International Journal of Plasticity 25 (2009) 1777–1817

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International Journal of Plasticity

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ijplas

Anisotropic hardening and non-associated flow

in proportional loading of sheet metals
Thomas B. Stoughton a,*, Jeong Whan Yoon b,c,*
a
Manufacturing Systems Research Lab, MC 480-106-359, General Motors R&D Center, Warren, MI 48090-9055, USA
b
Alcoa Technical Center, 100 Technical Dr., Alcoa Center, PA 15069-0001, USA
c
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Uiversity of Aveiro, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Conventional isotropic hardening models constrain the shape of

Received 17 November 2008 the yield function to remain fixed throughout plastic deforma-
Received in final revised form 27 January tion. However, experiments show that hardening is only approx-
2009
imately isotropic under conditions of proportional loading, giving
Available online 13 February 2009
rise to systematic errors in calculation of stresses based on mod-
els that impose the constraint. Five different material data for
aluminum and stainless steel alloys are used to calibrate and
Keywords:
Anisotropic hardening
evaluate five material models, ranging in complexity from a
Constitutive law von Mises’ model based on isotropic hardening to a non- associ-
Non-associated flow rule ated flow rule (AFR) model based on anisotropic hardening. A
Yield function new model is described in which four stress–strain functions
are explicitly integrated into the yield criterion in closed form
definition of the yield condition. The model is based on a non-
AFR so that this integration does not affect the accuracy of the
plastic strain components defined by the gradient of a separate
plastic potential function. The model not only enables the elim-
ination of systematic errors for loading along the four loading
conditions, but also leads to a significant reduction of systematic
errors in other loading conditions to no higher than 1.5% of the
magnitude of the predicted stresses, far less that errors obtained
under isotropic hardening, and at a level comparable to experi-
mental uncertainty in the stress measurement. The model is
expected to lead to a significant improvement in stress predic-
tion under conditions dominated by proportional loading, and
this is expected to directly improve the accuracy of springback,
tearing, and earing predictions for these processes. In addition,
it is shown that there is no consequence on MK necking
localization due to the saturation of the yield surface in pure

* Corresponding authors.
E-mail addresses: thomas.b.stoughton@gm.com (T.B. Stoughton), jeongwhan.yoon@alcoa.com (J.W. Yoon).

0749-6419/$ - see front matter Ó 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.ijplas.2009.02.003