Gestalt theory allows communicators to predict how viewers will respond to design elements.

Based on theories of perception, the gestalt principles were developed in the nineteenth century by psychologists who believed that whole images are often perceived as more than the sum of their parts. Knowing and using gestalt theory in technical communication can help ensure that our visual messages will be understood and that our designs will be dynamic. This booklet briefly illustrates the nine gestalt principles and evaluates how they are applied to create effective figures in biology textbooks.

Proximity is a grouping principle of perceptual organization. It states that, all else being equal, we tend to perceive elements to be associated when they are close together. For example, the upper image shows one square standing out among a sheet of evenly spaced squares. The lone square seems different because it is far away from the others. In the middle image, we perceive columns made from the same squares because there is less vertical space between them than horizontal space. The opposite is true in the bottom image, and so we perceive rows.

Similarity is another grouping principle, which states that those elements that share qualities (of color, size, or shape, for example) will be perceived as part of the same form. For example, in the upper image we see a sheet of evenly spaced light blue squares, but we perceive two squares as different from the rest and from each other. The top-middle square seems different because of its color, and the bottom-middle square seems different because of its size. In the middle image, columns appear because we associate similar colors together even though the squares are evenly spaced. In the bottom image, rows appear because we associate similar shapes together.

The principle of good continuity states that we prefer to perceive smooth, continuous contours rather than abrupt changes in direction. Elements that continue a pattern tend to be grouped together. In the top image, for example, we perceive a continuous image of a wave, rather than alternating crescent moon shapes. The middle image illustrates how we can further accentuate the wave effect when the crescent shapes are reduced and repeated; we see a series of waves not individual, noninteracting shapes. Overlapping the same elements in the bottom image creates a continuous ribbon of pale blue waves that is either shallow or deep, depending on where we perceive the continuous forms.

The principle of closure states that we tend to enclose spaces by completing contours and ignoring gaps in figures. It follows from good continuity and allows us to group elements together or to interpret forms as complete though parts may be missing. In the upper image, closure predicts that we perceive two diamonds and a half-diamond on the right (rather than two X's and a half -X on the left). In the middle image, a square appears to be sitting on top of a pattern of circles. We see a dark square here for the same reason we see the word "pear" in the bottom image. Both the square and the "A" in pear are not drawn, but we complete the contours to create closed-in elements, completing each image even though parts are missing.

Figure/ground organization is an important phenomenon of gestalt perception. The figure/ground principle states that we tend to perceive some visual elements as the figure, with a definite shape and border, while other elements appear as the ground, further away and behind the main focus of the figure. In the top image we see a flower figure with a definite shape and border. The middle image illustrates how shadowing can create a clear sense of figure definition and depth. Many artists and designers play upon figure/ground to create visual illusions in a manner similar to the bottom image. While we perceive the whole image to be the figure against a medium blue background, focussing on the M or W changes what letter seems to rise further out of the page.

Surroundedness is another principle that organizes figure and ground. The elements of an image seen as surrounded will be perceived as the figure, and the elements that are doing the surrounding will be perceived as the ground. In the top and middle images, we see two pine trees and a flower if the pale blue is the surround, or an upside-down "W" and a cross if the darker blue is the surround. In the bottom image, we see a pattern of overlapping crosses if we look first at the top left. But if we look at the bottom right, we see a pattern of flowers because we changed what is doing the surrounding and therefore what the figure is.

Smallness/area also contributes to figure/ground organization. When two figures overlap, this principle states that the smaller of the two will be considered the figure while the larger will be perceived as the ground. In the upper image, we perceive a small, pale blue box on a box outline, and both sit on top of a darker blue background. The middle and bottom images use smallness/area to play upon our perception of figure/ground. In both cases, we can perceive the images coming out of the page or going into the page, depending on where we focus to see figure and ground.

Symmetry states that we tend to perceive shapes as figures based on their combined symmetrical forms, rather than their individual asymmetric parts. For example, in the top image, we see two overlapping circles, not one ellipse enclosed by two asymmetric shapes. Similarly, in the middle image we see three squares laid diagonally over a rectangle background, and we ignore the asymmetrical shapes in the top left and bottom right. In the bottom image, we see symmetry helping create a three-dimensional box. Instead of perceiving seven individual (and mostly asymmetric) shapes, we perceive the whole image as a symmetric threedimensional box, emerging from the top left or bottom right of its space depending where we focus.

Gestalt psychologists maintained that perceptual organization supported holism, and the principle of pragnanz was an attempt to explain this effect. It claims that we will perceive an image as well as the stimulus conditions allow. Preferred perceptual organization should be the simplest, most regular interpretation of the elements in the image because individuals organize their visual experience in as simple, symmetrical, and complete manners as possible. In the image to the right we see a repeating pattern, within which are elements that play upon figure/ground, symmetry, and smallness/area. To look closely requires some adjustment before we perceptually organize the image. This is pragnanz at work.

We have all heard the expression that a picture is worth a thousand words. However, considering gestalt theory, some pictures say more than others. If we know how to construct our pictures and how our audiences will respond to them, our visual communications will better complement our written ones. This point is made clear by the textbook comparisons. While (the bottom images) may overuse shadowing and embossing, it faired better in our comparison than (the top images), which overall paid less attention to the gestalt principles. A guiding principle here is pragnanz; especially in textbook figures, audiences want simple yet detailed and organized information. Knowing how to provide it comes from gestalt.

Chandler, Daniel. Visual Perception 6. 10 March 2001. http://www.aber.ac.uk/ ~ednwww/Undgrad/ED10510/visper06.html Darnell, James, Harvey Lodish, and David Baltimore. Molecular Cell Biology. Second Edition. New York: Scientific American Books, 1990. Palmer, Stephen. Gestalt perception. 8 March 2001. http://phobos.cs.unibuc.ro/ mitecs/work/palmer_r.html Rallman, L. Gestalt psychology. 8 March 2001. http://homepages.ius.edu/LZ/ RALLMAN/web_docs/gestalt.html Wolfe, Stephen. Molecular and Cellular Biology. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Company, 1993.