Disaster Management and India: Responding Internally and Simultaneously in Neighboring Countries

Kailash Gupta, BE Ele!"#, MB$ IIM$#%

Introdu!tion India is one of the most disaster prone countries of the world. It has had some of the worlds most severe droughts, famines, cyclones, earthquakes, chemical disasters, mid-air headon air collisions, rail accidents, and road accidents. India is also one of the most terrorist prone countries. India was, until recently, reactive and only responded to disasters and provided relief from calamity. It was a relief driven disaster management system. India also has worlds oldest famine relief codes. In recent times, there has been a paradigm shift and India has become or is becoming more proactive with emphasis on disaster prevention, mitigation and preparedness. India traditionally accepted international help in responding to disasters. However, after the 2 ! Indian "cean tsunami, India refused to accept international response assistance from foreign governments. #ot only that, India deployed its defense personnel, medical teams, disaster e$perts, ships, helicopters, and other type of human, material, and equipment resources to help %ri &anka, 'auritius, and Indonesia. It may be noted that India itself suffered from the tsunami and was internally responding at the same time. India is also lower income group country, while Indonesia is middle-income group country. (s the tsunami e$perience illustrates, disasters do not recogni)e or respect national geographic boundaries. In the increasingly globali)ed world, more disasters will be spread over many countries and will be regional in nature. India has set up an e$ample of responding internally and simultaneously in neighboring countries for the other countries to follow. In the academic year 2 *-2 !, India took a pioneering step of starting disaster management education as part of social sciences in class +III. In the subsequent academic year 2 !-2 , disaster management, was added to class I-. In the following academic years disaster management was progressively added to classes -I and -II. .his was done by the /entral 0oard of %econdary 1ducation. (long with disaster management education in schools, India is also implementing community based disaster management program with the help of 2nited #ations 3evelopment 4rogram in all-ha)ard vulnerable districts. %ome of the catastrophic disasters in recent times have led to changes in disaster policy and creation of new organi)ations. 4olicy changes include the enactment of 3isaster 'anagement (ct, 2 , and development of the national disaster management response framework. .he #ational 3isaster 'anagement (uthority was established to spearhead in creation of culture of disaster resilience. .he #ational Institute of 3isaster 'anagement itself
1

Representative for India of the International Association of Emergency Managers, pursuing Ph.D. in Public Administration and Management, ith speciali!ation in Emergency Management at "niversity of #orth $e%as, &o% ' (11()*, Denton, $e%as +,-*(, ".A

and along with 3isaster 'anagement /ells in the states is providing training opportunities in disaster management. .his chapter covers ha)ards, vulnerability, history of disasters in India, development of disaster policy, organi)ation of disaster management, challenges and opportunities, and conclusions. India and its &a'ards India is the largest democracy in the world with 5.2 billion population. It is the second most populous country in the world with about 6 billion people. .hat means on an average, every fifth person on the earth is an Indian. %eventy-two percent of the Indian population lives in rural India. #early 6 7 of the workforce is engaged in agriculture, and India now ranks second in the world in farm production. India is integrated, yet highly diversified country. "n an average, every about 2, kilometers away there is different culture in terms of food habits, clothing, language, rituals, and other symbolic interactions. India has fourteen constituently recogni)ed languages, but the vernacular or local languages are around 6 . India lies in %outh (sia, surrounded on three sides by the (rabian %ea, the Indian "cean, and the 0ay of 0engal. .o the north there are the Himalayan mountain ranges. .he geographical area of India is *.! million square kilometers, and the coastline is 8,, kilometers long. (lthough India is one of the youngest democratic nations 9having obtained independence in 5:!8; it is a country that has one of the oldest culture and history among the nations of the world. India was economically the richest country in the world till 'ughals invaded for looting. India knew mining and processing of diamonds, and all the great diamonds belonged to India. 'ohd. bin <asim robbed %ind of 6* million dirhams in the 55th century. 'ahmud =ha)ni raided India 58 times to loot temples and palaces, including the %omnath temple which had offerings of centuries accumulated. ( tiny ruling group consisting of the 'ughal 1mperor and >, or so nobles 9of a total population of 5 million ; actually collected over half to one-third of the =#4 as revenue after imposing their rule over India for over seven centuries 9?aychaudhuri and Habib -**+/. .he per capita =34 in 2 , was only @ 8*6, and India stood at 52>th among the countries in terms of the Human 3evelopment Inde$ 92#34 2 8;. 4overty is the main root cause of disasters in India. %implistically speaking, a ha)ard is an event which is a possible source of danger. Aloods, droughts, cyclones, earthquakes and landslides have been recurrent ha)ardous phenomena in India. %eventy five percent of the annual rainfall is received during Bune to %eptember monsoon making almost all the rivers carry heavy discharge during this period. .he flood ha)ard is compounded by the problems of sediment deposition, drainage congestion and synchroni)ation of river floods with sea tides in the coastal plains. .he monsoon failure or e$cess in some part of India creates ha)ard for the agricultural communities. In contrast, drought is a temporary reduction in water or moisture availability significantly below the normal or e$pected amount for a specific period. .his condition occurs either due to inadequacy of rainfall, or lack or irrigation facilities, under-e$ploitation or deficient availability for meeting the normal crop requirements in the conte$t of the agro-climatic conditions prevailing in any particular area. ?aCasthan is the most drought prone state of India. /yclones are other ha)ards in India that generally strike the 1ast /oast. However, some of the (rabian %ea /yclones strike the west coast of India, mainly the =uCarat and #orth 'aharashtra
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coast. "ut of the storms that develop in the 0ay of 0engal, more than half approach or cross the east coast in "ctober and #ovember. .he Himalayan and sub-Himalayan regions, Dutch and the (ndaman and #icobar Islands are particularly earthquake ha)ard prone 9#ational Institute of 3isaster 'anagement 2 :;. Ha)ards in India are spread throughout the country. In one part of the country there could be heat wave, while at the same time in another part there could be cold spell. In one part of the country there may be floods, while another part there may be drought. /omplicating the regional nature of ha)ards, some parts of habituated India are not easily assessable by road or railways or even waterways. (part from natural ha)ards, India faces intended and unintended terrorist attacks and technological ha)ards, which have been increasing recently. .echnological ha)ards include the well-known 0hopal chemical disaster. India is also considered to be one of the most terrorist prone countries in the world. 1$amples include terrorist attack on the Indian parliament and in the 'umbai in .aC Hotel and other places in #ovember 2 >. .here are 58! terrorist, insurgent, and e$tremist groups in IndiaE many of the unknown groups are operating across the country, according to the %outh (sia .errorism portal. (ulnerabilities in India +ulnerability is the susceptibility of being harmed. %cholars have debated on the concepts of ha)ards and vulnerability. .wo of the e$planations for these concepts can be found in 'c1ntire 92 ! and 2 ,;. ( disaster occurs when ha)ard interacts with vulnerability. Aor e$ample, if an earthquake 9ha)ard; occurs, a structurally safe building will withstand the shock 9resistant;, but a hutment 9vulnerable; may collapseE creating a disaster for the hutment dwellers. +ulnerability could be due to the human related factors or natural features. .he human related factors that increase vulnerability of India could be intended or unintended, and include apathy, poverty, corruption, illiteracy, land use pattern, technological misuse, and terrorism. 4oor land use planning and inconsistent emergency management systems leads to vulnerability to floods, drought, cyclones, earthquake, heat and cold waves, and landslides. (s mentioned, India has a highly diversified range of natural features. Its unique geoclimatic conditions make the country among the most vulnerable to natural disasters in the world. 3isasters occur with ama)ing frequency in India and while the society at large has adapted itself to these regular occurrences, the economic and social costs continue to mount year after year. It is highly vulnerable to floods, drought, cyclones, earthquakes, landslides, volcanoes, etc. (lmost all parts of India e$perience one or more of these events 9=upta 2 ;. 'any regions in India are highly vulnerable to natural and other disasters on account of geological conditions. (bout 6 7 of the total area of the country is vulnerable to seismic damage of buildings in varying degrees. .he most vulnerable areas, according to the present seismic )one map of India, are located in the Himalayan and sub-Himalayan regions. Dutch and the (ndaman and #icobar Islands, which are particularly earthquake ha)ard prone" "ver >7 Indian area of ! million hectares is prone to floods, and the average area affected by floods annually is about > million hectares. "f the nearly 8,, kilometers long coastline, appro$imately ,,8 kilometers is prone to cyclones, and 6>7 area is susceptible to drought. 3isasters are no longer limited to natural catastrophes. 'an-made emergencies also cause disasters in terms of fatalities and economic losses.

Fith urbani)ation and concentration of population in metropolitan cities, more and more people are becoming vulnerable to locational disasters 94lanning /ommission 2 >, +ol. 5, 2 8;. Aor instance, a quarter of Indian population lives within , km of the coastal line. .he population within 5 km of the coast is 5.6 million, and *.! million within 2 km of the coast. .hese people are vulnerable to river flooding, and coastal surges following cyclone or tsunami. 0y and large in the lower and middle management in the public sector, there is wide spread apathy, due to which professionalism, effectiveness, efficiency, and equity in public service is lacking. .he public perception of politicians and bureaucrat is not good. .he government employees, due to lack of rewards for better performance on the one hand, and near impossibility of firing them become apathetic and are not motivated for better performance. (dditionally, the affirmative action of reservations for recruitment and promotion 9with comparatively la$ merit standards; for the scheduled casts and scheduled tribes 9the historically disadvantaged and legally defined cast groups; also leads to apathy, although it benefits scheduled casts and scheduled tribes. .he percentage of the population below the official poverty line was 2>7 in 2 !-2 ,. .he absolute number of poor people was * 2 million in 2 !-2 ,. Aorty si$ percent of the children in the age group )ero to three years suffered from malnutrition in 2 ,-2 6. India has been ranked a lowly 8!, among countries of the world on the worldwide /orruption 4erceptions Inde$, prepared by independent international agency .ransparency International. /orruption is wide spread and percolates most of the sections of the society. /orruption is not only wide spread, but is also blatant. .he literacy rate has steadily gone up to 6!.>7 in 2 5, the number of illiterate persons still e$ceeds * ! million, making India the country with the highest number of illiterate persons in the world 94lanning /ommission 2 >G +ol. 5;. %ome parts of India still do not have even electricity andHor telephone connectivity. (ll of these factors I from illiteracy and poverty to infrastructure inadequacy and apathy, indicate that India is highly vulnerable to disasters. )he &istory o* Disasters in India Dapur et al. 92 ,, 2; say India should hang her head in shame. Fith the 0engal famine, "rissa %uper /yclone, &atur earthquake, 0hopal chemical disaster, (ndhra cyclone, =uCarat earthquake, recurring floods, 'umbai 2 > bomb blasts and many other disasters there is no foyer in the world with space large enough to e$hibit the collective pain on the face of India. India has ranked at the top or near top in almost all type of disasters with number of deaths and people affected. India does not appear in the world tally of damages in financial terms due to disasters because of poverty and lack of infrastructure. Indian history is dappled with so many disasters that it is difficult to cover in a section of the chapter in a book. .herefore, only a sample of disasters is given in this chapter. %ome type of disasters and some of the disasters need to be e$cluded due to space limitations. .he data in this chapter are sourced from 2niversitJ catholique de &ouvain, 0russels 1'3?. International 3isaster 3atabase 92 :;. 1'-3(. contains essential core data on the occurrence and effects of over 56, mass disasters in the world from 5: to present. (mong the other source of data are Indian 'etrological 3epartment 92 :; and Fikipedia. Historically India has suffered from droughts and famine. .he worlds top 2nd to ,th droughts, according to number of people killed, occurred in India. (nd, the worlds top 5st to ,th, and >th drought, according to number of people affected, also occurred in India.
)

.he main droughts wereG

3rought of 5: , killing 5.2, million people. 3rought of 5:!2, killing 5., million people. 3rought of 5:!*, in 1aster part of 0engal 9now part of 0angladesh; killing 5.: million people. 3rought of 5:6,, killing 5., million and affecting 5 million people. 3rought of 5:82, affecting 2 million people. 3rought of Bune 5:>2, affecting 5 million people. 3rought of 'ay 5:>8, affecting * million people. 3rought of (pril 2 , affecting , million people. 3rought of Buly 2 2, affecting *5 million people. .he main *amines wereG

In the year 6, , famine throughout India. 5 22, and 5 **, great famines, entire provinces were depopulated. 5*!!-5*!,, great famine. 5*:6-5! 8, the 3urga 3evi famine. 56* -56*5, there was a famine in (hmedabad, =uCarat. 56* -56*2, 3eccan famine in India killed 2 million 9#oteG .here was a corresponding famine in northwestern /hina, eventually causing the 'ing dynasty to collapse in 56!!;. 5665, famine, when not a drop of rain fell for two years. 58 2-58 !, 2 million died of famine in 3eccan. =reat 0engal Aamine of 586:-588 covered 0ihar, #orthern and /entral 0engal and estimated to have resulted in the death of about 5 million people, which was one-third of the population. .he /halisa famine of 58>*-58>! was severe and covered present-day 2ttar 4radesh, 3elhi region, ?aCputana 9present day ?aCasthan;, eastern 4unCab region and Dashmir areas. It is estimated that 55 million people died and large areas were depopulated. 58>>-58:2, another 55 million people may have died in the 3oCi bara famine or %kull famine in Hyderabad %tate, %outhern 'aratha country, =uCarat and 'arwar. 5> -5>2,, 5 million Indians died of famine. .he (gra famine was in 5>*8-5>*>, killing > , people. 5>, -5>8,, 2., million died in "rissa famine, mostly in 5>66. .he ?aCputana famine of 5>6>-5>8 was blamed for death of 5., million people. 0ihar famine of 5>8*-5>8! was responded by generous relief effort by import of rice from 0urma 9now 'yanmar; avoiding deaths. .he =reat Aamine of 5>86-5>8>, also known as %outh India Aamine, spread from %outhern India to /entral and #orthern parts of India. It covered an area of 68 , square kilometers and affected ,>., million people. In the aftermath of the famine about ,., million people died of starvation.

Indian famine of 5>:6-5>:8 covered almost whole of India and resulted in the death of about > million people. .he Indian famine of 5>:6-5>:8 was followed in quick succession by the Indian famine of 5>::-5: estimated to have caused death of 5.2, million to 5 million people. India e$perienced the second 0engal famine of 5:!* 9first was 586:-8 ;. %canlon 92 ,, 5,; says, The British colonial government imposed wartime censorship on the Bengal famine of 1943 in which over 2,000,000 died, to avoid pressure to divert resources from the war effort. %ome estimates of death put the figure of over * million people died. In 5:6,, there was nationwide, e$cept in south, famine killing 5., million people. In 5:66, there was a Knear missK in 0ihar. .he 2%( allocated : , tons of grain to fight the famine. ( further Knear missK food crisis occurred due to drought in 'aharashtra in 5:8 -5:8*. %ome of the maCor earth+ua,es in India wereG

.here was a earthquake in 565> in 'umbai in which 2, people lost lives. .he loss of lives is estimated to be * , in the 0engal earthquake of 58*8 9that time 0angladesh was part of 0engal;. .he Banuary 56, 5>5: Dutch earthquake was of >. on the ?icher scale 9-I intensity on 'odified 'ercalli scale; ra)ed to the ground chief towns of .era, Dathara and 'othala. (n area of 2, , square miles was affected by Banuary 5 , 5>6: earthquake of 8., ?icher scale in (ssam. In the neighboring %hillong there was wide spread destruction when >.8 ?icher scale and -II 'odified 'ercalli scale earthquake struck on Bune 52, 5>:8. Danga, in Himachal 4radesh had an >. on ?icher scale earthquake on (pril !, 5: ,, killing 2 , people. In 0ihar, India 9near the #epal border; there was >.* ?icher scale and -I 'odified 'ercalli intensity earthquake in 5:*! in which 6, people were killed. In the following year, at <uetta 9now part of 4akistan;, there was an earthquake of 8., and I- 'odified 'ercalli intensity, killing 2,, people. In the year 5:!5, in the (ndaman Islands there was >.5 on the ?icher scale 9- on 'odified 'ercalli scale; earthquake causing very heavy damage. It is contemplated that survivors passed on the earthquake survival knowledge by oral tradition, which saved many local inhabitants in the 2 ! Indian "cean .sunami. (ssam faced yet another huge earthquake of >.6 ?icher H -II 'odified 'ercalli %cale in 5:, 9earlier earthquake in (ssam were in 5>6:, neighboring %hillong in 5>:8, and 5:5>; killing 5,, people. "n (ugust 25, 5:>>, (ssam, once again, had an earthquake. .his time it was 8.2 on ?icher scale 9I- 'odified 'ercalli scale intensity; killing people. .wenty million people
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were affected from this earthquake, which is the 2nd largest number of people affected by any earthquake.

(nCur in =uCarat had a 8. ?icher or -II 'odified 'ercalli intensity earthquake in 5:,6 killing hundreds of people. (nCur is very near to the epicenter of 2 5 =uCarat earthquake 9see below;. .he &atur, 'arthawada region of the 'aharashtra state, had a 6.! on the ?ichter %cale 9or +III 'odified 'ercalli intensity; earthquake struck http122en. i3ipedia.org2 i3i2Indiaat *G,, (' on %eptember * , 5::* affecting primarily &atur and "smanabad districts of 'aharashtra. (ppro$imately 8,:2> people died and another * , were inCured. ( reconstruction proCect was launched with the help of the Forld 0ank and the victims were given structurally safe constructed houses. .he 2 5 =uCarat earthquake struck India at about >G5! (' when India was celebrating its republic day on Banuary 26, 2 5. It was 8.6 to >.5 ?icher scale earthquake, which was felt widely in India and 4akistan. In the aftermath of the earthquake, about 2,, people died in different parts of =uCarat, including 0huC, 0achao, (nCur, (hmedabad, and %urat. .here were 6.* million people affected, which is the third largest number of people affected by any earthquake in the world. Immediately after the earthquake there was a total failure of command and control system, but afterwards many innovative changes and institutional mechanisms were initiated. "ne of the important innovation was the training of people and their involvement with labor along with professional mason in rebuilding their own houses. .he 3ecember 26, 2 ! earthquake of magnitude :.* on the ?ichter scale off the coast of %umatra in the Indonesian archipelago generated tsunami that affected nearly 2,26 kilometers of the mainland coastline of .amil #adu, Derala, (ndhra 4radesh and 4ondicherry, as well as the (ndaman and #icobar Islands, with tidal waves up to 5 meters high penetrating up to * kilometers inland. .his tsunami took at least 5 ,8!: lives, and resulted in ,,6! persons missing. It affected more than 2.8: million people across 5, >: villages. It is estimated that 55,>28 hectares of crops are damaged, and that about * , fisher folk have lost their livelihoods 9=upta Aorthcoming;. "n "ctober >, 2 , there was an earthquake of 8.6 richer scale intensity near the 'u)affarabad city of 4akistan killing 8:, people in 4akistanE 5,* : in Dashmir of IndiaE and ! in (fghanistan. .he severe cold weather conditions increased the sufferings of the evacuees sheltered in tents.

-loods recur every year during the monsoon season in India. "n an average every year, 5,,>> lives are lost, 8., million hectares of land is affected, and the damage caused to crops, houses and public utilities is 5> billion Indian ?upees 9?s.; due to the floods. 0etween 5:,* to 2 ,, a total of >!,2 8 lives were lost due to the floods in India, with ma$imum of 55,*56 in 5:88, and a minimum of *8 in 5:,*. .he only other year that had less than 5 deaths was 5:6,. .he data regarding each years flood damage, with totals, averages, and ma$imum losses from 5:,* to 2 , in terms of human lives lost, cattle lost, population affected, monetary value of damage to public utilities, and total monetary damage loss, area affected, crops damaged, and
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houses damaged could be seen in #ational 3isaster 'anagement =uidelinesG 'anagement of Aloods 9#ational 3isaster 'anagement (uthority 2 >, >:-: ;. "n average, *2 million people are affected due to flooding. .he ma$imum people affected were in 8 million in 5:8>. .he total damage due to the floods during the 5:,* to 2 , period of half a century was ?s :88 billion, a staggering figure for a poor country. .he ma$imum damage was ?s >> billion in 2 , and the average damage during 5:,* to 2 , was ?s 5> billion. Heavy flood damages have occurred during the monsoon years of 5:,,, 5:85, 5:8*, 5:8>, 5:> , 5:>!, 5:>>, 5:>:, 5::>, 2 !, 2 , and 2 >. .here were wide spread floods in =uCarat in the beginning of Buly 2 ,, taking away lives and disrupting many lives. .his was followed by the eighth heaviest ever recorded 2!-hour rainfall figure of ::! mm 9*:.5 inches; which lashed the 'umbai metropolis on Buly 26, 2 ,, and intermittently continued for the ne$t day. .hat day 6!! mm 92,.! inches; rain was received within the 52 hour period between > (' and > 4'. (part from 'umbai, many parts of 'aharashtra state were also flooded. 'any people in the cars on the roads of 'umbai could not open their car doors to escape and died. 3ue to disruption of the transport system people could not reach their homes in the night. (t least 5, people are feared to have passed away. In 2 > there were floods in many parts of India. .here was diversion of water by #epal near the India-#epal border which lead to the flooding of the Doshi 9is a Hindi word that literally meaning angry; river in 0ihar. .he severe floods made it difficult to reach the marooned people due to logistic difficulties. 'any people remain trapped in flood waters for days. (ppro$imately 5,, people died due to Doshi river flooding.

India also has history of suffering from !y!lones" .he 5:*,, tropical cyclone killed * , people. In 5:!2, tropical storm in "rissa and Fest 0engal killed ! , In 5:!*, ?aCputana tropical storm, ,, people were killed.

people.

In eastern coast of "rissa, 5:85 tropical storm killed :,6,>. In 5:88 cyclone, in .amil #adu, (ndhra 4radesh and Derala 5!,2 ! people were killed. .he biggest cyclone disaster is the "rissa super cyclone. It hit the "rissa coast of India on "ctober 2:, 5::: accompanied with 5,, mph 92, kmHh; cyclone winds and water surge from the sea. It caused the deaths of over 5 , people, and heavy to e$treme damage in its path of destruction. Aollowing the cyclone, with the help of the Forld 0ank, "rissa %tate 3isaster 'anagement (uthority was formed. .he Forlds 2nd and !th to >th deadliest epidemi!s also occurred in India. .hese includedG

0ubonic bacterial plague infectious diseases in 5: 8, killing 5.* million people. +iral infectious diseases in parts of India 9which is now 0angladesh; in 5:5> killing *:*, people. 0ubonic bacterial plague infectious diseases in 5:2 , killing 2 million people. /holera bacterial infectious diseases in 5:2 killing, , , people.

0ubonic bacterial plague infectious diseases in 5:2!, killing * +iral infectious diseases in 5:26, killing !2*, people.

people.

.here have been many terrorist attacks in India. .he maCor terrorist attacks areG 'arch 52, 5::* - ( series of bomb blasts, alleged to be planted by 'uslim underworld figures, rock 'umbai killing some 26 people and inCuring 85*. Aebruary 5!, 5::> - !6 persons were killed and more than 2 inCured when 5* blasts ripped through /oimbatore. 3ecember 2!-*5, 5::: I 4akistani militants hiCack an Indian (irlines flight from Dathmandu to #ew 3elhi with 5>: people aboard, kill one passenger and force the release of three Cailed 'uslim militants in e$change. "ctober 5, 2 5 - (t least 25 people were killed in a suicide bomb e$plosion and gunfire at the assembly in Dashmir in an attack. 3ecember 5*, 2 5 - Heavily armed Islamic militant group opened fire in 4arliament comple$, killing several people in an unprecedented attack on the seat of power in the worldKs biggest democracy. Banuary 22, 2 2 - Aour people were killed in an attack on the (merican /enter, Dolkata allegedly by &ashkar-e-.aiba militants. 'ay 5!, 2 2 - 'ore than * army men were killed in a terrorist attack on an (rmy camp near Bammu. %eptember 2!, 2 2 - *, people were killed when 2 terrorists attacked the (kshardham temple in =andhinagar, =uCarat. 3ecember 6, 2 2 - .wenty-five people were inCured in a bomb blast by members of the %tudents Islamic 'ovement of India at 'c3onalds fast food restaurant at 'umbai /entral railway station. .he bomb was planted in the air conditioner duct. It was suspected to be a crude bomb. Banuary 28, 2 * - (t least * people were inCured when a bomb planted on a bicycle went off throwing splinters of sharp nails outside +ile 4arle railway station in 'umbai. 'arch 5*, 2 * - ( powerful bomb blast shattered a bogie of a local train at 'ulund railway station in 'umbai during peak hours killing 55 people and inCuring more than 6,. (ugust 2*, 2 * - .wo bombings at the =ateway of India and the 'umba 3evi temple in 'umbai killed ,2, inCured 568. "ctober 2:, 2 , - 68 people were killed and 22! inCured in serial bombings in maCor 3elhi markets on 3iwali 9biggest festival, like /hristmas; eve. ( 4akistani group, Islamic Inquilab 'aha), claimed responsibility for the attack. .he group is linked to &ashkar-e.aiba. 'arch 8, 2 6 - (t least 2 persons were killed and over 5 5 inCured when two blasts rocked +aranasi. .he first blast took place at the %ankat 'ochan Hanuman temple, the second at the +aranasi railway station. Buly 55, 2 6 - %even e$plosions ripped through crowded commuter trains and stations in 'umbai, killing at least 2 people and leaving 8 more bloodied and inCured. .he popular tourist destination and the pink city of Baipur, capital of ?aCasthan state faced seven bomb 9left in bags hanging on the bicycles; blasts on the evening of 'ay 5*, 2 >.
5

.hese e$plosions took place within a span of 52 minutes during the peak evening 8 4' time at various locations in the down town busy religious and shopping places. (n eighth bomb was found and was defused. .here were about 6, dead with 5, people inCured. .he (hmedabd city, the commercial hub of =uCarat state was bombed by a series of 25 bomb blasts that hit on Buly 26, 2 >, within a span of 8 minutes, killing ,6 people and inCuring over 2 people. .he blasts occurred Cust a day after the blasts in 0angalore. .he 'umbai city was attacked by more than ten coordinated shooting and bombing attacks in different parts of the financial capital and largest city. .he attacks began on #ovember 26, 2 > and lasted till #ovember 2:, 2 >, killing at least 58* people and wounding at least * >. 1ight of the attacks occurred in the prominent places of %outh 'umbai, including the "beroi .rident Hotel, the .aC 'ahal 4alace L .ower Hotels, and /hhatrapati %hivaCi ?ailway .erminus. (Cmal (mir Dasab, the only attacker who was captured alive, disclosed that the attackers were members of &ashkar-e-.aiba, the 4akistan-based militant organi)ation, considered a terrorist organi)ation by India, the 2nited %tates, and the 2nited Dingdom, among others. In the wake of the failure of the security system the Home 'inister resigned. ?ecently there have been many bomb e$plosions in (ssam and other parts of #orth1astern Indian cities.

.here have been many te!hnologi!al disasters in India. In 5:8: the Doyna dam at 'orvi in =uCarat collapsed killing 5,**, people. 'any gas leakages from the chemical plants have killed workers as well. %ome of the more well-known blasts are discussed below. "n 3ecember ! and 6, 5:>, a maCor leakage of oleum gas took place from %hriram Aood and Aertili)ers Industry, in the heart of the capital city of 3elhi which resulted in the death of several persons. Aollowing this, .he %upreme /ourt of India established the principle of Mstrict and absolute liability, making owners of ha)ardous plants strictly and absolutely liable for damages originating from their activities regardless of their fault. .he 0hopal chemical catastrophe is the worlds biggest industrial disaster to date. "n the night of 3ecember *, 5:>! in the 2nion /arbide plant at 0hopal, ! tones of methyl isocyanate 9'I/; gas leaked without any warning. .he poisonous gas leakage killed *,>2> people immediately, inCuring hundreds of thousands, incapacitating most of them for life. In addition, thousands of cattle, nearly poisoning water, polluting surrounding air for miles affected the breathing capacity of the people, and other long lasting disastrous effects 9=upta Aorthcoming;. (ccording to (mnesty International 92 !, 5; 22, people have died of their inCuries. 2nion /arbide plant in 0hopal was the subsidiary of 2nion /arbide /orporation incorporated in 2%(. .he =overnment of India and the 2nion /arbide reached an out of court settlement for @!: million. /ompensation claims of 5, 2:,,58 people were registered, out of which ,8!,* ! claims were awarded 90hopal =as .ragedy ?elief and ?ehabilitation 3epartment 2 :;. However, only a small portion of the compensation has been distributed to the victims due to legal and administrative procedures. 'r. Farren (nderson, then /1" of 2nion /arbide, was declared absconder by the 0hopal /ourt since he did not appear in the court after signing a bail and promised to appear when summoned following his release after arrest. .he Indian =overnment, the 2% =overnment, and I#.1?4"& were not able to find out his whereabouts for nineteen years. Bournalists have found him living in 0ridgehampton, #ew Nork and Alorida. #ielsen 92 6;, a Cournalist, writes
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about actually having a face to face encounter with Farren (nderson, >!, at the +ero 0each, Alorida home, but (nderson refused to give him an interview. .here have been many transportation a!!idents in India. .he deadliest head.on mid. air !ollision of aircrafts in the world, the worst air disaster in India, and the fourth deadliest air disaster in the world, occurred over /harkhi 3adri, near 3elhi on #ovember 52, 5::6, killing *!: people. .he aircrafts involved were a %audi (rabian (irlines 0oeing 8!8 passenger aircraft carrying *52 passengers and crew and an Ilyushin II-86.3 belonging to Da)akhstan (irlines, carrying *8 passengers and crew. .he %audi 8!8 had Cust taken off from #ew 3elhi airport while the Il-86 was descending. .he (ir .raffic /ontrol 9(./; allowed the %audi Bumbo to climb to 5!, feet, and simultaneously, the I&-86 was allowed to descend to 5,, feet. "ne of them, or both, did not stick to the prescribed height, and did not maintain the required vertical separation. .he radar controller cautioned the Da)akh pilot that the %audi Bumbo was approaching head on, but did not give a direct order on evasive action. (nother possible cause of the accident was the misunderstanding due to different languages problem. 0oth the planes collided at a speed of , km per hour and instantly caught fire. .here were no survivors 9=upta, 3angayach, and 0hardawaC 2 8;. Aollowing the head-on mid-air collision, the /ivil (viation (uthority in India made it mandatory for all aircrafts flying in and out of India to be equipped with an (irborne /ollision (voidance %ystem. .his was the first time in the world that (/(% was made mandatory. "n (ugust 56, 5::5 Indian (irlines flight I/-2,8 operating from Dolkatta to Imphal with 0oeing 8*8 aircraft crashed in the Cungles near Imphal killing all the 6: passengers and the crew. .his author was waiting at the Imphal airport for going back to Dolkatta in the same plane. .he Indian (irlines announced a flight delay, but accurate information was either not coming or not provided to the public. It was only after many hours of waiting that public information of the plane crash was given. .he release of factual and timely information of the accident would have created good public relations. .he Indian ?ailways is the worldKs largest railway system under a single managementE with about 6*, -km route network that operates over 55, trains every day. .here have been many rail/ay a!!idents /hi!h !ould be !onsidered as disasters, some of them areG %eptember 25, 5::*, %eventy-one killed as Dota-0ina passenger train collides with a goods train near /hhabra in ?aCasthan. (ugust 2 , 5::,, .hree hundred and two killed as 3elhi-bound 4urushottam 1$press rams into the stationary Dalindi 1$press near Airo)abad in 2ttar 4radesh. %eptember 5!, 5::8, 1ight-one killed as five bogies of the (hmedabad-Howrah 1$press plunge into a river in 0ilaspur district of 'adhya 4radesh. #ovember 26, 5::>, "ver 2 people die as Bammu .awi-%ealdah 1$press rams into three derailed bogies of (mritsar-bound Arontier =olden .emple 'ail near &udhiana. (ugust 2, 5:::, .wo hundred and eighty-si$ killed and *,: inCured in a collision involving (wadh-(ssam 1$press and 0rahmaputra 'ail at =aisal in #orth Arontier ?ailwayKs Datihar division. %eptember 5 , 2 2, "ne hundred and twenty are killed when the Dolkata-#ew 3elhi ?aCdhani 1$press derails over a bridge in 0ihar.
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'ay 5,, 2 *, ( burst stove caused a devastating fire that swept through a speeding passenger train in 4unCab, killing ! people and inCuring more than , . Bune 22, 2 *, In the first maCor accident on the Donkan ?ailway, ,* people, including three children, were killed and 2, inCured when the engine and three coaches of the Darwar-'umbai /entral Holiday %pecial train derailed after crossing +aibhavwadi station in %indhudurg district in 'aharashtra. Buly 55, 2 6, ( series of bomb attacks strikes commuter trains in 'umbai, India, killing at least 2 Aebruary 5*, 2 :, .welve carriages of the /oromandel 1$press derails soon after the train left BaCpur ?oad station near the city of BaCpur in the state of "rissa. Ironically, the accident occurred on the day of ?ailway 0udget presentation when the then ?ailway 'inister &alu 4rasad Nadav boasted about increased safety measures at Indian ?ailways.

&ike other disasters, India also has the dubious distinction of having the highest number of road a!!ident deaths in the world. (ccording to the %ecretary of ?oad .ransport, =overnment of India, nearly 5 ,, people die in road accidents every year in India, and it is the highest in the world 90rahm 3utt 2 8;. .his is despite the fact that India has very low number of vehicles for a given population compared to many of the countries. .here are many reasons. (mong them are the non-enforcement of laws, lack of safety conscience, poor road conditions, poorly maintained vehicles, and overcrowding. In addition, emergency medical facilities for the road accidents, particularly outside the cities were lacking. (s can be seen, India has had more than its share of disasters. In the decade from5:: 2 , an average of about !,*!! people lost their lives and about * million people were affected by disasters every year. .he maCor natural disaster in 2 > in India was floods. .here were 5,> > deaths in 2 > in India due to natural disasters, the third largest number of death in any country 9after /hina and 'yanmar;. .he number of people affected due to natural disasters in 2 > were 5! million, second highest after /hina. OThe loss in terms of private, communit! and pu"lic assets has "een astronomical 9#ational 3isaster 'anagement 3ivision 2 !, *;. Disaster 0oli!y Indian disaster policy is geared to make a paradigm change from response and calamity relief to disaster prevention, preparation and mitigation. (nother significant change is to move from disaster management largely from government to public private partnership, and community disaster management. In this regard, significant changes have been made, but the authoritarian attitude of the government officials is the main stumbling block. .he =reat Aamine of 5>86-5>8> lead to constitution of the Aamine /ommission of 5>> and eventual adoption of -amine Relie* Code. India probably has the worlds oldest disaster relief code which started in5>> . .his relief code provides details of the relief to be given by the government to the affected people. .he India 3isaster ?eport 94arsuraman and 2nikrishnan 2 ; provides the nature of disaster response by the government of India. It identifies key issues with respect to the availability of and access to disaster-related information and its quality, the absence of coherent disaster preparedness and response policy, and urgent actions and interventions needed. It shows

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that significant advances in health and social and economic development have been repeatedly interrupted and reversed by disasters. India has been following *i1e year national plans, although they are not on a rolling basis. .he earlier five year plans did not mention disaster management. .he .enth Aive-Near 4lan 2 2-2 8 for the first time had a detailed chapter entitled 3isaster 'anagementG .he 3evelopment 4erspective. .he plan emphasi)ed the fact that development cannot be sustainable without mitigation being built into the development process. 3isaster mitigation and prevention were adopted as essential component of the development strategy. .he 1leventh Aive Near 4lan 2 8-2 52 94lanning /ommission 2 >; states,

OThe development process needs to "e sensitive towards disaster prevention, preparedness and mitigation. #isaster management has therefore emerged as a high priorit! for the countr!. $oing "e!ond the historical focus on relief and reha"ilitation after the event, there is a need to loo% ahead and plan for disaster preparedness and mitigation in order to ensure that periodic shoc%s to our development efforts are minimi&ed. 3isaster management has emerged as a high priority for the country. .he 1leventh Aive Near 4lan aims at consolidating the process by giving impetus to proCects and programs that develop and nurture the culture of safety and the integration of disaster prevention and mitigation into the development process. .he guidance and direction to achieve this paradigm shift will need to flow from National Disaster Management $uthority NDM$#, and in the true spirit of the Disaster Management $!t, 2334 to all stakeholders including %tate =overnments and 2nion .erritories, right up to the 4anchyat ?aC 9local administration by five locally elected citi)ens; Institutions. /ommunities at large will need to be mobili)ed to achieve this common obCective as they are the first responders 9and not the usually thought fire, ambulance, and police;" 1ven the best of isolated efforts will not bear fruit unless they are part of an overall, well-considered approach, and responsibilities of all stakeholders are clearly spelt out and accountability and sustainability factored in. .he 2 5 =uCarat 1arthquake was huge and had very serious impacts on the government and policy makers, in addition to victims, their families, and general citi)enry. .he =overnment of =uCarat for the first time in India enacted the Gu5arat Disaster Management $!t, 2336. 0efore that, neither at the federal level nor at the state level there was any act to deal with the management of disasters of various kinds in a comprehensive manner. .he state and federal governments were largely following the relief code and the rules and regulations, and the government orders issued over the years, which were not consolidated. %ection *5 of the =uCarat 3isaster 'anagement (ct, 2 * states that, 't shall "e the dut! of ever! citi&en to assist the (ommissioner, the (ollector or such other person entrusted with or engaged in disaster management whenever his aid is demanded generall! for the purpose of disaster management and particularl! for the following purposes, namel! )* +a, prevention, +", response,
1(

+c, warning, +d, emergenc! operation, +e, evacuation, and +f, recover!. .he /ommissioner in the act refers to the %tate /ommissioner of ?elief. .he /ommissioner of ?elief is the government official who is over all in charge of providing relief to the victims of the disasters. .he /ollector is the administrative head of a district. It is interesting to note that there is legal duty cast on every citi)en to help in disaster management. .he recurrent occurrences of different types of disasters compelled =overnment of India to establish many different committee and commissions to suggest dealing with the problem. .he most recent and the important was the establishment of &igh 0o/er Committee on Disaster Management 9H4/; in 5::: for making recommendations on the preparation of 3isaster 'anagement plans and suggestions for effective mitigation mechanisms. .he High 4ower /ommittee gave its recommendations in "ctober 2 5 including a draft of the disaster management act, a #ational ?esponse 4lan, move from disaster response to disaster preparedness, and establishment of #ational 3isaster 'anagement (uthority. Aollowing one of the H4/ recommendations, the disaster management function was transferred from 'inistry of (griculture to 'inistry of Home (ffairs. .he =overnment of India has long been thinking of a #ational 3isaster 'anagement (uthority. .he =uCarat earthquake gave e$tra impetus for having a national disaster management authority. However, the bureaucracy does take its claims on the time from a decision is taken to the actual action. .he Indian "cean .sunami of 2 ! really gave a Colt for this decision process. Ainally on 3ecember 2*, 2 , the 3isaster 'anagement (ct, 2 , was enacted by the =overnment of India. .he 3isaster 'anagement (ct, 2 , mandated creation of #ational 3isaster 'anagement (uthority, with 4rime 'inister as the /hairman, and %tate 3isaster 'anagement (uthorities headed by the respective /hief 'inisters, to spearhead and implement a holistic and integrated approach to disaster management in India. .he act also provided for creation of #ational Institution of 3isaster 'anagement. #3'( has come out with the national vision statement ofG To "uild a safer and disaster resilient 'ndia "! developing a holistic, pro*active, multi*disaster and technolog!*driven strateg! for disaster management through collective efforts of all $overnment -gencies and .on*$overnmental /rganisations. #3'( has prepared a disaster management poli!y *rame/or,. .he themes underpinning this policy areG

/ommunity-based disaster management, including integration of the policy, plans and e$ecution at the grass root level. /apacity development in all related areas. /onsolidation of past initiatives and best practices. /ooperation with agencies at national, regional and international levels.

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/ompliance and coordination to generate a multi-sectoral synergy.

.he obCectives guiding the policy formulation have evolved to includeG 4romoting a culture of prevention and preparedness I by centre-staging disaster management 93'; as an overriding priority at all levels and at all times. 1ncouraging mitigation measures based on state-of-the-art technology and environmental sustainability.

'ainstreaming 3' concerns into the development planning process. 4utting in place a streamlined institutional techno-legal framework in order to create and preserve the integrity of an enabling regulatory environment and a compliance regime. 3eveloping contemporary forecasting and early warning systems backed by responsive and fail-safe communications and Information .echnology 9I.; support. 4romoting a productive partnership with the 'edia, #="s and the /orporate %ector in the areas of awareness generation and capacity development. 1nsuring efficient response and relief with a caring humane approach towards the vulnerable sections of the society. 'aking reconstruction an opportunity to build back better and construct disaster-resilient structures and habitats 9#3'( 2 :;.

In recent times the 1mergency 'anagement and ?esearch Institute 91'?I; has brought out significant improvements in dealing with emergency medical services. 1'?I is a nonprofit professional organi)ation operating in the 4ublic 4rivate 4artnership mode. 1'?I handles medical, police and disaster emergencies, although the emphasis is on medical help, through the P5- -> 1mergency serviceP. .his is a free service delivered through state-of-art emergency call response centres and has over 5,> ambulances across (ndhra 4radesh, =uCarat, 2ttarakhand, =oa, /hennai, ?aCasthan, Darnataka, (ssam and 'eghalaya. Fith the e$pansion of fleet and services set to spread across more states, 1'?I plan to have more than 5 , ambulances covering over a billion population by 2 5 . India had accepted foreign aid in response and relief after all the disasters. However, immediately after the tsunami hit on 3ecember 26, 2 !, 3r. 'an 'ohan %ingh, 4rime 'inister of India announced that India will not accept foreign aid for rescue and relief operations. .he government thought that it is capable of dealing with the disaster and has the necessary resources. India steadfastly stood for not accepting charity. #ot only that, India deployed its defense personnel, medical teams, disaster e$perts, ships, helicopters and other type of human, material, and equipment resources to help %ri &anka, 'auritius, and Indonesia. It may be noted that India itself suffered from the tsunami and was at the same time internally responding to the aftermath of the tsunami. India is lower income group country, while Indonesia is middle-income group country. 3uring a field research visit to %ri &anka in Bune 2 ,, this author and various colleagues traveled over a bridge rebuilt by Indian army that was destroyed by the tsunami. Fhomsoever we talked in %ri &anka, were very appreciative of the help provided by India 9=upta 2 ,;.

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In comparison in the aftermath of Datrina, with offers from the four corners of the globe pouring in, %ecretary of %tate /ondolee))a ?ice has decided Pno offer that can help alleviate the suffering of the people in the afflicted area will be refused,P %tate 3epartment spokesman %ean 'c/ormack said 91$press India 2 ,;. 'ore than 5, countries and foreign organi)ations, including some improvised, poor small countries, and even the countries which did not had friendly ties with 2%( pledged @ !,! million in cash. However, only @526 million from ! donors was actually received. It is debatable whether refusing to accept foreign assistance for response and relief is a good thing, as India did after the .sunami. .his author thinks that it is good thing if the country is capable. .he =overnment of India made a good decision by not accepting foreign help for response and relief. .he reasons for this being a good decision is evident from the fact that India was not only able to respond internally, but simultaneously and successfully in %ri &anka, 'auritius, and Indonesia also. .his authors filed visits in %ri &anka, and India found that India responded to tsunami in a better way. .he findings were corroborated by other scholars research including in .hailand. .he research findings of all the researchers conclude that Indian response to the tsunami was better compared to Indonesia, %ri &anka and .hailandE the other three most affected countries. Aor e$ample, 4erera 92 6; states, OThe management of the deceased was e0ceptionall! deficient in 1ri 2an%a following tsunami . .he corollary to the question replied above is the question, whether it was bad for 2%( not to refuse offer of help from foreign countriesQ .his author think accepting foreign assistance for some specific e$pertise or equipment which the 2%( was not having would have been appropriate. 0ut to receive @ 526 million from ! donor countries of the world was not appropriate. Aor the economy of 2%(, @ 526 million is insignificant. .his is if we consider only the financial aspects of accepting donations, however, if we consider the political ramifications, the equation totally changes. (s stated above India point blank refused any foreign aid for response and relief after the tsunami. #evertheless, India welcomed foreign institutional support for rehabilitation, and reconstruction investment. India has reconstruction investment proCects with Forld 0ank and the (sian 3evelopment 0ank. It may be clarified that the =overnment of India refused to receive the financial assistance for response and relief from the foreign governments. However, the government did not prevent private organi)ations or individuals from providing assistance through private channels. In fact, in order to facilitate relief operations, regulations relating to foreign contributions were rela$ed up to 'arch *5, 2 ,, through a /entral =overnment "rder dated 3ecember * , 2 ! that e$empted all associations involved in tsunami relief operations 9other than political parties; from %ection 6 of the Aoreign /ontribution 9?egulation; (ct, 5:86 with immediate effect. .his %ection requires prior formal approval of the /entral =overnment before accepting foreign contributions in cash or kind. .herefore, with this order, agencies receiving foreign funds for the tsunami relief work do not have to approach the /entral =overnment for sanction. .he order also permitted voluntary organi)ations that have already received permission to accept foreign contributions for a particular proCect to use the same for the tsunami relief work under intimation to the 'inistry of Home (ffairs. Aollowing the 2 ! tsunami many policy changes were made. .he .amil #adu state government deployed 52 teams each of about 5* senior officials to the tsunami affected districts with adequate financial delegated authorities to make on the spot decisions. .o deal with the unprecedented situation, the state governments issued about 5, orders to facilitate the tsunami
1,

response, including financial help to affected people. .he =overnment of India started putting on the website %ituation ?eports for the public from 5 G Hrs. on 3ecember 26, 2 ! 9immediately after the tsunami struck the Indian coast;. Aour hundred fifteen #="s came to respond to the tsunami, apart from numerous nonaffiliated spontaneous volunteers. %outh India Aederation of Aishermen %ociety, and %ocial #eed 1ducation for Human (wareness initiated a #=" /oordination and ?esource /enter 9#/?/; with the support of district administration and 2nited #ations 3evelopment 4rogram. (fter the response and relief work, the #/?/ also worked for reconstruction, although with less than , #="s. .he /entral =overnment directed all %tate /hief %ecretaries and ?elief /ommissioners to maintain proper records and ensure transparency in relief operations in order to make the relief process fair and Cust. In line with the governments policy on the right to information, it was mandated that lists giving details of beneficiaries and the quantity and quality of relief distributed be prepared and made available to local representatives in 4anchayats and 'unicipalities, and displayed in 4anchayat and 'unicipal offices, with a consolidated list being displayed at the .aluka level. .hese lists were to be made available to the general public at a nominal charge of ?s. 5 9@ .2,; each. %i$ public interest litigations were filed before the 'umbai High /ourt pertaining to the 'umbai terror attacks of #ovember 26, 2 >. Aollowing this, the High /ourt has appointed a committee headed by Aormer Cudge of the %upreme /ourt, Bustice 0.#. %rikrishna, to recommend measures to the state government to prevent recurrence of terror incidents 9although it may be almost impossible to prevent terrorist incidents in a open society like India, with 5.2 billion population;. .he committee headed by Bustice %rikrishna would consist of top officials like the state chief secretary, finance secretary, home secretary, director-general of police, representatives of lawyers and solicitors and eminent personalities from different fields. .he 0hopal chemical disaster was the wakeup call for the world. In the aftermath of the 0hopal, the chemical industry, and many countries of the world, including 2%( and India made number of legal changes for safety. .he =overnment of India amended three key acts that deal with industrial ha)ards 9i.e. the Aactories (ct, 5:!>E the Fater (ct, 5:8! and 5:88E and the (ir (ct, 5:>5;. .he government also passed a comprehensive new environmental law called the 1nvironmental 4rotection (ct of 5:>6. .he new law vastly improved regulatory coverage of ha)ardous technologies and substances 9%rivastava 5::2, 52>-52:;. 7rgani'ation o* Disaster Management India has a federal system with =overnment of India at the federal level. Aor the administrative purpose, India has been divided into *, Curisdictions known as states and union territories. .he union territories consist of si$ Curisdictions that are centrally or federally administered. .hese are (ndaman and #icobar Islands, &akshadweep, /handigarh, 4anducherry, 3adra and #agar Haveli, and 3aman and 3iu. .he remaining twenty nine states have their own duly elected state governments. 3isaster management is the responsibility of local administration, under the supervision of the %tate =overnment, facilitated by the =overnment of India. .he *, states and union territories are divided into about 6 districts. 1ach district is administrated by a /ollector and 3istrict 'agistrate 9same person performs both the duties;. (lthough there is a separate Cudicial system in India, certain Cudicial powers are given to the administrators, like /ollectors. .he
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0ritish government ruling India was mainly concerned with collection of revenue and ta$es. .herefore, the 0ritish administrator was designated as /ollector. (fter 62 years of independence the name tag, unfortunately still remains. ( /ollector of the district is the administrative head for all matters within the district. .he /ollector is an Indian (dministrative %ervice cadre official. 2nder the 3isaster 'anagement (ct, 2 , each district is supposed to have a disaster management plan, district disaster management committee, district 1"/, training and drills, and do disaster prevention, preparedness, and mitigation activities. 1ach state has a 3isaster 'anagement /ell, located generally in the %tate (dministrative .raining Institutes. 'aCor funding for the faculties of the 3isaster 'anagement /ell comes from the /entral =overnment. 1ach cell is supposed to carry training in disaster management and prepare plans and documents. .he 0uilding 'aterials 4romotion and .echnology /ouncil have prepared a +ulnerability (tlas of India giving details of different types of vulnerabilities of each state and district. "n the basis of the +ulnerability (tlas, 'inistry of Home (ffairs of the =overnment of India, and 2#34, identified 5:: multi-ha)ard prone districts in the country in different states. 2#34 and =overnment of India launched a comprehensive disaster management program focusing on all multi-ha)ard prone districts in select %tates, which are e$tremely vulnerable to natural ha)ards such as =uCarat, "rissa, 0ihar, .amil #adu, Fest 0engal, 'aharashtra, 3elhi, 2ttar 4radesh, 2ttaranchal, (ssam, 'eghalaya and %ikkim for disaster risk management. In this program, a multi-pronged strategy is adopted for ensuring administrative, institutional, financial, and legal mechanisms for disaster risk management. .he first phase of the program was during 2 2 to 2 8. &ot of good work has been done under this program and now it is in its second phase. 3roughts and famine were recurrent and the administration developed considerable e$pertise in calamity relief operations. In fact, even today in many states the chief disaster management government official is still called the ?elief /ommissioner, although the =overnment of India has suggested the state governments to re-designate them as %ecretary, 3isaster 'anagement. (s already stated India has probably the worlds oldest famine relief code from 5>> . .hat time famine were a recurring occurrence and 0ritish government prepared ?elief /ode giving guidelines how much calamity relief to be provided to each family after a famine. "ver the passage of time Indian calamity relief system had lot of e$perience and it is well developed, and documented in the government records. (fter India got independence from the 0ritish in 5:!8, India continued with the ?elief /ommissioner system. (t the =overnment of India level or the federal level there was and still is a /entral ?elief /ommissioner. .he /entral ?elief /ommissioner is a second official in hierarchy in the 'inistry, below the %ecretary, either an (dditional secretary or a Boint %ecretary. .he main Cob of the ?elief /ommissioner was to arrange for relief after drought or famine and help the state governments. (t the state level, there is a ?elief /ommissioner, who is generally a %ecretary or 4rincipal %ecretary of the relevant department. "n the basis of reports received from lower level local land administration, the official would recommend the state government for declaration of drought and for the relief to be granted. 1ven before the enactment of the 3isaster 'anagement (ct, 2 , the #ational 3isaster 'anagement (uthority was set up in Buly 2 , by an e$ecutive order with the 4rime 'inister of India as the /hairperson of #3'(. =en #. /. +iC, former /hief of (rmy staff is the +ice
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/hairperson and e$-officio /1" of the #3'(, with the status of a /abinet 'inister. .here are seven other 'embers of the #3'( with the rank of the %tate 'inister 9in India, there are three levels of ministers in descending rank as 'inister, %tate 'inister, and 3eputy 'inister;. .he #3'( is responsible and has the authority for laying down the policies, plans, and guidelines to be followed by 'inistries and 3epartments of the /entral =overnment for disaster management. .he #3'( is to coordinate the enforcement and implementation of the policies and plans for disaster management and arrange for, and oversee the provision of funds for mitigation measures, preparedness and response. .he #3'( is to frame guidelines for the minimum standards of relief to be provided to persons affected by disaster, and give directions regarding relief in loan repayment or grant fresh loans on such confessional terms as may be deemed appropriate. .he #3'( can take such measures for prevention of disaster, of mitigation of its effects, or for preparedness and capacity building for dealing with a threatening disaster situation or disaster. ( multi-disciplinary, multi-skilled, high-tech #ational 3isaster ?esponse Aorce 9#3?A; of eight battalions has been set up for dealing with all types of disasters capable of insertion by air, sea and land. .his is a military related response force. (ll the battalions are to be equipped and trained for all natural disasters including four battalions in combating nuclear, biological and chemical disasters. 1ach battalion will provide 5> self-contained specialist search and rescue teams of !, personnel each including engineers, technicians, electricians, dog squads and medicalHparamedics. .he total strength of each battalion will be appro$imately 5,5,>. .hese #3?A battalions are located at nine different locations in the country based on the vulnerability profile to cut down the response time for their deployment. 3uring the preparedness periodHin a threatening disaster situation, proactive deployment of these forces will be carried out by the #3'( in consultation with state authorities. .he #ational 3isaster 'itigation ?esource /enter 9#3'?/; will be co-located with the #3?A battalions. .hese will also serve as repositories for #3'?/ bricks of relief stores for 2,, affected people, in each of the nine locations. .hese will cater to the emergent requirements especially for the first 82 to :6 hours. (t Dolkata and /handigarh, additional bricks of stores for , , people each will be kept for high altitude areas. .hese stores will supplement the reserves maintained by the respective statesH2.s. In addition, these centers will assist in running mock drills and capacity development programs. 3uring disasters, they will act as facilitators to the statesH2.s in deployment of central resources and provide much needed additional link to the centre. .he 'inistry of (griculture, 3epartment of (griculture and /ooperation, in the =overnment of India, was historically the nodal ministry for disaster relief in the country. "ne of the senior officials of the 'inistry was designated as the /entral ?elief /ommissioner. .he 'inistry of (griculture in 'arch 5::, set up a #ational /entre for 3isaster 'anagement 9#/3';, which was located at Indian Institute of 4ublic (dministration, #ew 3elhi. .he #/3' had been functioning as a nodal /entre for the human resource development in the area of disaster management. .he =overnment of India decided to make the 'inistry of Home (ffairs as the nodal ministry. .he government issued an order on "ctober 56, 2 * upgrading the #/3' and establishing the #ational Institute of 3isaster 'anagement 9#I3';. #I3' is a premier national organi)ation working for human resource development at national level in the area of disaster mitigation and management. .he #I3' is gearing up the national, state and district level administration to tackle disasters and also in coordinating research proCects, training programs
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and building a database on disasters with case studies. #I3's vision is to be the leading center of e$cellence in the field of disaster risk mitigation and management in India and the region. (fter the "rissa %uper /yclone of 5::: under the influence of reconstruction donor organi)ations, led by the Forld 0ank, the =overnment of "rissa established "rissa %tate 3isaster 'anagement (uthority 9"%3'(;. .his was an institutional innovation for speedy reconstruction, disaster management planning, preparedness, training, and related matters, avoiding the bureaucratic red tape. Immediately after the =uCarat 1arthquake of 2 5 there was a total failure of command system. However, subsequently the =overnment of =uCarat acted swiftly and also established =uCarat %tate 3isaster 'anagement (uthority 9=%3'(; on the models of "%3'(. .he =%3'(, used public-private partnership model, and community based disaster management systems. .he =%3'( trained affected people in basic masonry, carpentry, and other skills for reconstruction of their own homes. =%3'( was awarded the 2# %asakawa award 2 * for outstanding work in the field of disaster management and risk reduction. .he %asakawa award is administered by the International %trategy for 3isaster ?eduction 9I%3?;, a speciali)ed wing of the 2nited #ations. =uCarat 1mergency ?econstruction and ?ehabilitation 4rogram implemented by =%3'( has been awarded the prestigious O=reen (wards of the Forld 0ankR in 2 !. .he =reen (wards is given by the Forld 0ank for promotion and maintenance of environmental concerns in the implementation of the proCects funded by the Forld 0ank. =%3'( also received =old (ward by the /ommonwealth (ssociation for 4ublic (dministration L 'anagement for the initiatives undertaken in governance. .he 'umbai terror attacks acted as a catalyst for the establishment of the #ational Investigation (gency 9#I(;. (fter the #ational Investigation (gency (ct, 2 > came into force this federal agency was set up on Banuary 5, 2 :. ?adha +inod ?aCu, %pecial 3irector =eneral of 4olice in Bammu and Dashmir, is appointed as 3irector =eneral of the newly established #I(. .he #I( will have concurrent Curisdiction 9both federal and state government having Curisdiction; which empowers the /entral =overnment to probe terror attacks in any part of the country, covering offences including challenge to countryKs sovereignty and integrity, bomb blasts, hiCacking of aircraft and ships and attacks on nuclear installations. .he agency will probe such incidents which are found to have comple$ inter-state and international linkages and possible connection with other activities like smuggling of arms and drugs, pushing in and circulation of fake Indian currency and infiltration across the borders. Challenges and 7pportunities .he 0engal famine of 5:!* in the undivided India 9which includes present day 0angladesh; under the 0ritish rule is the worlds worst recorded food disaster in which four million people died of starvation. .he disaster that time was e$plained as due to the food shortage. #obel 1conomics pri)e winning (mitya %en in his best known essay 4overty and AaminesG (n 1ssay on 1ntitlement and 3eprivation 9%en 5:>*; established that famine occurs not from a lack of food, but from inequalities built into mechanisms for distributing food. Aamine was a product both of uneven rainfall and 0ritish economic and administrative policies. Fhile food shortage was a contributor to the problem, a more potent factor was the result of hysteria related to Forld Far II which made food supplies a low priority for the

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0ritish rulers. .he hysteria was further e$ploited by Indian traders who hoarded food in order to sell at higher prices. (fter the independence, the challenge of famines was met by the =overnment of India by taking many measures. .he government made many policy changes for increase in agriculture production. %ome of these measures were construction of dams, irrigation proCects, subsidi)ed fertili)er production and distribution, subsidiary in electricity for agriculture use, and purchase and storage of huge quantities of food grains by the government owned Aood /orporation of India. .he government policies, scientific research, and the efforts of the %isan 9agriculture workers; lead to green revolution and India not only became self sufficient, but even started e$porting agriculture products. "ne of the greatest challenges India is facing in becoming disaster resistant and resilient is corruption. (fter a through grass root research in ten of the poorest of the poor districts in five states, %ainath 95::6; has written 3ver!"od! 2oves a $ood #rought) 1tories from 'ndia4s 5oorest #istricts. %ainath shows how poorest of the poor manage, what sustains them, and the efforts by the politicians and the bureaucracy, often ludicrous, to do something for them. In the process he e$poses the corruption. .he prevailing statistical methods used by the government to calculate the poverty line was to use certain fi$ed income based criteria that do not fully reflect all the variables of poverty. %ainath offered clear statistics on unemployment through independent surveys. It enabled policy makers to make informed decisions based on their ability to access this more accurate and reliable data. .he opportunity arising from the %ainath writing resulted in the revamping of the 3rought 'anagement 4rograms of .amil #adu. Fith an increase in the perception towards spreading a culture of prevention in the disaster management scenario, considerable emphasis is being placed on research and development activities. In India, a number of research institutes are conducting active research in the field of disaster management. .he e$amples are the #ational Institute of 3isaster 'anagement, .ata Institute of %ocial %ciences, Indian ?emote %ensing "rgani)ation, Indian %pace ?esearch "rgani)ation, and Indian 'etrological "rgani)ation to name a few. +aluable inputs in technical, social, economic as well as management areas of the field are being investigated. ?esearch activities are being coordinated by different ministries depending on the type and level of research. (n important role is played by the universities 9=upta 2 ;. In the academic year 2 *-2 !, India took a pioneering step of starting disaster management education as part of social sciences in class +III. In the subsequent academic year 2 !-2 , disaster management, was added to class I-. In the following academic years disaster management was progressively added to classes -I and -II. .his was done by the /entral 0oard of %econdary 1ducation in its nearly >, schools spread thorough out India, and also in #epal, 0angladesh, and some other foreign countries. .he disaster management curriculum is included or being included in all *: other school boards in the country. .he students are required not only to learn theoretical lessons, but to do some proCects also. In the process it is not only the students who are learning about the disaster management, but their families are also becoming aware of disaster management and preparing for disaster management. In addition, the teachers and their families are also learning about disaster management. It is hoped that disaster management knowledge in this generation of middle and high school students will amount to a revolution in community based disaster management, which is the only proven method of disaster managementE and it is hoped that India would be world leader in disaster management. Aor the first time since IndiaKs independence from the 0ritish, ordinary people now have the right to scrutini)e performance of public officials and hold them answerable for their actions
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that they professedly take on behalf of people. 2nder the ?ight to Information (ct, 2 , ordinary citi)ens can access records, documents, e-mails, circulars, and any other information held by public authority - including central and state governments, local bodies, and publically funded nongovernmental organi)ations. .his information is to be provided free of cost for those living below the poverty line, and with a nominal fee 9mostly ?s 5 or @ .2,, e$cluding coping charges; for others. 3alit 9low cast; /ommunities in the coastal villages e$ist in clusters either within the village, or in hamlets that are situated Cust outside the village. .he 3alit community is typically engaged in activities subsidiary to the main fishing operations, and is involved in lifting, transporting and sorting fish. %ome also earn a livelihood as agricultural labor in fields close to the fishing villages. .he 3alits were left without a livelihood after the tsunami as both fishing and agricultural operations came to a standstill. 3espite the fact that they have no means of survival e$cept relief material, many 3alit communities were not getting access to the same. .hey were either not given tokens, or were not allowed to stand in queues, or were simply not given relief material by the 4anchayat 9aid was typically distributed through the caste panchayats;. 1ven debris near the 3alit settlements was not cleared. .he situation was e$acerbated by the early closure of relief camps where 3alits got at least some amount of aid. Aurther, the 3alit hamlets had no access to clean drinking water, nor was there any proper enumeration of loss of belongings or livestock 9/iti)ens 4latform for .sunami (ffected 2 ,;. (ny rehabilitation policy must take into account that the 3alit community is an integral part of the coastal economy, and that the tsunami has equally affected their livelihoods, even though they are property-less. .herefore, the need for rehabilitation measures that encompass their needs is vital. (fter the tsunami, for relief and rehabilitation fishermen got boats and fishing nets, some families got two boats 9although they had one;, or mechani)ed boats 9although they had non mechani)ed boat;. However, other people, who were not involved in fishing activity, like agriculture workers, traders, and territory workers, were left out of entitlements. .here have been many complaints from the tsunami-affected areas that local elected representatives and local bodies were not being included in the relief and rehabilitation process 9Dumar and Damatchi 2 ,;. &ocal body representatives are the most conversant with local realities and their active role in any relief and rehabilitation policy is mandatory. 'any elected representatives are restricted by the lack of funds and powers, and are in fact not even consulted by either the state or central governments, and thus are unable to proactively participate in relief work. In the tsunami the #agapattinam district of .amil #adu state had the most fatalities. %eventy five percent 9!,,:2; of total the deaths in the district was in a thin 5 kilometers stretch 9!, deaths per square km; in the pilgrim towns of +elankanni 9/hristian; 9=upta 2 ,;. Aacing so many dead bodies suddenly was a great challenge. .his is also an opportunity for the scholars to do research and come out with strategies about managing such type of mass fatality incidents. .he greatest challenge India faces in disaster management is the challenge of removal of poverty, illiteracy, apathy, and corruption. /onsiderable pioneering and innovative advances are being made in disaster management education. /orruption is likely to reduce by use of ?ight to Information (ct, 2 ,. &ocal and global competition and professionalism is likely to reduce apathy. 0ut poverty is a herculean task for disaster management. Aor e$ample, even if a fisherperson receives a warning and understands it properly, he may still take risk and venture in the sea in order to have means to feed his family in the evening.

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IndiaKs 4rime 'inister 3r. 'anmohan %ingh is reported to have said at the International /onference on 3evelopment, Areedom and Felfare in #ew 3elhi in 3ecember 2 > that developing countries would find their own ways to deal with challenges as developed countries have no monopoly on good ideas. He further said that the global community has a great stake in IndiaKs e$periment in seeking for its people social, political and economic betterment within the framework of a liberal democracy 9Nehoo #ews 2 >;. Con!lusion Arom the grim realities of the shame of having different type of worlds worst disasters, India has become a glowing e$ample for other countries to follow in not only responding within the country during regional catastrophic disasters 9e$emplified by 2 ! tsunami;, but also to respond simultaneously in the neighboring countries. India has also shown the path to the world for starting disaster management education from middle and high school. .his generation of middle and high school students will make probably near revolution in community based disaster management, which is the only proven method of disaster managementE and it is hoped that India would be world leader in disaster management. 4robably casting legal duty on citi)ens for providing help during disasters would also make India leading the way. .here is paradigm shift in India from reactive approach of responding and calamity relief after the disaster to proactive approach of disaster prevention, preparedness, and mitigation. .he enactment of 3isaster 'anagement (ct, 2 ,, establishment of #ational 3isaster 'anagement (uthority with the 4rime 'inister as its /hairperson, and disaster management training by the #ational Institute of 3isaster 'anagement along with the 3isaster 'anagement /ells of the state (dministrative .raining Institutes will help in India becoming disaster resilient. Re*eren!es (mnesty International. 2 !. (louds of 'n6ustice) Bhopal #isaster 20 7ears /n. &ondonG (mnesty International. p 5. (ccessed at httpGHHamnesty.orgHenHlibraryHinfoH(%(2 H 5,H2 !Hen on 'ay ,, 2 :. 0hopal =as .ragedy ?elief and ?ehabilitation 3epartment. 2 :. 0hopalG 0hopal =as .ragedy ?elief and ?ehabilitation 3epartment, =overnment of 'adhya 4radesh. (ccessed at httpGHHwww.mp.gov.inHbgtrrdmpHdefault.html on 'ay *. /iti)ens 4latform for .sunami (ffected. 2 ,. 1mail to "fficer on %pecial 3uty, ?elief and ?ehabilitation, In-charge of #=" and 3onor /oordination, from /iti)ens 4latform for .sunami (ffected I .amil #adu, Banuary 5 . 3utt, 0raham. 2 8. ?oad (ccidents I India .ops Forld &ist. #ew 3elhiG .he Hindustan .imes. (ccessed at httpGHHwww.hindustantimes.comHstorypageHstorypage.asp$QidSd8:c88fc*2c:-!fee-:5be-5af6ec2*8c8!LLHeadlineS?oadTaccidentsT-TIndiaTtopsTworldTlist on 'ay 2!, 2 :

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1$press India. 2 ,. -fter 8atrina ravages coastline, 91 read! to accept foreign aid . "n line news posted %eptember 2, 2 ,. (ccessed at httpGHHwww.e$pressindia.comHnewsHfullstory.phpQ newsidS,*>!*Ucompstory on (pril 2:, 2 : =overnment of =uCarat. 2 =overnment of =uCarat =upta, (lok. 2 2 E5,9*;Gs:>. *. .he =uCarat 3isaster 'anagement (ct, 2 *. =andhinagarG

. +ulnerability and 3isaster 'anagement in India. 5rehosp #isast :ed

=upta, Dailash. Aorthcoming. O/rossI/ultural (nalysis of Handling the .sunami 3eadR in 5roceedings of the 'nternational (onference on ;e*30amining #isaster, ;ecover!, and ;econstruction) 1ocial 1cience 5erspectives on the Tsunami, edited by %unita ?eddy and Harish #araindass. #ew 3elhiG Bawaharlal #ehru 2niversity and #ational Institute of 3isaster 'anagement =upta, Dailash. Aorthcoming. O0hopal /hemical 3isasterR in 3nc!clopedia of #isaster ;elief, edited by D. 0radley 4enuel, 'atthew %tatler, and B. =eoffrey =olson. .housand "aks, /(G %age =upta, Dailash, =. %. 3angayach, and (wadesh 0hardwaC. 2 8. -viation #isaster :anagement) - case stud! of (har%hi #adri <ead*on :id*-ir (ollision 199= . 4aper presented at the (ll India %eminar on (viation 'anagement, 'arch 2:, 2 >, Baipur, organi)ed by .he Institution of 1ngineers 9India;, ?aCasthan %tate /entre, Baipur =upta, Dailash. 2 ,. - ;eport on 'ndia and 1ri 2an%a>s ;esponse to :ass ?atalities following 2004 Tsunami submitted to 3r. (rthur "yola-Nemaiel, 3irector, 1mergency 'anagement 4rogram, #orth 3akota %tate 2niversity in partial fulfillment of the requirement of Independent /ourse, Aall 2 ,. High 4ower /ommittee on 3isaster 'anagement. 2 5. ;eport of the <igh 5ower (ommittee on #isaster :anagement. #ew 3elhiG #ational /enter of 3isaster 'anagement Indian 'etrological 3epartment. 2 :. 2ist of 1ome 1ignificant 3arth@ua%es in 'ndia and its .eigh"ourhood. #ew 3elhiG Indian 'etrological 3epartment. (ccessed at httpGHHwww.imd.ernet.inHsectionHseismoHstaticHsignif.htm on (pril 26 Dapur (nu, #eeti, 'eeta, 3eeptima, ?oshani, and 3ebanCali. 2 of $rim ;ealit!. Baipur, IndiaG ?awat 4ublications ,. #isasters in 'ndia) 1tudies

Dumar and Damatchi. 2 ,. ?ole of &ocal 0odies in .sunami ?elief and ?ehabilitationG /onsultation 'eeting Held on Banuary 2:, 2 ,. 'c1ntire, 3avid (. 2 ,. ?evisiting the 3efinition of OHa)ardR and the Importance of ?educing +ulnerability. 1ditorial. Aournal of 3mergenc! :anagement +ol. *, #o, !, BulyH(ugust 2 ,.

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'c1ntire, 3avid (. 2 !. .enets of +ulnerabilityG (n (ssessment of a Aundamental 3isaster /oncept. Aournal of 3mergenc! :anagement +ol. 2, #o, 2, %pring 2 !. #ational 3isaster 'anagement (uthority. 2 :. 5olic! and $uidelines. #ew 3elhiG #ational 3isaster 'anagement (uthority, =overnment of India. (ccessed at httpGHHndma.gov.in on (pril 28 #ational 3isaster 'anagement (uthority. 2 >. .ational #isaster :anagement $uidelines) :anagement of ?loods. #ew 3elhiG #ational 3isaster 'anagement (uthority, =overnment of India, pp >:-: . #ational 3isaster 'anagement 3ivision. 2 ,. 1pecial 1ituation ;eport 3B on 'mpact of Tsunami dated 1C Aanuar!. #ew 3elhiG #ational 3isaster 'anagement 3ivision, 'inistry of Home (ffairs, =overnment of India. (ccessed at httpGHHndmindia.nic.inH.sunami2 !Hsitrep*,.htm on 3ecember 22, 2 > #ational 3isaster 'anagement 3ivision. 2 !. #isaster :anagement in 'ndia) - 1tatus ;eport. #ew 3elhiG #ational 3isaster 'anagement 3ivision, 'inistry of Home (ffairs, =overnment of India. #ational Institute of 3isaster 'anagement. 2 :. +arious Ha)ards. #ew 3elhiG #ational Institutte of 3isaster 'anagement. (ccessed at httpGHHnidm.gov.inH on 'ay 2* #ielsen, Dirk. 2 6. OFarren (ndersons %ilenceR. The 5rogressive, 'ay 2 httpGHHwww.progressive.orgHmagVnielsen , 6 on (pril 2>, 2 : 4arasuraman, % and 4. +. 2nnikrishnan 91ds.;. 2 'nitiative. #ew 3elhiG "$ford 2niversity 4ress 6. (ccessed at

. 'ndia #isaster ;eport) Towards - 5olic!

4erera, 2. /. 4. 2 6. O1fficacy of 'ass 0urial in the management of 'ass 3isasters I %ri &anka 4ost .sunami 1$perience in ?etrospectR in 'nternational #isaster ;eduction (onference, #avos 200= Dol. '' edited by (mmann, Falter B. et al.. 3avos, 3orf, %wit)erlandG %wiss Aederal ?esearch Institute, pp !2>-!*2. 4lanning /ommission, =overnment of India. 2 >. 3leventh ?ive 7ear 5lan +200E*12,) 'nclusive $rowth. +olume 5, /hapter :.* 3isaster 'anagement, pp 2 8-225. #ew 3elhiG "$ford 2niversity 4ress. (ccessed at httpGHHplanningcommission.nic.inHplansHplanrelHfiveyrH55thH55Vv5H55v5Vch:.pdf on 3ecember 22. ?aychaudhuri, .apan and Irfan Habib 91ditors;. -**+. The (am"ridge 3conomic <istor! of 'ndia - +olume "ne. &ondonG "rient &ongman. %ainath, 4alagummi. 5::6. 1verybody 2oves a $ood #rought) 1tories from 'ndia4s 5oorest #istricts. #ew 3elhiG 4enguin 0ooks

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%canlon, Boseph .. 2 ,. OAorwardR in Fhat is a #isasterG .ew -nswers to /ld Huestions edited by ?onald F 4erry, and 1. &. <uarantelli. #ew Nork, #.N.G -libris /orporation. p 5, %en, (mitya Dumar. 5:>*. 4overty and AamineG (n 1ssay on 1ntitlement and 3eprivation. "$fordG "$ford 2niversity 4ress. %hrivastava, 4aul. 5::2. Bhopal) -natom! of a (risis. %econd edition. &ondonG 4aul /hapman 4ublishing &td. 2nited #ations 3evelopment 4rogram. 2 8. <uman #evelopment ;eport 200EI200C. #ew Nork, #.N.G 4algrave 'acmillan. 4p 2*5, 28: 2niversitJ catholique de &ouvain. 2 :. 3:*#-T) The /?#-I(;3# 'nternational #isaster #ata"ase. 0russels, 0elgiumG 2niversitJ catholique de &ouvain. (ccessed at www.emdat.net on (pril 26 Nahoo #ews India. 2 >. #eveloping world to deal with challenges in its own wa!s) 5:. (ccessed at httpGHHin.news.yahoo.comH5*:H2 >525:H> >Htnl-developing-world-to-deal-withchalleV5.html on 3ecember 5:, 2 >

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