L Tr Thnh Khoa CNTT Trng H Hng hi Gii thiu chung: Khoa hc nhn dng v x l nh l mt trong nhng lnh vc c nhiu

iu ng dng trong thc tin. Ngy nay c rt nhiu ng dng cn n thng tin hnh nh nh h thng tin vn phng, cc h bn , h thng tin a l, trong qun s, y hc... Vic x l d liu nh bng ha cp n cc nh nhn to. Mc ch chnh t ra cho x l nh bao gm: Phn 1: T nh ca i tng trong t nhin thu li thnh nh s, sau qua cc bc bin i nng cao cht lng ca nh thu c nhiu thng tin hn, c th quan st bng mt. Qu trnh ny l bin i nh (Image transformation) hay lm p nh (Image Enhancement). Phn 2: T ng nhn bit hoc nh gi ni dung cc nh. Qu trnh nhn dng nh (Patten Recognition) hay on nhn nh (Image Understanding). Ti liu tham kho 1. Ng Din Tp, X l nh bng my tnh, Nh xut bn Khoa hc v K thut H Ni. 2. Lng Mnh B, Nguyn Thnh Thy, Nhp mn x l nh s, Nh xut bn Khoa hc v K thut H Ni, 2003. 3. V c Khnh, Gio trnh X l nh, Nh xut bn Thng k, 20003.

PHN TH NHT: L THUYT NH S Chng I. Tng quan v x l nh

1.1. Cc giai on ca mt qu trnh x l nh Bao gm 5 giai on nh di s :

Thu nhn nh

Tin x l

Phn on

Tch ra cc c tnh

Phn loi

1.1.1. Thu nhn nh nh s dng trong tin hc c thu nhn t nhiu ngun bng mt s thit b nh: my quay, vt tinh hoc my qut chuyn dng. Mc ch ca cc thit b ny l chuyn cc thng tin di dng hnh nh thnh cc cu trc lu tr c trong my tnh v hin th ra cc thit b hin th nh mn hnh, my in...

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L Tr Thnh Khoa CNTT Trng H Hng hi Tin trnh trong thu nhn nh: + Bin i nng lng quang hc thnh nng lng in. + Tng hp nng lng in thnh nh s hay ma trn s. 1.1.2. X l trc L dng cc k thut x l nh lm tt nh theo mc ch s dng nhm phc v cho cc bc x l tip theo. Nhng mc ch ring bit c th t ra cho qu trnh tin x l l: + Thc hin iu chnh chiu sng khc phc hu qu ca s chiu sng khng ng u. + Gim nh thnh phn nhiu. + Ci thin tng phn ca nh mu do khun mu khng tt. + Hiu chnh mo gi tr xm khng tuyn tnh gy nn t hiu ng chp nh. + Loi b tnh khng ng th ca nh gy nn t tnh khng ng b ca lp nhy quang ca h thng thu nhn nh. + Chun ha ln, dng v mu. + iu chnh b lc khuych i cc tn s vi nhng thng tin quan trng c khuych i v nn i cc tn s khc. 1.1.3. Phn on Phn chia cc i tng cn kho st ra khi phn ni dung cn li ca nh, phn tch cc i tng tip gip nhau v phn tch nhng i tng ring bit thnh nhng i tng con. Mt phng php phn on nh l s dng mt ngng gi tr xm phn tch nh thnh i tng v nn ( nhng im di ngng xm thuc v nn, ngc li thuc v i tng). 1.1.4. Tch ra cc c tnh Da trn cc thng tin thu nhn c qua qu trnh phn on, kt hp vi cc k thut x l a ra cc c trng, i tng nh cng nh cc thng tin cn thit trong qu trnh x l. Nh cc c tnh c c t nh ta c th phn loi cc i tng khc nhau ca nh. 1.1.5. Phn loi nh

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L Tr Thnh Khoa CNTT Trng H Hng hi Thc hin cng vic sp xp mt i tng vo mt lp i tng cho trc. gii quyt bi ton ny th cc c tnh c ngha phi c la chn. Ta tm thy cc c tnh c ngha khi ta phn tch cc mu c la chn t nhng i tng khc nhau. 1.2. Th cm th gic 1.2.1. Qu trnh thu nhn tn hiu vng mc H thng quang hc con ngi l mt h thng thu knh c sp xp, nh tm mt cch khng c nh. H thng ny to ra trn vng mc mt nh thu nh v ln ngc ca cnh vt xung qunh ta. B mt pha sau, bn trong ca mt c che ph bi vng mc, nh sng chiu vo mt th c hi t bi th knh trn vng mc v to ra mt hiu in th nhng t bo nhy sng hnh que v hnh nn nm im hi t. Tn hiu in th ny c khuych i v truyn n no qua cc t bo, dy thn kinh. 1.2.2. S th cm sng ti Kh nng nhn bit ca mt i vi mt m sng ph thuc vo sng, kch thc, ko di ca thi gian xut hin v c sng ca nn. V d nh cng mt im en, ngi quan st s cm thy khi t trn nn xm n sng hn khi t trn nn sng. 1.2.3. S th cm mu sc Hin tng p ng xy ra i vi cng nh sng cng din ra tng t vi s nhy cm mu. S p ng i vi mt mu cng lm nh hng n s th cm i vi mt tng mu khc. Chng hn khi nhn vo mu xm ta c cm gic l mu nu n xut hin sau mu lc hoc trc nn mu lc. 1.2.4. S th cm vt Khi ta quan st mt vt, mng thn kinh th gic s phn tch n ra thnh cc i tng c bn. Tuy nhin cng vi mt s vt, mng thn kinh th gic s nhn bit n khc nhau trong tng trng hp c th. V d cung mt hnh ch nht, khi v n trong cc ng trong ng tm ta s c cm gic cc cnh ca n b cong vo pha trong.

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L Tr Thnh Khoa CNTT Trng H Hng hi

Chng II. Nhng khi nim c bn

2.1. M t nh 2.1.1.Pixel (Picture Element): phn t nh. nh trong thc t l nh lin tc v khng gian v gi tr sng. XLA ngi ta phi tin hnh s ha, qu trnh s ha l qu trnh bin i tn hiu lin tc sang tn hiu ri rc thng qua qu trnh ly mu(ri rc ha v khng gian) v lng t ha thnh phn gi tr(ri rc ha bin gi tr) m v nguyn tc mt thng khng phn bit c hai mc k nhau. Trong qu trnh ny ta s dng khi nim Pixel. 2.1.2. Mc xm L kt qu ca s bin i tng ng mt gi tr sng ca mt im nh vi mt gi tr nguyn dng. Thng thng n xc nh trong khong [0..255]. Ty thuc vo gi tr xm m mi im nh c biu din trn 1, 4, 8, 24 hay 32 bit. 2.1.3. nh L tp hp hu hn cc im nh, thng c biu din bng mt mng hai chiu I(n,m) vi n l s hng, m l s ct. Ta k hiu P(x,y) l mt im nh ti v tr (x, y). S lng im nh trn mi hng hoc cc hng xc nh phn gii ca nh. 2.1.4. Phn loi nh nh nh phn Gi tr xm ca tt cc cc im nh ch nhn gi tr 1 hoc 0. Nh vy mi im nh trong nh nh phn c biu din bi 1 bit. nh xm Gi tr xm nm trong khong 0..255. Nh vy mi im nh trong nh nh phn c biu din bi 1 byte. nh mu H mu RGB: Thng tin con ngi thu nhn bng hnh nh u bt ngun t th gic. Mt con ngi c kh nng phn bit c r nt 3 mu: + - RED (R) + Lc GREEN (G) + Lam BLUE (B) Cc nh mu ni chung u bao gm 3 nh xm i vi mu nn , lc v lam. Tt cc mu sc trong t nhin u c th tng hp t 3 thnh phn mu ni trn.

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L Tr Thnh Khoa CNTT Trng H Hng hi M hnh RGB cn gi l m hnh cng tnh, mi mc xm ca nh s c biu din bi 3 thnh phn: R, G, B (Mi thnh phn c biu din bi 1 byte).
Lc(0,1,0) Vng(1,1,0) c ban(0, 1,1) Trng (1, 1, 1) en(0,0,0) (1,0,0)

Lam(0,0,1 )

lila (1,0,1)

H mu CMY( CYAN- MAGENTA- YELLOW): l phn b ca h mu RGB theo nguyn tc: C + R = M + G = B + Y =(1, 1, 1). H mu ny thng dng in.
lila(0,1,0) (0, 1,1) Trng(0,0,0) Lam(1,1,0) eb (1, 1, 1) c ban (1,0,0)

Vng(0,0,1 )

Lc (1,0,1)

H mu CMYK( CYAN- MAGENTA- YELLOW- BLACK): Xut pht t h mu CMY vi K l m nht ca mu. K. Vi C, M, K c xc nh t CMY( C1, M1, Y1) nh sau: K = min(C1, M1, Y1, K); C = C1-K; M=M1-K; Y= Y1-K. 2.2. Cc tnh cht thng k ca nh 2.2.1. Biu tn sut - Histogram Biu tn sut ca nh l mt hm cung cp tn sut xut hin ca mi mc xm trong nh. Biu tn sut c biu din trong h ta Decac xOy, trong Ox biu din cc mc xm ca nh, Oy biu din s im nh. Biu tn sut cung cp thng tin v s phn b mc xm ca nh. Biu tn sut cn c gi l tnh ng ca nh, tnh ng ca nh cho php phn tch mt khong no phn b phn ln cc mc xm ca nh: nh rt sng hay rt m. Biu tn sut c s dng rt nhiu trong nhn dng v x l nh nh mt chc nng hu hiu cho vic hiu chnh gc nghing, lch, tch cc i tng hnh hc, xc nh gi tr xm trung bnh... C hai loi biu tn sut l Histogram ngang v dc. Histogram ngang v dc ca nh l tng s cc im nh c cng mt mc xm trn mt hng ngang hay ct dc ca nh. http://www.ebook.edu.vn 5 Xu ly anh

L Tr Thnh Khoa CNTT Trng H Hng hi Khi phn tch, thng k mt nh t biu tn sut ta c biu ct tuyt i H(z) ca cc mc xm, biu ct tng i h(z) = H(z)/N N: tng s im nh => 0<=h(z)<=1 v Sum(h(z)) = 1 (z=z0..zm Gi tr xm trung bnh: ztb= sum(z.h(z)) (z=z0..zm) 2.2.2. Ma trn chuyn tip cc gi tr xm Biu tn xut khng quan tm n cu trc nh, bi v cc gi tr xm c kho st ring l. V th c th nhn c cng mt biu t hai nh hon ton khc nhau. khc phc ma trn chuyn tip cc gi tr xm c xy dng, n h tr ta c c nhng nhn xt v cu trc ca nh. xy dng ma trn chuyn tip gi tr xm C(i,j) ca nh B(x,y) cn phi cho trc mt vct =(Dx, Dy), vct ny khng nh v tr tng i ca cp im nh ng cnh nhau. Mi phn t ca ma trn C(i,j) ch ra xc sut hai im nh cnh nhau B1(x, Dy) v B2(x+Dx, y+Dy) m khong cch c xc nh bi =(Dx, Dy) chim gi tr xm i hay j (hnh). Qua tn sut tuyt i ca cp im c vit vo, cp ny xut hin vi gi tr xm i v j v tr m t bng . di v nh hng ca u dn n cc ma trn ring bit. Bc ca ma trn C(i,j) ph thuc vo s mc xm ca nh. B(x,y)

B(x+Dx ,y+Dy)

2.3. Lng t ha cc nh Cc nh xut hin trong t nhin nh nhng tn hiu lin tc tri rng theo cc hng, x l c trn my tnh cc nh c qut vo v hn ch bng mt ca s c c s tri rng hu hn. Cc gi tr xm ca nh cng cn c gin on ha. S chuyn tip t cch m t lin tc sang gin on c gi l s lng t ha. S lng t ha ca nh lin quan mt mt n s lng t ha ca phn gii theo v tr, mt khc lin quan ti s lng t ha gi tr xm ca nh B(x, y). 2.3.1. Lng t ha thnh nhng li theo v tr

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L Tr Thnh Khoa CNTT Trng H Hng hi Mt nh c th lng t ha thnh cc li (raster) theo nhng v tr khc nhau. Thng thng ta s dng cc hm m ca 2 xc nh kch thc li. Sai s lng t ca nh c m t nh vi sai ca nh gc v nh qua lng t ha. Ngy nay cc my qut c th qut ti 4096x4096 im nh tng ng vi d liu 16Mb. Mt nh c qut cng th thi sai s lng t ha cng ln. 2.3.2. Lng t ha gi tr xm lng t ha gi tr xm, cng gi tr c chia thnh cc khong gi tr xm lin tip v cch u nhau. Cc khong ny c biu din bi mt gi tr xm. 2.5. Biu din nh 2.5.1. Cc nh dng nh 2.5.1.1, Cu trc File nh IMG L nh en trng. Gm 2 phn. Phn u bao gm 16 byte 6 byte u: nh du nh dng nh IMG, gi tr ca 6 byte di dng Hexa 0x0001 0x0008 0x0001 2 byte tip theo cha di mu tin. l di ca dy cc byte k lin nhau m dy c lp li mt s ln no . S ln lp li s c lu trong byte m. Nhiu dy ging nhau c lu trong mt byte. 4 byte tip theo: m t kch c pixcel 2 byte tip: s pixel trn mt dng nh 2 byte cui: s dng trong nh

Phn d liu nh IMG c nn theo cc dng, mi dng bao gm cc gi, cc dng ging nhau c nn thnh mt gi. C 4 loi gi sau: Loi 1: gi cc dng ging nhau Quy cch gi tin nh sau: 0x00 0x00 0xFF Count . Ba byte u cho bit s cc dy ging nhau; byte cui cho bit s cc dng ging nhau Loi 2 : gi cc dy ging nhau Quy cch gi tin nh sau: 0x00 Count . Byte 2 cho bit s cc dy ging nhau c nn trong gi. di ca dy c ghi u tp. Loi 3: dy cc pixel khng ging nhau, khng lp li v khng nn c

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L Tr Thnh Khoa CNTT Trng H Hng hi Quy cch nh sau: 0x80 Count . Byte th hai cho bit di dy cc pixel khng ging, khng nn c. Loi 4: dy cc pixel ging nhau Ty theo cc bit cao ca byte u c gi tr 1 hay 0. Nu bt cao c gi tr 1 th y l gi nn cc byte ch gm bit 0, s cc byte c nn tnh bi 7 bit cn li. Nu bit cao c gi tr l 0 th y l gi nn cc byte ch gm bit 0, s cc byte c nn tnh bi 7 bit cn li. 2.5.1.2. Cu trc File nh BMP Thng tin v nh BMP c t chc theo khun dng sau. Vng Header Vng Header C ln lun l 14 bytes, trong Vng Infor Lun c ln l 40 bytes, gm cc thng tin nh lng v nh, gm cc byte di y: 4 bytes ch nh ln vng Infor (thng c gi tr l 40) 4 bytes ch nh rng ca nh tnh theo pixel 4 bytes ch nh cao ca nh tnh theo pixel 2 bytes ch nh s plane mu (thng c gi tr l 1) 2 bytes ch nh s bit cn thit biu din mt pixel (s bit mu, thng c gi tr 1, 2, 4...) 4 bytes ch nh kiu nn ca d liu nh (thng bng 0).. Gi tr ca 4 bytes nh sau: + =0: d liu khng nn 2 bytes u ch nh kiu file nh bitmap, lun c gi l BM (biu din trong h Hexa 0x42D). 4 bytes tip theo ch nh kch thc thc ca file tnh theo byte. 4 bytes c gi tri 0, khng cha thng tin g. 4 bytes cui ch nh a ch offset vng d liu nh (data) tnh t u file. Vng Infor bng mu RGB Vng Data

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L Tr Thnh Khoa CNTT Trng H Hng hi + = 1: d liu c nn theo chun RLC vi di lot l 8 (s dng 8 bit m t gi tr di lot) + = 2: d liu c nn theo chun RLC vi di lot l 4 4 bytes ch ln nh, c xc nh: nu vng d liu khng nn, gi tr ny c tnh bng ln ca file tr i a ch offset vng Data. 4 bytes ch nh phn gii ca nh theo trc X 4 bytes ch nh phn gii ca nh theo trc y 4 bytes ch nh s mu trong bng c s dng 4 byte ch nh s mu cn thit hin th nh, nu c gi tr l 0 th ton b mu trong bng c s dng Vng mu RGB Lun gm 4 byte c t chc nh sau: 1 byte ch nh gi tr thnh phn Blue 1 byte ch nh gi tr thnh phn Red 1 byte ch nh gi tr thnh phn Green 1 byte b qua

Vng Data Ghi ton b phn cn li ca nh. Ch : S byte cho 1 dng nh = ln/ chiu cao ca nh Vic c d liu nh hin th ln mn hnh ha c thc hin theo th t: t di ln trn v t tri qua phi cho tng dng qut nh. 2.5.1.2 Cu trc File nh PCX S dng phng php m ha hng lot di RLE nn d liu nh, qu trnh nn c thc hin trn tng dng nh. Header 128 byte Header + 1 byte: ch ra kiu nh dng. Lun c gi tr 0Ah + 1 byte: ch ra version s dng nn nh. 0 : ver 2.5; D liu nh Bng mu m rng

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L Tr Thnh Khoa CNTT Trng H Hng hi 2: ver 2.8 vi bng mu; 3: ver 2.8 hay 3.0 khng c bng mu; 5: ver 3.0 c bng mu + 1 byte: chi ra phng php m ha. 0: phng php BYTE PACKED nu khng l RLE. + 1 byte: s it cho 1 im nh + 1 word: ta gc tri nh. + 1 word: kch thc b rng v cao. + 1 word: s im nh. + 1 word: phn gi mn hnh. + 1 word: b qua + 48 byte: chia thnh 16 nhm. mi nhm cha thng tin v thanh ghi mu + 1 byte = 0: khng dng + 1 byte: s bit trong plane m nh s dng. 4: nh 16 mu; 1: 256 mu + 1 word: kiu bng mu + 58 byte: b qua D liu nh Cha thng tin nh theo tng dng c m ha Bng mu m rng Lu tr cc gi tr mu m rng

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L Tr Thnh Khoa CNTT Trng H Hng hi 2.5.1.4 Cu trc File nh GIF 87a Vi nh dng GIF nhng vng mc m cc nh dng khc gp phi v s mu khng cn. Dng nh GIF cho cht lng cao, phn gii ha cao, cho php hin th trn hu ht cc phn cng ha. GIF tip cn cc thut ton nn LZW. nh dng tng qut ca nh GIF nh sau: Ch k ca nh. B m t hin th. Bn mu tng th. GIF NOTE GIF header (Global Palete) Header Image (10 Byte) Palete of image 1 (nu c) Data of image 1 , k t lin kt ......................................... ; GIF terminator GIF header Ch k ca nh bao gm 6 byte + 3 k t u c gi tr GIF + 3 k t cui ch version ca nh l 87a Thng tin v GIF + rng hnh raster theo pixel: 2 byte + cao hnh raster theo pixel: 2 byte + Cc thng tin v bn mu, khi hnh hin th... + Thng tin mu nn: 1 byte + S lng im nh: 1 byte + Bng mu tng th nu c c kch thc 256x3 byte Bn mu tng th M t b mu ti u khi c i hi, khi b mu tng th c th hin n s xc lp ngay b m t hnh hin th. S lng thc th bn mu ly theo b m t hin

M t mt i tng ca nh - Du phn cch - B m t nh - Du phn cch Bn mu cc b D liu nh

(*) Phn m t ny lp li N ln nu nh cha N i tng.

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L Tr Thnh Khoa CNTT Trng H Hng hi th trn v bng 2m, vi m l s lng bit trn 1 pixel khi mi thc th cha ng 3 byte (biu din 3 mu R, G, B) B m t nh nh ngha v tr thc t v phn m rng ca nh trong phm vi khng gian nh c trong phn m t hnh hin th. Mi b m t nh c ch ra bi k t kt ni nh 0x2c (du phy), k t ny ch dng khi GIF c t 2 nh tr ln. B m t nh bao gm 10 byte nh sau: Cc Bit 0010110 Cn tri nh Cn nh trn rng nh cao nh MI000pixel Th t BYTE 1 2, 3 4, 5 6,7 8,9 10 M=0: s dng bng mu tng th M=1: s dng bng mu cc b I=0: nh dng nh theo th t lin tc I=1: nh dng nh theo th t xen k pixel+ 1: s bit/pixel ca nh Bn mu cc b Bn mu cc b ch c chn khi M=1, khi bn mu c chn, bn mu s chiu theo b m t nh m ly vo cho ng, ti phn cui nh bn mu s ly li phn xc lp sau b m t nh hin th. D liu nh Chui cc gi tr c th t ca cc pixel mu to nn nh. Cc pixel c xp t tri sang phi, cc dng t trn xung di. Phn kt thc nh Cung cp tnh ng b cho du u cui ca nh GIF. Cui nh GIF c gi tr 0x3b (du ;) 2.5.1.5 Cu trc File nh GIF 89a Tng t nh GIF 87a nhng c cha khi m rng gm 8 byte. 1 byte ch k khi m rng (0x21) M t K t lin kt nh Pixel bt u nh tnh t tri hnh hin th Pixel cui nh bt u tnh t nh trn ca hnh hin th

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L Tr Thnh Khoa CNTT Trng H Hng hi 1 byte Nhn khi m rng (0xf9) 1 byte Kch thc khi (0x04) 1 byte bit 0..2: khng s dng bit 6: C ngi dng bit 7: 2 bytes thi gian tr mi khi nh 1 byte cc mu s dng 1 byte kt thc khi bit 3..5: th t loi b c ch xem c s dng c bng mu hay khng GIF NOTE GIF header Graphic control Extension Block Header Image (10 Byte) Palete of image 1 (nu c) Data of image 1 , k t lin kt ......................................... ; GIF terminator 2.5.1.6 Cu trc File nh GIF Animation GIF NOTE GIF header Application Extension Block Lp li N ln Graphic control Extension Block Header Image (10 Byte) Palete of image 1 (nu c) Data of image 1 Application Extension Block 1 byte : ch k khi ng dng m rng (0x21) 1 byte : nhn ca khi (0xff) 1 byte : Kch thc khi(0x0b) 8 bytes : Nhn dng ca ng dng [ 1 byte Kch thc khi thng tin (s)bytes Thng tin ng dng ] lp li N ln 1 byte Kt thc khi ; GIF terminator

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L Tr Thnh Khoa CNTT Trng H Hng hi GIF: Graphics Interchange Format 2.5.1.7 Cu trc File nh JPG (Joint Photograph Expert Group) Jpg c t chc thnh cc on (segments) v dng h thng nh du (marker) nhn dng. Mi marker gm 2 byte cha cc thng tin header, cc bng m, im bt u v kt thc ca s liu nh. Mi on c chiu di ti a l 65535 v bt u bi marker nhn din v kt thc bi 1 marker. nh dang JPG s dng nh dng kiu Motorola cho t, ngha l byte cao trc, byte thp sau (FFA0 ghi trong file th FF l phn thp offset, A0 l phn cao). H thng vch du v cch t chc thng tin trong JPG Mt Marker gm 2 byte bt u bng 0xFF v kt thc bng bye nm trong khong 0 -> 0xFF. Byte th hai ch r ngha ca vch du. Cc vch du quan trng: SOI (start of image = FFD8): bt u nh, vch ny bt buc c u nh. EOI (end of image =FFD9): kt thc nh. SOSF0 (Start of Frame 0 = FFC0): bt u khung nh 0. SOS (Start of Scan = FFDA): bt u kim tra qut nh RSTi (restart Markers = FFDi; i = 1..7) Vch khi u li. Vch ny xut hin trong dng byte nhng v tr cch u nhau trong qu trnh gii m sau SOS. Mt s JPG khng c vch ny. APP0: vch du dng nhn bit tp JPG khi nhn c t JFIF=FFE0. COM (Comment = FFEE): ch gii. DNL (Define Number of Line = FFDC): xc nh s dng. DRI (Define Restart of Interval = FFDD): nh ngha khong cch bt u li. DQT (Define Quantization Table = FFDB): nh ngh bng lng t ha. DHT (Define Huffman Table = FFC4): nh ngha bng Hufman. Ni dung cc bng nh sau: - 16 bytes: byte i cha s m Huffman vi chiu di i tnh theo bits, i=1..16. - Chiu di bng = tng chiu di cc t m. nh dng JPG/ JFIF (Jpeg Format Interchange File) Chun JPG ch nh mt s vch dnh ring cho cc ng dng. Cch vch ny gi l APPn (n= 0..0xF): APPn = FFEn. c t JFIF s dng vch du AAP0 nhn dang.

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L Tr Thnh Khoa CNTT Trng H Hng hi a. Cu trc tp JPG - Header (2 bytes): FFD8 vch du SOI - Dy cc segments nh. - Kt thc nh (2 bytes): FFD9 vch du EOI. b. Cu trc segment Gm hai phn: - Header (4 bytes): FF, n, sh, sl FF: nhn dng on n: kiu on 1 byte. sh, sl: kch thc on. - Ni dung: ti a 65533 bytes. c. Kiu on: y ta a ra cc kiu on dng trong JPG. - TEM = $01 thng l nguyn nhn li (khng c c t v kch thc, ni dung) - SOF0, SOF1: bt du khung. - SOF2..SOF7; SOF10..SOF15: khng s dng. - SOF9: m ha s hc, thong khng dng. - DHT: bng m huffman. C hai loi bng DC v AC. - JPG= $c8: nguyn nhn li m. - DAC=$cc; bng s hc, thng khng dng. - RST0..RST7: c th l i, khng c c t v kch thc, ni dung. - SOI= $D8: bt u nh. - EOI= $D9: kt thc nh. - SOS= $DA: bt u qut nh. - DQT= $D8: bng lng t ha. - DRL =$DC: c th b qua. - DRI = $DD: khong bt u li. - DHP=$DE: EXP=$DF: b qua. - APP0= $E0: vch du cho nh JFIF - APP15=$EF: b qua - JPG0=$F0, JPG13=$FD: b qua. - COM=$FE: ch gii -Tt c cc kiu khc ta khng xt ti.

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L Tr Thnh Khoa CNTT Trng H Hng hi Kiu on SOF0 = FFC0 - 2 bytes: nhn dng on ($FF) v kiu an ($C0). - Chiu di (byte cao, byte thp) - chnh xc d liu (1 byte): s bits/ pixel thng l 8. - cao ca nh (2 bytes), c gi tr >0 nu DNL khng h tr. - rng ca nh (2 bytes), c gi tr >0 nu DNL khng h tr. - s thnh phn (1 byte) 1: nh a cp xm. - Mi thnh phn gm 3 bytes + s hiu thnh phn ( 1= Y, 2= Cb, 3=Cr, 4=I, 5=Q). + yu t ly mu (bit 0-3: chiu ng, bit 4-7: chiu ngang) + s bng lng t. Kiu on APP0: vch du on dng c t JFIF - 2 bytes: nhn dng on ($FF) v kiu an ($E0). - Chiu di > 16. -JFIF#0 ($4a, $46, $49, $00): nhn dng JFIF - s tham chiu chnh =1 - s tham chiu ph = 0..2 (nu khc th p dng cch gii m khc). - n v mt x/y + 0: khng c mt . + 2: dots/cm. - mt x (2 byte) - mt y (2 byte) - chiu rng vit ngn gn (1 byte) - chiu di vit ngn gn (1 byte) - b bytes vit ngn gn (RGB 24 bits) n= rng*cao*3. Kiu on DRI: xc nh khong bt u li. - 2 bytes: nhn dng on ($FF) v kiu an ($DD). - chiu di (byte thp, byte cao) = 4 - khong bt u li (byte cao, byte thp) trong n v khi MCUs c ngha l mi n khi MCU th c RSTn vch du c th tm thy, - vch u tin l RST0, tip theo l RST1.. RST7 sau lp li. + 1: dots/inch s chm im / 1 inch. 3: nh mu YCbCr/ YIQ 4: nh mu CMYK

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L Tr Thnh Khoa CNTT Trng H Hng hi Kiu on DQT: Xc nh bng lng t - 2 bytes: nhn dng on ($FF) v kiu an ($DB). - chiu di (byte thp, byte cao) - Thng tin lng t (1 byte) + bit 0..3: s bng lng t QT (0..3). + bit 4..7: chnh xc ca bng lng t ( = 0: 8 bit; # 16 bit) - n byte QT, n= 64* ( chnh xc +1) Kiu on DHT - 2 bytes: nhn dng on ($FF) v kiu an ($DB). - chiu di (byte thp, byte cao) - Thng tin bng HT (1 byte) +bit 0..3: s bng lng t QT (0..3) + 5..7 = 0. - 16 byte: s k hiu dng m vi chiu di t 1..16. - n byte: bng cha k hiu theo th t tng chiu di m. Kiu on COM - 2 bytes: nhn dng on ($FF) v kiu an ($FE). - chiu di (byte thp, byte cao) - Ni dung: chui cc bytes. Kiu on SOS: bt u qut - 2 bytes: nhn dng on ($FF) v kiu an ($DA). - chiu di (byte thp, byte cao): 6 * (s thnh phn trong kim tra) - S thnh phn trong kim tra(1 byte) = 1..4. - Mi thnh phn(2bytes). - Thnh phn: + s hiu thnh phn ( 1= Y, 2= Cb, 3=Cr, 4=I, 5=Q). + yu t ly mu (bit 0-3: chiu ng, bit 4-7: chiu ngang) + s bng lng t. - Bng Huffman s dng: + bit 0..3: AC - 3 byte tip: b qua. - Ch : D liu nh nm sau SOS. + bit 4..6: DC + bit4 =0: bng DC; =1 bng AC

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L Tr Thnh Khoa CNTT Trng H Hng hi

Phn th hai: x l nh s Chng III. X l nh nh phn

3.1. nh nh phn - K/n: nh nh phn l nh m gi tr cc pixel l 0 hoc 1. - Ta gi J l tp cc im nh ( im c mc xm l 1). JT l tp cc im nn (im c mc xm l 0). 3.1.1. Khun nh nh phn khng gi C th xem xt nh nh phn nh nhng nh xm, trong s dng gi tr T m cc gi tr dui T coi l 0, trn T coi l 1. Cch m t nh vy gi l nh nh phn khng gi. Thng thng ta s dng nh xm 8 bit cho mi im nh. Vi khun nh ny i hi kch thc b nh ln nhng truy cp ln cc im nh nhanh chng v n gin. 3.1.2. Khun mt bng bit Trong khun mu ny nhiu nh nh phn c lu trong mt nh xm. Cc mt bng bit l cc nh nh phn c ly ra t mt nh xm.Tc l: tp hp cc bit th i ca cc byte trong nh xm l nh nh phn th i. Khun nh dng ny s dng c hiu qu b nh xong mt nhiu thi gian truy nhp ln mt bit. 3.1.3. Khun nh nh phn gi nh nh phn c th sp xp c di dng b gi nh l khun mu nh ring v c lu tr trong mt mng nguyn. Nh vy trong mi t nguyn 32 bit s c 32 im nh nhi phn. Vic truy nhp ln mt im nh nh phn gi tng i mt thi gian. 3.1.4. Chuyn i t nh xm sang nh nh phn K thut phn ngng: dng hin th nh vi tng mu lin tc. - T2: Vi mt ngng cho trc, mc xm ca pixel trong nh ln hn th chuyn v gi tr l 1, nh hn th v 0. - Phng php ny lm cho tnh cht mu lin tc ca nh b gin on nhng c hiu qu trong vic th hin cc loi nh c ng nt nh vn bn, vn tay... K thut Dithering: c p dng to ra nh a cp xm khi phn gii ca nh ngun v nh ch l nh nhau. - P2 ny m bo kt qu ca nh ng thi th hin c cc b phn c tn s cao. - T2: + S dng mt ma trn Dithering chuyn i nh.

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L Tr Thnh Khoa CNTT Trng H Hng hi + Mi mc xm ca mt pixel trong nh gc c so snh vi pixel tng ng trn Dithering, nu ln hn th chuyn sang 1, ngc li l 0. 3.2. Php ton hnh thi trn nh nh phn 3.2.1. Php ton hnh thi Morphology L thut ng ch cu trc ca i tng, n din t phm vi, mi quan h gia cc phn ca i tng. Mt i tng nh trong hnh thi hc c th biu din thnh mt tp hp cc im nh theo cu trc hai chiu. Php co v php gin nh l hai thao tc ton hc c th trn tp im nh lm ni bt cc c trng v hnh dng i tng. 3.2.2. Biu din d liu nh trn tp hp Vi nh nh phn Im*n, pixel ti (x, y) c xc nh = 0 nu l im trng, =1 l im en. Trong khng gian 2 chiu Im*n c th biu din thnh tp cc to m gi tr pixel ti l 1. VD: I 3x3 c biu din nh sau 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 A = { (0, 0); (1, 2); (1,1); (2.0); (2,1)}

Mt s php ton trn tp hp + Php dch A theo im P (x, y): AP = { c/ c = a+P; a A} + Phn b ca A: AC= { c/ a khng A} + Giao ca hai tp hp: A B = {c / c A v c B } + Hiu hai tp hp: A - B = {c / c A hoc c B } Cc tc ng c bn x l nh nh phn. + BNOT(B,C): C= Not B + BAND(A, B, C): C = A And B + BOR(A,B,C): C= A Or B + BSHIFT(A,C,i): C = A dch theo chiu i. i M t 0 phi 1 phi trn 2 trn 3 tri trn 4 tri 5 tri di 6 di 7 phi di

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L Tr Thnh Khoa CNTT Trng H Hng hi + BERASE(B): Xa cc im nh ca B + BEXOR(A, B, C): C = A Xor B + BSUM(B): Tng s im nh. 3.2.3. Php gin nh nh phn Php gin tp A bi tp T c nh ngha nh sau: A s lm tng s im nh ca I. VD sau s ch r: 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 A = { (0, 2; (0 3; (1,0); (1,3); (2,1)} T= { (0,0); (0,1)} T = { c / c = a + t; t T}

Nh vy php dn nh nh phn IM*N theo phn t cu trc T c xc nh nh trn

Khi tp A s c gin theo T nh sau: A 0,2 0,3 1,3 2,1 1,0 0,2 0,3 1,3 2,1 1,0 T 0,0 0,0 0,0 0,0 0,0 0,1 0,1 0,1 0,1 0,1 C 0,2 0,3 1,3 2,1 1,0 0,3 0,4 1,4 2,2 1,1 Nh vy nh tp A sau khi gin thnh tp C = {(0,2); (0,3);(1,3);(2,1);(1,0); (0,4);(1,4);(2,2);(1,1)} nh A s l: 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 0

3.2.4. Php gin nh Minkowshi Cc bc thc hin: + Bc1: Biu din phn t cu trc T thnh ma trn cc im nh 0, 1. + Bc2: Chn im c gi tr 1 bt k trong T lm phn t gc. + Bc3: Dch chuyn phn t gc ca T n tt c cc im nh (mc xm 1) trn nh gc theo th t t trn xung di, t tri qua phi. Trong mi ln dch chuyn gi tr pixel trong c xc nh nh sau: Vi pixel trn nh gc ng vi im 1 trong T, pixel nh kt qu c gn mc xm 1. http://www.ebook.edu.vn 20 Xu ly anh

L Tr Thnh Khoa CNTT Trng H Hng hi Thm pixel cho nh kt qu c gi tr 0 hoc 1 vo v tr ng vi im 0 hoc 1 trong mu T nu nh gc khng c pixel ng vi cc im ny. VD: Cho nh nh phn I3x4 v mu T = {(0,0); (1,0); (1,1)} 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 T

nh I3x4 Chn (1,0) lm gc gin nh I theo mu T. Ta c kt qu nh sau: 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 1

t T vo (0,1) 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 1

t T vo (0,3) 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

t T vo (1,0) 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1

t T vo (1,2)

nh kt qu

t vo (1,3)

t vo (2,1)

t vo (2,2)

Php gin nh lm tng s im nh v kch thc ca nh kt qu so vi nh gc. Vi mu T c kch thc MxN th kch thc nh kt qu tng (m-1) v (n-1) mi chiu. 3.2.5. Php co nh nh phn Php co (Erosion) nh nh phn A bi mu T c nh ngha nh sau: A T = {c/ } c / c = a - t; t T } Php co nh s lm s im nh gim i v kch thc c th gim. 3.2.6. Php co nh Minkowshi c thc hin nh sau: Dch chuyn mu T trn nh gc theo th t t trn xung di, t tri qua phi sao cho mu T nm trn vn trong nh gc. Mi pixel ca nh kt qu c xc nh nh sau:

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L Tr Thnh Khoa CNTT Trng H Hng hi 0 1 1 1 1 0 C mc xm 1 nu cc v tr 1 ti nh gc v mu T trng nhau.Ngc li l 0. 0 1 1 1 0 1 nh I3x4 1 0 1 1 T

VD: Cho nh nh phn I3x4 v mu T= {(0,0); (1,0); (1,1)}

Php co nh c thc hin nh sau: 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 1

t T n (0,0) t T n (0,1) t T n (0,2) 0 1 1 0 0 1 nh kt qu

t T n (1,0)

t T n (1,1)

t T n (1,2) Php co nh lm gim s im nh v kch thc ca nh kt qu so vi nh gc. Vi mu T c kch thc MxN th kch thc nh kt qu gim (m-1) v (n-1). 3.2.7. Cc tnh cht ca php co, gin nh a. Tnh cht phn b A A (T1 T2) = ( A (T1 T2) = ( A T1 ) ( A T1 ) ( A T2 ) T2 )

b. Tnh phn b vi php (A T1) c. Tnh bt bin ((A ((A (A (A T) T) T1) T1) T) = A T) = A T2 = A T2 = A T T (T1 (T1 T2) T2) T2 = (A T1) ( A T2)

d. Tnh kt hp

e. Tnh gia tng Nu T1 T2 A A T1 A T1 A T2 T2

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L Tr Thnh Khoa CNTT Trng H Hng hi 3.2.8. Dn v co nh i vi cc trng hp gin on Cc im c bn c coi nh mt im nh, t 1 im nh dn ra theo cc hnh c bn, + + + Hnh thoi c bn Hnh vung c bn 1 + + + + + + +

Hnh vung c bn 2

Dn 1 im thnh hnh vung c bn 2 Sub BDIL0(A, H, C) Call BShift(A, H, 4) Call BOr(A, H, H) Call BShift(H, C, 6) Call BOr(H, C, C) End

+ +
nh gc Di chuyn A sang tri -> B

. +

+ + +

Di chuyn B xung di v lin hip vi A -> C

Tp hp lin hip B v C

Trong :

im gc v im nh.

im gc.

+ im nh.

Co hnh vung c bn thnh 1 im Sub BERO0(A, H, C) Call BShift(A, H, 2) Call BOr(A, H, H) Call BShift(H, C, 0) Call BOr(H, C, C) End

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L Tr Thnh Khoa CNTT Trng H Hng hi Dn 1 im thnh hnh thoi c bn Sub BDIL1(A, H, C) Call BShift(A, H, 1) Call BShift(H, C, 3) Call BShift(C, C, 6) End Co hnh thoi c bn thnh 1 im Sub BER01(A, H, C) Call BShift(A, H, 1) Call BShift(H, C, 3) Call BShift(C, C, 6) End 3.2.9. Dn nh v co nh mt cch ti u trn li Li hnh vung c phn chia lm hai loi vng ln cn: ln cn theo ngha hp vi khong cch l a; ln cn theo ngha rng vi khong cch l a.sqrt(2) ng vi dn nh theo hnh vung v hnh thoi c bn. Khi dn nh vi hnh vung c bn n ln s c hnh vung cnh l n.a, vi hnh thoi l n.a.sqrt(2). Do khi dn nh vi cc thao tc co, dn theo hnh vung, thoi c bn s thu c nh khc nhau. Trnh t gi cc thao tc khng nh hng n kt qu m s lng ln gi mi nh hng n kt qu. V d c hnh bt gic ngoi tip ng trn c bn knh R th: BDIL bt gic = a. BDIL thoi + b. BDIL vung BERO bt gic = a. BERO thoi + b. BERO vung B R a 3.3. Php ng m nh K hiu cc php ton: + Gin nh A: D(A) + M nh: Open(A) + Co nh A: E(A) + ng nh: Close(A) R = a + b/2 b = a.sqrt(2) a = 2R/(2 + sqrt(2)) = 0.59 R b = 2.sqrt(2).R/(2+ sqrt(2)) = 0.83R b: cnh ngang, a cnh cho. Call BOr(A, H, H) Call BOr(H, C, C) Call BOr(A, C, C) Call BOr(A, H, H) Call BOr(H, C, C) Call BOr(A, C, C)

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L Tr Thnh Khoa CNTT Trng H Hng hi Khi : + Php m nh A theo mu T c nh ngha nh sau: Open(A) = D(E(A)). Php m nh s m rng nhng khong trng nh gia cc phn tip xc trong i tng nh, lm cho nh bt gai hn. + Php ng nh A theo mu T c nh ngha nh sau: Close(A) = E(D(A)). Php ng nh s lp y nhng khong trng nh, lm mt nhng tn hiu gy trong nhiu.

VD1: Cho nh nh phn I4x5 v mu T. Thc hin php Open(A) 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 Co nh I1 ta c Open(A) 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 nh I4x5 1 1 0 1 T

Gin nh I theo Minkowski ta c I1 : 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

VD2: Cho nh nh phn I4x5 v mu T. Thc hin php Close(A) 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 Gin nh I1 ta c Close(A) 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 nh I4x5 1 1 0 1 T

Co nh I theo Minkowski ta c I1 : 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0

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L Tr Thnh Khoa CNTT Trng H Hng hi

(a)

(b)

(c)

a) nh A

b) Gin nh vi 2B

c) Co nh vi 2B

d) M nh vi 2B

e) ng nh vi 2B f) Hit-and-Miss vi B1 v B2

3.3.1. X l tng i tng trn nh nh phn Trong cc cch x l trn cc i tng nh c x l song song theo cng mt cch do khng th x l tch ring cc i tng. tch ring cc i tng ngi ta dng thut ton GrassFire - t chy bi c. Thut ton GrassFire m t nh sau: t mt im mi hay im nh du cho trc, tng im ca i tng s c thu nhn qua qu trnh t chy. Thut ton c dng khi khng cn im no c t chy. V mt k thut qu trnh t chy nh c lm dn ra bng cc im nh du khi s dng cc hnh thoi c bn. Tip mt php AND c thc hin gia nh gc v nh thu c loi b cc im vut ra ngoi mp ca i tng. Thut ton c m t nh sau: Sub GrassFire // B: nh gc, M: nh nh du cha cc i tng nh du. Kt thc khi khng cn i tng no nh du. http://www.ebook.edu.vn 26 Xu ly anh

L Tr Thnh Khoa CNTT Trng H Hng hi i=0 Loop: j = BSUM(M) BDIL(M,M) BAND(B,M,M) i =BSUM(M) If i <> j goto Loop End Sau khi c i tng nh ta c th thc hin cc php bin i hu ch nh: + Cu trc li mt s i tng sau khi co nh. + Lp y cc vng trng trong i tng. Mun th ta phi to mt nh nh du t nh li ra c o v lnh s m co nh lin tc cho ti khi ht khong trng, sau nh s c cu trc v khng c vng trng. + xa cc i tng mp, ta p dng grassfire vi cc im mp. T vi sai gia nh gc v cc i tng nh mp ta thu c nh khng c i tng mp. + C th s dng Grassfire m cc i tng sau khi xa mt i tng theo mt i tng khc bng vic t chy. + Lu tr nh theo cc i tng v xc nh thng s ca cc i tng. 3.3.2. Lm co nh ln cht Php co nh tc ng ln tt c cc i tng nh theo cch nh nhau do cc i tng nh s bin mt nhanh hn l cc i tng ln. cc i tng mp s b vt i tng ng vi c ca phn t nh. iu ny khng thch hp vi mt s ng dng do cn c cch khc, l ultimate erosion tc l khng cc i tng bin mt hon ton m ch mt mt phn. Cc bc c tin hnh nh sau: - Trc mi ln co u kim tra mt i tng d b bin mt bi vic lm co ln cht trc y khng. thc hin ta ln mt php co th. - Tt c cc i tng b khng mt khi th co nh c cu trc li bng GrassFire. - tm kim cc i tng mt, nh li ra c cu trc v nh c tnh ton. - Tch ly cc i tng nh mt trong mt b nh nh thch hp. - Thc hin php co nh ch thc v nh u ra s lp li qu trnh trn. VD: lm co nh cho n khi i tng b bin mt hon ton.

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L Tr Thnh Khoa CNTT Trng H Hng hi SUB Ultimate(H, B, C) // H: nh ph tr, C: nh kt qu, B: nh gc BErase(C) Loop: BERO(B, H) // Co nh theo hnh thoi c bn GrassFire(B, H) BEXOR(B, H, H) // xem xt s khc nhau B v H BOR(H, C, C) // i tng b mt c tch ly vo C BERO(B, B) // co nh thc s i= BSUM(B) if i > 0 goto Loop end

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L Tr Thnh Khoa CNTT Trng H Hng hi 3.4. Bin nh nh phn 3.4.1. Tp im lng ging - Cho trc im nh P(x,y) th (x-1,y) (x+1,y) (x, y-1) (x, y+1) gi l cc 4 lng ging ca P. - im nh P(x,y) th cc 4 lng ging ca P v (x-1,y-1) (x-1,y+1) (x+1, y-1) (x+1, y+1) l cc 8 lng ging ca P. - Hai im nh P v Q thuc nh A c gi l 4 (8) lin thng trong A nu tn ti cc cp im {(x0, y0)(xn, yn)} c gi l ng i sao cho: + P=(x0,y0); Q=(xn, yn) + mi (xk, yk) v (xk+1, yk+1) th (xk, yk) l 4(8) lng ging ca (xk+1, yk+1) k=0..n-1 3.4.2. Chu tuyn ca mt i tng nh - i tng nh l mt tp hp cc im nh lin thng. - im bin: P l im nu n tn ti t nht 1 im 4 lng ging c mc xm khc P. - Chu tuyn ca mt i tng nh l tp cc im bin P1, P2..Pn ca i tng nh sao cho hai im Pi v Pi+1 l cc 8 lng ging ca nhau v P1 l 8 lng ging ca Pn. K hiu chu tuyn l C=<P1..Pn> - Chu tuyn i ngu: hai chu tuyn C=<P1..Pn> v CT=<Q1..Qn> gi l i ngu ca nhau nu l ch nu mi i=1..n u tn ti duy nht j =1..m sao cho. + Pi v Qj l cc 4 lng ging ca nhau. + Mc xm ca Pi v Qj l khc nhau - Chu tuyn ngoi: Chu tuyn C c gi l chu tuyn ngoi nu di (s cc im bin) ca C nh hn di chu tuyn i ngu. - Chu tuyn trong: Chu tuyn C c gi l chu tuyn trong nu di (s cc im bin) ca C ln hn di chu tuyn i ngu. - In(Q, C): im Q nm trong chu tuyn C - Out(Q, C): im Q nm ngoi chu tuyn C B 1: Gi C=<P1..Pn> l chu tuyn v CT=<Q1..Qm> l chu tuyn i ngu ca C. Khi : + C l chu tuyn trong th In(Qj, C) j=1..m + C l chu tuyn ngoi th In(Pi, CT) i=i..n B 2: Gi C=<P1..Pn> l chu tuyn. Khi : + C l chu tuyn ngoi th In(P, C) vi P khng nm trn C. + C l chu tuyn trong th Out(P, C) vi P khng nm trn C nh l: Nu E l mt i tng nh v C l chu tuyn ngoi ca E th C l duy nht. 3.4.3. Mt s k thut d bin 3.4.3.1. D bin hnh thc ha - Nu (B, G) l mt cp im bin vi B l im nh v G l im nn. - Dy cc cp (B1,G1).(Bn,Gn) l cc 8 lng ging ca nhau v (B1,G1)=(Bn,Gn). - Gi T l mt thut ton d bin, p dng T cho cp im (Bi, Gi) ta c (Bi+1, G i+1). - Khi p dng T, qu trnh d bin c thc hin t trn xung di v t tri qua phi. 3.4.3.2. Thut ton d bin Freeman (1986) - Xut pht t mt im trng P (mc xm =0), qu trnh d bin s i theo cc hng 0, 2 , 4, 6 trong mt n 8 hng vi quy tc nh sau: + Gp im trng th sang tri, im en th sang phi. + Qu trnh trn c lp li cho n khi quay li ng v tr xut pht P. + V tr - Thng tin ca mt Pixel bao gm: + Hng n + Mc xm

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L Tr Thnh Khoa CNTT Trng H Hng hi - Khi nim sang tri, phi ph thuc vo hng n ca im ang xt nh trogn bng di y im trng sang tri im en sang phi Hng n Hng i Hng n Hng i 0 2 0 6 2 4 2 0 4 5 4 2 6 0 6 4 VD: p dng tm bin vi im (2,2) hng n l 6. 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 - Tuy nhin thut ton ny pht sinh cc im khng cn quan tm. 3.4.3.3. Thut ton d bin Freeman ci tin - Xut pht t mt im trng P (mc xm =0), qu trnh d bin s i theo cc hng 0, 2 , 4, 6 trong mt n 8 hng vi quy tc nh sau: + Gp im trng th sang tri, im en th quay tr li. + Qu trnh trn c lp li cho n khi quay li ng v tr xut pht P. - Thng tin ca mt Pixel bao gm: + Hng n + Mc xm + V tr - Khi nim sang tri, phi ph thuc vo hng n ca im ang xt nh trogn bng di y im trng sang tri im en quay li Hng n Hng i Hng n Hng i 0 2 0 4 2 4 2 6 4 5 4 0 6 0 6 2 VD: p dng tm bin vi im (1,2) hng n l 6. 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 3.4.3.4. Thut ton d bin theo 8 lng ging - Xut pht t mt im bin P, qu trnh d bin s tm mt im bin duy nht ln cn vi P (c cng mc xm vi P) theo mt n 8 hng vi th t u tin cho trc. - Thng tin ca mt Pixel bao gm: + Hng n + Mc xm + V tr - Th t u tin c cho di bng sau

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L Tr Thnh Khoa CNTT Trng H Hng hi Hng n 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Hng i tip theo lan cn vi th t u tin 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 3 4 5 6 3 4 5 6 5 6 7 0 5 6 7 0 7 0 1 2 7 0 1 2 2

7 7 1 1 3 3 5 5

0 0 2 2 4 4 6 6

5 7 1 3

VD: p dng tm bin vi im (1,2) hng n l 6. 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 4 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 5 1 1 1 1 1 1 BL: STT 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Hng n 6 5 6 0 7 0 3 1 3 V tr ban u 1, 2 2, 1 3, 1 3, 2 4, 3 4, 4 3, 3 2, 4 1, 3

1 0

Hng i 6 5 6 0 7 0 3 1 3 4

V tr n 1, 2 2, 1 3, 1 3, 2 4, 3 4, 4 3, 3 2, 4 1, 3 1, 2

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L Tr Thnh Khoa CNTT Trng H Hng hi

Chng IV. X l nh xm
A. PHP TON KHNG PH THUC KHNG GIAN 4.1. K thut tng gim sng 4.1.1. Cng tr cng 1 gi tr vo pixel Gi I(x, y) l pixel ca nh I. Khi gi tr xm ca nh mi s l: + Inew(x, y) = | I(x, y) + c | + Nu c>0: tng sng. + Nu c<0: gim sng. 4.1.2. Tch ngng Ta chn hai mc Thp- Min, Cao-Max v gi tr ngng , khi gi tr cc pixel c nh ngha li nh sau: + Inew(x, y) = Max nu I(x, y) >= + Inew(x, y) = Min nu I(x, y) < 4.1.3. B cm- Bunching Gim s mc xm ca nh bng cch nhm mt s mc xm gn nhau li thnh mt nhm. Nu ch c 2 nhm th tng ng vi Tch Ngng. Trong trng hp tng qut, khi bin ngi ta thng ly cc nhm c cng kch thc SIZE, gi tr mi c tnh nh sau: Inew(x, y) = (I (x, y)/SIZE)* SIZE 4.1.4. Cn bng Histogram nh c gi l cn bng l tng nu vi mi mc xm g v g th H(g)=H(g). nh xm MxN l cn bng l tng nu H(0) = H(1) = M*N/2 Cn bng Histogram + + + t(g) : tng s pixel trong nh c mc xm <= g. Newlevel l s mc xm nh cn cn bng. f(g)= Max{0, round( t(g)*Newlevel /(M*N)) -1 } cc gi tr xm g c thay th bi gnew= f(g)

VD: Cho nh I5x6, Newlevel= 5. Cn bng nh bi Histogram

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L Tr Thnh Khoa CNTT Trng H Hng hi 1 0 0 0 0 2 1 0 0 0 3 2 1 0 0 4 3 2 1 0 5 4 3 2 1 6 5 4 3 2 2 1 1 1 1 2 2 1 1 1 3 2 2 1 1 4 3 2 2 1 4 4 3 2 2 4 4 4 3 2

4.1.5. Tch ngng t ng Tm ngng da vo histogram nh sau: + P= M*N: s pixel ca nh G l mc xm ln nht ca nh t(g) : tng s pixel trong nh c mc xm <= g. + + m(g) = SUM ( i*H(i) )/ t(g) i = 0..g f(g) = [t(g)/( P-t(g) )]*[m(g)-m(G-1)] 2-1 l gi tr sao cho f() = max (f(g)) vi g=0..G-1 4.2. Thao tc a nh c thc hin trn nhiu nh thu v mt nh kt qu. C hai phng php chnh l lc trung v v lc trung bnh. 4.2.1. Lc trung v Xt dy s x1, x2.. xn n iu tng (hoc gim). Khi + n l th x(n+1)/2 l phn t trung v ca dy + n chn th xn/2 l phn t trung v ca dy M1: Cho dy x1, x2.. xn n iu tng, gi Med({xi}) l phn t trung v ca dy, khi Sum(|x-xi|) - i = 1..n - s t cc tiu ti Med({xi}) Cho mt dy nh c cng kch thc I1, I2.. In, gi Imed l nh trung v ca cc nh nu P l mt pixel ca Imed th Imed(P) = Med(Ik(P)) 4.2.2. Lc trung bnh Xt dy s x1, x2.. xn. M2: Gi xtb= sum(xi)/n l phn t trung bnh ca dy, khi : Sum((x-xi)2) -i = 1..n s t cc i ti xtb Cho mt dy nh c cng kch thc I1, I2.. In, gi Itb l nh trung bnh ca cc nh nu P l mt pixel ca Itb th Itb(P) = Sum(Ik(P))/n

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L Tr Thnh Khoa CNTT Trng H Hng hi B. PHP TON PH THUC KHNG GIAN 4.1. Php gin nh a cp xm 4.1.1. nh ngha Vi nh a cp xm IMxN, THxK l mu. Gi R l nh kt qu ca ca php gin nh I bi mu T. Khi R c kch thc (M+H-1, N+K-1) v c xc nh nh sau: + I(x, y) = 0 vi x= -(H-1) . .-1 hoc M .. M+H-2; y = -(K-1) . .-1 hoc N .. N+K-2 + R(x, y) = Max {I(x-i, y-j)+T(i,j)} vi i = 0..H-1; j = 0..K-1; x=0.. M+H-1; y=0..N+K-1 4.1.2. Thut ton VD: cho nh I v mu T nh sau 2 2 2 2 2 4 2 2 2 1 2 3 4

B1: Thm cc pixel c mc xm = 0 vo xung quanh bin I sao cho kch thc ca nh l (M+2*H-2)x(N+2*K-2). 0 2 2 2 2 4 2 2 2 2 0 0 0 0 0 2 2 2 0 0 0 2 2 4 2 2 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 3 T 2 4 4 2 T 3 1 1 4 6 2 0 7 3 5 8 8 5 3 7 0 2 6 4 1

B2: Quay mu T i 180o c T

B3: Dch chuyn mu T trn nh I theo trt t t trn xung di, t tri sang phi sao cho pham vi mu ca T nm trong nh I. mi ln dch chuyn, pixel nh kt qu tng ng c mc xm bng gi tr ln nht ca tng cc cp pixel ca mu T v nh I tng ng. Kt qu thu c c th gim i cng mt gi tr xm thch hp. Loi b (H-1) hng cui v (K-1) ct bn phi thu c kt qu cui cng. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 2 2 4 2 2 0 0 0 2 2 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 6 6 6 8 6 8 4 4 4 6 8 8 4 4 6 8 8 4 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 4 4 4 6 4 6 2 2 2 4 6 6 2 2 4 6 6 2

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L Tr Thnh Khoa CNTT Trng H Hng hi 4.2 Php co nh a cp xm 4.2.1. nh ngha Vi nh a cp xm IMxN, THxK l mu. Gi R l nh kt qu ca ca php co nh I bi mu T. Khi R c kch thc (M+1-H, N+1-K) v c xc nh nh sau: + R(x, y) = Min {I(x+i, y+j)-T(i,j)} vi i = 0..H-1; j = 0..K-1; x=0.. M+1-H; y=0..N+1-K 4.2.2. Thut ton B1: Dch chuyn mu T trn nh I theo trt t t trn xung di v t tri sang phi sao cho mu T nm trong nh I. mi ln dch chuyn, pixel nh kt qu tng ng c mc xm bng gi tr nh nht ca hiu cp gi tr pixel nh I v mu T. B2: Lp li B1 cho n ht nh I. B3: Mc xm pixel nh c kt qu m, c 2 cch khc phc: + t cc gi tr m thnh 0. + Bin i tng th mc xm: tm gi tr xm nh nht p trong nh v cng tt c cc gi tr xm ln p mc chnh lch gia cc pixel l khng i. VD: Cho nh I6x6 v mu T sau 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 4 4 4 4 2 1 1 1 3 3 3 1 2 4 4 4 2 2 4 8 8 4 2 Mu T 1 3 7 3 1 2 4 8 4 2 2 4 8 8 4 2 1 3 3 3 1 2 4 4 4 2 2 4 4 4 4 2 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 nh kt qu nh kt qu + 1 4.3. ng, m mc xm - M mc xm: Open(I)=D(E(I)) theo T - ng mc xm: Colse(I)=E(D(I)) theo T 4.4. Xng nh 4.4.1. Php nh trng nh trt (Hit or miss transformation) Cc php co v gin nh u c ngun gc t php nh trng, nh trt. Cho trc nh A v hai phn t cu trc B1, B2 th ton t trng trt c xc nh nh sau: Hitmiss(A, B1, B2) = E(A, B1) E(AC, B2) = Close(E(A, B1), E(, B2) ) Vi AC: l phn b ca A. l ph nh ca A v B1 B2= 0 Php ton ny cn c gi l xc nh vin mu, mu B1 cho i tng nh v mu B2 cho nn nh.

4 phn t cu trc c s dng tm gc ca nh trong php ton HitAndMiss

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L Tr Thnh Khoa CNTT Trng H Hng hi Sau khi tm c gc theo cc phn t cu trc trn, ta kt hp chng li c kt qu l cc gc li ca nh.

S dng php ton HitAndMiss tm gc li ca mt nh 4.4.2. Tm xng nh Xng nh tm c c yu cu: - C rng bng 1 im nh - i qua phn gia i tng. - m bo Tp gia cc i tng. Tm xng nh da vo cc php hnh thi - Gi Tk l mu c k*k phn t m mi phn t u c gi tr l 1. - Gi Ek(I) l php co nh I vi mu Tk. - Openk(I) l php m nh vi Tk. - Gi Sk(I) l xng ca nh I. Kho xng c xc nh nh sau: S(I)= Max( Sk(I) ) k=0..K Vi: Sk(I)=Ek(I)-Openk(Ek(I)) K l gi tr m Sk(I) l rng. Tm xng nh theo ton t lm gy Thin(A, B1, N2)= S(I)= A-Hitmiss(A, B1, B2) Vic chn B1 v B2 s rt nhiu cc gii thut lm mnh khc nhau. Mt phng php a ra l B2=0 v thc hin php lm mnh lin tip vi dy cc B1.

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L Tr Thnh Khoa CNTT Trng H Hng hi Xng nh c tm bng php ton lm gy vi hai phn t cu trc:

V d v mt s xng nh:

Ton t lm bo: Thick(A, B1, B2) = A U Hitmiss(A. B1, B2)

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L Tr Thnh Khoa CNTT Trng H Hng hi 4.5. Php lan truyn Trong thc t s rt thun li nu nh chng ta c th ti xy dng li mt nh sau khi b bo mn hoc lm y mt i tng c xc nh bi bin ca n. Qu trnh ny c gi l lan truyn ti xy dng hay lp y vng. Qu trnh c m t qua thut ton sau: + nh ht ging S(0), nh mt n A v phn t cu trc B. + Ta lp S(k) = [S(k-1) B ] A cho n khi S(k) = S(k-1) Nh vy sau mi ln lp nh ht ging s to thm (do php dn nh) nhng vn nm trong tp cc i tng A. Thng thng S(0) = [1] v B c kch thc 4x4 hoc 8x8. VD: Tm xng ca nh I8x8 sau Tnh S1(I) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 2 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 2 4 5 5 1 2 0 1 1 2 2 2 0 4 5 4 3 3 3 3 T(1) = 1 E1(I) = I-1 Open(E1(I))= D1(E1(E1(I)))= D1(I-2) =I-1 S1(I)=(I-1) (I-1) = 0

Tnh S2(I) E2(I) -> E2(I) +1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 2 4 1 2 0 1 0 1 1 2 E2(E2(I)) + 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Open2 - 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0

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L Tr Thnh Khoa CNTT Trng H Hng hi S3(I) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 S4(I) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 3 1 1 1 2 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4.6. Lm trn theo kiu Morphology Thut ton ny da trn c s rng php m mc xm lm trn nh xm t pha trn mt sng, cn php ng lm trn t pha di. Do , vi phn t cu trc T, php lm trn c nh ngha nh sau: MorphSmooph(A, T)= Close(Open(A)) 4.7. Cc tc ng nh xm cc b 4.7.1. Tc ng nhn chp nh Php nhn chp c nh ngha nh sau: A=C**B= c1
i = k j = k

E3(I) + 1 ->E3(E3(I)) + 1 = 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Open3(I) - 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

=> Open4(I) = 0 => dng thut ton ===> Xng ca nh 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 2 1 1 1 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

+k

+k

C(i,j).B(x-i, y-j) + c0

Trong : c1 l hng s chia thang, c0 l hng s cng thm vo; c0, c1 = [0, 255] C l ma trn mt n thc hin php nhn chp. C thng c kch thc (2k+1)x(2k+1). Php nhn chp c cc tc dng sau: + Loi b im mp., b lc (2k+1)x(2k+1) xut hin mt mp vi rng l k. + Sao chp mp nh c sang nh mi. + K tip cc nh mt cch tun hon v to ra mt tn hiu tun hon.

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L Tr Thnh Khoa CNTT Trng H Hng hi 4.7.2. Phng php lm nhn Phng php lm nhn nhm t n mc ch l loi b khng ng phng trong cc gi tr xm ca nh hoc cc tn s cao ca nh. Thng thng ta mun nn cc tn s hon ton c bit c to ra bi nhiu hoc bi cc ri lon khi thu c nh v nhn c mi quan h tn hiu cn st li sau khi kh nng ny c thc hin. Ngi ta a ra cc ma trn nhn chp khc nhau thc hin cng vic trn. V d nh cc ma trn nhn chp dng cho b lc gi tr trung bnh 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 2 4 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1
A. vng ln cn 5 im B. vng ln cn 9 im khng cn bng C. vng ln cn 9 im cn bng D. B lc Gauss cho 9 im

4.7.3. Gi tr trung bnh di ng Phng php ny nhm t n mc ch l xc nh gi tr xm trung bnh gia cc im nh cnh nhau. D s lm nhn cc cc gi tr xm ca nh v loi tr cc tn s cao. Gi tr trung bnh l mt b lc tuyn tnh, ng th v cc b. Trong mi quan h vi tn s th tng ng vi b lc tn s thp. gi cc gi tr trong gii hn th h s chia thang c t ph hp. Vi (A) l 1/5; (B) l 1/9; (C) l 1/10; (D) l 1/16. B lc thng thp Gauss 3x3 s c dng nh sau: b 1 H s chia 0 1 0 H s chia 1 2 thang =1/8 thang = b b 1 2 1 b 1/(b+2)2 0 1 0 1 b 1 4.7.4. B lc phi tuyn Ngi ta thng s dng 3 b lc l: trung v, gi trung v v lc ngoi. 4.7.4.1. Lc trung v im nh u vo s c thay th bng trung v cc im nh. K thut ny i hi gi tr cc im nh phi c sp theo th t tng hay gim dn. Kch thc ca s cng c chn (2k+1)x(2k+1). Lc trung v c tc dng sau: + Hu ch cho vic loi b cc im nh hay cc hng m vn bo ton phn gii. + Hiu qu gim khi cc im nhiu trong trong ca s ln hn hoc bng mt na s im trong ca s. 4.7.4.2. Lc gi trung v Tng t nh lc trung v nhng gi tr c thay th s l (Min + max)/2. 4.7.4.3. Lc ngoi Gi s c mt ngng xm cho cc mc nhiu tc l cc gi tr vt qu mc ny thi coi l nhiu. Khi vi cc im nhiu s c thay th bng gi tr trung bnh ca cc im ln cn n theo mt ca s c tm trng vi im nh u vo, thng l (2k+1)x(2k+1). iu quan trng y l xc nh ngng xm. 4.7.5. Mt n g sai phn 4.7.5.1. o hm gin on bc nht Cc o hm c m t bng cc phng trnh vi phn. Bi v mt nh l mt mng hai chiu nn ta c th vi sai gia hai im nh theo hng x v y: dB(x,y) / dx x B(x, y) =(B(x,y) B(x- x, y)) / x dB(x,y) / dy y B(x, y) =(B(x,y) B(x, y- y)) / x

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L Tr Thnh Khoa CNTT Trng H Hng hi Trong xB(x,y) v yB(x,y) l cc o hm gin on hay cc Gradien theo hng x v y. Vi x=y=1 ta nhn c phng trnh i y nh o hm i vi trng hp gin on x B(x, y) =B(x,y) B(x-1, y) y B(x, y) =B(x,y) B(x, y-1) Hay c m t bng hai ma trn nhn chp Cx= (-1 1) Cy= ( -1 1) o hm theo mt hng no c th c tnh theo T B(x, y) = x B(x, y) cosT + y B(x, y) sinT Kt qu ca php tnh ny s to ra mt nh gi ba chiu. Thng lm ra mt nh Graien i vi mi im nh vi phn theo hai hng trc giao. Cc hng ny nm ngang, thng ng hoc cc hng 45o v 135o. Ta sp xp hai gi tr graien (vact graien) vo mt im nh, cc graien ny c tp hp sau cc tin trnh tnh ton . Gradien chnh xc c xc nh G(x,y) = (x B(x, y)) 2 + (y B(x, y)) 2 gi tr ny thng c tnh xp x ( | x B(x, y)| + | y B(x, y)| ) Hng ca graien c xc nh ( x,y)= arctg( x (B(x, y))/ y (B(x, y))) 4.7.5.3. Cc graien vect khc Ty thuc vo ln ca vng ln cn m cc graien c nh ngha. Cc ma trn nhn chp trn khng c im i xng nn c cc phng t cu trc khc Cx=(1 0 -1) Cy = ( 1 0 -1) // Cy theo hng dc Do cc tn hiu nh thng b nhiu mnh nn thng dng cc graien 3x3 v ln hn th hin tc dng lm nhn nh. Ton t Prexittt c cu trc nh 1 0 -1 1 1 1 Cx 1 0 -1 Cy 0 0 0 1 0 -1 -1 -1 -1 Ton t Sobel c cu trc nh sau 1 0 -1 1 2 1 Cx 2 0 -2 Cy 0 0 0 1 0 -1 -1 -2 -1 Hai ton t trn tc ng mnh ln cc cnh thng ng v nm ngang ca gi tr xm. Ngoi ra cn c cc graien la bn li cho cc i theo cc hng 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 -1 1 1 H3 H2 H1 H0 -1 -2 1 -1 -2 1 1 -2 1 1 -2 -1 TB B B -1 1 1 -1 -1 1 -1 -1 -1 1 -1 -1

1 1 -1 1 -2 -1 1 1 -1 Ton t Kirsch -3 3 5 H0 -3 0 5 -3 5 5 H4 T

H5 TN

1 1 1 5 -3 -3

-1 -2 1 5 0 -3

-1 -1 1 5 5 5

H6 N

-1 1 1 5 5 -3

-1 -2 1 5 0 -3

-1 1 1 5 5 -3

H7 N

-1 -1 1 5 5 5

-1 -2 1 5 0 -3

1 1 1 5 -3 -3

H1 B

H2 B

H3 TB

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L Tr Thnh Khoa CNTT Trng H Hng hi

-3 -3 5 -3 -3 -3 5 -3 -3 5 5 -3 H7 H6 H5 5 0 -3 5 0 -3 5 0 5 -3 0 5 N N TN 5 5 -3 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 Hai b lc graien trn ch n hng, cc b lc ny c bit thch hp m ha hng graien, nh vy m ta c th to ra mt nh trong hng graien c m ha thnh cc gi tr xm, tuy nhin cc nh s c bc nhy v phi khi cc hng thay i t 0o sang 360o. 4.7.5.4. o hm gin on bc hai o hm bc hai c tnh nh sau x2 B(x, y) =B(x+1,y) -2B(x,y) + B(x-1, y) y2 B(x, y) =B(x,y+1) -2B(x,y) + B(x, y-1) Cc ma trn nhn chp s l Cx = (1 -2 1) Cy =(1 -2 1) // Cy theo chiu dc Tng ca hai o hm ring bc 2 c gi l ton t Laplace: 2B(x,y)= x2 B(x, y) + y2 B(x, y) T ta dn n b loc Laplace vi bn im lin k 0 -1 0 -1 -1 -1 -1 4 -1 -1 8 -1 Cx Cy 0 -1 0 -1 -1 -1 Bng b lc Laplace cc vng giu cu trc c nng ln v cc vng khng giu cu trc s b nn xung. Cc kt qu ca s chuyn ha nh: - im nh ring l: b lc graien im l b xo trn ln cn Laplace s phng to ln. - ng thng: b lc graien lm rng ng cn laplace lm phng i ng. - im cui mt on thng: b lc graien lm rng im cn laplace lm phng i im . 4.7.5.5. Tng tng phn tng phn l s chuyn tip t mt gi tr xm thp sang mt gi tr xm cao trong mt gii hn cc b hp. S thay i gi tr xm din ra cng nhanh th tng phn cng cao. tng tng phn ca mt dng nh b(x), vi sai t hm dng nh b(x) v o hm bc hai ca n c tnh ton: AK(x)=b(x).b(x) Mt n nhn chp Laplace nh sau s lm tng phn gii. 0 0 -1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 -1 0 8 0 -1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 -1 0 0 4.7.5.6. Cc b lc n gin khc B lc hng c s dng phng to cc ng thng theo mt hng ring bit, ta c th xc nh cc b lc ny tng ng vi chnh cu trc ng thng. Cc ng thng theo cc hng dc, ngang, 45o -1 -1 2 -1 -1 -1 -1 2 -1 Ngang 2 2 2 Dc -1 2 -1 45o -1 2 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 2 -1 2 -1 -1 H4 T
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L Tr Thnh Khoa CNTT Trng H Hng hi 4.8. Cc php bin i hnh hc 4.8. 1. Php dch nh L s tnh tin gc ta , trong cc trc ca ta sau php bin i s di chuyn theo cng hng, vic phn chia thang trn ta l khng i. Gc ta c (-tx, -ty) th ta (x, y) c tnh nh sau: x = x - tx y= y-ty Php bin i c th c m t di nh thc sau: T= 1 0 -Tx 0 1 -Ty 0 0 1 4.8. 2. Phng to hoc thu nh nh Cn c g l s chia li thang ta . Khi chia thang ta gc v hng c gi nguyn, chia thang tin hnh vi h s chia thang Sx, Sy v cc to mi c tnh ton theo x = x*Sx y = y*Sy Php bin i c th c m t di nh thc sau: T= Sx 0 0 0 Sy 0 0 0 1 4.8. 3. Php quay nh Khi quay thi s chia thang gi nguyn ch c hng trc thay i. Cc trc mi xut hin bng cch quay trc c i mt gc ngc chiu kim ng h, khi ta mi c theo theo cng thc x = cos + y.sin y = -x.sin + y.cos Php bin i c th c m t di nh thc sau: T= cos sin 0 -sin cos 0 0 1 4.8. 4. Cc php bin i hp nht Ta c th ht hp cc php bin i to ra mt php bin i mi. VD: kt hp php quay v dch s nhn c bng cch nhn hai ma trn nh thc MTR = T.R

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Chng V. Bin nh xm
5.1. Bin nh xm

im bin l im c s thay i t ngt v mc xm. Tp hp cc im bin to thnh bin ca mt i tng nh. Trc khi tm bin nh phi c loi b nhiu, bin cho php xc nh cc thng tin vng, chu vi, hnh dng ca i tng. D bin phn lp i tng v trn c s s phn vng c nh. Ngc li khi phn vng ta c th pht hin c bin. C hai phng php tm bin gin tip v trc tip.
5.2. Tm bin trc tip

Tm bin da vo s bin thin v gi tr sng ca nh. Ch yu da vo k thut ly o hm.

5.2.1. Tm bin Gradient 5.2.1.1. Phng php tm bin Sobel

S dng cc ca s xp chng Wx v Wy di y. -1 Wx = -2 -1 0 0 0 1 2 1 Wy = 1 0 -1 2 0 -2 1 0 -1

Vi im nh P(x, y) ca nh I, im nh u ra Psobel=| Wx**I(x, y)| + |Wy**I(x,y)| vi ngng ta a nh thu c v nh nh phn.

nh gc 1 4 0 1 0 1 2 1 1 2 0 2 1 2 2 3 1 3 2 3 3 4 1 3 1 4 0 1 0 1 2 1 1 2 0 1 -2 4 7 6 Wx*I 6 2 8 -4 7 -7 5 -6 -6 -8 -7 -6 2 0 3 0 Wy*I -2 -4 5 1 -2 0 5 2 2 -4 3 2 4 4 10 6 8 12 12 6

Psobel
4 4 12 8 8 12 10 8

ngng =8 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1

Nh vy, I c kch thc MxN kt qu cui cng s c kch thc (M-2)x(N-2)

5.2.2. Phng php tm bin La bn

Da vo ton t la bn 8 hng, in hnh l ton t Krish W0..W7. nh kt qu thu c Pkrish = Max(|Wi*I|), sau c ua v nh nh phn theo ngng .

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W0

-3 -3 -3 5 5 5

3 0 5 5 0 5

5 5 5 -3 -3 -3

W1

5 -3 -3 5 5 5

5 0 -3 -3 0 5

5 5 5 -3 -3 5

W2

5 5 -3 -3 5 5

5 0 -3 -3 0 5

5 5 -3 -3 5 5

W3

5 5 5 -3 -3 5

5 0 -3 -3 0 5

5 -3 -3 5 5 5

W4

W5

W6

W7

5.2.3. K thut tch cnh Laplace

y ta s dng ca s xp chng 0 -1 0 -1 -1 -1 Cx -1 4 -1 Cy -1 8 -1 0 -1 0 -1 -1 -1 Kt qu thu c Plaplace = |W*I|, sau c a v nh nh phn theo ngng . Php ton Laplace da trn c s o hm bc 2, n lm tng v r hn s bin i mc xm ti cc im bin.
5.3. Tm bin gin tip 5.3.1. Tm bin hnh chp- tch cnh kim t thp

nh thng c nhiu ng bin, do ta cn loi b nhng ng bin khng r v lm ni cc ng bin r nt. Ta c th p dng gii thut tm bin hnh chp sau: + Gi I0 l nh gc, I0 s c thu nh dn( mi ln kch thc mi chiu gim i 2 ln) cho n khi khng th thu nh c na. Ta xt nh Ik ti bc th k, cc mc xm ca Ik bng trung bnh cng ca 4 mc xm trong nh Ik-1 nh sau: Ik(n/2, n/2)= ( Ik-1(n, n) + Ik-1(n, n+1) + Ik-1(n+1, n) + Ik-1(n+1, n+1) ) / 4 + Kt thc qu trnh phn chia nh, ta tin hnh phn ngng ngc li( ngng cho trc) tm bin nh. Ti nh th Ik: nu Ik(n/2, n/2) l im bin th phn ngng tm im bin trong 4 im Ik-1(n, n), Ik-1(n, n+1), Ik-1(n+1, n), Ik-1(n+1, n+1). Qu trnh tip tc cho n khi quay v nh gc. VD: cho nh I0(8 x 8) Tin hnh phn ngng vi = 3.5

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2 4 6 6 2 5 6 2 2 4 3 3 4 3 4 4 4 3 4 2 6 2 4 5 3 4 2 2 8 4 2 3 6 6 5 4 2 6 5 2 3 3 3 4 6 4 4 3 2 6 5 6 5 5 3 2 4 4 2 3 3 3 2 3 I0

3 4.5 4

4.5 3.5 5 5 I1 4 4

4 3.5 3.5

3.4 I2

3.8 I3

3.5 2.5

4.1 3.6

3.5 2.5

Tin hnh tch ngng vi = 3.5 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0

5.3.2. Tch cnh theo khp ni lng

0 0 1 1

0 0 1 1

1 1 1 1

1 1 1 0

0 1

1 1

Vi 2 im l 4 lng ging ca nhau ta xt lch mc xm ca chng. Vi ngng cho trc, nu >= th 2 im nh to thnh 1 khp ni. VD: cho nh I (3x3), ngng =3

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Chng VI. Phn vng nh

5.1. Khi qut chung

Phn vng nh l bc quan trng ca x l nh, giai on ny nhm phn tch nh thnh nhng thnh phn c cng tnh cht no da theo bin hay cc vng lin thng. Vng nh l mt chi tit, thc th trong ton cnh, vn nh ni ln tnh cht b mt ca nh, vn nh c bao quanh bi mt bin, cc im trong vng nh c bin thin gi tr mc xm tng i ng u. Da vo c tnh vt l ca vng nh m ta xc nh nhiu k thut phn vng. Nu phn vng da trn cc im lin thng ta gi l k thut phn vng theo min ng nht hay lin k, phn vng da vo bin l phn vng theo bin
5.2. Phn vng da vo ngng bin

K thut ny thch hp i vi nh nh phn nh vn bn, nh X-quang Gi s ta c K0=Lmin, K1, K2Kn ngng gi tr xm th nh s c chia lm (N-1) vng nh sau: P(m,n) thuc vng Ci nu Ki-1<= P(m,n) < Ki. Do vic chn ngng y l bc rt quan trng, ta c th chn ngng theo cc bc chung sau: - Xem xt lc xm ca nh xc nh cc ngng v cc khe, nu nh c dng hnh rn ln (nhiu nh v khe) th cc khe c th chn lm ngng. - Chn ngng t sao cho c mt phn xc nh trc ca mu l nh hn t - iu chnh ngng da trn lc xm ca cc im ln cn. V d vi lc xm di y, ta xc nh c 4 im ngng v 3 vng.

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L Tr Thnh Khoa CNTT Trng H Hng hi 5.3. Phn vng nh theo min ng nht

Xt mt vng nh c gi tr xm ln nht v nh nht l Lmax, Lmin v ngng 0. + Lmax - Lmin > : vng khng thun nht. + Lmax - Lmin < : vng thun nht.
+ Lmax - Lmin = : vng ng nht. 5.3.1. Tch vng theo cy t phn

Trong phng php ny ta s dng mt cy t phn nh du cc vng, mi nt trong cy c gn nhn duy nht, qu trnh tch vng nh sau: + Gc ca cy tng ng vi nh ban u. + Nu mt nt ca cy cha l vng ng nht th chia tip lm 4 vng, qu trnh chia dng li khi tt c cc nt l u l vng ng nht. y ta cn gn nhn cc vng nh sau: + Gc ca cy c gn nhn I. + Theo chiu kim ng h nu mt vng c gn nhn l S th cc vng con ca n c gn nhn l S.1, S.2, S.3, S.4
5.2.2. Hp vng

Phng php ny l xem xt cc vng nh nht ri hp chng li nu tha mn yu cu ng nht ln hn. Hai vng hp c vi nhau nu nh chng k nhau (4 hoc 8 lng ging) v tha mn yu cu ng nht. y ta c th s dng thut ton t mu nh sau: M(0,0) = 1; nh du vng u tin K = 1; Mu ca vng For each I(x,y) do Begin If C(x,y) = C(x-1, y) then M(x, y) = M(x-1, y) else If C(x,y) = C(x, y-1) then M(x, y) = M(x, y-1) Else Begin K = k +1; M(x, y) = k; End End If C(x, y) = C(x-1,y) and C(x, y) = C(x-1,y) then Hp 2 vng

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L Tr Thnh Khoa CNTT Trng H Hng hi 5.2.3. Phng php tng hp

Hai phng php trn tuy thc hin nhanh nhng c nhng nhc im, phng php chia s phn mnh nh qu chi tit, cn phng php hp cho php gim s vng xung ti thiu nhng cu trc vng dn tri khng cho ta thy r c lin h ca cc min. Do ta a ra thut ton kt hp gia 2 phng php trn.
Bc 1: Tin hnh chia nh theo cy t phn (phn on hng t gc n l).

a) Nu vng khng ng nht tin hnh chia vng lm 4 phn. Nu khng tch c na th chuyn sang bc 2. b) Nu p ng tiu chun ng nht th tin hnh hp vng v cp nht gi tr xm trung bnh cho vng.
Bc 2: Hp vng

Ta xt cc vng lin k theo 4 lnh ging, nu tha mn iu kin hp vng th tin hnh hp.

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Chng VII. M ha nh
7.1. M ha Contour Contour Code (M xch) tng:

m ha mt nh cho trc ta chia nh nh ra thnh cc min nh nh hn bng cch i xc nh bin ca tng min nh. Nh vy thay v lu ton b nh, ta ch cn lu cc thng tin v ng bin ca cc min nh. Vi mi min nh thng tin lu bao gm: V: gi tr xm (X, Y): ta xut pht D1, D2Dn l cc hng tm bin da theo mt n tm hng Trng hp min ch c mt im nh ch cn lu V v (X, Y)

S bits m t mi vng se l: s bits cho 1 pixel (biu din mc xm V) + s bits m t kch thc nh + n*3 (n l s hng) Vi nh sau ta s chia lm 6 vng theo gii thut tm bin theo 8 hng:

Ta nhn thy nu mt nh c M mc xm (M>1) th ta ch cn biu din (M-1) mc

xm, cc im cn li s l mc xm M. M rng ra ta xt min u tin l cc vng c cng mc xm v tng s bits biu din cc vng l ln nht so vi cc min cn li, nh vy vi min u tin ta ch cn quan tm ti gi tr mc xm ca min. Trong v d trn min u tin l cc vng c gi tr xm l 2, vng ny khi biu din nh ch cn ghi gi tr xm.

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Kt qu thu c t v d trn

Min

M c xm

im XP (0, 0)

Hng i

S bits m t

6, 6, 6, 0, 1, 3, 1, 0, 4, 4, 4

4+( 4+ 4) + 11*3 = 45

(4,0)

7, 6, 6, 6, 0, 0, 0, 2, 2, 3, 4, 4

4+( 4+ 4) + 12*3 = 48

(1, 2)

6, 7, 5, 7, 0, 2, 2, 2, 4, 4

4+( 4+ 4) + 10*3 = 42

(0, 4)

6, 7, 6, 6, 6, 0, 0, 2, 2, 2, 2, 4, 4, 4

4+( 4+ 4) + 14*3 = 54

(4, 5)

6, 6, 6, 0, 0, 1, 2, 4, 4, 4

4+( 4+ 4) + 10*3 = 42

(7, 7)

4+( 4+ 4)

= 12

Biu din d liu nh:

Vi d liu trn nh s c biu din nh sau

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u nhc im: Thut ton m xch rt hiu qu vi nhng nh c cc vng nh ln v ring bit. Tuy nhin vi nh c vng nh nm trong vng ln thut ton s khng thc hin c. Ta xt nh di y: 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 1 1 2 3 1 1 1 1 1

Trong trng hp ny, vng nh c mc xm 2 v 3 nm trong vng c mc xm l 1 nn chng khng c m ha. khc phc cc trng hp ny thut ton m lot di (Run Length Code) c s dng.
7.2. M ha lot di RLC- Run Length Code tng:

Ta nhn thy cc pixel trn mt dng nh thng ging nhau do thay v vic lu ln lt cc pixel ta s gm nhng pixel lin tip ging nhau vo thnh mt nhm, mt dng nh s bao gm nhiu nhm. Khi mt dng nh s c biu din thnh dy cc cp s nh sau (l1, v1); (l2, v2)(ln, vn) trong : li: chiu di lot th i vi: mc xm ca lot th i

Nh vy ton b d liu nh s c biu din thnh cc cp (li, vi) lin tip nhau.
Tnh s bits biu din trn mi dng nh:

Ta xt trn tng dng, vi cc cp (li, vi) th s bits biu din vi l c nh (vi biu din gi tr xam ca nh nn thng c s bits biu din l 1, 2,4, 8), vi li ta ch cn s bits ti a l bng s bits biu din gi tr max(li). T ta xc nh c s bits biu din mt dng nh.

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Xt nh sau: 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 1 3 1 3 2 2 2 2 1 3 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 4

Ta c kt qu Dng 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Cc lot (4,1) (4,2) (2,1) (3, 3) (3, 2) (3, 1) (2, 3) (3,2) (2, 1) (3, 3) (3,2) (3, 2) (2, 3) (3, 2) (4, 2) (4, 1) (4, 2) (4, 1) (4, 2) (3,1) (1,4) dai lot max 4 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 S lot 2 3 3 3 3 2 2 3

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Xt biu din nh phn ca tng dng tnh s bits biu din Dng 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 M ha nh phn (100, 0001) (100, 0010) (010, 0001) (011, 0011) ( 011, 0010) (011, 0001) (010, 0011) (011, 0010) (010, 0001) (011, 0011) (011, 0010) (011, 0010) (010, 0011) (011, 0010) (100, 0010) (100, 0001) (100, 0010) (100, 0001) (100, 0010) (011, 0001) (001, 0100) S bits 14 21 21 21 21 14 14 21

Nh vy tng s bits biu din nh l: 147

7.3. M ha logarit

M ha logarit thng c dng m ha cc vn bn, y ta xt nh nh mt vn bn bao gm cc s t nhin.

tng:

Thay v dng c Byte (hoc nhiu hn vi cc tiu chun khc nh Unicode) biu din cho mt k t ta ch cn dng mt s bits t hn cho cc k t xut hin nhiu, s bits biu din k t s tng dn vi tn sut xut hin ca k t . Vic xc nh tn sut xut hin ca cc k t c thc hin bng cch duyt ton b vn bn gc. Vn y ta m ha cc k t th no qu trnh gii m c d dng, gii thut a ra cy nh phn tm kim thc hin vic m ha v gii m.
Thut ton:

Bc 1: c ton b d liu nh v xp thnh tng nhm, mi nhm gm 2 yu t l mc xm v s ln xut hin hay tn sut xut hin. Bc 2: Sp xp cc nhm theo th t gim dn ca tn sut. Bc 3: Ly hai nhm cui cng hp thnh 1 nhm theo nguyn tc:

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+ Tn sut nhm mi bng tng tn sut 2 nhm. + Loi b 2 nhm gp v thm nhm mi vo tp hp. Bc 4: Lp li bc 2 v 3 cho n khi tp hp ch cn li 1 nhm. Bc 5: Xy dng cy m Huffman theo nguyn tc nh sau: + Gc ca cy l nhm cui cng bc 4. + Cc nt l biu din cc mc xm ca nh. + Nt cha ca c 2 nt con l 2 nhm to thnh n trong bc 3 theo qui tc tn sut nhm tri ln hn tn sut nhm phi. Bc 6: Gn m nh phn trn cc cnh ca cy sao cho cnh ni nt cha vi con tri nh s 1, cnh ni nt cha vi con tri nh s 0 (cch nh c th ngc li). Bc 7: Xc nh m nh phn i t nt gc n nt l, m nh phn ny chnh l biu din ca mc xm ti nt

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Chng VIII. X l nh mu
8.1. Hc thuyt v mu

Vt l hc xc nh nguyn nhn ca mu sc chnh l s bc x v s nhy mu ring mang tnh cht thun ty ch quan. Khi nim mu nh hng theo th cm: + Tng mu (sc mu) l tnh cht m vi n ta xc nh c cc mu gi l rc r (, vng, lam) vi cc mu khng rc r nh trng, xm, en. + bo ha mu ( thun mu) ni ln mt mu thun hay sch nh th no. Vng bc sng cng cao hp th thun mu cng cao.
8.2. M hnh ba mu

xc nh mu sc mt cch nh lng ta xut pht t qua im 3 mu tc l mi mu u c to ra bi 3 mu c bn. M hnh 3 mu tr nn r rt trong m hnh trn mu. S trn mu cng din ra khi xut hin nhiu kch thch khc nhau v mu, chng u c th hin qua mt thanhg phn mu c bn no hnh thnh mu mi. Do khng c tp hp 3 mu c bn no m t c th to ra tt c cc mu nn U ban quc t v chiu sng CIE a ra m hnh trong mi mu c c trng bng ng cong phn b nng lng ca chng. Tiu chun ca CIE v cc bc sng nh sau: mu =700 nm; lc=546,1 nm v lam = 435,8 nm. Gi X, Y, Z l ba thnh phn ca1 mu no trong cc mu c bn ca CIE th cc thnh phn mu x, y, z c tnh nh sau trong bng mu CIE 2D: x=X/(X+Y+Z) 1 y=Y/(X+Y+Z) z=Z/(X+Y+Z) y bng mu chun CIE c m t di dng 2 chiu. Trong m hnh ny im D65 l tm ca hnh tam gic bn l im trng trong h mu theo tiu chun Chu u. (0,0) 1 Lc(0,1,0) Vng(1,1,0) Trng (1, 1, 1) en(0,0,0) Lam(0,0,1 ) (1,0,0) c ban(0, 1,1)
8.3. Cc m hnh mu vt l M hnh mu RGB

lila (1,0,1)

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chuyn i t chun CIE 2D sang RGB ta c cng thc sau: R G B X Y Z = = 3.240 -0.969 0.056 0.412 0.213 0.019 -1.537 1.876 -0.204 0.357 0.715 0.119 -0.499 0.042 1.057 0.180 0.072 9.950 x x X Y Z R G B

M hnh mu CMY Cyan Megenta Yellow lila(0,1,0) (0, 1,1) Trng(0,0,0) Vng(0,0,1 ) Lam(1,1,0) en (1, 1, 1) c ban (1,0,0) Lc (1,0,1)

Dng xut thng tin mu ra cc thit b nh my in mu. m t nh mu ba mu s c tch ra v in chng ln nhau. S chuyn i gia 2 h RGB v CMY R G B = 1 1 1 C M Y C M Y = 1 1 1 R G B

M hnh mu YIQ

YIQ c s dng trong k thut truyn hnh. H mu YIQ l s bin i tng ng ca tn hiu RGB nhm t c mt hiu sut truyn tt hn v gi nguyn tnh tng thch vi h truyn hnh en trng. R G B = 1 1 1 0.956 -0.272 -1.105 0.621 -0.647 1.702 x Y I Q

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Y I Q =

0.229 0.596 0.212

0.587 -0.275 -0.523

0.114 -0.321 0.311 x

R G B

8.4. M hnh mu theo hng th cm

Cc m hnh ny c m t qua cc thnh phn tng mu, bo ha v cng mu vit tt l HSI (Hue Saturation Intensity) . HSI c m t trong h ta tr, trong tng mu xc nh gc, bo ho xc nh khong cch ti trc v cng xc nh trc. Khi chuyn i t h HSI sang RGB ta phi tin hnh qua hai bc l: xoay h ta sao cho trc th 3 nm dc theo ng thng G=R; B=R -> c m t ca h to tr di h to vung gc. Sau chuyn sang h trc ta v tin hnh chia thang cho thch hp.
8.5. X l nh mu

Trong phn ny ta xt cc nh RGB, ta nhn thy mt nh mu RGB bao gm 3 nh xm: R, G v B. Nh vy x l nh mu ta phi x l trn 3 nh xm R, G, B ca n v kt hp li s c kt qu nh mong mun.

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