12

P1 2
2

>=2 >=2 >=2>

PP11 [[2 2 1 [1

[1 [<.

> 3>=2

: : [ :2[1[1 2 > 2> @ @ Plane 3>=2 Ra efront Slit Central 0a/i&$& is the !rightest fringe. Screen

)iffraction is not isi!le after a few or'er of 'iffraction.

Theor"8
The path 'ifference !etween the .th wa elet an' 12th wa elet is @:. If P[2 is the angle of 'iffraction an' P'2 is the slit wi'th9 then @: < ' sin [ To esta!lish the con'ition for secon'ar" &ini&a9 the slit is 'i i'e' into 29 #9 (9 V e*$al parts s$ch that correspon'ing wa elets fro& s$ccessi e regions interfere with path 'ifference of >=2. Or for nth secon'ar" &ini&$&9 the slit can !e 'i i'e' into 2n e*$al parts. 3or [19 ' sin [1 < > 3or [29 ' sin [2 < 2> 3or [n9 ' sin [n < n> Since [n is er" s&all9 ' [n < n> [n < n> = ' 5n < 19 29 39 VV7

To esta!lish the con'ition for secon'ar" &a/i&a9 the slit is 'i i'e' into 39 %9 +9 V e*$al parts s$ch that correspon'ing wa elets fro& alternate regions interfere with path 'ifference of >. Or for nth secon'ar" &ini&$&9 the slit can !e 'i i'e' into 52n K 17 e*$al parts. 3or [129 ' sin [12 < 3>=2 Since [n2 is er" s&all9 3or [229 ' sin [22 < %>=2 3or [n29 ' sin [n2 < 52n K 17>=2 ' [n2 < 52n K 17> = 2 [n2 < 52n K 17> = 2' 5n < 19 29 39 VV7

Ri'th of Central 0a/i&$&8

A [1

'

. 1 2 3 # % ( + >=2 , 1. 11 12

@ > Plane Ra efront Slit tan [1 < "1 = ) or [1 < "1 = ) 5since [1 is er" s&all7 ' sin [1 < > or [1 < > = ' 5since [1 is er" s&all7 Screen "1 < ) > = ' Since the Central 0a/i&$& is sprea' on either si'e of O9 the wi'th is O. < 2) > = '

[1

P1 )ar1 "1 @right

[1

3resnel2s )istance8
3resnel2s 'istance is that 'istance fro& the slit at which the sprea'ing of light '$e to 'iffraction !eco&es e*$al to the siTe of the slit. "1 < ) > = ' At 3resnel2s 'istance9 "1 < ' an' ) < )3 So9 )3 > = ' < ' or )3 < ' 2 = > If the 'istance ) !etween the slit an' the screen is less than 3resnel2s 'istance )39 then the 'iffraction effects &a" !e regar'e' as a!sent. So9 ra" optics &a" !e regar'e' as a li&iting case of wa e optics.

)ifference !etween Interference an' )iffraction8

Interference 1. Interference is '$e to the s$perposition of two 'ifferent wa e trains co&ing fro& coherent so$rces. 3ringe wi'th is generall" constant. All the &a/i&a ha e the sa&e intensit". There is a goo' contrast !etween the &a/i&a an' &ini&a. 1. )iffraction )iffraction is '$e to the s$perposition of secon'ar" wa elets fro& the 'ifferent parts of the sa&e wa efront. 3ringes are of ar"ing wi'th. The &a/i&a are of ar"ing intensities. There is a poor contrast !etween the &a/i&a an' &ini&a.

2. 3. #.

2. 3. #.

Polarisation of Trans erse 0echanical Ra es8

:arrow Slit

Trans erse 'ist$r!ance 5$p an' 'own7

:arrow Slit

-.I

Trans erse 'ist$r!ance 5$p an' 'own7

:arrow Slit

Polarisation of Light Ra es8

Ra e

- Parallel to the plane

- Perpen'ic$lar to the plane

:at$ral Light Representation of :at$ral Light

In nat$ral light9 &illions of trans erse i!rations occ$r in all the 'irections perpen'ic$lar to the 'irection of propagation of wa e. @$t for con enience9 we can ass$&e the rectang$lar co&ponents of the i!rations with one co&ponent l"ing on the plane of the 'iagra& an' the other perpen'ic$lar to the plane of the 'iagra&.

Light wa es are electro&agnetic wa es with electric an' &agnetic fiel's oscillating at right angles to each other an' also to the 'irection of propagation of wa e. Therefore9 the light wa es can !e polarise'. Optic A/is

fnpolarise' light Plane Polarise' light Plane Polarise' light

Polariser
To$r&aline Cr"stal

Anal"ser
To$r&aline Cr"stal

fnpolarise' light Plane Polarise' light

-.I :o light

-.I

fnpolarise' light Plane Polarise' light

Polariser Plane of Ji!ration

Anal"ser Plane of Polarisation

Rhen $npolarise' light is inci'ent on the polariser9 the i!rations parallel to the cr"stallographic a/is are trans&itte' an' those perpen'ic$lar to the a/is are a!sor!e'. Therefore the trans&itte' light is plane 5linearl"7 polarise'. The plane which contains the cr"stallographic a/is an' i!rations trans&itte' fro& the polariser is calle' plane of i!ration. The plane which is perpen'ic$lar to the plane of i!ration is calle' plane of polarisation.

0al$s2 Law8
Rhen a !ea& of plane polarise' light is inci'ent on an anal"ser9 the intensit" I of light trans&itte' fro& the anal"ser aries 'irectl" as the s*$are of the cosine of the angle [ !etween the planes of trans&ission of anal"ser an' polariser. a 2 I M cos [ a sin [ a cos [ If a !e the a&plit$'e of the electric P ector trans&itte' !" the polariser9 A then onl" the co&ponent a cos [ will !e trans&itte' !" the anal"ser. [ Intensit" of trans&itte' light fro& the anal"ser is or I < 1 5a cos [72 I < 1 a2 cos2 [ I < I. cos2 [ 5where I. < 1 a2 is the intensit" of light trans&itte' fro& the polariser7 Case I 8 Rhen [ < .I or 1,.I9 I < I Case II 8 Rhen [ < -.I9
.

I<.

Case III8 Rhen $npolarise' light is inci'ent on the anal"ser the intensit" of the trans&itte' light is one-half of the intensit" of inci'ent light. 5Since a erage al$e of cos2[ is a7

Polarisation !" Reflection an' @rewster2s Law8

The inci'ent light wa e is &a'e of parallel i!rations 5b C co&ponents7 on the plane of inci'ence an' perpen'ic$lar i!rations 5g C co&ponents 8 perpen'ic$lar to plane of inci'ence7. At a partic$lar angle [P9 the parallel co&ponents co&pletel" refracte' whereas the perpen'ic$lar co&ponents partiall" get refracte' an' partiall" get reflecte'. i.e. the reflecte' co&ponents are all in perpen'ic$lar plane of i!ration an' hence plane polarise'. The intensit" of trans&itte' light thro$gh the &e'i$& is greater than that of plane polarise' 5reflecte'7 light. [P K r < -.I
a ;!

[P -.I r

a ; !

or

r < -.I - [P

<

sin [P sin r sin [P sin -.I - [P < tan [P

a ;! <

a;!

Polaroi's8
Q C Polaroi' is prepare' !" ta1ing a sheet of pol" in"l alcohol 5long chain pol"&er &olec$les7 an' s$!?ecting to a large strain. The &olec$les are oriente' parallel to the strain an' the &aterial !eco&es 'o$!l" refracting. Rhen straine' with io'ine9 the &aterial !eha es li1e a 'ichroic cr"stal. h C Polaroi' is prepare' !" heating a stretche' pol" in"l alcohol fil& in the presence of QCl 5an acti e 'eh"'rating catal"st7. Rhen the fil& !eco&es slightl" 'ar1ene'9 it !eha es li1e a strong 'ichroic cr"stal.

fses of Polaroi's8
17 Polaroi' S$n 6lasses 27 Polaroi' 3ilters 37 3or La!orator" P$rpose #7 In Qea'-light of A$to&o!iles %7 In Three C )i&ensional 0otion Pic$tres (7 In Rin'ow Panes +7 In Rin' Shiel' in A$to&o!iles