Python Tutorial Greek

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Python
Python
:
TasPython

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iii
iv
vi
1.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.1 . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.2 . . . . . .
1.2.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3 Python . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3.2 Python 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10
1.3.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12
1.3.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12
1.3.5 Zen of Python . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13
1.4 Python . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14
1.4.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14
1.4.2 Python . . . . . . . . . .
15
1.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18
vii
viii
2
21
2.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
22
2.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23
2.3 Boolean . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
24
2.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26
29
3.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
29
3.2
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
30
3.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
31
3.4 if
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
32
3.4.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
34
3.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
36
3.5.1 for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
36
3.5.2 while . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
38
3.6 break . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
38
3.7 with . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
39
3.7.1 with . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
40
3.7.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
41
4
4.1
43
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
44
4.1.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
44
4.1.2
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
44
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
45
4.2
4.3
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
46
4.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
47
5
5.1
49
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
50
5.2 . . . . . . .
51
5.3 (Docstrings) . . . . . . . . . . . .
52
5.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
54
5.4.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
54
5.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
55
ix
5.6 (Decorators) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6
59
6.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.1.1
56
60
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
60
6.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
61
6.2.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . .
61
6.2.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
62
6.2.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
63
6.2.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
64
6.2.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
64
6.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
66
6.3.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
67
6.3.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
68
6.3.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
70
6.3.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
70
6.3.5 (Lists comprehensions) . . . . . . .
71
6.3.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
72
6.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
72
6.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
73
6.5.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
73
6.5.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
74
6.5.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
76
6.5.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
76
6.5.5 (Dict comprehension) . . . . . . .
77
6.5.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
77
6.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
78
6.6.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
78
6.6.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
79
7
7.1 (immutable objects)
81
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
81
7.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
83
7.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
86
7.3.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
87
7.3.2 None . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
87
7.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
88
7.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
90
7.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
94
99
8.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
99
8.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
8.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
8.4 (attributes) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
8.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
8.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
8.6.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
8.6.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
8.7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
8.8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
9
115
9.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
9.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
9.2.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
9.2.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
9.2.3
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
9.2.4 () . . . . . 118
9.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
9.3.1
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
9.3.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
10
123
10.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
10.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
10.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
10.4
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
10.4.1try:. . . else: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129

10.4.2finally . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
xi
10.5
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
10.5.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
10.5.2 (raise) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
10.5.3 . . . . . . . . . 132
10.6 if . . . else . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
11
139
11.1 (Iterators) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139

11.1.1 for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
11.2
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
11.3
. . . . . . . . 143
11.4 . . . . . . . . 144
12
12.1
147
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
13
149
13.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
13.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
13.2.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
14 GUI tkinter
153
14.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
14.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
14.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
15
163
15.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
15.1.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
15.1.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
15.1.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
15.2 Python Debugger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
15.2.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
15.2.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
15.2.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
15.2.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
xii
16
169
16.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
16.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
16.3 garbage collector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
16.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
16.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
16.6 (Profiling)
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
In times of change, learners will inherit the

earth while the learned will find themselves
beautifully equipped to deal with a world that
no longer exists.
Eric Hoffer

Python 3. . -
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7 / 4 = 1 C.
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1.3.5 Zen of Python

Zen of Python Python
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>>> a = 5
>>> b = 6
>>> a + b
11
(interpreter), (
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Windows
python.
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1.4. Python
17
#!/ usr/bin/python3
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http://python.org/dev/peps/.
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Boolean
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5 == 6 ()
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2.3. Boolean
25
2.1: not
2.2: and
2.3: or

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26
>>> a = 5
>>> b = 4
>>> a > b
True
>>> c = 6
>>> a > b and a > c
False
>>> a > b or a > c
True
>>> a > b and not a > c
True
>>> a > b or not a > c
True
>>> not a > b or not a > c
True
>>> not ( a > b ) or a > c
False
>>> not a > b or a > c
False
2.4
Boolean (
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2.4.
27
(+)
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28
2.

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know what to do, and then do your best.
W. Edwards Deming
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29
3.
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IndentationError : expected an indented block
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3.3.
31
print ( )
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print ( ' World ' )
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3.3
3.3.1. :
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or jump).

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3.
32
3.4
if
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if.
answer = i n t ( input ( ' What i s the product o f 2 5: ' ) )
i f ( answer == 1 0 ) :
p r i n t ( ' Correct ! ' )
p r i n t ( ' Exiting program ' )
, .

:
What i s the product o f 2 5: g
Traceback ( most recent c a l l l a s t ) :
F i l e " <stdin > " , l i n e 1 , in <module>
ValueError : i n v a l i d l i t e r a l for i n t ( ) with base 10: ' g '
g
int(), ,
ValueError.
.
.
,
if...else....
from math import sqrt
3.4. if
33
a = f l o a t ( input ( " C o e f f i c i e n t o f the x^2: " ) )

b = f l o a t ( input ( " C o e f f i c i e n t o f the x : " ) )
c = f l o a t ( input ( " Constant : " ) )
i f a == 0:
print ( " This i s not a 2nd degree equation " )
import sys
exit ( )
D = b2 4 a c
i f D >= 0:
x1 = (b + sqrt (D ) ) / (2 a )
x2 = (b sqrt (D ) ) / (2 a )
else :
x1 = complex(b / (2 a ) , sqrt (D) / 2 a )
x2 = complex(b / (2 a ) , sqrt (D) / 2 a )
s f = " x1 = { 0 } , x2 = { 1 } "
print ( s f . format ( x1 , x2 ) )
.
.

: x1,2 =
+
, = 2 4 . 2
(
if 1 ( else).
0 ,

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3.
34
3.4.1
if...elif...else...
Python, switch k , k
switch.
switch C/C++ Java. Python, if...elif...else....
:
x = i n t ( input ( " Please enter an i n t e g e r : " ) )
i f x < 0:
p r i n t ( ' Negative number, transforming i n t o p o s i t i v e ' )
x = x # make i t p o s i t i v e
# Be careful , because the f o l l o w i n g statements w i l l be
# examined only i f the f i r s t condition i s f a l s e , they
# won ' t be executed
e l i f x == 0:
p r i n t ( ' Zero ' )
e l i f x == 1:
p r i n t ( ' One ' )
else :
p r i n t ( ' Great than 1 ' )
, elif
, .

switch,
.
Python

.
(key)
. -
3.4. if
35
,
, .
# Sample functions
def square ( x ) :
return x 2
def double ( x ) :
return x 2
opdict = { " a " : square , " b " : square , " c " : double }
# Example ( random access O( 1 ) )
print ( opdict [ " b " ] ( 5 ) )
# Example 2 ( checking everything )
for operation in " abc " :
prin t ( operation , opdict [ operation ] ( 3 ) )
if...elif...else....
, ,
.
, ,

.
# Sample functions
def square ( x ) :
return x 2
def double ( x ) :
return x 2
def decrease ( x ) :
return x1
3.
36
opdict = { " a " : square , " b " : double , " c " : decrease }
try :
p r i n t ( opdict [ " d " ] ( 5 ) )
except KeyError :
p r i n t ( ' I n v a l i d use o f index ' )
# Example 2 ( checking everything )

for operation in " abc " :
p r i n t ( operation , opdict [ operation ] ( 3 ) )
3.5
,
.
( )
, . ,
for while .
3.5.1
for
for . range(). ,
range() , .
20 Fibonacci. n-
Fibonacci Fn = Fn1 + Fn2 F0 = 0 F1 = 1.
# the 2 f i r s t f i b o n a c c i numbers are always known
a, b = 0, 1
# p r i n t the f i r s t f i b o n a c c i number ( a )
p r i n t ( a , end= ' ' )
3.5.
37
# find the next 18 f i b o n a c c i numbers and p r i n t them

for i in range ( 1 8 ) :
prin t ( b , end= ' ' )
a, b = b, a + b
# print the l a s t fibonnaci number ( o f t o t a l l y 20)
print ( b )
i 0 17,
18 . 2
range() .
range() ,
.
>>> for i in range (100 , 120):
...
p r i n t ( i , end= ' ' )
...
100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110
111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 119
>>> for i in range (100 , 120, 2 ) :

...
p r i n t ( i , end= ' ' )
...
100 102 104 106 108 110 112 114 116 118
[100, 120) [100, 120) 2,

.

.
2
, .
3.
38
3.5.2
while
for, while
.
def f i b ( a , b ) :
sum = 0;
while a < 4 (10 6 ) :
sum += a
a, b = b, a + b
return sum
a, b = 0, 1
print ( f i b ( a , b ) )

Fibonnaci 4 106 .
3.6
break
break .
, if
.
break
.
. ,
.
Zn (modulo).
0,
.
def printSubgroups ( n ) :
"""
Prints a l l the subgroups o f Zn
3.7. with
39
"""
for i in range ( 0 , n ) :
p r i n t ( ' < ' , end= ' ' )
p r i n t ( i , end= ' >: ' )
for j in range ( 1 , n + 1 ) :
num = ( i j )%n
p r i n t (num, end = ' ' )
i f (num % n ) == 0:
break
p r i n t ( ' , ' , end= ' ' )
print ( )
3.7
with
3 Python, with ,
.
.
with , with
.
, block with. with

.
filename = "CanadaSong . t x t "
data = " " " \
F i r s t come the black f l i e s ,
Then the Horse f l i e s ,
Then the Deer f l i e s ,
Then the snow f l i e s !
"""
with open ( filename , "w" ) as fout :
3.
40
fout . write ( data )
, with, filename,
.
,
. , with
.
3.7.1
with
with
, with .
.
,
.
# every l i n e containing these words won ' t be written
# at the output
exclude_class = [ ' not ' , ' negation ' ]
with open ( ' i n f i l e ' , ' r ' ) as f1 , open ( ' o u t f i l e ' , 'w ' ) as f2 :
# f o r each l i n e in the input f i l e
for l i n e in f1 . readlines ( ) :
# by d e f a u l t write a l i n e to the o u t f i l e unless
# i t doesn ' t contain one o f the excluded words
w r i t e _ t o _ f i l e = True
# f o r each word in a l i n e o f the input f i l e
for word in l i n e . s p l i t ( ) :
# i f t h i s word doesn ' t belong to closed_class
i f word . r s t r i p ( ) in exclude_class :
w r i t e _ t o _ f i l e = False
break
if write_to_file :
3.7. with
41
f2 . write ( l i n e )
3.7.2
__enter__ __exit__, with

__enter__ , ,
__exit__.
.
with __exit__,

( ,
).
with, __exit__, .

.
42
3.
And there was huge numbers of UFOs around

my parents home in Kingston.
Betty Hill)
Python . :
(scripts). scripts.
.
Python , ,
. , .
(overflow). .
python
,
:
43
4.
44
python
. , ctrl+d Linux/BSD ctrl+z Windows.
4.1
(, , , ) (+, , , /)
>>> 3+8
11
>>> 38
5
>>> 38
24
>>> 3/8
0.375
4.1.1
.
( )
.
>>> 7/2
3.5
>>> 7//2
3
4.1.2
,
.
4.2.
45
>>> 210
1024
>>> 38
6561
n (mod n ),
python (modular exponentiation)
, .
,
.
,
21024 , 1024
1000 . Python
.
>>> pow( 2 , 1024, 1000)
216
4.2
,
:
1. d:
2. b: ( bin())
3. o: ( oct())
4. x: ( hex())
, .
4.
46
p r i n t ( ' value = { 0 : 2 d } ' . format ( 1 2 ) )
# value = 12
p r i n t ( ' value = { 0 : 2 b } ' . format ( 1 2 ) )
# value = 1100
p r i n t ( ' value = {0:#2b } ' . format ( 1 2 ) )
# value = 0b1100
p r i n t ( ' value = { 0 : 2 o } ' . format ( 1 2 ) )
# value = 14
p r i n t ( ' value = {0:#2 o } ' . format ( 1 2 ) )
# value = 0o14
p r i n t ( ' value = { 0 : 2 x } ' . format ( 1 2 ) )
# value =
p r i n t ( ' value = {0:#2 x } ' . format ( 1 2 ) )
# value = 0xc
p r i n t ( ' value = { 0 : 5 } ' . format ( bin ( 1 2 ) ) )
# value = 0b1100
p r i n t ( ' value = { 0 : 5 } ' . format ( oct ( 1 2 ) ) )
# value = 0o14
p r i n t ( ' value = { 0 : 5 } ' . format ( hex ( 1 2 ) ) )
# value = 0xc
4.3
,
(specifier) f .
. , +,
.
.
p r i n t ( ' x = { 0 : 5 . 3 f } ' . format (1234.567))
# x = 1234.567
p r i n t ( ' x = { 0 : 1 2 . 6 f } ' . format (1234.567))
# x = 1234.567000
p r i n t ( ' x = {0: 12.9 f } ' . format (1234.567))
# x = 1234.567000
p r i n t ( ' x = {0:+12.9 f } ' . format (1234.567))
# x = +1234.567000
p r i n t ( ' x = {0:+12.9 f } ' . format ( 1234.567)) # x = 1234.567000

p r i n t ( ' x = {0:012.3 f } ' . format (1234.567))
# x = 00001234.567
print ( )
p r i n t ( ' x = { 0 : 1 . 5 e } ' . format (1234.567))
# x = 1.23457e+03
p r i n t ( ' x = { 0 : 1 . 5 e } ' . format (0.000001234)) # x = 1.23400e06

p r i n t ( ' x = { 0 : 1 . 5 g } ' . format (0.000001234)) # x = 1.234e06
print ( )
p r i n t ( ' x = {0:2.3%} ' . format ( 0 . 3 3 7 ) )
print ( )
# x = 33.700%
4.4.
47
print ( ' pi = { 0 : . 3 f } ' . format ( math . pi ) )
# pi = 3.142
print ( ' pi = { 0 : . 8 f } ' . format ( math . pi ) )
# pi = 3.14159265
4.4

(, , ). complex. ,
.
a = complex ( 1 , 1)
b = complex ( 1 , 2)
print ( a+b )
print ( a b )
48
4.
, (
)

.

.

, ,
. -
,
. , . ,
.
Python .
, ,
. ,
, . ,
49
5.
50
,
, .
5.1
5.1.1. .

.
, .
5.1.2.
.
.
.
5.1.3.
return.
return,
.

. ,
.
def add ( a , b ) :
c = a + b
return c
p r i n t ( add ( 2 , 3 ) )

.
5.2.
51
from math import c e i l

def fun2 ( c ) :
a = c // 2
b = c a
return a , b
d , e = fun2 ( 7 )
print ( d , e )
:
1. , .
def .
2. (:). ,
.
3.
() ( ).
.
5.2
(Pure Functions)
. ,
(modifier functions) . (side effects),
,
.
5.
52
a = ' Python '

p r i n t ( a . upper ( ) )
print ( a )
, upper()

.
string
a.
, (mutable),
, . ,
, count() b, reverse()
.
b = [ 'a ' , 'b ' , ' c ' , 'd ' , ]
p r i n t ( b . count ( ' a ' ) )
print ( b )
p r i n t ( b . reverse ( ) )
print ( b )
5.3
(Docstrings)
, .
,
.
Python, ,
.
def f i b o n a c c i ( n ) :
" " " Return the nth Fibonacci number counting from 0. " " "
# we should have used the closed formula f o r f i b o n a c c i
# TODO: throw an e r r o r f o r negative numbers
5.3. (Docstrings)
53
i f n <= 1:
return n
return f i b o n a c c i ( n 1) + f i b o n a c c i ( n 2)
print ( f i b o n a c c i ( 1 0 ) )
,
.

. . ,
, ()
. PEP 257,
,
.
, .
Python.
>>> help ( fibonnaci )
>>> prin t ( f i b o n a c c i . __doc__ )

.
,
__doc__
Python.
, Python
.
5.
54
5.4

.
.
,
.
def h e l l o ( message= ' Hello World ! ' ) :
p r i n t ( message )
hello ( )
h e l l o ( message= ' Hello Brave New World ! ' )
5.4.1
. .
.
, tuple .
>>> a = ( 1 , 2 , 3 , 4)
>>> def add ( a , b , c , d ) :
...
return a + b + c + d
...
>>> add ( a )
10
.
, .
,
( )
5.5.
55
.
.
b = { 'a ' :2 , ' c ' : 3 , 'd ' : 5 , 'b ' : 1 }
def p r i n t _ v a r i a b l e s ( a , b , c , d ) :
prin t ( ' a : { } ' . format ( a ) )
prin t ( ' b : { } ' . format ( b ) )
prin t ( ' c : { } ' . format ( c ) )
prin t ( ' d : { } ' . format ( d ) )
p r i n t _ v a r i a b l e s ( b )
varargs
default arguments ( ) Python.
5.5
. . , .
.
lambda
.
. , lambda def. 1 . ,
,
return. .
def double ( x ) :
return x x
1
5.
56
def p r i n t _ r e s u l t s ( f , args ) :
p r i n t ( f ( args ) )
p r i n t _ r e s u l t s ( double , 5) # prints 25
p r i n t _ r e s u l t s ( lambda x : x x , 5) # prints 25
5.6
(Decorators)

. ,
(randomized algorithm).
Python
. , .
. , , .
, . ,

.
Python
. , .
,
(decorators).
def makebold ( fn ) :
def wrapped ( ) :
return " <b> " + fn ( ) + " </b> "
5.6. (Decorators)
57
return wrapped
def message ( ) :
return " TasPython Guide "
message = makebold ( message )
print ( message ( ) )
g f . g f .
, makebold() wrapped().
wrapped() . . ,
f n wrapped()
. wrapped()
,
makebold().
message makebold(message). , Python .
, makebold(message)
message. message
, , .
makebold(), wrapped(). wrapped() makebold()
string fn . .
,
.
, .
def makebold ( fn ) :
def wrapped ( ) :
5.
58
return " <b> " + fn ( ) + " </b> "
return wrapped
@makebold
def message ( ) :
return " Python Guide "
p r i n t ( message ( ) )
, ,
message()
,
. , message(),
makebold.
There is no abstract art. You must always

start with something. Afterward you can
remove all traces of reality.
Pablo Picasso

.
. , ,
,
Python . ,

.
59
6.
60
6.1
6.1.1
(Strings): (quotes). immutable

.
' This i s a s t r i n g '

(Tuples): ,

. .
( ' These ' , 3 , 5.711 , True , ' Prime ' )
(Lists): [ ].
. (mutable).
[ ' These ' , 3 , 5.711 , True , ' Prime ' ]
(Dictionaries): { }
. ( )
:
key: .
value: ,
.
{ 1 : ' alpha ' , 2: ' beta ' , 3: 'gamma ' , 4: ' d e l t a ' }
(Sets): ,
set .

.
6.2.
61
( (union), (intersection), (difference), (issuperset), (issubset)) (add), (remove) .

6.1
.

(string)
(tuple)
(list)
(dictionary)
.
.
.
.
keys.
.

6.1:
6.2
6.2.1
, ,
.
,
.
UTF-8.
# the v a r i a b l e myString points to an immutable s t r i n g
myString = ' This i s a s t r i n g . '
(sequence).
,
.
6.
62

# the f i r s t character o f myString
p r i n t ( myString [ 0 ] )
# the second character o f myString
# prints the l a s t character which i s
'. '
p r i n t ( myString [ len ( myString ) 1 ] )

() (index).
# the v a r i a b l e myString points to an immutable s t r i n g
# the l a s t character o f myString
# prints ' . '
p r i n t ( myString [ 1])
# prints ' g ' .
# prints ' n ' .
6.2.2
,
. ,
.
def reverse ( t e x t ) :
return t e x t [ : : 1 ]
6.2.
63
sentence = input ( ' Enter your t e x t : ' )

i n v e r t = reverse ( sentence )
print ( ' The inverted t e x t i s : ' , i n v e r t )
,
.
:
def r e v e r s e p a r t i a l l y ( t e x t ) :
return t e x t [3:1: 1]
sentence = input ( ' Enter your t e x t : ' )
i n v e r t = r e v e r s e p a r t i a l l y ( sentence )
print ( ' The inverted t e x t i s : ' , i n v e r t )
3,
2, . Python,
, 0.
6.2.3

string.format(). python, strings .
,
{x}, x
.
s f = ' the { } jumped over the { } ! '
print ( s f . format ( ' mouse ' , ' moon ' ) )
6.
64
6.2.4
repr() ,

.
rjust() string, , .
for x in range ( 1 , 1 1 ) :
p r i n t ( repr ( x ) . r j u s t ( 2 ) , repr ( x x ) . r j u s t ( 3 ) , \
repr ( x x x ) . r j u s t ( 4 ) )
, ,
, format().
for x in range ( 1 , 1 1 ) :
p r i n t ( ' { 0 : 2 d } { 1 : 3 d } { 2 : 4 d } ' . format ( x , x x , x x x ) )
split().
>>> a = ' asdf '
>>> b = ' asdasdfnbfds '
>>> a . s p l i t ( '' )
[ ' asdf ' ]
>>> b . s p l i t ( '' )
[ ' asdasdf ' , ' nbfds ' ]
split()
.
,
, .
6.2.5
6.2.
65
# count l i n e s , sentences , and words o f a t e x t f i l e

# set a l l the counters to zero
lines , blanklines , sentences , words = 0 , 0 , 0 , 0
# t r y to open the f i l e
try :
filename = ' random_file '
t e x t f = open ( filename , ' r ' )
except IOError :
print ( ' Cannot open f i l e { 1 } f o r reading ' , filename )
# import sys only i f needed
import sys
# e x i t the program
sys . e x i t ( 0 )
# reads one l i n e at a time
for l i n e in t e x t f :
# increase l i n e counter
l i n e s += 1
# i f i t i s an empty l i n e
i f l i n e . startswith ( ' \n ' ) :
blanklines += 1
else :
# assume that each sentence ends with . or ! or ?
# so simply count these characters
sentences += l i n e . count ( ' . ' ) + l i n e . count ( ' ! ' ) + \
l i n e . count ( ' ? ' )
# create a l i s t o f words
# use None to s p l i t at any whitespace regardless o f length
6.
66
# so f o r instance double space counts as one space

tempwords = l i n e . s p l i t ( None )
# word t o t a l count
words += len ( tempwords )
# close t e x t f i l e
t e x t f . close ( )
p r i n t ( " Lines
: " , lines )
p r i n t ( " Blank l i n e s : " , blanklines )

p r i n t ( " Sentences
: " , sentences )
p r i n t ( "Words
: " , words )
6.3
6.3.1.
.
.
.
,
. Python
.
. .
,
.
l i s t 1 = [ ' pick up g r o c e r i e s ' , 123,\
' do laundry ' , 3.14 , ' return l i b r a r y books ' ]

# an empty l i s t
list2 = [ ]
6.3.
67
# a l i s t may contain any type o f o b j e c t

l i s t 3 = [ l i s t 1 , l i s t 2 , 1.234 , ' This i s a diverse l i s t ' ]
print ( l i s t 3 )
,
. , ,
, .
6.3.1

.
list1 = [ ]
,
. list() ,
.
,
.
a = [1 ,2 ,3 ,4]
b = list (a)
c = [a]
print ( b )
print ( c )

list() . list()
, Python

.
a = [1 ,2 ,3 ,4]
6.
68
b = list (a)
c = a
print ( b )
print ( c )
# b i s a copy o f a and any change
# on i t doesn ' t a f f e c t a
b[0] = 5
print ( a )
# c i s a reference to a and a l l
# changes are r e f l e c t e d to a
c [ 0 ] = 10
print ( a )
6.3.2
, , ,
. .

,
list1[j] list1[j 1].
, n ,
list1[n] list1[n 1]
.

n = len ( l i s t 1 )

list1 [0]
6.3.
69
[i, j):
list1 [ i : j ]

,
.
10
( ) ,
:
a = [ x for x in range ( 1 0 ) ]
# or a = l i s t ( range ( 1 0 ) )
print ( a [ 2 : 8 : 2 ] )
[i, j) k
list1 [ i : j :k]
k
list1 [ : : k]
k ,
,
(
).
def reverse ( l i s ) :
return l i s [ : : 1 ]
6.
70
6.3.3
for.
a = [ 1 , 1 , 2 , 3 , 5 , 8]
for i in a :
print ( i )
, ,
.
a = [ 1 , 1 , 2 , 3 , 5 , 8]
b = iter (a)
p r i n t ( next ( b ) )
6.3.4
,
del
.

.
a = [ 0 , 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5]
del a [ 2 : 4 ]
print ( a )
6.3.
6.3.5
71
(Lists comprehensions)

(list comprehensions). ,
.
.
primes = [ 1 , 2 , 3 , 5 , 7]
square_primes = [ i 2 for i in primes ]
print ( square_primes )
list comprehension
. .
:
r e s u l t = [ transform i t e r a t i o n f i l t e r ]
(transform)
1 (iteration) (filter), .

.
. ,
for, .
. , ,
, sum(). , 100
3 7.
nums = [ i for i in range ( 1 , 101) i f i % 3 == 0 or i % 7 == 0]
sum(nums) #2208
1
6.
72
6.3.6
,
. .
6.3.2. . :
push ( append Python)

pop
.
a = [ 1 , ' TasPython ' , ' geia ' ]
a . append ( ' xara ' )
print ( a )
b = a . pop ( )
print ( b )
6.4
6.4.1. . .
:

.
,
. , ,
.
a = ( 1 , ' asdf ' , 3.14)
print ( a )
6.5.
73
, .
,
.
6.5
(dictionary)
. 2 ,
,
,
( ) .
6.5.1
.
d = {
' milk ' : 3.67 ,

' butter ' : 1.95 ,
' bread ' : 1.67 ,
' cheese ' : 4.67
}

.
.
d = {}
d [ ' key ' ] = value
dict().
2
hash
.
6.
74
d = d i c t ( [ ( ' milk ' ,
3.67) ,
( ' butter ' , 1 . 9 5 ) ,

( ' bread ' ,
1.67) ,
( ' cheese ' , 4 . 6 7 ) ] )
6.5.2
: del. del d[milk]

.
: (
/) len(d).
: ( )
d.keys().
: , d.values().
/ : /
d.items()
,
.
, .
,
,
, .
.
.
def increaseValue ( d , key , value ) :
" " " Increase value o f d [ key ] .
Precondition : We can add value to 0.
"""
6.5.
75
i f key not in d :
d [ key ] = 0
d [ key ] += value
def increaseValue2 ( d , key , value ) :

" " " Increase value o f d [ key ] .
Precondition : We can add value to 0.
"""
# get the value o f d [ key ] i f i t e x i s t s ,
# or zero i f i t doesn ' t e x i s t .
# Then add i t to value and set i t
# as the new value o f d [ key ]
d [ key ] = d . get ( key , 0) + value
# testing
d = {}
increaseValue2 ( d , ' d i m i t r i s ' , 5)
print ( d )
.
, (
).
(value).

. get .
d[key]
.
value
d[key] .
6.
76
6.5.3
.

,
.
d = {
' milk ' : 3.67 ,

' butter ' : 1.95 ,
' bread ' : 1.67 ,
' cheese ' : 4.67
}
for food in d :
p r i n t ( ' { } costs { } ' . format ( food , d [ food ] ) )
items() ,
.
thoughts = { 'Omada ' : ' TasPython ' ,\
' Ti e i n a i o Anthropos ' : 'Command not found ' }

for k , v in thoughts . items ( ) :
print ( k, v )
6.5.4
(mutable).

.
, copy().
d [ ' a ' ] = 123
c = d
c [ ' a ' ] = 1821
print ( d [ 'a ' ] )
:
6.5.
77
d = {}
d [ ' a ' ] = 123
c = d . copy ( )
c [ ' a ' ] = 1821
print ( d [ ' a ' ] )
6.5.5
(Dict comprehension)
, .
, {}
(iterable), .
.
d = { k : v for k , v in enumerate ( ' taspython ' ) i f v not in ' tas ' }
print ( d )
# { 8 : ' n ' , 3: ' p ' , 4: ' y ' , 6: ' h ' , 7: ' o ' }
d = { k : v for k , v in z i p ( range ( 1 5 ) , ' taspython ' ) i f v not in ' tas ' }

print ( d )
# { 8 : ' n ' , 3: ' p ' , 4: ' y ' , 6: ' h ' , 7: ' o ' }
,
Python.
. , .
6.5.6
,
/ . , .
.
. . ,
6.
78
, .
(
),
.
from c o l l e c t i o n s import OrderedDict
d = OrderedDict ( )
d [ ' python ' ] = ' TasPython '
d [ ' guide ' ] = ' Greek '
p r i n t ( d . items ( ) )
6.6

, ,
, .

.
6.6.1
.
Python ,

.
s = { 'a ' , 'a ' , 'b ' , ' c ' , 'a ' }
print ( s )

(iterable).
6.6.
79
s = set ( ' TasPython . . . because simplcity matters ! ' )

print ( s )
6.6.2
, :

.
a = set ( ' abracadabra ' )
b = set ( ' alacazam ' )
print ( ' A = ' , a )
print ( 'B = ' , b )
a . add ( ' z ' )
# add element
b . remove ( ' z ' )
# remove element
print ( ' A = ' , a )

print ( 'B = ' , b )
print ( ' A B = ' , a b )
# difference
print ( ' A | B = ' , a | b )
# union
print ( ' A & B = ' , a & b )
# intersection
print ( ' A ^ B = ' , a ^ b )
# symmetric d i f f e r e n c e
80
6.
a = [ ' apple ' , ' bread ' , ' carrot ' , ' carrot ' ]
set1 = set ( a )
p r i n t ( set1 )
p r i n t ( ' apple ' in set1 )
set2 = set1 . copy ( )
set2 . add ( ' d e l i c i o u s ' )
p r i n t ( set1 < set1 )
set1 . remove ( ' bread ' )
# prints { ' carrot ' , ' apple ' }
p r i n t ( set1 & set2 )
# prints { ' carrot ' , ' apple ' , ' d e l i c i o u s ' , ' bread ' }
p r i n t ( set1 | set2 )

,
.

Python . ,

Python.
7.1
(immutable objects)
Python .
. , .
bool
int
81
7.
82
float
string
, .
id() 1
. is
True .
>>> a = 5
>>> b = 5
>>> c = 5.0
>>> d = ' 5 '
>>> id ( a )
137061184
>>> id ( d )
3073418688
>>> a i s b
True
>>> c i s d
False
, , a
is b .

.
,
.
1
,
, , .
7.2.
83
>>> a = 4
>>> b = 4
>>> a i s b
True
>>> a += 1
>>> a
5
>>> b
4
7.2
, , .
7.1. .
7.2. (scope).
. , , ,
.
7.3. (scope)
. (scope).
Python, . ,
(
) .
.
g = " I am a g l o b a l v a r i a b l e "
def function1 ( arg ) :
7.
84
a = " I am a l o c a l v a r i a b l e "
print ( g )
# g += ' modified ' # produces an e r r o r

p r i n t ( arg )
#p r i n t ( a ) # produces an e r r o r
function1 ( "A reference to me i s passed . " )
, , g .
function1 . , a ,
. a function1
.

.
, Python
.
global.
global g
a = " I am a l o c a l v a r i a b l e "
print ( g )
g += ' modified '
print ( g )
p r i n t ( arg )
-
7.2.
85
global,

.
g = " I thought I was g l o b a l "
prin t ( g )
print ( g )
,
. ,
nonlocal global
. ,
.
def function1 ( ) :
a = " Scope1 v a r i a b l e "
def function2 ( ) :
nonlocal a
a += " modified "
print ( a )
function2 ( )
function1 ( )
nonlocal
.
7.
86
7.3
Python
(container types). :
(tuple)
(string)
(list)
(set)
(dictionary)

.

.
(alias) , .
>>> a = ' Python by example '
>>> b = ' Python by example '
>>> a i s b
False
>>> a = 1
>>> b = 2
>>> a i s b
False
>>> b = 1
>>> a i s b
True
is ==.
2 ==
.
2
,
.
7.3.
87
>>> a = [ 1 , 2 , 3]
>>> b = [ 1 , 2 , 3]
>>> a i s b
False
>>> a == b
True
7.3.1
(alias) , . , , ,
,
.
a = [ 1 , 2 , 3]
b = a
a . append ( 4 )
print ( b )
4 a, b, b
a .
7.3.2 None
None . Null.
Null Python

None.
def helloWorld ( ) :
prin t ( ' Hello World ' )
7.
88
p r i n t ( helloWorld ( ) == None )
None
. None
,
.
: None.
,
. ,
, None

.
p = [ 1 , 2 , 3 , 4]
print ( p )
# i l l e g a l statement because the returned value i s None
#p = p . pop ( )
p . pop ( )
print ( p )
7.4
(
) .
.
Python, , . ,
:
from f i l e import
python.py .
,
, -
7.4.
89
.
. ,

( )
.
7.4.1. (module) (, ). .py.
(
)
, ( ). (
python file.py) import
. Python ,
"__name__" "__main__".
"__name__"

.
from module import *
,
.
from module
import function ( ) import module,
module, module.variable, (
) /
.
. :
7.
90
.
.
.
namespace :
List1 = [ 1 , 2 , 3]
List2 = [ 1 , 2 , 3]
List2 [ 2 ] = "new"
List1 = { " a " : [ 1 ] , " b " : [ 2 ] }
aList
[0]
[1]
[2]
Namespace
7.1: (namespace) .
7.5

.
>>> def f ( a ) :
...
a = 5
...
>>> a = 4
>>> f ( a )
>>> a
4
7.5.
91
aList
[0]
[1]
[2]
bList
Namespace
7.2:
.
aList
"new"
[0]
[1]
[2]
bList
Namespace
7.3: .
[0]
[0]
aDict
Namespace
7.4: .
7.
92
a f
, . ,
a = 5 .

,
.
, L . , x
L. ,
x .
. , , L
, .
, , .
,
x . , L
foo()

.
def foo ( x ) :
p r i n t ( ' point 2: ' , end= ' ' )
p r i n t ( id ( x ) )
x = [ 1 , 2 , 3]
p r i n t ( ' point 3: ' , end= ' ' )
p r i n t ( id ( x ) )
print ( x )
L = [ 3 , 2 , 1]
p r i n t ( ' point 1: ' , end= ' ' )
p r i n t ( id ( L ) )
foo ( L )
p r i n t ( ' point 4: ' , end= ' ' )
p r i n t ( id ( L ) )
7.5.
93
print ( L )

, L .
L ,
.
foo() , L, python

L error
.
Python

.
def foo ( ) :
print ( ' point 2: ' , end= ' ' )
# Error . L i s not declared in t h i s scope
print ( id ( L ) )
L = [ 1 , 2 , 3]
print ( ' point 3: ' , end= ' ' )
print ( id ( L ) )
print ( L )
L = [ 3 , 2 , 1]
print ( ' point 1: ' , end= ' ' )
print ( id ( L ) )
foo ( )
print ( ' point 4: ' , end= ' ' )
print ( id ( L ) )
print ( L )
7.
94
:

.
, , , ,
, , .
def foo ( x ) :
p r i n t ( ' point 2: ' , end= ' ' )
p r i n t ( id ( L ) )
x . append ( 0 )
p r i n t ( ' point 3: ' , end= ' ' )
p r i n t ( id ( x ) )
print ( x )
L = [ 3 , 2 , 1]
p r i n t ( ' point 1: ' , end= ' ' )
p r i n t ( id ( L ) )
foo ( L )
p r i n t ( ' point 4: ' , end= ' ' )
p r i n t ( id ( L ) )
print ( L )
7.6
,
.
, deepcopy.

Python .
7.6.
95
from copy import deepcopy

def a c c e s s _ t r i e ( d , sequence , p o s i t i o n =None ) :
"""
Access the d i c t i o n a r y which i s r e f e r r e d by applying
consequently each term o f the sequence .
In a more python
terms , i f sequence i s ' key ' , access : d [ ' k ' ] [ ' e ' ] [ ' y ' ] .
Assume that the d i c t i o n a r y i s at the ` position ` o f a l i s t ,
i f ` position ` i s an argument .
>>> a = { ' k ' : [ 0 , { ' a ' : [ 0 , { ' l ' : [ 0 , { ' o ' : [ 1 , { } ] } ] } ] } ] }
>>> a c c e s s _ t r i e ( a , ' kal ' , 1)
{ ' o ': [1 , { } ] }
>>> a c c e s s _ t r i e ( a , ' kalo ' , 1)
{}
>>> a = { ' p ' : { ' y ' : { ' t ' : { ' h ' : { ' o ' : { ' n ' :
{}}}}}}}
>>> a c c e s s _ t r i e ( a , ' pyt ' )

{ 'h ': { ' o ': { 'n ':
{}}}}
' ')
{ 'p ': { ' y ': { ' t ': { 'h ': { ' o ': { 'n ': { } } } } } } }
>>> a c c e s s _ t r i e ( a , ' python ' )
>>> a c c e s s _ t r i e ( a ,
{}
>>> b = a c c e s s _ t r i e ( a , ' pyth ' )
>>> b [ ' O ' ] = ' 123 '
>>> a
{ ' p ' : { ' y ' : { ' t ' : { ' h ' : { ' O ' : ' 123 ' , ' o ' : { ' n ' :
"""
for c in sequence :
d = d[ c ]
i f p o s i t i o n i s not None :
d = d [ position ]
{}}}}}}}
7.
96
return d
def p o p u l a t e _ t r i e ( t r i e , sequence , p o s i t i o n =None ) :

"""
Populate a t r i e .
Assume that the counter i s always at ` position ` 0 while the
` position ` o f the d i c t i o n a r y i s the l a s t one .

>>> t r i e = { }
>>> p o p u l a t e _ t r i e ( t r i e , ' python ' )
{ 'p ': { ' y ': { ' t ': { 'h ': { ' o ': { 'n ':
{}}}}}}}
>>> t r i e = { }
>>> p o p u l a t e _ t r i e ( t r i e , ' kalo ' , 1)
{ 'k ': [1 , { ' a ': [1 , { ' l ': [1 , { ' o ': [1 , { } ] } ] } ] } ] }
>>> t r i e = { }
>>> p o p u l a t e _ t r i e ( t r i e , ' heh ' , 2)
{ 'h ': [1 , 0, { ' e ': [1 , 0, { 'h ': [1 , 0, { } ] } ] } ] }
>>> t r i e = { }
>>> t r i e = p o p u la t e _ t r i e ( t r i e , ' heh ' , 1)
>>> p o p u l a t e _ t r i e ( t r i e , ' ha ' , 1)
{ 'h ': [2 , { ' a ': [1 , { } ] ,
'e ': [1 , { 'h ': [1 , { } ] } ] } ] }
"""
i f ( p o s i t i o n i s not None ) and ( p o s i t i o n >= 1 ) :
embedded_obj = [ 0 ] p o s i t i o n
embedded_obj . append ( { } )
else :
embedded_obj = { }
7.6.
97
d2 = t r i e
for i , character in enumerate ( sequence ) :
d2 = a c c e s s _ t r i e ( t r i e , sequence [ : i ] , p o s i t i o n )
i f character not in d2 :
i f p o s i t i o n i s None :
d2 [ character ] = deepcopy ( embedded_obj )
else :
d2 [ character ] = d2 . get ( character ,\
deepcopy ( embedded_obj ) )
d2 [ character ] [ 0 ] += 1
e l i f p o s i t i o n i s not None :
d2 [ character ] [ 0 ] += 1
return t r i e
access_trie()
. ,
position None, if
,
.
sequence
. ,

.
.
d (hides)
. ,
d
.

.
populate_trie , -
7.
98

deepcopy.
.

.
embedded_obj ,
.
embedded_obj
embedded_obj. .
, (
) .
:
>>> L = l i s t ( range ( 5 ) )
>>> L . append ( L )
>>> L
[0 , 1, 2, 3, 4, [ . . . ] ]

, 8.8,

8.3.

What can be said at all can be said clearly,
and what we cannot talk about we must pass
over in silence.
Ludwig Wittgenstein
, -
8.1

Python.
Ludwig Wittgenstein ,
:
. ()
. ( )

. ()
99
8.
100
, , , . (
)
. ( )
.
( )
,
. ( )

.
, ,

. ,

. ( )
,
.
.
.
, .
:
: : Guido van Rossum

: : Python
8.2.
101
(Class): (attributes)
(methods) . .

(Object): ,
.
.
(Instance): .
(Method): .
(Inheritance): ,
,
.
.

. (fields)
((methods).
.
.
8.2
8.
102
class Snake ( ) :
pass
python = Snake ( )
class Snake(): Snake
, python = Snake() .

.
class Snake ( ) :
def helloWorld ( s e l f ) :
p r i n t ( ' Hello World ! ' )
python = Snake ( )
python . helloWorld ( )
, , def. ,

self .
self,
.
, . .
(
)
.
, , . ( , ),
. ,
, .
, . , -
8.2.
103
, , ,
.
class Dog ( ) :
def _ _ i n i t _ _ ( s e l f , name, color , height , mood, age ) :
"""
This method i s c a l l e d when an new objected i s
initiallized .
"""
# here we setup the a t t r i b u t e s o f our dog
s e l f .name = name
s e l f . color = color
s e l f . height = height
s e l f .mood = mood
s e l f . age = age
s e l f . hungry = False
s e l f . t i r e d = False
def p r i n t _ a t t r i b u t e s ( s e l f ) :
" " " P r i n t a l l the a t t r i b u t e s o f the dog " " "
p r i n t ( 'Name i s ' , s e l f .name)
p r i n t ( ' Color i s ' , s e l f . c o l o r )
p r i n t ( ' Height i s ' , s e l f . height )
p r i n t ( ' Mood i s ' , s e l f .mood)
p r i n t ( ' Age i s ' , s e l f . age )
p r i n t ( ' Hungry i s ' , s e l f .name)
p r i n t ( ' Tired i s ' , s e l f . t i r e d )
ralph = Dog ( ' Ralph ' , ' blue ' , 1.80 , ' good ' , 15)
ralph . p r i n t _ a t t r i b u t e s ( )
,
Dog() -
8.
104
. __init__().
. __init__()
self ,
. .
8.2.1. , self this
. self
. , self
, . , ,
.
8.3

.
Trie
.
class T r i e :
"""
A T r i e i s l i k e a d i c t i o n a r y in that i t maps keys to values .
However , because o f the way keys are stored , i t allows
look up based on the longest p r e f i x that matches .
"""
def _ _ i n i t _ _ ( s e l f ) :
# Every node consists o f a l i s t with two p o s i t i o n .
In
# the f i r s t one , there i s the value while on the second
8.3.
105
# one a d i c t i o n a r y which leads to the r e s t o f the nodes .

s e l f . root = [ 0 , { } ]
def i n s e r t ( s e l f , key ) :
"""
Add the given value f o r the given key .
>>> a = T r i e ( )
>>> a . i n s e r t ( ' kalo ' )
>>> p r i n t ( a )
[0 , { 'k ': [1 , { ' a ': [1 , { ' l ': [1 , { ' o ': [1 , { } ] } ] } ] } ] } ]
>>> a . i n s e r t ( ' kalo ' )
>>> p r i n t ( a )
[0 , { 'k ': [2 , { ' a ': [2 , { ' l ': [2 , { ' o ': [2 , { } ] } ] } ] } ] } ]
>>> b = T r i e ( )
>>> b . i n s e r t ( ' heh ' )
>>> b . i n s e r t ( ' ha ' )
>>> p r i n t ( b )
[0 , { 'h ': [2 , { ' a ': [1 , { } ] ,
'e ': [1 , { 'h ': [1 , { } ] } ] } ] } ]
"""
# f i n d the node to append the new value .
curr_node = s e l f . root
for k in key :
curr_node = curr_node [ 1 ] . s e t d e f a u l t ( k , [ 0 , { } ] )
curr_node [ 0 ] += 1
def f i n d ( s e l f , key ) :
"""
Return the value f o r the given key or None i f key not
found .
8.
106
>>> a = T r i e ( )
>>> a . i n s e r t ( ' ha ' )
>>> a . i n s e r t ( ' ha ' )
>>> a . i n s e r t ( ' he ' )
>>> a . i n s e r t ( ' ho ' )
>>> p r i n t ( a . f i n d ( ' h ' ) )
4
>>> p r i n t ( a . f i n d ( ' ha ' ) )
2
>>> p r i n t ( a . f i n d ( ' he ' ) )
1
"""
for k in key :
try :
curr_node = curr_node [ 1 ] [ k ]
except KeyError :
return 0
return curr_node [ 0 ]
def _ _ s t r _ _ ( s e l f ) :
return s t r ( s e l f . root )
def __getitem__ ( s e l f , key ) :
for k in key :
try :
curr_node = curr_node [ 1 ] [ k ]
except KeyError :
yield None
for k in curr_node [ 1 ] :
8.4. (attributes)
107
yield k , curr_node [ 1 ] [ k ] [ 0 ]
i f __name__ == ' __main__ ' :
a = Trie ( )
a . i n s e r t ( ' kalo ' )
a . i n s e r t ( ' kala ' )
a . i n s e r t ( ' kal ' )
a . i n s e r t ( ' kata ' )
prin t ( a . f i n d ( ' kala ' ) )
for b in a [ ' ka ' ] :
print ( b )
prin t ( a )
8.4
(attributes)
( ) (attributes) .
ralph (instance)
Dog,
name, ralph.name.

self .
() .

self.characteristic = .
, print_attributes(). self
.
.
8.
108
8.5
(member functions)
.
, , ,
(Member Functions). ,
.
.

.
Python :
v a r i a b l e . member_function ( [ any arguments required ] )
, dir Python
.
a = ' Python by example '
p r i n t ( ' Member functions f o r s t r i n g ' )
print ( dir ( a ) )
b = ( 1 , 2 , 3)
p r i n t ( ' Member functions f o r tuple ' )
print ( dir ( b ) )
c = [ 1 , 2 , 3]
p r i n t ( ' Member functions f o r l i s t ' )
print ( dir ( c ) )
__functionname__
Python
.
, -
8.6.
109
Python.
c = [ 1 , 2 , 3]
print ( help ( c . s o r t ) )
8.6
8.6.1
8.6.1.
( ).
.
class Snake :
noOfSnakes = 0
def _ _ i n i t _ _ ( s e l f , name = ' unknown ' ) :
prin t ( ' I n i t i a l i z i n g { 0 } ' . format ( s e l f .name ) )
Snake . noOfSnakes += 1
def helloWorld ( s e l f ) :
prin t ( ' Hello World from { 0 } ! ' . format ( s e l f .name ) )
@staticmethod
def numberOfSnakes ( ) :
prin t ( Snake . noOfSnakes )
python = Snake ( ' TasPython ' )
python . helloWorld ( )
Snake . numberOfSnakes ( )
cobra = Snake ( )
cobra . helloWorld ( )
Snake . numberOfSnakes ( )
8.
110

. , (__init__,
noOfSnakes.
8.6.2
8.6.2. ,
. ,

( self).
,
(decorator) @staticmethod
. , ,
,
,
.
8.7
A b1 B . , B A, b1 1 . B 2 .
: (part-of) (has-a) - (is-a).
Python
.
1
fun
B a1.b1.fun(), a1 A.
2
a1.fun()
8.7.
111

.
8.7.1. .
. () ().
class UniversityMember :
def _ _ i n i t _ _ ( s e l f , name, age ) :
s e l f . age = age
def who ( s e l f ) :
p r i n t ( 'Name : " { } " Age : " { } " ' . format ( s e l f .name, s e l f . age ) )
class Professor ( UniversityMember ) :
def _ _ i n i t _ _ ( s e l f , name, age , salary ) :
UniversityMember . _ _ i n i t _ _ ( s e l f , name, age )
s e l f . salary = salary
UniversityMember .who ( s e l f )
p r i n t ( ' Salary : " { } " ' . format ( s e l f . salary ) )
class Student ( UniversityMember ) :
def _ _ i n i t _ _ ( s e l f , name, age , marks ) :
UniversityMember . _ _ i n i t _ _ ( s e l f , name, age )
s e l f . marks = marks
UniversityMember .who ( s e l f )
p r i n t ( ' Marks : " { } " ' . format ( s e l f . marks ) )
8.
112
p = Professor ( ' Mr. Sipser ' , 40, 3000000)

s = Student ( ' Kosmadakis ' , 25, 9.99)
for member in ( p , s ) :
p r i n t ( '' )
member.who ( )
, Professor
UniversityMember.
, Professor
(UniversityMember). ,
Professor

.
.

, ,
DRY Dont Repeat Yourself
,
(
).
8.8
,
( , ,
..).
__. .
,
8.8.
113
Python operator overloading.
__init__(self, . . . ): .
. (base class) __init__(),
.
, __init__()
__del__(self): .
(destructor). ,
.
__repr__(self): repr() . ,
Python .
debugging.
__str__(self): str()
print().
__repr__() .
.
__lt__(self, other), __le__(self, other), __eq__(self, other), __ne__(self, other), __ne__(self, other), __gt__(self, other), __ge__(self, other): (<),
(<=), (==), (! =),
(>), (>=).

.
, , .
__add__(self, other): (+)

__sub__(self, other): ()
8.
114
__mul__(self, other): ()
__truediv__(self, other): (/)
__floordiv__(self, other): (//)
__mod__(self, other): (%)
,
(descriptors)
.

__, ,
.

:
class EmbeddedDict ( d i c t ) :
def __missing__ ( s e l f , key ) :
value = EmbeddedDict ( )
s e l f [ key ] = value
return value
d = {}
d2 = EmbeddedDict ( d )
d2 [ ' a ' ] [ ' b ' ] [ ' c ' ] = 1
p r i n t ( d2 )

, .

. -
,

.
9.1

, ,

. ,
open() . ,
,
. , , .
115
9.
116
open()
9.1.

r
( )
( )

r+ /
w
a
b
+
9.1:
r, w, a .
,
( r.
9.2
9.2.1
read().
, bytes
.
f = open ( ' i n p u t _ f i l e . t x t ' ) # open , readonly ( d e f a u l t )
p r i n t ( f .name) # recover name from f i l e o b j e c t
p r i n t ( f . readlines ( ) )
p r i n t ( f . readlines ( ) ) # already at end o f f i l e
f . seek ( 0 ) # go back to byte 0 o f the f i l e
p r i n t ( f . read ( ) ) # read to EOF, returning bytes in a s t r i n g
f . close ( )
9.2.
117
readlines read,
,
,
. , close()
.
9.2.2
, ,
,
open().
,
.
g = open ( ' n e w _ f i l e ' , 'w ' ) # open f o r w r i t i n g
g . write ( ' A new f i l e begins ' ) # takes j u s t one argument
g . write ( ' . . . today ! \n ' )
g . close ( )
, ,
.
f = open ( ' f i l e . t x t ' , ' a ' )
f . write ( ' Append a new l i n e at the end o f the f i l e \n ' )
f . close ( )
9.2.3
for
(iterate), .
f = open ( ' i n p u t _ f i l e . t x t ' ) # open , readonly ( d e f a u l t )
for l i n e in f :
prin t ( l i n e )
9.
118
, .
, , \n. , ,
. print ,
.
9.2.4
()
(serialization) , bits
( ) .

.

( ) .
, Python (module) pickle.
pickle
.
0:

1:

2: 2
Python
3:
( 3),
.
, .
9.3.
119
import p i c k l e
write_data = [ 1 , 2.0 , ' asdf ' , [ None , True , False ] ]
with open ( ' data . p i c k l e ' , ' wb ' ) as f :
p i c k l e .dump( write_data , f )
with open ( ' data . p i c k l e ' , ' rb ' ) as f :
read_data = p i c k l e . load ( f )
print ( read_data )
python
. ,
(binary format),
.
9.3
,
. python
,
.
os
( )
.
9.3.1
getcwd(): .
9.
120
listdir(): .
chdir(path): path.
(module)
os.
cross-platform,
.
. os.path.split()
os.path.join() crossplatform ,
.
import os
abs_path = os . path . abspath ( os . path . curdir )
# os . path . j o i n i s used to append a r e l a t i v e path at the
# end o f another path
path2 = os . path . j o i n ( abs_path , " new_dir " )
p r i n t ( path2 )
# os . path . s p l i t " s p l i t s " the path in two pieces .
# The path u n t i l the l a s t ' / ' and whatever f o l l o w s
path0 , path1 = os . path . s p l i t ( path2 )
p r i n t ( path0 )
p r i n t ( path1 )

( cross-platform) Python.
import os
p r i n t ( os . path . curdir ) # get current d i r e c t o r y ( Pythonic humor )
abs_path = os . path . abspath ( os . path . curdir ) # get i t s f u l l path
p r i n t ( abs_path )
9.3.
121
f u l l _ p a t h = os . getcwd ( )
print ( f u l l _ p a t h )
# get the t a i l end o f the path
print ( os . path . basename ( f u l l _ p a t h ) )
# l i s t the contents o f the current d i r e c t o r y
os . l i s t d i r ( f u l l _ p a t h )
# get information about f i l e . t x t
# the numbers below are : inode protection mode; inode number ;
# device inode resides on ; number o f l i n k s to the inode ;
# user id o f the owner ; group id o f the owner ; s i z e in bytes ;
# time o f l a s t access ; time o f l a s t modification ;
# " ctime " as reported by OS
print ( os . s t a t ( ' f i l e . t x t ' ) )
s i z e = os . path . g e t s i z e ( ' f i l e . t x t ' )

print ( ' The f i l e s i z e i s : ' , s i z e )
i s d i r e c t o r y = os . path . i s d i r ( ' f i l e . t x t ' )
print ( ' I s f i l e . t x t a d i r e c t o r y : ' , i s d i r e c t o r y )
# time o f l a s t modification ( seconds since Epoch )
last_mod = os . path . getmtime ( ' f i l e . t x t ' )
print ( ' The l a s t time t h i s f i l e modified i s ' , last_mod )
, os.system().
import os
os . system ( " l s " )
,
-
9.
122
.
9.3.2
mkdir(path): path.
makedirs(path): path
, .
import os
# remove new_dir i f already e x i s t s and i t i s empty
i f os . path . i s d i r ( ' new_dir ' ) :
os . rmdir ( ' new_dir ' )
os . makedirs ( ' new_dir ' )
p r i n t ( os . l i s t d i r ( ' . ' ) )
# change to subdirectory new_dir
os . chdir ( ' new_dir ' )
10
Success is not final, failure is not fatal: it is

the courage to continue that counts.
Winston Churchill

( ) -
. ,

.
10.1
10.1.1.

.
,
, .
123
10.
124

. ,
(
).
:
1. Python .
2. ( NameError, TypeError,
IndexError).
3. .
4. ,
.
5. , traceback,
.
,
, if. . . else . . . ,
. ,
,
else. ,

,
except.
10.2
,
.
.
>>> 8/0
10.2. .
125

ZeroDivisionError : i n t d i v i s i o n or modulo by zero
(shell) Python, . ,
(<stdin>, ), ( 1), (ZeroDivisionError,
) (int
division or modulo by zero).
,
.
>>> try :
...
8/0
. . . except ZeroDivisionError :
...
p r i n t ( ' Could not make the d i v i s i o n ' )
...
Could not make the d i v i s i o n
, try ,
except.
(
ZeroDivisionError),
.
.
, :
>>> a 5
NameError : name ' a ' i s not defined
10.
126

a .
NameError.
, a,
try. . . except. . .
(NameError).

( )
.
>>> b = None
>>> b 7
TypeError : unsupported operand type ( s ) for :
' NoneType ' and ' i n t '

, ,
, .
>>> with open ( ' 3BirdsAreSitting .mp3 ' , ' r ' ) as f :
...
f . read ( )
...
IOError : [ Errno 2] No such f i l e or d i r e c t o r y :
' 3BirdsAreSitting .mp3 '

with,
3BirdsAreSitting.mp3, with,
, ,
.
,
except,
,
.
10.2. .
127
. . . except ( RuntimeError , TypeError , NameError ) :

...
pass
-
except:, , .
import sys
try :
f = open ( ' myfile . t x t ' )
s = f . readline ( )
i = int ( s . strip ( ) )
except IOError as e r r :
prin t ( " I /O e r r o r : { } " . format ( e r r ) )
except ValueError :
prin t ( " Could not convert data to an i n t e g e r . " )
except :
prin t ( " Unexpected e r r o r : " , sys . exc_info ( ) [ 0 ] )
raise
, , , except . ,
myfile.txt,

.
, .
,
, IOError err.
. except
,
, except
10.
128
try, .
ValueError
.
, ,

raise,
.1 ,
, (
) .
raise .
10.3
, ( web )
, ,
.

.
while True :
try :
x = i n t ( input ( " Please enter a number : " ) )
break
except ValueError :
p r i n t ( " Not a number . Try again . . . " )
print ( x )
, . ,
, . ,
input 1
, ,
try. . . except. . .
.
10.4.
129
. , int
.
, x while, break
except ValueError,
. break ,
. ,
print.
10.4
,
Python.
1. try .
2. , except.
3. try ,
except.
4. except .
5. , .
6. , try .
7. , .
10.4.1 try:. . . else: . . .

,
.

try . , Python
else, if,
.
10.
130
try :
f = open ( ' myfile . t x t ' )
except IOError as e r r :
p r i n t ( " I /O e r r o r : { } " . format ( e r r ) )
else :
s = f . readline ( )
p r i n t ( ' The f i r s t l i n e o f f i s : ' , s )
f . close ( )
else
. , ,

.
:
1. try.
2. except.
3. ( ) else.
else
except .
10.4.2 finally
, finally,
, .
# how many times we have requested f o r input
times = 0
while True :
try :
x = i n t ( input ( " Please enter a number : " ) )
break
10.5.
131
except ValueError :
p r i n t ( " Not a number . Try again . . . " )
finally :
times += 1
print ( ' Requested input ' , times )
,
, . , finally,
,
.

.
10.5
10.5.1
2 Exception.

.
args
.
.
try :
r a i s e Exception ( ' Can you handle i t ? ' )
except Exception as i n s t :
prin t ( i n s t . args )
prin t ( i n s t )
2
10.
132
, Exception. Can you handle it?.

as
inst,
. args , .
__str__() .
10.5.2
(raise)
,
BaseException. ,
, Exception. raise.
>>> r a i s e NameError ( ' TesseraPoulakiaKa8ontai ' )
NameError : TesseraPoulakiaKa8ontai
.
>>> r a i s e NameError
NameError
10.5.3
, Exception.
>>> class MyError ( Exception ) :
10.6. if . . . else
...
def _ _ i n i t _ _ ( s e l f , value ) :
...
s e l f . value = value
...
133
def _ _ s t r _ _ ( s e l f ) :
...
return repr ( s e l f . value )

__init__, -
__str__
.
, ,
.
>>> try :
...
r a i s e MyError ( 4 )
. . . except MyError as e :
...
p r i n t ( 'My exception occurred : ' , e )
...
My exception occurred : 4
>>> r a i s e MyError ( ' oops ! ' )
F i l e " <stdin > " , l i n e 1 , in ?
__main__ . MyError : ' oops ! '
10.6
if . . . else

.
if
. . . else. .
10.6.1.
,
. ,
10.
134
( ). , ,
.

.
from t i m e i t import Timer
from random import randint
VALUES = 10000
inverseprob = 2
d = d i c t ( [ ( x , y ) for x , y in z i p ( range (VALUES) , \
range (VALUES, 2 VALUES ) ) ] )
class MyError ( Exception ) :

def _ _ i n i t _ _ ( s e l f , value ) :
s e l f . value = value
def _ _ s t r _ _ ( s e l f ) :
return repr ( s e l f . value )
def try_except ( d ) :
try :
d [ ' not ' ]
except KeyError :
pass
def i f _ e l s e ( d ) :
i f ' not ' in d :
d [ ' not ' ]
else :
pass
10.6. if . . . else
def try_exceptYES ( d ) :
try :
d[1]
except KeyError :
pass
def if_elseYES ( d ) :
i f 1 in d :
d[1]
else :
pass
def try_exceptMAYBE ( d , inverseprob ) :

s = randint ( 0 , inverseprob )
try :
i f s == 0: r a i s e MyError ( 2 )
d[1]
except MyError :
pass
def if_elseMAYBE ( d , inverseprob ) :

s = randint ( 0 , inverseprob )
i f s == 0: return
else : d [ 1 ]
def f a i l ( ) :
prin t ( " Unsuccessful look up" )
135
10.
136
t = Timer ( " try_except ( d ) " ,\
" from __main__ import try_except , d " )

s f = ' Execution time with exceptions : { } seconds '
p r i n t ( s f . format ( t . t i m e i t ( ) / 10 6))
t = Timer ( " i f _ e l s e ( d ) " ,\
" from __main__ import i f _ e l s e , d " )
s f = ' Execution time with i f / e l s e : { } seconds '
def success ( ) :
p r i n t ( " Successful look up" )
t = Timer ( " try_exceptYES ( d ) " ,\
" from __main__ import try_exceptYES , d " )
t = Timer ( " if_elseYES ( d ) " ,\
" from __main__ import if_elseYES , d " )
def maybe ( ) :
p r i n t ( " Successful under a p r o b a b i l i t y " )
t = Timer ( " try_exceptMAYBE ( d , inverseprob ) " ,\
" from __main__ import try_exceptMAYBE , d , inverseprob " )
t = Timer ( " if_elseMAYBE ( d , inverseprob ) " ,\
" from __main__ import if_elseMAYBE , d , inverseprob " )
10.6. if . . . else
prin t ( s f . format ( t . t i m e i t ( ) / 10 6))
def main ( ) :
success ( )
fail ()
maybe ( )
i f __name__ == ' __main__ ' :

main ( )
137
138
10.
11
A woodpecker can peck twenty times on a

thousand trees and get nowhere, but stay
busy. Or he can peck twenty-thousand times
on one tree and get dinner.
Seth Godin

, . ,
, .
( , ),
Python 3 .
11.1
(Iterators)
, (iterators).
, .
mylist = [ 1 , 2 , 3]
for i in mylist :
139
11.
140
print ( i )
(iterator) next() .
11.1.1
for
:
for i in mylist :
. . . loop body . . .
Python :
1. next(). iter(mylist)
next().
2.
. i
mylist. ,
next() i . i .
StopIteration next()
mylist
.
11.2
(generators)
yield return. . ,
yield. ,
yield, yield. ,
,
,
.
11.2.
141
11.2.1. iterators. ,

. , .
.

range() (end)
(start), modulo
.
def modulo_yield ( s t a r t , end , modulo ) :
" " " Create a l i s t o f a l l the number from s t a r t _ { modulo }
u n t i l end_ { modulo } i s reached .
"""
i f ( s t a r t > end ) :
a = s t a r t % modulo
b = ( end % modulo ) + modulo
else :
a = start
b = end
for num in range ( a , b ) :
yield num % modulo
start > end ,
. , yield
for. ,
, ,
.
Fibonacci
.
def f i b o n a c c i (num) :
a = 0
11.
142
yield a
b = 1
yield b
for i in range ( 2 , num) :
b, a = a + b, b
yield b
for i in f i b o n a c c i ( 1 0 ) :
print ( i )
, lists comprehensions.
primes = [ 1 , 2 , 3 , 5 , 7]
square_primes = ( i 2 for i in primes )
p r i n t ( next ( square_primes ) )
, ,
next(). next()
StopIteraton

.
,
.
( yield)
. ,
yield.
11.3.
11.3
143

. ,
(on the fly). ,
.
parsing
.

.
.
Fibonacci.
,

.
,
.. for,
.
:
1. len().
(
) for .
2. ( ) .
11.
144
,
:
for i in range ( 0 , len ( l ) ) :
e = l[i]
...
:
for i , e in enumerate ( l ) :
...
.
11.4
,

.
,
,
( ,
).
( 1, 17).
.
10
Fibonacci, 20,
Fibonacci.
. fibonacci
.
import i t e r t o o l s
class Indexable ( o b j e c t ) :
def _ _ i n i t _ _ ( s e l f , i t ) :
11.4.
145
self . it = it
def _ _ i t e r _ _ ( s e l f ) :
for e l t in s e l f . i t :
yield e l t
def __getitem__ ( s e l f , index ) :
try :
return next ( i t e r t o o l s . i s l i c e ( s e l f . i t , index ,\
index + 1 ) )
# support f o r [ s t a r t : end : step ] notation
except TypeError :
return l i s t ( i t e r t o o l s . i s l i c e ( s e l f . i t ,\
index . s t a r t , index . stop , index . step ) )
i t = Indexable ( f i b o n a c c i ( 4 5 ) )
# prints the 10th element
print ( i t [ 1 0 ] )
# 55
# prints the element a f t e r 10 elements from the current
print ( i t [ 1 0 ] )
# 10946
# prints the elements s t a r t i n g a f t e r where we had stopped
print ( i t [ 2 : 1 2 : 2 ] )
# [46368 , 121393, 317811, 832040, 2178309]
146
11.
12

, .
, (
).
(pattern).
Python.
. ,
. ,
.
12.1

1 . 1
147
12.
148
.
,

. ,
4.
import re
def num_start4 ( t e x t ) :
" " " Check whether any number which s t a r t s with 4. " " "
pattern = re . compile ( r ' \b4[0 9] ' )
return bool ( pattern . search ( t e x t ) )
a = num_start4 ( " asdf 1234" )
# False
a = num_start4 ( " asdf 4123" )
# True
\. .
,
4 4321 4 3421.

. ,
.
import re
a = "3141/1000 reminds me o f pi "
b = re . f i n d a l l ( " [0 9] " , a )
13
I cant understand why people are frightened

of new ideas. Im frightened of the old ones.
Josh Cage
, ,
,
-
13.1
( ) object.
(descriptors).
(attributes) .
, .

. ,
149
13.
150
x y .
,
getters setters
. , .
Python ,
. ,
.
13.2
13.2.1

. :
__get__(self, instance, owner)

__set__(self, instance, value)
__delete__(self, instance)

(attributes) :
: __get__(self, instance, owner). ()

AttributeError.
:
__set__(self, instance, value).
:
__delete__(self, instance).
13.2.
151
self
() ,
.
owner:
.
instance: ( )
. None
.
value: .
152
13.
14
GUI tkinter

. :
. .
GUI (Graphical
User Interface) .

.
:
1. wxPython
2. pyQT
3. PyGTK
4. tkinter
,

Python. , tkinter (= Tk interface) Python,

153
14. GUI tkinter
154
.
Tcl/Tk. tkinter
Tcl/Tk.
14.1
:
from t k i n t e r import
root = Tk ( )
w = Label ( root , t e x t = " Hello world ! " )
w. pack ( )
root . mainloop ( )
tkinter , ,
. (label)
pack(). ,
(mainloop)
.
14.2
,
. ,
, . , .
,

.
14.2.
155
from t k i n t e r . messagebox import
class Calculator ( Frame ) :

" " " Describes the main behaviour o f a c a l c u l a t o r
"""
def d_result ( s e l f , c ) :
" " " Displays the r e s u l t o f an operation
"""
s e l f . label3 . c o n f i g ( t e x t = ' The r e s u l t i s ' + s t r ( c ) )
s e l f . label3 . pack ( )
def d_add ( s e l f ) :
" " " Handles the addition in the GUI
"""
a , b = s e l f . getNum ( )
c = s e l f . addition ( a , b )
s e l f . d_result ( c )
def d_sub ( s e l f ) :
" " " Handles the substraction in the GUI
"""
c = s e l f . substraction ( a , b )
14. GUI tkinter
156
def d_mul ( s e l f ) :
" " " Handles the m u l t i p l i c a t i o n in the GUI

"""
c = s e l f . multiplication ( a , b )
def d_div ( s e l f ) :
" " " Handles the d i v i s i o n in the GUI
"""
c = s e l f . division ( a , b)
def addition ( s e l f , a , b ) :
" " " Add numbers a , b and return t h e i r r e s u l t
"""
c = a + b
return c
def substraction ( s e l f , a , b ) :
" " " Substract a b and return the r e s u l t
"""
c = a b
return c
def m u l t i p l i c a t i o n ( s e l f , a , b ) :
" " " Multiply a b and return i t s r e s u l t
"""
c = a b
14.2.
157
return c
def d i v i s i o n ( s e l f , a , b ) :
" " " Divide a / b and return i t s r e s u l t
"""
try :
# i f b != 0
c = a / b
except ZeroDivisionError :
# i f b == 0
showinfo ( ' Warning ' , ' Cannot d i v i d e by 0. ' )
c = 0
return c
def getNum ( s e l f ) :
" " " Gets the two numbers on which the operation
w i l l be applied .
In case o f error , i t returns both o f them as zero
and warns the user .
"""
try :
a = f l o a t ( s e l f . enter1 . get ( ) )
b = f l o a t ( s e l f . enter2 . get ( ) )
# i f the f i e l d s were empty
except ValueError :
a, b = 0, 0
showinfo ( ' I n f o ' , ' There are some empty f i e l d s ' )
return a , b
def insertNum ( s e l f , l a b e l = " I n s e r t a number : " ) :

" " " Draw the necessary elements f o r the i n s e r t i o n o f
14. GUI tkinter
158
two numbers
"""
# The f i r s t number
s e l f . label1 = Label ( s e l f , t e x t = l a b e l )
# create the f i e l d f o r that number
s e l f . enter1 = Entry ( s e l f )
s e l f . enter1 . pack ( )
# the second number
s e l f . label2 = Label ( s e l f , t e x t = l a b e l )
# create the f i e l d f o r the new number
s e l f . enter2 = Entry ( s e l f )
s e l f . enter2 . pack ( )
def drawGUI ( s e l f ) :
"""
I t draws the GUI within the container from which i s
c a l l e d . In t h i s case , within the frame where the
c a l c u l a t o r belongs .
"""
# draws the elements which are used to i n s e r t a number
s e l f . insertNum ( )
# set the focus to enter1
s e l f . enter1 . focus ( )
# create the buttons
s e l f . button1 = \
Button ( s e l f , t e x t = " add " , command = s e l f . d_add )
14.2.
Button ( s e l f , t e x t = " sub " , command = s e l f . d_sub )
Button ( s e l f , t e x t = "mul" , command = s e l f . d_mul )
Button ( s e l f , t e x t = " div " , command = s e l f . d_div )
# display them
s e l f . button1 . pack ( side=LEFT )
# create the l a b e l where we display the r e s u l t
s e l f . label3 = Label ( s e l f )
return root ;
def _ _ i n i t _ _ ( s e l f , master = None ) :

"""
The constructor i s c a l l e d with a parent widget .
I t creates the GUI f o r the c a l c u l a t o r .
"""
Frame . _ _ i n i t _ _ ( s e l f , master )
s e l f . master . t i t l e ( " Calculator " )
s e l f . pack ( )
s e l f . drawGUI ( )
root = Tk ( )
calc = Calculator ( master = root )
calc . mainloop ( )
159
14. GUI tkinter
160
14.1: showinfo(Info, There are some empty fields.)
Entry Button .
14.3
pop-up ,
. print

(
).
,
tkinter.messagebox. ,
.
showinfo()
askokcancel()
showwarning()
showerror()
askquestion()
askyesno()
askretrycancel()
14.3.
14.2: askokcancel(Go on?, Would you like to quit?)
14.3: showwarning(Warning, A window detected!)
14.4: showerror (Error, Many windows have been detected!)
14.5: askquestion(Install, Would you like to install a door?)
14.6: askyesno(Taste, Would you like fries with that?)
161
14. GUI tkinter
162
14.7: askretrycancel(No media found, Would you like to try again?)
:
:
: . ,
.
,
.
from t k i n t e r . messagebox import
showinfo ( ' I n f o ' , ' There are some empty f i e l d s . ' )
showwarning ( ' Warning ' , ' A window detected ! ' )
showerror ( ' Error ' , ' Many windows have been detected ! ' )
askquestion ( ' I n s t a l l ' , ' Would you l i k e to i n s t a l l a door? ' )

( , ),
true false .
15
All those who believe in psychokinesis raise

my hand.

. ,

.
15.1
15.1.1

. .
, .
163
15.
164
,
.
15.1.2
(run time errors)

(
, ).
15.1.3
,
.
. ,
!
15.2 Python Debugger

debugger. Python
debugger module,
pdb1 . , debugger
(print, log
messages) . , Python
(debugger)
. debugger,
.
import pdb
debugger .
:
Python DeBugger
15.2. Python Debugger
165

(breakpoints)
Python.
15.2.1
, pdb.set_trace().
import pdb
a = " taspython "
b = " . eu\n"
pdb . s e t _ t r a c e ( )
c = " Because s i m p l i c i t y matters "
final = a + b + c
print ( f i n a l )
pdb.set_trace(),
n .
n,
enter
. debugger
q debugger c
.
15.2.2
n,
debugger ,
. s.
n,
15.
166
, .

s, r. , return
( ).
15.2.3
l p.
,
p ,
.
,
Python . , ,

.
,
Python. ,
(!)
debugger Python
.
15.2.4
15.1 debugger.
15.2. Python Debugger
import pdb
pdb.set_trace()
<Enter>
q
p
c
l
s
r
167
debugger.

(quit)
(print)
(continue)
(listing)
(step into)
(return)
15.1:
168
15.
16

The only reason for time is so that everything
doesnt happen at once.
Albert Einstein

, .
. , ,
, . ; ,
. garbage collector
,
. ,

.
Python,
,
169
16.
170
, timeit. timeit,
,
. ,
,
.
, .
16.1

. 1 .
def measure_time ( ) :
s = """\
x = 5
i f x > 5:
p = 4
else :
p = 0
"""
t = Timer ( s )
print ( t . timeit ( ) )
timeit()
1.000.000 , ,
.
,
1
16.2.
171
number
timeit().
s = """\
x = 5
i f x > 5:
p = 4
else :
p = 0
"""
t = Timer ( s )
prin t ( t . t i m e i t ( number=100000))
16.2
,
timeit.
Timer.
. (statements)2
.
t = Timer ( " f a s t _ f u n c t i o n ( ) " ,\
" from __main__ import f a s t _ f u n c t i o n " )
s f = ' Execution time ( f o r each c a l l ) :
{ } seconds '
prin t ( s f . format ( t . t i m e i t ( ) / 10 6))

def f a s t _ f u n c t i o n ( ) :
2
(;)
16.
172
" " " A f a s t function or at l e a s t we hope so " " "

# the 2 f i r s t f i b o n a c c i numbers are always known
a, b = 0, 1
# f i n d the 20 f i r s t f i b o n a c c i numbers and p r i n t them
for i in range ( 1 , 2 0 ) :
a, b = b, a + b
def main ( ) :
measure_time ( )
i f __name__ == ' __main__ ' :
main ( )
fast_function(),
.
.
, fast_function Timer 106 ,
. ,
, t.timeit()

fast_function. ,
1000 .
t = Timer ( " f a s t _ f u n c t i o n ( ) " ,\
" from __main__ import f a s t _ f u n c t i o n " )
t . t i m e i t (1000)
,
106 ,
.
16.3. garbage collector
16.3
173
garbage collector
, , timeit() garbage collector.

,
gc.enable().
s = """\
x = 5
i f x > 5:
p = 4
else :
p = 0
"""
t = Timer ( s , ' gc . enable ( ) ' )
prin t ( t . t i m e i t ( number=100000))
16.4
. Timer() .
3 .
, .

3
, pass
16.
174
,
.
t = Timer ( ' f a s t _ f u n c t i o n ( a , b ) ' ,\
' from __main__ import fast_function ,\

setup_function ; a , b = setup_function ( ) ' , )
print ( t . timeit ( ) )
def f a s t _ f u n c t i o n ( a , b ) :
" " " A f a s t function or at l e a s t we hope so " " "
if a > b:
l = []
else :
d = {}
def setup_function ( ) :
" " " A function which must be c a l l e d f i r s t " " "
a = 5
#b = 4
b = i n t ( input ( " I n s e r t b : " ) )
return a , b
def main ( ) :
measure_time ( )
i f __name__ == ' __main__ ' :
main ( )
16.5.
175
, ,
.
16.5
; !
,
, ,
.
, (
)
:
python mtimeit s "SETUP_COMMANDS" "COMMAND_TO_BE_TIMED"

, . (Garbage Collector)
python mtimeit s ' f o r i in range ( 1 0 ) : oct ( i ) ' ' gc . enable ( ) '
16.6
(Profiling)
, ,
. , (Law of diminishing
returns).
,
.
.
176
16.
, profiling Python cProfile.

. .
:
python m c P r o f i l e filename . py
, ,
, .

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Taspython

1.3.5 Zen of Python . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

6.3.5 (Lists comprehensions) . . . . . . .

6.5.5 (Dict comprehension) . . . . . . .

10.4.1try:. . . else: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129

11.1 (Iterators) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139

In times of change, learners will inherit the

Longum iter est per preaecepta, breve et efficax per exempla!

Google ( Google App Engine)

1.3.5 Zen of Python

(statement) (unconditional branch

a = f l o a t ( input ( " C o e f f i c i e n t o f the x^2: " ) )

# Example 2 ( checking everything )

# find the next 18 f i b o n a c c i numbers and p r i n t them

p r i n t ( i , end= ' ' )

>>> for i in range (100 , 120, 2 ) :

p r i n t ( i , end= ' ' )

[100, 120) [100, 120) 2,

__enter__ __exit__, with

And there was huge numbers of UFOs around

. , ctrl+d Linux/BSD ctrl+z Windows.

p r i n t ( ' value = { 0 : 2 d } ' . format ( 1 2 ) )

p r i n t ( ' value = { 0 : 2 b } ' . format ( 1 2 ) )

p r i n t ( ' value = {0:#2b } ' . format ( 1 2 ) )

p r i n t ( ' value = { 0 : 2 o } ' . format ( 1 2 ) )

p r i n t ( ' value = {0:#2 o } ' . format ( 1 2 ) )

p r i n t ( ' value = { 0 : 2 x } ' . format ( 1 2 ) )

p r i n t ( ' value = {0:#2 x } ' . format ( 1 2 ) )

p r i n t ( ' value = { 0 : 5 } ' . format ( bin ( 1 2 ) ) )

p r i n t ( ' value = { 0 : 5 } ' . format ( oct ( 1 2 ) ) )

p r i n t ( ' value = { 0 : 5 } ' . format ( hex ( 1 2 ) ) )

p r i n t ( ' x = { 0 : 1 2 . 6 f } ' . format (1234.567))

p r i n t ( ' x = {0: 12.9 f } ' . format (1234.567))

p r i n t ( ' x = {0:+12.9 f } ' . format (1234.567))

p r i n t ( ' x = {0:+12.9 f } ' . format ( 1234.567)) # x = 1234.567000

p r i n t ( ' x = { 0 : 1 . 5 e } ' . format (0.000001234)) # x = 1.23400e06

print ( ' pi = { 0 : . 3 f } ' . format ( math . pi ) )

print ( ' pi = { 0 : . 8 f } ' . format ( math . pi ) )

from math import c e i l

a = ' Python '

There is no abstract art. You must always

(Strings): (quotes). immutable

' This i s a s t r i n g '

( (union), (intersection), (difference), (issuperset), (issubset)) (add), (remove) .

myString = ' This i s a s t r i n g . '

p r i n t ( myString [ len ( myString ) 1 ] )

sentence = input ( ' Enter your t e x t : ' )

# count l i n e s , sentences , and words o f a t e x t f i l e

# so f o r instance double space counts as one space

p r i n t ( " Blank l i n e s : " , blanklines )

' do laundry ' , 3.14 , ' return l i b r a r y books ' ]

# a l i s t may contain any type o f o b j e c t

push ( append Python)

' milk ' : 3.67 ,

d = d i c t ( [ ( ' milk ' ,

( ' butter ' , 1 . 9 5 ) ,

( ' cheese ' , 4 . 6 7 ) ] )

: del. del d[milk]

def increaseValue2 ( d , key , value ) :

' milk ' : 3.67 ,

' Ti e i n a i o Anthropos ' : 'Command not found ' }

d = { k : v for k , v in z i p ( range ( 1 5 ) , ' taspython ' ) i f v not in ' tas ' }

s = set ( ' TasPython . . . because simplcity matters ! ' )

enter exit, with

add(self, other): (+)

" from main import try_except , d " )

i f name == ' main ' :

get(self, instance, owner)

: get(self, instance, owner). ()

' from main import fast_function ,\