Performance of Light Aircraft sie 18 JUIN 2001 John T. Lowry : A BiTable of Contents Part I Fundamentals of Heronautic Science fore need : ae ; ime ACOH IE See eee amet aee 4 tn nls eee ; (629,133'343 —de2L ‘Viscosity 4 oo a Beers foetal 5 Cor CE ae er are ie Sha aessas tnclin seers ee Keg xeon Cnb/ Dees Des BA guns BTable of Contents Bernoali Law Example 2.1 High-Speed ASIs Example 2.2 Calibrating the AST Back and Fort with GPS Unit Tecknique ox Patiem with GPS Unit Teshnigne Example 2.3 ines Enegy Etec Example 24 Ouiside Air Thermometer Ran Tenperaure Rise Example 2.5 ‘The Altimeter Derivation of the Atimetr Seting Formula Frample 2.6 ‘The Alimeter ie « Barometer Checking ARimetor Consstncy Example 2.7 ‘Changes in Inca Altiudes Eau C Genent Linsar Nonstandard Atmesphere Example 2.8 State Pressure Psion Ear Determining Satie Pressite Pesiion Ero: Tecnigue #1 Determining Satie Presste Position Ero: Tetnigus #2 Postion Error Causes Alimeter and ASI Eros Example 2.9 References ges in Pressure Altiades 4. Aireraft Pertormance Preliminaries Introduction Units and Dinsnsions Scalar and Vector Coordinate Systeis Frames of Refereace Linear Kinematics: Postion, Velocity, Aesoleation Example 3.1 Linear Dynamics: Free, Work, Energy, and Power Cireular Kinematics: Angular Postion, Velocty, ar Acceleration Example 3.2 Circular Dynamies: Torque. Work. Enerey. ard Power Cestrifapa and Coriolis Prendfirees Example 33 9 40 a “4 a a 47 49 49 si 3 4 55 58 9 50 6 Example 3.4 Example 35 Technical Legic of Airplane Performance ‘Aiplane ‘Atmosphere Pitet ‘Quasistatic Equations of Motion 4 Asrodynamie Force Introduction Lift Drag, end Piching Moment Coefficients Aino Profes| Tress Coefcints Bemoalis Theorem Tins of Flight of Ait Moloules Over or Under the Wine Further NACA 4612, a= 8 deg, Detail Lif Coetcieat fra Pressure Cocficient Conor of Pressure Diching Moment Coofficent Circulation Induced AOA and Induced Drag ACA 2412 Airfoil Profle Finding C2) from Section LN Characteristics Formulas Re a, 9 Gpas aD 2 ‘Grou Biles on Lift and Induced Dg Proctcal Wings ‘Wing Plntorm Geometry Acrodysamiec Chaactorsies of Practical Wings ‘Wing Geometry: Incidence, Twist and Body AOA Taps Lift and Mement of the Ente Aieraft “The Plan Moment Eaustions Tall Force Factors Inhencing Lift Drag Expression for Drag in Terns Of Dyig = Duy 4 Fag Acitiogal Drag Duc to Flaps References 5 The Engine fntration Engine Poor and Efiiensy Thermal Power 10 110 112 4 us 7 7 110 us 123 13Other Effcieney Losses ‘The Gagg-farra Dropott Factor fe; C) Example $.1 he Ideal Onto Ar-Standardl Cycle lems We Have Negleced ‘Controls and Instruments ‘The Aircaft Engine Opertors Manual Engine Performance Chart Conelusions References 6 Propeller Thrus Intrtion Proper Geometry Details for a MeCauley Propeller Propller Action an Dimeasonsl Analysis Momentum Theory Priysical iewre Aaland Retatoral Inerfence Fictors Trust and Pressute Ideal Eicioney Eticiensy an Power Sip-stream Rotaten and Tore Blede Eleent Theory Physical Picture Relative Wind and Dynamic Pressure Incremental Aves Azrodysamie Coeficiens ‘ade Elemert Thest and Power Coeffcient Gratings Example 6.1 Combined Momentum and Blade Element Theory Physical Picture Materateal Soluton Example 62 Ste Thrust Case Ennors ard Onisions Example 6.3 Propet Polar Dagrar Constant Spaed Propeller Geseral Propeller Chars Example 64 Power Adjustment Factor sper Conclsions References 14 125, 1 129 14 be Mi 145 46 a6 a8 130 135 135 156 137 158 160 162 163 163 163 16s 165 167 168 168 in 174 i77 vs 178 180 180, 12 83 Part IT. Practical Airplane Performance 7. Introdvetion to the Bootstrap Appro Introdsetion Power Avaiuble/Power Required [P,/?.) Analyss (Graphical Picmre Traitioal Approach to Py, and Bootsrap Approseh Basic Derivation Formulas for ¥ Speeds Formulas for Thrust, Drag, Rae, a Any Compendium of Bootsrap Composite Parameters Samp Callan with Composte Roostyp Parameters Bootsp Applistions I: Variations wih Weight or Alki re (lio V,) eg with Wo Vasiaton of iV Example Vatiaton oF shy with W oF Example 7. Example 73 Vataton of iy, Va. and ¥, wih Wo Example 74 Example 7.5 Vatation of hy, with Wor ¢ Example 76 Example 7.7 Bootstap Applicaton 2: Absolute Ceiling ae Speed There Example 18 Booutap Application 3: Wind Efsts on (Mostly) Full-Throte Climbs ‘Relative Motion (ard an Approsimsion) Baample 29) Groped Andysis of HendwindTalving Eftests Guha Andysis of Heidwinds/Talvinds Accompanied by Upirais/Doundras Fomaula Approach 0 Wind Eets on Stepest Climbs Example 7.10 Speed for Best Climb Angle Vy in Given Headwinds and Tailvinds, Given Undras and Dowsdrat Example 7.1L Booistap Aoplicaion 4: MSL. “Rated” Propeller Efficiency Conclusions Power Pitre Assumptions Licar Propeller Polr Assumpions Evaluation Advantages ofthe Bootstap Approach Referees 187 187 190 190 192Table ofContenis xi em 204 4 Maneuvering Pertormance 235 Bagge Ot Reon Mane a) 2 Iniraction 2s Applet: Exgin-Ou (Retrso-Apon) Manewer 2% Review of Pfomance Assimptions 2 Stpnent 12, Tako Rol oe Flight Cone aed Ausociaed Vetaben 28 Seprem 23. Lito 308 oo Aiea Equtins of Noon Be Sepmen 3-4 508 3008, Engine Fare » Coord eve Tere ao Sapnent 4-5, Geting Rey 1 Reta 0 Aiport 9 ‘8 Closer Look tthe Flight Pan Hei ma a o Coe be 2 Searent 5-6, Optima 1-dog Ta a Tem, Cenifigal Fre, andthe Feder Aviston Amin ae Sepnent 7, Gide Tova Rin a rotated Spe, a Sk ded Tse 2s RetarnoAirotSuary ata Example 82 a Speed ina Terminal Velocity De Srustal Lin in Level Tums a» ot Wn Esse Un Dorada on Wits Oss Exensn of Boottap Appcich t Sty Fall Tht Maneuvering Fgh 20) ep 3 Banke o Unban Absolute Cefige 285 Po) el ely ia Exanle 8.3 256 Example 95 = Sra Mie has 258 Gaphie! Approach ae ACavioniy Ta Fal igh Aide Tun 6 Saiisseeck Minimum Ras sd Maximum Rate Lee Tans 268 Uhr Alle Es yn Dist Hew vind ia Buample 4 2 been pt Eo ig! its nl Sua 8) 38 Tun Peformine of Const Spe Pople Ailes mm oats Sig rample ml Nabaooce Infrows Dovrnd Tum m3 \Whete Di he Fate Kittle Ener Cone From? DA a Concho 26 10 Cruse and Parti -Throtl Performance Reeremes 26 oe a7 The Botsp Approach Parial-Tote Mod 319 9) Glide Peformance a Dedniton ot Boostap Fewer Sting Farner 33 debe va New Wie from (Most) Old Bootstyp Bots ya Bane or Untanked Gis in “Ext” Theo, No Wind Cases Land 2) oo Bee enna Ga 33 Gliding Eqsations of Motion (Ext) x0 Breke Speciic Fuel Consumption Rate a oma or Flight Path Ale, Rae of Deon ad Tr Rati Cactnion of GAMA-Rrmat Crue Peformance Table 27 a | (Enc) x0 Example 102 am More acs Aboot Hell Fgh Paths 20 ee eer eu eo) ne Fomals fer Spe and Anal for Best lide, and yy (act ae ee eye x0 Samal 84 2 tap Chine rman Tale Ee Fonda for Speed for Minimum Dosen Re Fy (Ex) a een 35 peter 28 rise Pefrmanse Sing Rules a8 “Instat” Drag Pole Detorninain ftom Dest ite Ingenaion (exo) 38 Fata Throtle Operon t Gives Spec Tien Ra, and Cinb or Dest Rae 338 Benod er Untnted Giga Sul it sage san wie i 3 Caneel 2» ia Throtle Descent at Gren Speed Along Given Approach Pt Approxnatng he Force Eaton (Sal) 2 ee aa es Approximating he “Ext” Solutons fer 7, and Sra) 21 A eee 3 Aaprainatons oe Ye asda) a — MI deirxinatins tr 12 and, Smal) 20 coum 2 Example 93 2 aeiees 3Tible of Contents 11 Takoof® Performan: aoe ‘Takeoff Forces ri res oe il Fence lysics Interude: Dynamics When Force Depends on ea Ark oss mS estion #1: What i () in generat Wha is 1 a erivation of Perurbabon Approach et Example 113 * Derivation of Formula for Break-Fven Headwind Ee mea an meee a) 345 ais 346 6 47 348 351 351 351 353 354 34 335 356 356 356 4356, 357 335) No Wind, No Contimination 361 61 562 362 302 362 383 353 354 a5 6 308 36 30 30 3m 37 mn a8 3m 315 375 6 a6 Example 11.5 Isthe Optimal RrekEven Headwind Takeoff Good Enough? Example 115 [A Paperiess Oe” Version of the Previous Calelation “Takeo Power Farameter Relation Between TOPP and Exponent 2 in (r/o) Proper Onder of Approximations Lsvaton 07 expression ior f4(TOPF) Exampie 117 Example 115 Backengineering TOPP From Experimental or POH Takeo? Values Conclusions References 12, Landing Perfomance Introduction First Segment, dy om 504819 Just Above the Runway Second Sasmen :, from Just Abote the Runway to Toushdowa ‘Neeke! of Balloon and Fle Tied Segment, dren, Wheel Spi-Up for 15 Exporinental Determination of Wheel Momest of Inertia Estimate of Aerodynamic Braking Correcion in Case of Runway Slope Four Segment dice Rettion for 25 to All Wheels On the Runway Fifth Segment, diy, Hard Braking ta Full Stop (Air Speed Vi) Braking Friction and Its Coefficients jy anv Much Load ison the Various Wheels? Tig End of he Story “Conant Averge Force” Approsimition fr the Bralod Lending Ground Roll Wind Effet on Landing Grouné Roll: Detaled and Constat Average Force Perrbation Approach for Landing Example 121 Example 122 ‘when fo Land Downhill wit a Headwind instead of Uphill with TaWwind ‘The Breal-Eves Headwind Rule for Landing “Approsimaton to Bresk-Even Landing lleadvind Formula How Gross Weiht and Density Alktde AMfet tae Landing Rol Why Landing Rol Distance i; is Proportional wo We Conclusions References Appendix A How Big Are the Error Bars? Invreduction Sample Mesnmement Job 395 396 39 301 3a 400 406 402 404 40s 40" 408 409 aie aio 410 all at ats als at aneThe Su Ment Inman Cou on te Th ‘The Nonmal Distribution (j4.<7) Z ad Inport Quen Exmpi 1 nfs Ina or Estat of Mian wth Dp co as th Dapenion Nessa Exits a iseon fom Sve Sher Sees of Mex Indirect Measurements anna eue The Mjor Cave Fr Puan (na ‘Standard Exror (8,) onl, Coen of Osean (2 ‘amr af Obseatons an Degrees of From cai. e Hs of Sp a mn ance Refrenee Appendix B Rootstrap Approach Inputs and Outputs BuaknpAppach Level lps ot Fae Pich Alla Got lanes otsrn Data Fat tf Cot Sie Ate nto Bats a) pt for Ether FP Conte see, Boolstrap Appmach Level 2 ae Tw Or Fe ck Apes Itt or Cat Spt Aan Chg fr Fac ich or Conan Spd Arp Bootstrap Approach Level 3 ee pu fo Fic and Cans ad ConststSpe Aipaes hep fr Hedi un Consus Aes rated Innes Regd Appendix © Short List of Integrals Appendix Numerical Integration Appendix E Detivation of Propeller Master Equation Appendix P Flight Test for Drag Parameters Appendix G Determination Of Propeller Polar Constants m and b 20 2 24 a 29 a4 47 a7 458 a8 438 40 40 4a 453 459, 465 Preface ‘While the primary purpose of this book is to introduce pil, aviation students, aux! other airplane entusiass to quantitive methods for reacting the peror- mance of small fxedwing stra, it may also be of interest to aronaatcal enginoers and other aviation managers and professionals. Many ofthe techniques I shall describe thosgh fly elemensary, have heretofore oaly been avilable i research jourcls; some of them, not even thee ‘Avs steals « macl on his reader’ attention when he es up an neatly intresting subject. And whar could be mow intresting (rhetorical qusion!) ‘hanairplanes and how they work? The young Wright brothers were fascinated by ‘he tay helicopter (a design by Pémaud their fate: broaght home. Their ntigue expanded into the precocious realization that a scale-up version of that toy though eateilly erated, would not Function propery ‘Generations of children and adults—and especially aviators, somewhere in berwoen—have been similerly fescinated by fight. ligt of birds, airplanes, even the erate fall of leaves, steady tug of kits, leeward drift of balloors, ard the explosive liftoff oF rocket ships. Movement ia that third dimension, unsuprortee by scaffolding oF sky hook, sof interest to almost everyone, and certainly to all those with romance in their souls Bick down 10 earth, This is a moderatesized book alout perfomance of ‘clave small propellerdrven aircraft. Sil a lrge subject, Our go has been to clearly lay ou forthe reader the details to show him or her how to answer such aquesions 2s + IF the airplane is enusing at 100kn at 10,0008 and the pilot decides to pall back the stick, slowing io 80kn, and banks 20 deg, how will tke aiplane thon move? Wil tgo up? Down? With what rate of climb or descent? Wha ae the deals of fight pat, engine speed, tun rte? «The airplane can take oft—evel eonerete, 30001, no wind at sea level—in 1001 ft What then i it distance to lift ff on turf, sloped at 3 deg, when ixv Preven ‘weighs 2500 bf, with a 10-kn hesdwind, a 5000? Would it be beter to take off down hill? Anowers to realistic, fullledged performance questions, Practsal questions to \whieh pilots and students and operators need answers. Historically (or it seems to this writen, alrerat performance tectses have not been able o provide easy land accurate answers to such a fullrange of performance queries. That we will be Able to do so in these pages is pnmanly due to a single conceptual advance: the Jhoosstrap approach, : re bootstrap approach isa parametiic procedure based on the demonstably caeeehee igram, Full explication of the bootstrap eae Spproach, including is extensions to nancuvcring ight, partialahrtle opera. SE ee eerie suena Se tae tetas cau iat actor ae ils x Somaatpeos orleans SE ier eager ae Se teed ee ee ech ee eee ee renee SNe ee a sr eal asteapeieapee ee boot users have done so, Stbsonic speeds, None of the peculatics of Pate eos ceri peemeaad ES OE ib ape ep py Ee ee giant en ee Be ag ae ocean pee ae ee eee ees, Be ee ea anes acer eee ae pe he ee ene ee Sa ee tee echoes ee eee ae ee eee coming prs uinere Ee ie cies Ge tie cman omernteigidtogmete Wiad oud Grp? ed te Saab nods ee pea ona ne edi p ae Bae iearei et eras at ct ay Ce ne Se Rae Seam wed aes Se ee ie evan etad wee BE SSO SE Seneca eal aa on svtatoever Th compu is an iniabe tol when til -ind-erorsoltons or er ree eer lls Gx arora meso ae caries a ot ccna ag Preface xvii ‘The book is divided into nwo Parts. Part 1, Fundementals of Aeronautic Science. the fint six chapters, gives the sciemfic and engingering foundations, needed to fully unerstand the main performance stbject. Readers mainly interested in performance “how 10." and readers already having a good founda, tion in aerodynamics—especially one that includes propeller theory —can get through that fist par quite quickly, or refer back to it from time to time ae iseded. Pat Il, Praccal Airoline Perfonmanen, provides douilo of dhe peste mance subject proper. That is where most readers will spené the bulk cf their time. Here are chapter detsls along with descriptions of occasional new feats Part 1 opens with Chapter 1, The Atmosphere. This treats Earth’ gaseous eavelope in somewhat grester detail than is commen, It includes, for example, humidity that affzts thin ir to the detriment of ati, propeller, ane especialy engine performance. We also take up techniques for reducing flit test data to obtain geometric actually geopotential) vertical ietrvals fivm corresponding pressure altitudes Copter 2, Atmosphetie Altea Instruments, is devoted mainly to airspeed indicators and alimeters. We give a new ataltitule method for calibrating the a syeed mndicctor wing 2 glotal positioning system unit. On the altimeter side, we cover the altmeter-seting formula in detail and give two methods for detemining static pressure “postion” error By the end ofthe chapter, the reader will be abe to constructatest-day atmospheric model (onc using a constant but nonsandard ‘empenture “lapse” rae and a nonstandard sea evel pressire) fiom data gnthered ‘ring Aight vests and weather-reporiing stations. Chapter 3, Aiteraft Performance Preliminaries, presenis several topies from Plysies, primarily mechani, that bear on aircraft performance. Inciuded topics fre units and dimensions, scalars and vectors, linear and circular Kinematics ord dynamics, frames of reference, aad pseudoforces, The chapter ends with raliste ‘but not overwhelming quas-statc equations of motien forthe airplane, Chapter 4, Aerodynamic Foree, provides what the reacer will need to know ‘bout it and drag, both parasite dag and induced drag. It focuses onbulding up the aerodynamics of practical wings (flapped or unflapped) fram the “seston ‘characteristics of two-dimensional profiles, It has less on the history of various Wing profiles than is usual, andl more on ground effect and tail force. Chapter 5, The Engine, aims at giving the reader a modicum ofboth theoretical an practical understanding of gasline-ponered normally aspirated spark ign tion reciprocating engines. A major aim is 19 present « fall and clear explanation ‘of both the sea level and the at-alttude sides of the engine performemee chart Vacious engine controls and instruments are tied to engine performance Chapter 6, Propeller Thrist, contains quite « bit of theory: In part that is because the bootsrap approach is founded in propeller theory: aloo berause treatment of tre propeller has oftea been a weak point in arier books on aiplans performance. Sample ealeulaions towards propeller thrust and power coetviemts ave performed using fit the moment theory, then the blade clement teary‘and finally the 1wo theories combieed. A new and single “maser” propeller equation is presented that can be solved using nothing more than a desktop spreadsheet program containing an iteration (BackSolver, SolveFor, or Solver) facility This allows the reader, should he or she so desire, © obttin practical propeller charts de novo from the prope’ geometry and its aerodynamic ‘coefficient functions. Several correction terms and techniques ate corsidered: some are applied. On the constant-spced side, this chapter albo includes a row ‘general aviation general propeller chart, That isa recasting, using general aviation Seale propeller éata, of the Boeing general propeller chart developed during World War I, That early chart was developed with data for much larger (I0-ft ‘The Altimeter In Chapter 1 we used the ameter find pressure altitude (height inthe ISA with the same pressure #8 ou location) a6 an input to esinaling weomeric height differences, Pressure atid i found by turning the alimeterseing (which we will ive variable 5) tothe standard MSL value 29921 in. Hg. Though that valve JP ths oe mnt aie emploged in performance Aight test wok we wart the ‘whole story. Feshaps we would eed to recreate, say for forensic purposes, Hiitude information for aa airplane with an ameter not eto 29.92 in, So inthis Section we dig into the workings ofthe altimeter, finding out how to capitalize on is possiblities and avo its misleading indications. Figure 2.6) sves the block | roe Figure 26 Inputard output variables for healimeer38 John T Leway Now consider a second “standard” atmosphere, with the same lapse rate 2 and chemies! composition (honce same specific gas constant R) but with a diferent standard temperature Tj and a different standard pressure p. Init, we would have ao (38) Dividing Eq. 2.37) by Eq. 2.38), identifying the new standard pressure py as the altimeter serting., and mulinlying by Ty, we heve (239) ‘sandard” atmosphere is (40) When one colvee for altimeter setting s, one gets saa(t+(@)"2) 7 ean and this is almost the fomula for altimeter setting as seen in Smithsonian Meteorological Tables? There is one further wrinkle: 0.01 in. Hg is to be subiracied fiom the actual pressure p to account for the spproximate 10-ft vertical distance up to the cockpit location of the akimerer fram the botioms of the tres (adjusted for read wear, presumably). In use, to tie down all the deta, the pressure p we are discussing is that atthe field, hence called py and the abitude his the elevation of the field barometer, hence called fy. So the official formula for altimeter setting, in all its glory, is sat, =00n( 1a (=e) ae = oon(' (2am) #1) ex) Example 26 Consider a field at fy = 49648 with ambient pressure 2600 in, Hg. Equation (2.42) then gives (ai = 0.19025, I/aR = 5.25635, and Ty = 145.457) ahiimeter setting §= 31.15 in-Hg. In our performance uses we often ignore the 0.01 in. Hy offtct. Doing s9 hore would have given 31.16in. Hg. “Almospheric AIcraleasirurents 37> ‘The Altimeter is a Barometer [Everyone says tha! the altimeter isjusta barometer, bt hardly anyone knows how to walk out onto the tarmac, glance into an airplane's cockpit, and accurately report the current ambient barometric pressure. But, with the altimeter setting fonrila in hand, that is exsy to da. Simply salve Eq. (2.42) for pressure innerpreing feld elevation A, as instrament reading r, t0 get p= (et atZ)+001 oS 13124 x 10°)" LOO inHg (2.43) Using figures from exemple 2.6, Eq. (2.43) does indeed give p = 25.00 in. Hg. Checking Altimeter Consistency These altimeter manipilations assume the instrument is properly calibrated. A ‘quick way to check at least consistency, though not accuracy, is outlined in the Federal Air Regulations (FAR). The technician sets s= 28.92 in, Hg and records the corresponding altimeter face reading » as yy. Then the technician dials in seven other sltimeter setting values, the left-hand column of Table 2.1, and sees ‘whether the face readings are within 25 fof those values suggested in the right hand column. IF, the altimeter passes this mild muster. Example 2.7. Assume, for instance, that indicated pressure altude ry tums cut tobe 3000 Wecan check to sce whether the FAR table s corect by first using Fe. (2.43) to find the ambient pressure p, then solving Fq. (2.43) for altimeter ng rand checking a tabulae poitt or two. ‘Table 21. Table [Vin Appendix E of PER Part 45, oredtotestatimeters ‘Aimee seing in He 2380 2930 30300 Jomrrtowry: Pressure p tums out to be 26.83in. Hg, Solving Fa. (2.43) forr gives Tals" —(p- 0.00") x ve Checking for s =28.50in. Hg with Bg. (244) gives r= 16s6h 1344 ft The table is only 4 ft of With cs. (2.42 ~2.44), we have the fill alimeter story, the abit any ene ofthe three variables pressure p altimeter setting s, and akimeter reading ‘whan given values ofthe other two variables. 76.195.6 x (99 —(p 0.01)" (2.44) Changes in Indicated Altitudes Equal Changes in Pressure Altitudes In Chapter | we stressed techniques for estirating true altitude differences from pressure altitude differences and selected temperature measurements. It is Therefore grating 10 fad tht, if your akineter does nor happen to be set to 20.92 in, Hg, you ean still easily find pressure altitude differences. No matter what alkimeter seting you have, as long as you do not change it between the battom and top of your alitude interval, tre difleresce in altmeter readings Ar is the samme as the difference in pressure altitudes Mi. We now show why this isthe ‘We do neglect the 0.01 in, Hg offset. So Eq. (2.44) now reads @.45) Ifyou look back into Chapter I forthe formula for pressure alte, you find it can be written a 0.46) x Pe Inia elear from the forms of Eqs (2.48) and (2.46) that differences of ether r cr A, will eliminate the different constants in the parentheses of each form. So the fesult 8 that (lor any constart value of altimeter sertng s used in the r ‘measurements) Ar= Ah, ean General Linear Nonstandard Atmosphere It ofen happens, in performance work, thai you need an overall or “global” estimate of a particular day's atmespheze above & particular locality. With only scanty daa that may have to be a rough estimate, but the more accurate the “Aanospheric Aircratt Instruments aT better, Perhaps aieplane X took off fom airport ¥ and climbed at full shrotc, at speeds forbest rato of climb, up to cruise at indicated altinide Z, There something happened, resulting in an aceident, and your jb in some legal litigation support is to recreate performance numters for that Hight. Todo that, you need estimates of atmospheric parameters. ‘We wart to construct a particular nonstandard atmosphere, one with the same snathematical sructure as the ISA but based en three dierent defining constants Th. Pye and 2 To find those three constants requires thre pieces of experimental atmospheric information. We assume spocife gas consiant R, and of course the acceleration of gravity g, are the same asin the stardard atmosphere. (I humidity js high, you can simply substitute for ® the approprisely higher value R” as described in Chapter 1.) The most commen situation is that we have both temperature and pressure measurements in two locatiors—on the ground (atthe Gi()) + 10) 2a) * Gea) Let ws take an example, For the NACA 4412 airfoil (see Fig. 42), for 10% the two points in question are approximately (IDdeg, I) and (ISdeg, 1.65); the slope of the linear portion is closely 0.10/deg. Eitheroa 02 on oo a4 00 01 02 09 04 05 06 07 08 08 10 we Figure 2 NACA (412 profile atc —adeg, Prescription abore (since the coefficient ofthe 1? term is zero) then gives the res CMG) = 0012 +0.30-0, ldeg-caled “NACA 4-"') 08 06 04 02 Bxcoes uit MU 4) pas a meee 00 01 02 03 04 05 06 O7 08 09 10 11 12 Wing Height Wing Span, vB Figure 421 orcund eect duced drag factor ara curve a "The Aerodynamic Force yt ‘One o: another of Eqs. (4.64) oF (4.65) will be used later in computing distance to liftoff the takeoff run, This finishes 1p our treatment of techniques you are Tikey to need for computing your airplane’ lift in any operational eircumstanes. Practical Wings Wing Planform Geometry [sreraft wings come in many ses and shapes. The section eoeficients are jndependent of size, or almost so (Reynolds numibers!), so we ean concentrate on ‘ving shapes: from above (planform), from in front (dinedral or enheal), and of {Course in sagittal setion (bath the Tocal profile shape and its rose-ap or nose- dovn ofientaion, the “angle of incidence"), Planforms vary ftom rectangulsr through ell, sapered, swept back, and sometimes even swept forward Because we are not dealing with stability considerations, dihedral is relatively ‘unimporant t us. Anhedral (Jrooped wings in fight) is relatively rare, Figures 4.17 and 4.13 depict the planform nomenclature Table 45 gives coordinates for the geometrically important points on a Cessra 172 wieg. It is genemlly most economical in dealing with practical wing geometry to start with the kind of data in Table 45, then develop formulas for the varias (almost alvays) sraght-line segments rather than develop specialized formulas in terms of root chord, tp chord, sweepback angle, et practical wings sully reveal some wenkle chiding generalization. Excep! tis one, Notice that in even such an apparently simple wing a8 forthe Cessna 172, the leading edge taper doesnot begin a the root and the wing tip isan add-on. Even so, you may stl have to epproximate rounded shapes. ‘The next goa isto obtain formulas forthe various straight-line segments. To find slope m andy intercept b ofa (noavertical) straight line, when you are given the coordinates Gy.) and (3.93) of any two points on tat tine, ene needs 2) G =x) 1 =) ro) Althcugh for this faity simple wing we could get by with simple geometry, in seneral we need a formala for chord length asa funetion of spanwise station, cf). Because we know poins along the leading and tailing edges (LE and TE), fist, step is 0 get formulas for those edges, LE()) and TE()). Then we can get {y) by subtraction, ey) = TE) ~LEG). After applications of Eq. (4.66), we find (4.68) 535, eyes 0) = | -01sszy+0877, 833 of 2.83 deg. The purpose of washout is w ensure that a stall, wien it comes, does not start ‘outboard where the ailerons are. Using our two-points-make-ine foxmulas, 0.78 deg, O 20° — Flaps 0 = Flaps 10 = = Flaps 20 S-" Flaps $0 = Flaps 40 50 60 70 80 &© 100 110 120 190 Koas Negative (downward) ull fores ato the burden aie stall speed. == Flaps 10 = = Flaps 20 2 Flaps 30 =~ Flaps 40 POH cautions: Ws 108KCAS it 50 60 70 80 @ 100 110 120 130 keas _Atlow speeds, postive (eran) tal forces over the sallspeed ab.14 John Lowey Factors Influencing Lift In spite of the lit details we have tated, one mus! not become sanguine. Recall that we are gererlly saved, in our low speed, low powered, quasi-steady-state rogimse, by the fet that ight path angles are small and, therefore (wings level ret lit is close to gross weight. Here is a lesicon of practical effects on lift in ‘genera avirlon—some large, some meclum, some siail—w empnasize What “a complete theory” would be up against. 1) Envitonmental—air density (large), ait viscosity or Reynolds number (mall), Mach number (smal), ground effest (medium), gusts (varisble), centrifugal and Coriolis pseuioforces (quite small, but trested in Chapter 3). 2) The airplane wing area (lege), wing. shape (medium), wing profile (medium), angle of incidence and twist (medium), sweeptack (medium), ihesral (small), nonwing surfuess (variable), surfice smoothness and cleanliness (variable), protuberances (stall). 3) Airplane configuration—faps extension angle (lege), landing gear exten sion (smal, 4) Operational fictors—body AOA (large), air speed (large), yaw and rol ‘angles (small), tim settings (smal), throttle and/or revolutions per minute settings (medium). Drag In some nonaviatien applicaions—oll droplets dropping in sill air, spheres slowly rising or sinking ina resting fuid—the drag force goes asthe first power of the retive speed of object and flud. Stokes law govems. In aviation we: seldam sce these cases. While it is primarily a phenomenslogisal (not funda mental) rlation, in our regime we shall stick with the time-honored and ‘experimestally supported “quadratic dreg polar” cescrbing the relation between drag and lift coefficients: ere (3.93) > a oy) especially with highly cambered atfoils, when itis comenient to bend the rule of Eg, (4.93) and proclaim Contes) = 494) oa The RerodyramicForco 115 but that only amounts to sliding the C,(a) over bit; the requisite mathematics! ‘manipulations are essentially unchanged. We will use only the simpler form. Tn Eq, (4.98), we now know all about aspect ratio 4. What remainsto be found is the pair of constants Cry, the parasite drag coeficien, and, the airplane ffciency factor, Because, forthe case we care about—the entre arplan—we ‘vill arrive at those two values by means of glide tests and we leave the deals {ix cheptor on glide performance, But before we lemve the eerodynarnie Fores, wo should fimiliarize ourselves with a graph of D(V), Its important to keep in mind tha, because C; rses at slow speeds, the total drag curve is cup-shaped, with a definite minimum. Later we shall show that this minimum occurs at Py the speed for best (longest) glide in still air For now, assume thet result. For the Cessna 172, which Fig. 4.28 mimes, Ty isat about 72KCAS when the airplane weighs 2400 b. Expression for Drag D in Terms of Dain = Dy, and Vig ene considers the airplane in wings-level(unbanked) fight and uses Eqs. 4.1, (42), and (4.93) along with the so-called “small light path angle assumption Weosy = W (499, 400 350 300 250 Parase crag Drag Components, fo 8 Induced dag pe Cr a a a nL a) KTAS Figure 423, Parasi,maacod,and wal drag force ox an axplan in evel fight116 JohaT Lowry ‘The Aerodynamic Force 117 Where His the aiterat weight and > the fight path angle, then the toal drag ‘Table 410 Parasite drag coticient Cop v8 depicted in Fig. 423 is given by the formula Bape detection ance 5 Daa se (495) idee Tea om ws io cos 405.0 won ts to and 2m +] .; ee (4.98) (Ea. 4.103) gives vale of drag tat differs fom the exect formula (For all aie speeds between stall and level maximum) by less than 1Ib¢. A convenient property is shared by functions fof the form of Eq. (4.96): fad + Big (as Additional Drag Due to Flaps where finetion g—forus, gi?) = V?—does nor haven extremum (anim McCormick’ hs a formula—possibly crginally fiom Cahill—that you can use ‘meximum) in the interval of interest. Taking the derivative of a litle algebea to check your own experimental rurs at various flaps setings or use in ease you shows thatthe exemum of foezurs only when i have to deal wih an airplane that doesnot come with dag information on each 2 fap ceting est (4.100) * or, rearranging, the extremum of f occurs precisely when sae wo) me | sin? éy, plain orspit Ag=5lg 10) ie 4 ed 09(2)"() sa? soted er Fovter Here AC» isthe adlitional drag caefficient due to aps defection 5. Variable «7 isthe chord length of the lp and 4y isthe area of the lapped portion of the ‘wing not ofthe aps themselves) Variables cand are te ondinary wing (mean serodynamic) chord and reference area, respectively. Using Fg. (4.105) for the Cessns 172 gives Table 4.10. Extending flaps has negligible effect on the airplane efficiency factor e bat considerable effect on both Jit and drag. Successively higher flaps increments give relatively smaller lift ineneasos but relatively larger drag ineroses. After this long introduction to the aerodynamic force, we are almost ready for ‘practical work, But frst we must consider the engine and the propeller {mn our ease, this means the minimura valve of drag occurs when parasive drags equal to induced drag, Jumping shead to pick nomenclature and an idea from the lide performance chapter, the speed at which this drag minimum oceurs is the speed for best (lenges!) glide instill ai, Vy,- So minimum drag will be twice either deag component Dn = 24¥ 8, = 28/V, (4.102) Solving Fy. (4.102) for constants 4 and B (not quite constart, recall), we then have the very nice—even memorable—resilt that Tle 2 2 \2mo f=) a1) 'A more careful analysis shows that this approximation depends on the smallness of References cost 7-00? te 1) Not normally a problem. Eq, (4.103) isnot original (see MeCormick"), though ‘his dervatien might be, We will use this very approximate (ancaning very close) real furl often. For our sample Cessna 172, for exemple, using this assumption 5. wot LM and yon Dosntt, AE, Teoy of Wie Sects, ve, New Yok 1859 p62 7% 488, 2 Alen, AC. Cetrmaant and Marie, One ne Ha Esihurg, 196, p. 118. {i pede b These and Comptatona derdymanies, Wiley, New York,118 John Lowry 4 2, 1s MH Is Rostam, J, ané Lan, C-TE., Arplane Aeradnamies and Poormence, DARcxporsin, ‘Von Mise, R, Tory of lh, Dover New York, 1989, pp. 247,272, Hiscock, RD, Desigr of Ligh Aira pabliied by the ato, 1995,p. 24 Dil, WS. Faanernap omdnarics. Rona ress New York 1936. Prandl Ly and Tins, 6, dpe Syd and Aeromecns, Dor New Yor, 1957 a Wosds, KD, Teche demdbanics, MeGraw-Hil NewYork, 1935, Suh YB. and Oana C.,"Drag Reduction Factor Due to Ground Ef." Journal of Area VoL. 25, Ro 11, 1988, bakin, WN. Te Scie of Flic, lowa tte Univesiy rss Ames I 1972, 17.180 Cosma Aiwa Coy 1986 Medel 172P lformation Manual, Wits KS, 1985 (Clase, B, The Cesine 172, Tab Boos, Be Ridge Sum PA. 1987 MeCommisk, BN, Aerodynamics, erotics, and igh Meckaies, Wiley, New York 179, 5 The Engine Introduction “To many aviators, the airplane’ engine isa “black box.” Fuel in, power out. Not only a black bex but_—with fewer and fewer “round engines” these days—a box hidden inside « cowling, yet mother bex. Out of sight, out of mind. Unless, of course, it seizes, sputers, or dics. Then the engine attmets our fall atention! {As it will in this short chapter, a preemptive strike. We will study, in broad cutline, how engines work (we limit ourselves to normally aspirated spark ignition reciprocating internal combustion gasoline engines) and their more important performance measures and variables. To some extent, how those ‘depend oa each other. Very litle on coddling an engine or maintaining i and nothing on repairs we remain focused on performance under the prosaic assumption that everything is copacetic. This background sould be of value to ordinary pilots and even to areraft accident investigators. “Modera internal combustion engines re a technological marvel. Forall of their complication and intricacy and all of the violence of thie pistons” thrash, these engines are extremely rciable, They are also complicated; a lot goes on behind ‘the scenes. The chemistry is not 2 simple as some would have us belive; the ‘thermodynamics is intricate and the mechanical engineering is extreme. Without an iota of hard evidence as support, the author estimaies more complex. moder intemal combustion engines as somewhere beween 1/1000 and 1/100 as ‘complex as the simplest viruses. Just a guess. ‘These engines can be puto many uses and the range of eorstructed cngine sizes is vast. MacMahon (an engineer) and Bonner! (a biologist) consider a lis of| 39 ineral combustion engines, Th smallest engine lited isthe Webra Speedy, Single eylinder two-cycle engine weighing 4.7Soz, displecing 0.110in. and developing 0.45 hp at 2,000 rpm. The largest js from Burmeister & Wain,» 12- cylinder foureycle Diesel engine weighing 225,000 Ibf, displacing 726,120 in? 19130 Jean T Lowry The Engine 121 and developing 27,800 hp at 110 rpm. That range of engine masses spans a fieto cof 753,000! About one-half the engines MacMahon and Bonner lst ate ai engines, ether for models or full-scale airplanes. As hero of the motion pi Flight of te ‘Phoenix’ (the more intllectal and neurasthenic one) expressed, distinction between model and full-scale aircraft is somewhat artifical “The pilot for today’s flight is Col. Charles Lindbergh.” Or, *Col. Thom Thumb.” MicMahoa snd Boonar go on to propore end defend various alee formulas connecting pairs of engine variables selected fiom among engine ‘mass m, brake horsepower bhp, engine rotation speed IV, ciameter of cylinder tore B or length of stroke 5, average linear piston speed §,, and total engine displacement volume F. An ellomerie formula is one in waich two variables x and yare related according to (One structural imitation on internal combustion engines isthe maximum stain ‘energy per unit volume tha pistons can tke without breaking down. Tht energy density is roportiona tothe mass density of the piston material, approximately a fonstnt, and the square of the aveage piston speed, $$. So constant limiting Simin means constant $3 means ceastant ,..Now switch gears and consider power Pver P goes up Gectly withthe engine mass m, with exponent one. This I arin gto cee rr fn retiree wel fot arprecably gain or lose inthe specific power, power-to-weight ratio, We can fri powe, of course, atthe expense of equivalent weight, and we may ga ‘iabity—light twin, ifnot Reavity loaded and if at only moderate altitudes, nay continue level Right after one engine als. We know more about power ‘most any amount of fel can be pushed through an engine ifone doesnot care ‘bout burning it; in calor times, you may have fad a car like that. Power is pitaily Limite by the speed with which the engine cas brestho in combustion fir, of the product ofthe amount of air brought in per eycle, engine displacement 7p, andthe numberof complete engine cycles pr time, Nin the case ofa four= sitoke evel, So power P x Vp %N. Because N ox"! (see the second row of Table 5.1) we are lft with the conelasion that the expenent of m in the cxpresion for must be 1+ 1/3 —4/3. We have here stayed fRom perfor- ‘nance inte rciments of engine design, but i is alvays worthwhile o point out ‘hat tere are reasons for (nox) tings. ‘As the rent focus on power and engine cisplacement lasted, our intial eserptive snippet that the engine isa back box —fuel in, power ot—is far fiom the ark. Though sill mich simplified. Fig. 5.1 gives moce realistic picture. The engine mechanism eyels, but the fel, air, and waste preducts donot. “Though power fs most often cited ws te primary useful engine ouput, orgie, in mest productions, best plays that leading rele. Power and torque (or moment, hence the common variable) are related by yebt (5) or, equivalently, according to yah babs (52) where, for any given pair of variables x and y; a and b are constants, Plotted on log-log paper, the points of variable pais closely following an allometrie formula lie close to a single straight line with slope a and y intercept (where 1, x= 0)lnd. Because parameter 4 can be thought of as depending only on the arbitrary units used to express variable y, parameter ais the number that holds all the important information. Table 5.1 gives the results for several engine variable pairs. It does not, however, show the extent to which the corresponding 39 points were scatered about that best-it line, The zero exponent for S, shows ‘hat mean piston speed (ence, maximum piston speed because those are proportional) is fairly constant over the large range of engine masses considered. Asthe first and last rows in Table S.1 explicitly show, not all ofthe éependent varibles y are independent of one another, For even some variables no! given as functions of otkers, further analysis provides an explanation of their sssociated exponents a. Take displacomeat Vp, for instance. How might we explain that it 2ent 63) Toque M_is more closely the engine's ability to do work (under given conditions of thvotle position, a competently leaned mixtaro, and sufficient seen alana alt he ua input air density) while power P is more closely the rate at which the engine is ‘engine variables Varies Vaile» poet @ a Le eT] amen » NG) “3 | Power. RPM B ore) is m 5 (Sroke) 3 Air ——a Waste Products m 7, Oapcemen) a3 60, H20, et, ™ anne ° igure 81. Anengisethat dws uoaful wokmutalae produce eatand extopy.12) JohaT Lowey aciually doing work. If an ineweased load is placed on the engine (leaving everything else the same) engine circular speed—here measured by revolutions per second 1 instead of by the more commen revolutions per minute, N— decreases. Ina common aviation example, this might come about by a decision of the pilot ofa fixed-pitch propeller airplane to climb without changing his throtle Position. Revolutions per minut: would decrease, engine power cutput would rereags, hut tonne wnsld rain aleunet coment. fhe dacidod to (power) dingy ‘on the other hand, both power and revolutions per tinute would insrease while ‘gun, que would sty red, ‘Besides wanting to know how much power ce torque an engine produces, we are interested ini fuel efficiency. The type and specifications of the fuel matte, (of course, but those choices are quite limited. Table $2 lays out the major ‘variables forcommon aviation gosolines. In addition, of ecurs, the gasoline must bbe very clear and uncontaminated, especially fee of wate: Gasoline engines ate finicky and, by design, only accommodate one or two varieties of fuel. If the Correct type of fuel is not available, itis easier on the engine to temporaily we fuel one step higher in octane (antikaock) rating rather than fuel a step lower, Jetpropelled aircraft generally have less delicate fuel appetites. In Table $2, the appellation lower heating value refers to water, among the combustion products, in vapor form. If this vapor were to condense, additional hheat would be liberated and the so-called higher heating value, about 1400 Bu/Ibm higher, would be appropriate. By convention, lower heating values are used in thermal efficiency calculations of intemal combustion engines, ‘The abbreviation LL ir the heading of the second column stands for “low lead All of these “avgas” vatities have nominal specific weights of 6.01bf/US. gall. More exactly, for 100/130 aviation gasoline Fuel Ibf/U.S. gall = 6.077 ~ 0.00809 «°F oa) More to the point is adjustment of the mixture, the fuel-to-te ratio FA, for ‘maximum speed or maximum range o whatever operational goal the pilot has in mind. This involves the “ieaniag” we spoke of, and most airplanes have @ mieture contol kob for that purpose, Earth-bound automobiles sajoy smaller altiude exeursions ang seldom need to control the FA. The chemically correct (or stoichiometric ratio of fuel weight to air weight for complete combustion Table 52 Cammonaviaion goles Varate ToL 100/130 115/145 Winimm kan/ichantock wing 91/8 1001301157148 Color Ble Gren Purple Minimum lover hating rae, utes 18700 18K ROO Maximum tract ead ra 2 3 46 The Engine 103 depends slightly on the relative propertions of hydrogen t» carbon inthe fuel, So oes the heuing value. For heaing value 47 = 18,700 Buu/Tbm cited above, the sbichiometrc F°A is F:A), =0.067 = 1/14.9. With 25% excess ir, this drops fe about (F:A)= 0053 = 1/189. The mixtures F:A is of course a major influence on fuel economy, generally measured as brake specific fuel consumption ‘ate orbs, pounds of fuel consumed per hour per horsepower But the F: A also Juencee oylinder and exhaust ge Ismpershires (which can thereyy be weed to moniter and adjust the mixture) as well as the chemical composition of the exhaust gas. ‘Stoishiometrically, pure hydrocarton fuel should burn to nothing but carbon dioxide, CO>, and water, 130. In practice, of course, thew is always some sulfur i the fue: it should burn o sulfur dioxide, SOs. Ifthe mixture is lean, with excess of oxygen, the exhaust contains that uncombined cxygen; ifthe mixture is Tic, with aa excess of fc, the exhaust contains uncombined hydrogen, Hy, and some partially bumed carton as carbon moncxide, CO, the gas one sees zs a darker plume in the inner and cooler portion of a candle flame. Because it behooves an aircraft engine to do things quickly ruher than exactly, in practice there are always unbumed carbon particles and some methane, CH,, expelled in the products oF combustion. ‘The main engine performance variables we have discussed so far are power P, torque Mf, engine circular speed N or m the fuel-co-ai mixture mass ratio (Fs), and fuel efficiency expressed as bsfe. That is only the beginning. Now itis time to tackle the deals Engine Power and Efficiency (Of the many questions one might have on the workings of the aireraft intemal combustion engine, two stind out + Given reasenable mechanical speeifications for such an engine (including a fated revolutions per minute, which we are very far fiom being able to Predict), what maximum power (or torque) ouput we can expect from i? © Given that maximum output, how efficient is the engine in turing the chemical energy in the fucl and air into mechanical work? ‘Temtive answers to these questioas come fiom looking into the engine's size and speed relationships together with its F:A and fuel/sir heating value ‘Thermal Power Its not realistic to assume thatthe engine ean gulp a full volume V>, of new air cach engine cycle. Vp is the total volume displaced by all the eylinders, granted,Tat Jona T Lowey ‘but various pressure losses in the intake system (carburetor, intake manifo ake valves), with temperature ineresses that rarefy the induction air, fact that some ofthat gas is indeed fuel vapor, Isa to a fnagle faetor known, volumetric eficieney,n,. This is a measure of how well the engine “breathes; Volumettc efficiency is normally close to 85%, but an “asthmatic” engine mi not do that well, ‘Wo can eof, with proviowaly defined rates and siess, to Find thet dei power P>, the combustion energy per unit time the bumed fuel should liberate i heat fuel wi " ir wt les 7 = fuel wi “ air wt “ vol“ yee “time HMPA pg % ely %m/2 6 For our sample Cessna 172, powered by a Lycoming O-320-D21 engine Wh Vy = 320;n. total displacement, using the fuel heating value featured i Ta 5.2, running “full bore” at sez level at its rated 270)epm=45 rps with a storhiometrie FA, the thermal power is (10.0 «778 BB ogo tar) x 89 5320/2) ee iE 1 480 hp (5.6) ‘The explicit conversion factors in Eq, (5.6) ae for the mechanical equivslent oF heat and to conver to horsepower. Our rough sample answer for thermal power} three times the 160-hp rated outpat ofthe engine, But we kave farther losses and) inefficiencies to explore. Othor Efficiency Losses ‘The engine trnsforms only shout one-third ofthe heat of combustion into usefil shait work, Here is an approximate breskdown of the various energy. loss mechanisms for a normally aspirated engine += Oo eyele thermedynsmic efficiency, about $7.52%. Internal combusten engines of this type approximate the ideal Oto cycle. Thermodynamic ‘analysis of the Oto cycle (adiabatke compression and power sitokes, constant volume ignition and heat dumping) shows that the efficiency of the eyete depends only on the compression rat r (8.5: | for our sample Lycoming 0-320-D21) sccouding to Nowe 6) The Engine 125 where k is the ratio of speciic hea at constant pressure to that at constant Yolime, Cy/C.. One normally takes standard sir as an approximation to the “working fui” in the gasoline engine; the nominal value of k for standard air is 140. In fact the working fuid @ much more complex mixture of ‘gases and, in addtional fat, K for air atthe higher temperatures inside the engine is closer to 1.30 _ meets eens, abot RK Thi isthe gure we used above Depending on how much one lumps into the engine's respiratory process ‘85% may have been putting a good face on it Beside the airpassage restrictions mentioned, which should inchde pumping losses during tke intake and exhaust strokes, andthe rarelying temperature increases, there are cffects due to exhaust and intake valves both being open during part ofthe ceyele and due tothe finite clearance volume Ve (the gas volume remaining benvcen cylinder heads and pistons when the later ave at top dead center). From the fac that by éefinition Vo+¥p 68) it follows thet reno 9) Efficeney to this point, 7.5% x 85% = 48.9%. «+ Fuskrich operation efficiency, 86% The stichiemetrie FA is about 0.067. ‘Toachieve the most complete buming ofthe fuel, say for economy, one must Teen the misture jo about F:A=0.055, To got maximum power from the engine, to the other side, one must enrichen the mixture, to abcut F:A=0078, Our overrich efficiency figure comes ftom the fect that 0.067 0,078 = 859%. Efficieney to this point, 48.9% x 86% = 42.0%. + Mechanical efficiency, 88% This loss ineludes all sources of hard-surface ‘ition: piston rings rubbing against the insides ofthe cylinders ané on the pistons themselves, bearing friction along the crankstaft and camshaft, rods fn fod guides, ete. Efficiency to this point, 42% x 88% =37.0%. ‘= Accessory bleed efficiency, 959%, Almost all engines tum altemstors or generators (fo power the sirplane's electrical devices, including vacuum pumps powering some cockpit insruments) and magnetos (for spark ignition), Some airplanes go further and siphon off engine power ior ‘eabin air conditioning or pressurization. This item is quite variable. Efficiency to this point, 37% x 95% = 35.1%. ‘» Efficiency due to other effects, 95%. This might include various chemical effects, energy entrapped in unburned molecular species, radiative effects, blow-by gas and fuel losses, humidity effects, anything not yet covered Final total efficiency, 35.1% > 9596 =33.3%126 John E Lowey The Engine 127 Do notbe misled by this lose confirmation of the cileulstion in Fe, (5.6). Ne ‘ofthese efficiency figures will precisely hold true as one moves from one to another, and none will remzin constant for any single engine subjected ‘changing conditions of maintenance, time before overhaul, atmosphere, load, temperature, These numbers are in the ballpark, but enly that. A. some rent energy branching outline (adapted from Liston,” originally for a super changed sage) should brieg home this loseoneeo. Here the Oto yale ft appears explicitly as beatin the exhaust gas. Indicated power gets its name from so-alled “indicator diagrams.” graphs of cylinder pressure vs volumes, drawn by mechanical monitoring instruments ported jo an active cylinder. We will soon derive Eq. (5.11), but let us fist show how the power dropoff factor vanes with (ry) density altitude (Fig.5.2) and what the fleet of humidity on engine performanee can te (Table $3). Baample 6.1. Data in Tale 53 sions: the ai is saturated with moisture (so thatthe outsie air temperature T is the same as the dewpoint temperature 7,); atmospheric pressure Is. assumed sce covetrected tnder the fillings ereusep- Fuel energy, 100% stendar, p 29.921 in. Hg = 21162 psf. A. Exhaust, 51.6% Describing variables and units as we go, et us calculate the last row of Table 1. Hext, 87.0% 53, the hot humid ease with T= 7, = 100°F. Saturation vapor pressure e,, in 2. Chemical, 46% inHg, comes from Teten’s formula given as Bq. (14). We see that water vapor is a. CO, 311% providing about 1/15 of the atmospheric pressure. The specific gas consant 2", b. CHy, 15% treating vapor molecules as nonentitis (waich they essentially are, because they B, Other thermal, 12.2% 1. Conduction to air, 7.2% 2. Conduction o oil, 16% 3. Radiative and miscellany, 34% . Indicated output, 36.2% 1. Mechanical loss, 4.3% 2. Brake horsepower output, 31.9% Notite thatthe implied mechanical efficiency is | — 4.3/36.2= 88%. This sa “creative agustment” we imposed t» ensure coincidence with beotsrep parte meter C (about {.12 for our sample engine) used in the altitude power dropoft factor O(0). do not contribute to the chemisty of fuel combustion, is given by Eq, (1.16). RY/R = S7.041/53.355 = 1.069. discounting water vapor, the specific cas constant is almost 7% larger. To find the density of (only) “ai,” we frst tse thoidcal gas law given a8 Ee. (1.1), with R substituted for R. Temperature 7 will be (100-+ 459.7/R = 5597°R Doing that arithmetic and dividing by 0.002377 siug/f, we find ¢, = 0.8967. Ordinarily, and as given by Ea, 10 9 08 ‘The Gagg-Farrar Power Dropolf Factor (a; C) ‘The inevitable decrease of shaft power P output with dinishing sir density at altude is expressed in the bootstrap spproach ss well a by most investigators a Po) = Me; C) x Plo = 1) 6.10) where the dkupof? multiplier (6; C) is that orginally rived at by Gagg and Farrar’ in 1934: 07 co os 1G here engins-cpecife parameter "is the eaio of power lost to fiction (such lost assumed constant with altitude) to indicated power at sea level, P(e & Pe 90: €) ou) . ne memramnee ral aon tas 1a ieuen © aici) atituce, ft c igure sz __MeGagg-Parmar actor Oarops otf win density aitucea bi steeper than relauvedansty a128 john Lowey ‘Table 53 Hamidiy elle onengines, surat air standard pressure 13), that relative density would connote a density abiiude of 4807. and Gaga-Farrar cropott factor, by Eq, (5.11), of @ = 0.849. Een though pressure ‘atthe mean sea level (MSL) standard value, heat and humidity have “raised” ‘effective altitude almost $000 For aorodynamie purpose, tore will sill bo a humidity effect boreuse wal molecules arc lighter than “aie” molecules, but ot as large an effest as on engine. Calelating with Eq, (1.13) shows itt be 34.691, only 2.3% lar than standard, The wet atmosphere relative density tums eut to be 6 = 09040, andthe aerodyoame density altitude is 3410. Quite bit arr than the pres figure would suggest, but not at rare as the atmosphere experionod by the engine. "Now we return to our interuptcd desvation ofthe Gagg-Farerdropot? fete, Eq, (5.11). We need to know that indiated power isthe engine's power before fiieion power is subtracted: Plo) = Pt) +P, a3 and tha indicated power P,(2) is assumed to drop off with altiude just as does relative density ¢ itself Pia) = Pic =1) = oP 6.14) ‘Then, from Eqs (5:12-5:14), PCa) = Pho) ~ %; = oP) Pr = Pala —O) G19) (Om the other hand, at sea level, we have Plo = 1) = PoP, 2a( 0) 5.16) The Engine 1 Dividing Ba. (5.15) by Eq. (6.16), P@)_ _o-C Be %6:0 6.) which is Ba. (5.11) ‘When dealing with engine performance charts, i is sometimes useful to know Inc tativ oF fiction power 7; #9 MEL full throttle power Pie ~ 1). That i easy seen 10 56 P, % (: c arr rate) eciec? Sa) F CGagg and Farrar published their work in 1934 but geteral aviation engines have no! changed appreciably since then beyond lowering the value of ropotT parameter C through advances in mateicls, closer tolerances, and improved Tubvication. Their equation was empirical, «distillation of then available data and ‘was found by them to be applicable t either normally aspirated or gear-driven supercharged (though not rurbosupercharged) aircraft. They also found thit manifold pressure (MAP), at full throttle and constant revolutions per minute, also varies as does brake power: MAP) .(¢; C) x MAP(e = 1) (6.19) although Seo argues cogently that it makes more sense for MAP to vary 8s does pressure ratio 3, Pressure ratio decreases with altitude faster than does ® (which, in tun, deereases faster with altitude than does 0), Engine brake horsepower at constant MAP increases with altiude because exhaust backpressure decreeses with altitude. This may explain why the power = 0.2193, Finally the slope is 15.7/02193 = 71.61 ‘Nest We need to translate that 71.6-4p pet uni into horsepower pe tha feet. The fist step isto write dawn the calculus “chain rule” dip dnp d=) Wa,71000) Ha, “Tho produc of the fr tuo factrs onthe ight wo know tobe about 71,606 ‘we eed to werk wih th ighimos! factor in Eq (527), Beease, fromEq, (5:11), ‘we see that 63 “he deivtve on the rh sing Eq (110) eps, can be writen a do _@R=1)2 (, 2h)" j ah, ‘RT ( 2) oa At sea level, Eq, (5.30) evaluates to 2.926 x 10-5; at for instance 10,000 where = 0.7585, Ea. (5.30) evaluates t0 ~2,320 x 10-*, faciors 71,600 and (C— 1! ==1.128, we find that reduced exhaust ba 2AShp/1000R. Near 10,0008, the increase is somewhat less, abo 1.87hp/1000R So, roughly, for this engine, reduced backpressure at con MAP gives a gain of about 2hp/1000%. Using our original figures off the engine char, 15.7 hp over 7200 ft, gives ‘quite compannble 2.2hp/1000 ft The advantage of our calculation is that it ‘us how much and in what direeon that horsepower gain figure changes altiude, It decreases slight, about 0.05 hp/1000 ft Conclusions ‘This wraps up what one reeds to know, at least in simpler cases and Or performance purposes, abou! the sirplane’s engine. There ae enly minor changes when an engiae is turbocharged-—more specialized than we could g0 into, Our rather cavalier efficiency numbers. our rule of thumb on the power bod us to reduced exhaust presaue, and even the Gags-Farrar power dropoff re approximations, Internal combustion gasoline spark ignition engines The Engine 143 been very thoroughly ard quantitatively stucied (xe Taylor and Hleywooe”) and ‘many more details of thei performance are known If one eperates in the topic, for anywhere that tis both hot and humid, ceruinly consider humidity effecs {etiled in the atmosphere chapter Looking tothe future, try to Keep in mind that determising bootstrap propeller polar slope parameter m, via climb tests, will {otally be a determination ofthe product mM; use reasonable and independent heal W aanss the cath of your airplane's engiac and ita orque output A. That js especially rue, as for mountain search and rescue missions, when you need goed performance at high density altitude. References |, MacMaon,A., ard Bomer. 1 On Size and Lif Sieifc American Bodks New Yous, 198, 00-68 2, Liston, ver Plans for Art, McGraw, New York, 1953, p. 226. 5, Cape. and Fa, EV, “AlaudeFrfornance of Aiea Engines Equpred with Gea Driven Sopeclarg" Soy of detonorive Enger Tensions, YL 2, 199, pp. 217-223, 4, Scott A, Benchmark, Sequoia Aer Com. Richmond, VA 1990, . 12. 5. monas, K, Aen Engine Opening Cue, Bevo Fableans, Rives, CT, 1985, 2133. Aonyens, Operaors Maal Teron ticomig Avera) Engines Sores 020, 1052, 40-32) & 10-32, Texton Leomieg, Willanspr, P, 198 4. Di, WS, einen Aernymadn, Ronald Prem, New Yok, 1996, A, Tylon, CE, The Internal Combustion Engine in Theory and Practice, Wo: Dhermodynamis, Phi Fo, Refonnce sc VoL Contaatiny For, Materia, Design, MAT Prom, Cambie, NA, 1585. epwonh JB, itera Combusion Bune Fundamens, Mera6 Propeller Thrust Introduction While you are mingling with the crowd atthe static airesft display on Airport Apprecation Day, novice how hard it is for visitors to keep their hands off propellers. Simple object, the propeller, but atrstive, We admire its sheen and its slupe. But once the engine stats, the propellers status as art object fades into a dangerous blur. Propellers are not just for decoration. Thischaper takes up propellers in detail. We will get acquainted with propeller ‘geomet; plopeler size and shape are crucial tothe propulsive job. The bulk of ‘ur time will be spent exploring propelle: action: baw that action ig described (Ghrust and power cocfMefents ard eMleiency) and how its calculated (momen ‘um theory, blade element theory, and a combination). Our interest is in explaining existing propellers, not so much in designing new ones, 30 we will sidestep such structural questions as whether the propeller material will tand up to the centrifugal or bending stresses. And we will sidestep the very interesting question of ow to design an oprimal propeller fora given job, We wil leave out Tot of details. Even so, this wil be the mos strenuous background chapter inthe book. Way? ‘Whar at first scemed a simple problem became mare comple the lenger we studied it With dhe machine moving forward, the ac ying backward, the ropes tuning sievise, and othing landing sil, it seemed impossible te nd & starting-point fom whieh to tace the various simultaneous rections. Coatemplaton of it was contig. Onl Wrighs, How Me tend we Auplane In spite ofthese difficutiss, the Wrights did well with propellers. By sanding ‘on their shoulders, and with the help of other researchers befone ot since the s0 ‘can you Our challenge will bet mainain clarity and focas; your challenge will 14s146 john Lowry be to track a lengthy procession of symbols, to keep in mind what they mean. We start with the geometrical deseripton. Propeller Geometry ‘There are identical blades of radius R (diameter d = 2R) (se Fig. 6.1). At cack “propeller station” r along the blade (or the ccrresponding “relative station” x err/R).as measured fom the center ofthe hub, theres an aerodynamic section profile characterized by some name or number (see Fig. 6.3) and by blade width ‘or chord lenge c(x), maximum thickness (0), and angle 2). Angle fs usually measured as ia Fig 6.3, from the plane of propeller rotator to the fla underside of te profile. (When the profile consists of wo conjoined convex portions, as it oes near the hub, the “lat” is taken to be that lie of junction) In some case (eg, Clark ¥ sections) the fi measurement is taken to the zero lift line running forward from the tniling edge; you will eed wo decide, or kiow, which definition of f is meant, Firs, we will consider Sxed-pitch propellers; the constantspeed type will have their say later on FigureG1 Propeller bade munbor alanor and relative station, ‘Propelior Thrust 147 Figure 62 Clark Y and RAPS propeller aifil sections, [Raduus & (or diameter d) tel us the size ofthe propeller. Alot the rest—B, lx), tt), x), and the designation of the profile—tells us shape. We will ignore “zxtraneous” detils such as number, placement, and diameter of mounting holes; diameter ofthe centering hole; bos thickness; direction of rotation; weight; and 0 forh.) We do not need to specify the propellers aagular position, say, in degrees one blade is from, say, verically pointed upwards, except under con- ditions of asymmetrical flight. And we will not treat those. Most gereral aviation propellers have either Clark Y of (more often) RAF6 profiles (the latter modified to have a flat lower surface). Saying a propeller “has RAF6 profile” actualy means ithas a family of RAF6 profiles of differing chords ix) and differing “thickness ratios” <(s) = (s)/e(s). Table 6.1 bas numerical atails on the RAF6 shape. The RAF6 profile is claimed to have leading edge radius 0.10 (of the maximum thickness) and trailing edg> radius 0.08. Details for a McCauley Propeller ‘The 1986 Cessm 172P stock propeller, the McCauley 1C160/DTM7557, has RAF6 profes. 1C160is the base planform dosign namber. DTM gives details (if you hive the propeller repait manual giving the code) on the proper type of 1 = 2nnr = enxd ayere 63 Propeleriaae secs wth chor .nicinee andre ar spect148 John Lowsy Table 61 RATS edge adi and ordinates icaled to maxinam of Ulta chocdfrston 1/3) ‘Chor aston Onis 005 039 oan 095 30 099 nso 09s 660 037 080 56 crankshaft forthe progeller, blade tip contour, ete. The 75 means the propeller diameter d = 75 in, = 6.250. The final dizits 87 give the nominal pitch p, the dlivance (again in inches) thot the blede section at x= 0.75 would advance, in some nonslipping medium like wet sand or soft cley during one full rotation, "Nominal pitch ean be transtated into nominal Blade angle at r= 0.75, (255 by visualizing that fill ation scraching the inside of a cylinder of radius 0.75R. Citing that cylinder open (see Fig. 64) shows a triangle with angle Pp Pas = en"! 5h (el) Subsitutig our DTM7557 values gives fps = 17.88 deg, But that i at only fone station, The propeller overhaul manual gives dimensions and angles at sereral blade stations. See Table 6.2, whete all linear dimensions are in inches. ‘When a tolerance range was given, the larger value was selected [Why no Blade angles forthe early sections? Overhauling 2 propeller includes possibly retwisting to correct out-oF-specification angles. Close to the hub the blade 1s t00 thick to be retwtsied. To get those missing Ngutes ake one of these 2nx9kA = Yand = 176.7" Figue 64. Unwrsppednels for NeCauley 7957 ropelis, r= 22 Propeller Thrust 148 ‘Table 62 Selecions from the NoCatley 10160 propalor ‘overhaul manial ‘elie Chordor Thickness ‘ade Staiony ston widhe angle fi dog 5 028 3766 11M Is 040 5860) 4 068 5326 2000 0 oso asio 1700 n os 3510 1330 °NA= not alia ‘mel okoconying dove his on ri an bles Out othe airplane and measur. Its ear with ke propeller off the aplane, on the bench. - In doi propeller calculations it is most comeniext to have evesly spaced relate ade ations And ore ofthe Te that end we made curve fs he Gaia of Table 62, Ress apear a Fix. 65 and in Es. (62) 62), an (64) oho a 7 aise le occa ade Taree 00 01 02 03 04 05 06 O7 08 0.9 70° é 8 & g ep" ouy peta, Chote ¢, Thickness t 8 Relative Staton x = r/R ‘overneut manual and carve-nt gecmetz for NeGasley 761 propeler