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Heat Transfer Basics
Heat Transfer Basics
RAMA CORPORATION
600 W. Esplanade Avenue San Jacinto, CA 92583 Tel: 800.472.5670 u 909.654.7351 Fax: 800.255.4414 u 909.654.3748
Since
1947
e-mail: rama@koan.com
Introduction..........................................................................................3 Power Requirements Formulas...................................................................4 Energy Calculations - Short Method...........................................................5 Energy Calculations - Itemized Method...................................................5 - 6 Heat Loss Curves....................................................................................7 Watt Density Curves...............................................................................8 Power Requirement Curves.......................................................................8 Ohms Law.............................................................................................9 Wattage Requirement Chart.....................................................................10 Properties of Materials.......................................................................11 - 13 Material Emissivities............................................................................13 Heater Life Estimation........................................................................... 13 Guidelines for Watt Density & Operation Temperature......................14 Corrosion Resistance of Materials.........................................15 - 16 Equivalents and Conversions...............................................................17- 20 Wire Current Carrying Capacity & Temperature Rating................................. 2 1 Trigonometric Solutions........................................................................ 22 Wiring Configurations............................................................................23 Suggested Wiring Practices for Electric Heaters.........................................24 Thermocouple Wire Selection..................................................................24 Temperature and Power Controls.......................................................25- 28 Glossary......................................................................................29 - 31
Introduction
his Engineering section covers the basic principles of thermal energy applications as related to electrical resistance type heaters. The foregoing information will assist an individual in selecting approximate requir ements for various heating systems. It includes general calculations, engineering data, conve rsion charts, and suggested wiring practices for solving heating problems. As an aid to understanding basic electrical terminology, a glossary is included. The purpose of this section is for basic electrical sizing of non-complex systems. For critical applications, Rama engineers are available to assist you in selecting components to meet your electrical heating requirements. When selecting electrical heating systems, ambient air temperature, environment toxicity and safety should be considered. Also, a basic understanding of conduction, convection and radiation modes of heat transfer is helpful. As always, Rama design and application eng ineers are eager to aid you in satisfying your electrical requirements. We are experts in the electrical heating field and try to use off-the-shelf solutions to supply you a high quality, low cost product. This section is designed only as a guide. Rama has produced this guide in order to assist the customer in choosing the correct heater for their application. However, the customer hereby releases Rama from all liability not specifically assumed by Rama hereunder. See Ramas Terms and Conditions for additional information on liability.
EQUATION 3D:
radiation (watt-hours).
Q = Heat loss (conduction, convection or radiation) k = Thermal Conductivity (btu in/ft2 F hour) A = Surface area associated with heat loss (ft2) L = Thickness of material (in) CT = Temperature difference (F) te = Time of heat loss (hours) FL = Surface loss factor (W/ft2) (Use as required for convection, radiation, and combined convection/radiation) C = Surface orientation factor: 1.29 (top), 0.63 (bottom), 1.00 (vertical)
EQUATION 3E:
QL = QL1 + QL2 + QL3 or QL = QL1 + QL4 if combined convection and radiation losses are used.
EQUATION 4:
EQUATION 5:
Q3 = Qm or Qv for start-up Q4 = Qm or Qv for working cycle Qm = Heat required to melt material Qv = Heat required to vaporize material W = Weight of material (lb) Hf = Latent heat of fusion (BTU/lb) Hv = Latent heat of vaporization (BTU/lb)
Q1 = Heat required to raise material temperature during start-up (WH) Q2 = Heat required to raise material temperature when added material is introduced (WH) Q3 = Latent heat of fusion/evaporation during start-up (WH) Q4 = Latent heat of fusion/evaporation when added material is introduced (WH) QL = Total losses - Conduction, Convection, Radiation (WH) ts = Start-up time (hr) c = Cycle time (hr) te = Exposure time (hr) SF = Safety Factory (normally 15%) When performing calculations using the Itemized Method, often some of the heat loss factors may be negligible and need not be taken into consideration. Conduction in many cases is the primary contribution to heat loss. After the power requirements have been determined, the appropriate heaters should be selected. The heater temperature will always be higher than the material process temperature. The maximum heater temperature allowed is dependent on the heat transfer path (i.e. hole fit for cartridge heater) and amount of insulation. The heater allowable watt density (w/in2) as a function of heater surface temperature should be verified by means of the charts and graphs shown in this section.
EQUATION 3C:
Energy Calculations
Short Method
EXAMPLE #1
It is desired to heat a platen to 350 F in 1 hour. The two halves of the platen weigh 490 lbs. total and measure 12" 18" 4". The platen is made of mild steel and covered with 1" of insulation. w Weight of material = 490 lbs w Temp. Difference = temp. increase (350 - 70 F) w Specific heat = 0.12 BTU/lb F for mild steel w Heat up time = 1 hour w Thermal Conductivity = approx. 0.67 BTU in/ft2 F hr for insulation w Surface Area = 880 in2 (6.11 ft2) w Insulation thickness = 1"
! Flow Rate = 10 GPM ! Temperature Difference = 150 - 68F ! Density of Water = 62.4 lbs/ft3 (8.34 lbs/gal) ! Specific Heat = 1.0 BTU/lb F Weight = 10 GPM 8.34 lbs/gal 60 min/hr = 5004 lbs/hr KW = 5004 1.0 (150-68) = 120.3 KW 3412 1.0
Energy Calculations
Itemized Method
EXAMPLE #4
Estimate radiation heat loss of polished 304 stainless steel at 700F. Use Itemized Method Equation #3c. ! A = 1 in2 (surface area) ! F = 6.96 W/in2 Black Body Radiation Factor (see Fig. 2 graph for Oxidize Steel curve use for Black Body) ! e = 0.17 (emissivity correction factor) see table 9 ! te = 1 hour exposure time QL3 = A F e te Q = 1 6.96 0.17 1 = 1.18 W/in2
STEP 1:
Power to heat material (equation #1) KW = 490 lb. 0.12 (350-70) = 4.825 KW 3412 1 hr.
STEP 2 and STEP 3 are not required due the fact that no material
is being added or is being melted or vaporized.
STEP 4: Power loss from surfaces (alternate - use Figure 1 Heat Loss Graph) Equation #3.
KW= 0.67 6.11 ft2 (350-70) = 0.336KW 3412 1"
EXAMPLE #5
The open tank in figure 1 - 1, is filled with water to within 3 of the top. It is desired to heat the tank and water to 150F in 1 hour. The tank size is 50 long x 15 wide x 30 high and holds 88 gallons of water. The tank weighs 100 lbs and the sides are covered with 2 thick insulation. Initial Temperature = 60F Final Temperature = 150F Heat up Time = 1 hour Tank Weight = 100 lbs Water Volume = 88 gallons Insulation Thickness = 2
EXAMPLE #2
How much power is required to melt 100 lbs of aluminum in 1 hour? Use Short Method Equation #2. Weight of Material= 100 lbs Heat of Fusion = 169 BTU/hr Time = 1 Hr KW = 100 lbs 169 BTU/hr = 4.953 KW 3412 BTU/KWH 1 hr
As in the Short Method, the 5 steps to calculate power requirements should be followed. Steps 2 and 3 will be omitted since no material is being added nor is there a material phase change.
STEP 1A: Heat Requirement Calculation: The power required to heat the stainless steel tank (Equation 1).
QT=WCPT = 100 lbs .12 BTU/lb - F 90F = 316.53 (WH) 3.412 3.412 (BTU/WH) Where: QT = Heat required to raise temperature of material, watt hours. W = Weight of material, lb = 100 lbs. CP = Specific heat of material, (BTU/lb F). See Table 7. T = Temperature change = 150F - 60F = 90F
EXAMPLE #3
Find power required to heat 10 gallons per minute of water from 68F to 150F.
Where: A = Area of bottom of tank = 4.1667x 1.25 (ft) = 5.208 (ft2) FL = Heat loss factor from Fig. 2 graph = 100 (W/ft2) t = Time of heat loss = 1 hr e
STEP 5 : Wattage required to Heat Tank system with 1.15 safety factor (Equation 4).
PS = 2 (QL)] (1 + SF) [Q1 +tQ2 + 3 t s e
)]
(1 + .15)
ts = start-up time
STEP 4A:
The maximum recommended heater watt density for water is 60 (W/in2) (see table 10). Therefore it is recommended, in this application, to use three screw-in immersion heaters with three heaters per assembly at 8,000 watts each or 24,000 watts total. Always round your wattage up to allow for manufacturing tolerances.
tank top. (Equation 3d). QLWS = A FL te = 5.208ft 216(W/ft2) 1(hr) = 1125 (WH) Where: QLWS = Heat loss from a surface, (watt hours) A = Surface area associated with heat loss, (ft2) .1667 1.25 = 5.208 ft2 FL = Heat loss factor, (watts/ft2) 1.5 (w/ft) 1 ft2 = 144in = 216 (w/ft2) (See Fig. 3 graph) te = Time of heat loss (hours) = 1 hour
STEP 4B: Heat loss from tank (vertical surfaces): Metal Surfaces with
2 insulation (Equation 3d)
QLTV = A (ft) FL te Insulated QLTV = 24.375 (ft2) 7.2 (W/ft2) 1 (hr) = 175.5 (WH) Where: A = Vertical surfaces area of tank = 2 {[4.1667 2.25 (ft)] + [1.25 2.25 (ft)]} = 24.375 (ft2) FL = Heat loss factor for insulated metal surface from Fig. #1 Graph (Approx. .05w/In2) te = Time of heat loss = 1hr
STEP 4C: Heat loss from tank - bottom surface (Equation 3d).
QLTB = 5.208 (ft2) x 55 (W/ft2) x 1(hr) = 286.44 (WH)
FIGURE 2: Combined convection and radiation heat loss from uninsulated metal surfaces.
Note: Use oxidized steel curve to approximate black body radiation.
FIGURE 5:
cylinders.
FIGURE 7: Allowable watt-density, metal sheath heaters in distributed air velocity at various temperatures.
FIGURE 8: Temperature variation with change in watt-density and hole fit, metal sheath heaters in metal plates and molds.
FIGURE 10:
FIGURE 11: High watt-density vs. temperature for metal sheath heaters in still air (78F).
FIGURE 12: Metal sheath heater temperature at various watt-densities and air temperatures.
FIGURE 13: Heat-up time vs. surface temperature for flexible blanket
heaters (with varying watt-densities) suspended in still air.
FIGURE 14: Maximum recommended watt-density for flexible rubber heaters vs. part (or ambient air) temperature for various mounting methods. For applications where watt-density may be higher consult factory.
VOLTS (E)
Volts = Watts Ohms Volts = Watts Amperes Volts = Amperes Ohms
AMPERES (I)
Amperes = Volts Ohms Amperes = Watts Volts
W I IR E I W OHMS (R)
Ohms = Volts Amperes Ohms = Volts 2 Watts Ohms = Watts Amperes 2
WR
W R
Amperes =
Watts Ohms
VOLTS
AMPS WATTS
W E EI IR
2
OHMS
E W
E R
WATTS (W)
Watts = Volts 2 Ohms Watts = Amperes 2 Ohms Watts = Volts Amperes
( E2)2E
50
CFM 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200
50 1.7 3.3 5.0 6.7 8.3 10.0 11.7 13.3 15.0 16.7 18.3 20.0
100 3.3 6.7 10.0 13.3 16.7 20.0 23.3 26.7 30.0 33.3 36.7 40.0
150 5.0 10.0 15.0 20.0 25.0 30.0 35.0 40.0 45.0 50.0 55.0 60.0
200
250
300
350
400
450
500 16.7 33.3 50.0 66.7 83.3 100.0 116.7 133.3 150.0 166.7 183.3 200.0
600 20.0 40.0 60.0 80.0 100.0 120.0 140.0 160.0 180.0 200.0 220.0 240.0
.06 .12 .25 .37 .50 .65 .75 1.00 1.25 1.50 1.75 2.00 2.25 2.50
.75 1.50 3.00 4.50 6.00 7.50 9.00 12.00 15.00 18.00 21.00 24.00 27.00 30.00
6.7 8.3 13.3 16.7 20.0 25.0 26.7 33.3 33.3 41.7 40.0 50.0 46.7 58.3 53.3 66.7 60.0 75.0 66.7 83.3 73.3 91.7 80.0 100.0
10.0 11.7 13.3 15.0 20.0 23.3 26.7 30.0 30.0 35.0 40.0 45.0 40.0 46.7 53.3 60.0 50.0 58.3 66.7 75.0 60.0 70.0 80.0 90.0 70.0 81.7 93.3 105.0 80.0 93.3 106.7 120.0 90.0 105.0 120.0 135.0 100.0 116.7 133.3 150.0 110.0 128.3 146.7 165.0 120.0 140.0 160.0 180.0 KW TO HEAT IN 1 HOUR
Use the maximum anticipated airflow. Table 2 and below equations assume insulated duct, negligible heat loss, 70 inlet air and 14 PSIA.
Includes 20% safety factor to compensate for heat losses and/or low volume.
FOR STEEL
KW = Kilograms Temp. Rise (C) 5040 Heat-up Time (hrs)
FOR AIR KW = CFM* Temperature rise (F) 3000 FOR COMPRESSED AIR
* Measured at normal temperature and pressure. **Measured at greater system inlet temperature and pressure.
. TEMPERATURE RISE ( F)
. TEMPERATURE RISE ( F)
80
50
0.5 0.8 1.1 1.3 1.6 1.9 1.1 1.6 2.1 2.7 3.2 3.7 1.6 2.4 3.2 4 4.8 5.6 2.2 3.2 4.3 5.3 6.4 7.5 2.7 4 5.3 6.7 8 9.3 3.2 4.8 6.4 8 9.6 12 4 6.4 8.5 11 13 15 5.4 8 10.7 13 16 19 6.4 9.6 12.8 16 19 22 7.5 11.2 15 19 22 26 8.5 13 17 21 26 30 10 14.5 19 24 29 34 11 16 21 27 32 37 13 20 27 33 40 47 16 24 32 40 48 56 18 28 37 47 56 65 21 32 43 53 64 75 27 40 53 67 80 93 32 47 64 80 96 112 43 64 85 107 128 149 53 80 107 133 160 187 KW TO HEAT IN 1 HOUR
.5 1 2 3 4 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75
3.74 7.48 14.96 22.25 29.9 37.4 74.8 112.5 149.6 187 222.5 252 299 336.5 374 412 449 486 524 562
0.3 0.5 1 2 2 3 5 7 9 11 13 16 18 20 22 25 27 29 32 34
KW TO HEAT IN 1 HOUR
KW=
Gal/Hr 8.34 Temperature Rise (F) 3412 KW 3412 8.34 Temperature Rise (F)
KW=
GAL/HR=
10
Table 5
LIQUIDS
Substance
Acetic Acid, 100% Acetone Allyl Alcohol Ammonia, 100% Amyl Alcohol Aniline Arochlor Oil Brine-Solium Chloride, 25% Butyl Alcohol Butyric Acid Carbon Tetrachloride Corn Syrup, Dextrose Cottonseed Oil Ether Ethyl Acetate Ethyl Alcohol, 95% Ethyl Bromide Ethyl Chloride Ethyl Lodide Ethylene Bromide Ethylene Chloride Ethylene Glycol Fatty Acid, Aleic Fatty Acid, Palmitic Fatty Acid, Stearic Formic Acid Freon 11 Freon 12 Freon 22 Fruit, Fresh (Avg) Glycerine Heptane Hexane Honey Hydrochloric Acid 10% Lard Linseed Oil Maple Syrup Mercury Methyl Acetate Methyl Chloroform Methylene Chloride Milk 3.5% Molasses Nitric Acid, 7% Nitric Acid, 95% Nitrobenzene Olive Oil
Specific heat Btu/lb -F
Properties of Materials
Heat of vaporization Btu/lb Boiling point F Densityweight in lbs/ft3 Thermal conductivity Btu-in/hr-ft2 F
Substance
Boiling point F
Densityweight in lbs/ft3
.48 .514 .665 1.1 .65 .514 .28 .786 .687 .515 .21 .65 .47 .503 .475 .60 .215 .367 .161 .172 .299 .55 .7 .653 .550 .525 .208 .232 .300 .88 .58 .49 .6 .34 .93 .64 .44 .48 .033 .47 .26 .288 .90 .60 .92 .5 .35 .47
175 225 293 589 216 198 *** 730 254 *** *** *** *** 160 183.5 370 108 166.5 81.3 83 139 *** *** *** *** 216 *** 62 *** *** *** 137.1 142.5 *** *** *** *** *** 117 176.5 95 142 *** *** 918 207 142.2 ***
245 65.4 133 49 207 55 -27 47.9 280 55 63 64.3 650 89.7 220 74.1 244 45.3 345 50.4 170 98.5 231 87.8 *** 59.2 95 46 180 51.5 *** 50.4 101 90.5 54 57 160 113 270 120 240 71.7 387 70.0 547 55.4 520 53.1 721 52.8 213 69.2 74.9 92.1 -21.6 81.8 -41.36 74.53 *** 50-60 556 78.7 210 38.2 155 38.2 *** *** 221 66.5 *** 57.4 552 57.9 *** *** 675 845 133 54.8 165 82.7 104 82.6 *** 64.2 220 87.4 220 64.7 187 93.5 412 *** 570 58
1.14 1.15 *** 3.48 *** 1.25 *** 2.88 *** *** *** *** 1.20 .95 *** 1.30 *** *** *** *** *** *** 1.10 .996 .936 *** .60 .492 .624 *** 1.97 *** *** *** *** *** *** *** 59.6 *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** ***
Perchlorethylene .21 90 Petroleum Products: Asphalt .42 *** Benzene .42 170 Fuel Oils: Fuel Oil #1 (Kerosene) .47 86 Fuel Oil #2 .44 *** Fuel Oil Medium #3,#4 .425 67 Fuel Oil Heavy #5,#6 .41 *** Gasoline .53 116 Machine/Lube Oils: SAE 10-30 .43 *** SAE 40-50 .43 *** Napthalene .396 103 Paraffin Melted (150F+) .69 70 Propane (Compressed) .576 *** Toluene .42 *** Transformer Oils .42 *** Phenol (Carbolic Acid) .56 *** Phosphoric Acid 10% .93 *** Phosphoric Acid 20% .85 *** Polyurethane Foam Components: Part A Isocyanate .6 *** Part B Polyoil Resin .7 *** Potassium (1000F) .18 893 Propionic Acid .56 177.8 Propyl Alcohol .57 295.2 Sea Water .94 *** Sodium (1000F ) .30 1810 Sodium Hydroxide (Caustic Soda) 30% Sol .84 *** 50% Sol .78 *** Soybean Oil .24-.33 *** Starch *** *** Sucrose, 40% Sugar Syrup .66 *** Sucrose, 60% Sugar Syrup .74 *** Sulfur, Melted (500F) .24 120 Sulfuric Acid 20% .84 *** Sulfuric Acid 60% .52 *** Sulfuric Acid 98% .35 219 Trichloroethylene .23 103 Trichloro-Trifluoroethane .21 63 Turpentine .42 133 Vegetable Oil .43 *** Water 1.00 965 Xylene .411 149.2
250 *** 175 440 *** 580 *** 280 *** *** 424 572 -48.1 *** *** 346 *** *** *** *** 1400 286 208 *** 1638 *** *** *** *** 214 218 832 218 282 625 188 118 319 *** 212 288
101.3 62.3 56 50.5 53.9 55.7 58.9 41-43 55.4 55.4 54.1 56 .13 53.7 56.3 66.6 65.4 69.1
*** 5.04 1.04 1.01 .96 .918 .852 .936 *** *** *** 1.68 1.81 1.032 .9 *** *** ***
77 1.14 74.8 1.32 44.6 260.4 61.8 *** 50.2 *** 64.2 *** 51.2 580 82.9 95.4 57.4 95.4 73.5 80.4 112 71 93.5 114.7 91.3 94.6 54 57.5 62.5 53.8 *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** 2.88 1.80 .84 *** *** *** 4.08 ***
Table 6
At or near room temperature. Average value shown boils at various temperatures with the
Substance
Hydrogen Sulphide Methane Methyl Chloride Natural Gas Nitric Oxide Nitrogen Nitrous Oxide Oxygen Propane Propane (propylene) Sulphur Dioxide Water vapor at 212F
Density lbs/ft3 *
.129 .18 .16 .12 .0876 .12 .18 .06 ... .1212 1.10 ... .13
.35 .24 .523 .124 .395 .199 .248 .115 .386 .40 1.25 .191 3.42
.0682 .075 .0448 .1037 .1554 .115 .0727 .1869 .0789 .0733 .0104 .0954 .0052
.907 1.000 .596 1.379 2.067 1.529 .967 2.486 1.049 .975 .1381 1.268 .0695
.091 .21 ... ... .1656 .19 .1056 .18 ... ... .07 .16
.243 .593 .24 .56 .231 .247 .221 .217 .393 .358 .154 .482
.0895 .0417 .1342 .0502 .078 .0727 .1151 .0831 .1175 .1091 .1703 .037
1.19 .554 1.785 .667 1.037 .967 1.53 1.105 1.562 1.451 2.264 .489
*At 70 & atmospheric pressure (14.7 PSIA) Natural gas values are representative. Specific contents of sampling are required for exact characteristics.
11
Substance
Paper Paraffin Pitch (Hard) Plastics: ABS Acrylic Cellulose Acetate Cellulose Acetate Butyrate Epoxy Fluoroplastics Nylon Phenolic Polycarbonate Polyester Polyethylene Polyimides Polypropylene Polystyrene Polyvinyl Chloride Acetate Platinum Porcelain Potassium Potassium Chloride Potassium Nitrate Quartz Rhodium Rubber Rubber, Synthetic Silicone Rubber Silicon Silver Sodium Solder (50%Pb-50%Sn.) Steatite Steel Mild Steel S. 304 Steel S. 430 Sulfur Sugar Tallow Tantalum Teflon Tin, Solid Titanium 99.0% Tungsten Type Metal (85%Pb-13%Sb.) Uranium Vinyl Wood, Pine Wood, Oak Zirconium Zinc
Thermal
*** ***
Aluminum 2024-T3 .24 Aluminum 1100-0 .24 Antimony .049 Asbestos Cement Board .25 Asphalt .40 Bakelite Resin, Pure .3-.4 Barium .068 Beeswax *** Beryllium .052 Bismuth .031 Boron .309 Brass, Yellow .096 Brickwork & Masonry .220 Bronze (75% Cu; 25% Sn) .082 Cadmium .055 Calcium .149 Calcium Chloride .17 Carbon .280 Cement, Portland Loose .19 Cerafelt Insulation @ 1000F 25 Ceramic Fiber .27 Chalk .215 Chromium .11 Clay .224 Coal .32 Coal Tar .35-.45 Cobalt .099 Coke .265 Concrete, Cinder .16 Concrete, Stone .156 Copper .095 Cork .50 Cotton (Flax, Hemp) .31 Delrin .350 Firebrick, Fireclay .243 Firebrick, Silica .258 Glass .20 Gold .032 Granite .192 Graphite .20 Ice .53 Incoloy 800 .13 Inconel 600 .126 Invar (36%Ni) .126 Iron, Cast .12 Iron, Wrought .12 Isoprene, Rubber .48 Lead, Solid .032 Limestone .217 Lithium .79 Manganese .115 Magnesium .27 Magnesia, 85% .222 MgO (Compacted) .209 Mercury .033 Mica .21 Molybdenum .061 Monel 400 .11 Nickel 200 .12 Nichrome (80% Ni - 20% Cr) .11
1344 1536 131 5.2 1.2 *** *** 1.67 *** 59 *** 828 3-7 180 660 912 *** 173 2.04 1.22 *** 5.76 484 9 11 *** 499 *** 5.3 9.5 2688 .36 .41 1.6 6.6 7.2 5.4 2028 13-28 1.25 11 97 109 73 396 432 1.0 240 3.6-9 516 80.6 1092 *** 20 60.8 3.0 *** 151 468 104.4
12.6 13.1 *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** 11.2 3-6 *** *** *** *** *** ***
.35 .34 .3-.5 .3-.4 .25-.3 .28 .3-.5 .35 .3 .2-.35 .54 .27-.31 .46 .32 .2-.3 .035 .26 .058 .17 .26 .26 .059 .44 .40 .45 .162 .057 .295 .051 .20 .122 .12 .11 .175 .30 *** .035 .25 .065 .13 .0321 .040 .028 .3-.5 .45 .57 .066 .096
*** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** 49 *** 26.2 *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** 38 49.3 17 *** *** *** *** 17 *** 90 *** *** 26.1 *** 79 14 *** *** *** *** 108 43.3
*** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** 3225 *** 146 1454 633 *** 3570 *** *** *** 2570 1760 207 420 *** 2760 2550 2650 246 320 60.0 5425 *** 450 3035 6170 500 3075 *** *** *** 3350 264
69-76 69-74 76-83 74 66-88 131-150 67-72 85-124 74-78 66-92 57-60 90 55-57 66 72-99 1339 145-155 750 124 132 138 776 76.0 58 78 14.5 665 60 558 162 491 494 475 130 105 *** 1036 135 454 283 1200 669 1170 79.5 34 50 400 445
1.32 1.0 1.2-2.3 1.2-2.3 1.2-2.4 1.68 1.68 1.02 1.38 4-5 2.3 2.5-6.8 1.72 .7-1.0 .84-1.2 492 6-10 720 *** *** *** 636 1.1 1.0 *** *** 2904 972 336 17.5-23 456 105.6 150 1.9 *** *** 372 1.7 432 111.6 1130 180 193.2 .8-20 .9 1.1 145 7.40
*** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** 94.0 *** 33-34 *** 4.9 *** *** *** *** *** *** 340 *** *** *** 10.8 *** 13.1 4.5-5.5 6.7 9.6 6.0 36.0 *** *** 3.6 55.0 13.0 4.7 2.5 *** *** 28-100 *** *** 3.2 22.1
*** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** 9.8 *** *** 45.0 *** *** 5.0 7.9 *** *** 28.3 7.9 5.8 *** 6.0 *** *** 16.4 *** *** *** 14.0 *** 7.7 *** 18.0 *** 6.4 5.8 7.3
! To convert to Kg/m 3 multiply by 16.02. ! To convert to Kj/Kg multiply by 2.326. ! To convert to Kj/Kg - C multiply Btu/lb - F by 4.187. ! To convert to W/m - C multiply Btu - in/hr - ft 2 by 0.1442.
12
Table 8
Substance
Aluminum
METALS
IN
LIQUID STATE
Heat of fusion Btu/lb Melting point F TemperatureF Density weight lbs/ft3
Material Emissivities
Heat Loss Factors
Table 9
Bismuth
Cadmium
Mercury
Potassium Silver
Sodium
.26 .26 .26 .034 @ 520F .0354 .0376 .0632 .0632 .0632 .0632 .0355 .038 .037 1.0 1.0 .317 *** .321 .0334 .03279 *** .3245 .1901 .1826 .0692 .0692 .0692 .331 .320 .301 .0556 .0584 .058 *** *** .12 *** .177
173 *** *** 21.6 *** *** 23.8 *** *** *** 26.9 10.6 *** 284.4 *** 148 *** *** 5 *** *** *** 26.3 *** 44.8 *** *** 48.7 *** *** 17 28 26.1 *** *** 43.9 *** ***
1220.4 *** *** 520 *** *** 609 *** *** *** 1945 621 *** 354 *** 1204 *** *** -38 *** *** *** 147 *** 1761 *** *** 208 *** *** 421 375 449 *** *** 787 *** ***
1220 1292 1454 572 752 1112 626 662 680 752 2012 700 932 392 752 1204 1328 1341 32 212 320 392 300 752 1761 1832 2000 212 400 752 *** *** 482 768 783 787 932 1112
148.6 147.7 *** 626.2 618.7 603.1 500 498.8 *** 495 1076 655.5 648.7 31.7 31 98 94.3 *** *** 833.6 *** 818.8 50.6 46.6 580.6 578.1 574.4 57.9 56.2 53.3 *** *** *** 426.6 *** 432 *** 425
*** 717 842 119 107.4 107.4 *** 307.7 305 *** *** 111.6 107.4 262 *** *** *** *** 57 *** 81 *** 312 277.5 *** *** *** 596.5 556.8 493.8 *** *** *** *** 229.3 *** 400.6 394.8
Emissivity
Polished surface Medium oxide Heavy oxide
0.24 *** 0.10 0.10 0.12 0.11 0.12 0.03 0.23 0.11 0.11 0.04 0.12 0.11 0.11 0.056 0.10
0.09 *** 0.04 0.04 0.20 0.20 *** *** *** *** *** *** 0.10 0.17 0.17 *** ***
0.11 0.75 0.35 0.03 0.60 0.60 0.80 0.28 *** *** *** *** 0.75 0.57 0.57 *** 0.25
0.22 1.00 0.60 0.65 0.92 0.92 0.85 *** *** *** *** *** 0.85 0.85 0.85 *** ***
Zinc
0.25 0.40 0.22 0.20 0.20 0.45 0.2-0.5 0.40 0.20-0.23 *** 0.57
ESTIMATED LIFE 3-1/2 years 1 year 4 months 1-1/2 months 14 days 7 days
13
Table 10
Max. operating temperature F
Guidelines
Material to be heated
Sheath material
Acid Solution (Mild) Acetic Boric Carbonic Chromic Citric Fatty Acids Lactic Malic Nitric Phenol - 2-4 Disulfonic Phosphoric Phosphoric (Aerated) Proponic Tannic Tartaric Acetaldehyde Acetone Air Alcyl Alcohol Alkaline Solutions Aluminum Acetate Aluminum Potassium Sulfate Ammonia Gas Ammonium Acetate Amyl Acetate Amyl Alcohol Aniline Asphalt Barium Hydroxide Benzene, liquid Butyl Acetate Calcium Bisulfate Calcium Chloride Carbon Monoxide Carbon Tetrachloride Caustic Soda 2% 10% 75% Citrus Juices Degreasing Solution Dextrose Dowtherm A 1 ft. sec. or more non-flowing Dowtherm E Dyes & Pigments Electroplating Baths Cadmium Copper Dilute Cyanide Potassium Cyanide Rochelle Cyanide Sodium Cyanide Ethylene Glycol Formaldehyde Freon gas Fuel Oils: Grade 1 & 2 (distilate)
180 257 180 180 180 150 122 122 167 180 180 180 180 167/180 180 180 130 C/F 200 212 122 212 C/F 167 240 212 350 200-500 212 150 225 400 200 *** 160 210 210 180 185 275 212 750 750 400 212 180 180 180 180 180 180 300 180 300 200
C-20, Quartz Quartz *** C-20, Quartz 316 S.S. 316 S.S. 316 S.S. 316 S.S. Quartz 316 S.S. Quartz Stainless Steel Copper Quartz 316 S.S. Copper Incoloy Incoloy Copper Steel 316 S.S. Copper Steel Incoloy Incoloy Stainless Steel Stainless Steel Steel 316 S.S. Copper 316 S.S. 316 S.S. Quartz Incoloy Incoloy Incoloy Incoloy Incoloy 316 S.S. Steel Stainless Steel Steel Steel Steel Stainless Steel Stainless Steel Quartz 316 S.S. Quartz Stainless Steel Stainless Steel Steel Stainless Steel Steel Steel
Fuel Oils cont. Grade 4 & 5 (residual) Grades 6 & bunker c (residual) Gasoline Gelatin, Liquid Solid Glycerine Glycerol Grease, Liquid Solid Heat Transfer Oils Hydrazine Hydrogen Hydrogen Sulfide Linseed Oil Lubrication Oil SAE 10, 90-100 SSU @ 130F SAE 20, 120-185 SSU @ 130F SAE 30, 185-255 SSU @ 130F SAE 40, -80 SSU @ 210F SAE 50, 80-105 SSU @ 210F Magnesium Chloride Manganese Sulfate Methanol gas Methylchloride Mineral Oil Molasses Naptha Oil Draw Bath Oils (see specific type) Paraffin or Wax (liquid state) Perchloroethylene Potassium Chlorate Potassium Chloride Potassium Hydroxide Soap, liquid Sodium Acetate Sodium Cyanide Sodium Hydride Sodium Hydroxide Sodium Phosphate Steam, flowing Sulfur, Molten Terminols Toluene Trichlorethylene Turpentine Vegetable Oil & Shortening Water (process)
200 160 300 150 150 500 212 *** *** 500 600 212 C/F C/F 150 250 250 250 250 250 212 212 C/F 180 200 400 100 212 600 400 150 200 212 212 160 212 212 140 720
Steel Steel Steel Stainless Steel Stainless Steel Incoloy Incoloy Steel Steel Steel Steel Stainless Steel Incoloy 316 S.S. Steel Steel Steel Steel Steel Steel C-20, Quartz Quartz Stainless Steel Copper Steel Steel Stainless Steel Steel Steel Steel Steel Steel 316 S.S. 316 S.S. Monel Stainless Steel Steel Stainless Steel Incoloy Soda) Quartz Incoloy Incoloy Incoloy Incoloy Steel Steel Steel Steel Steel Stainless Steel Stainless Steel S.S., Incoloy
16 23 40 40 23 20 40 40 28 (See Caustic 212 40 300 10 500 5-10 700 5 600 10 500 23 600 23 650 15 212 23 150 23 300 20 400 212 30 60
Note:
14
Table 11
Inoconel/Incoloy
A A A X X A C A A A A A A C C F A C A F A A A A F A A X A A A A C C X X X X X X X A A X C
Acetic Acid, Crude Pure Vapor 150 PSI; 400F Acetone Alboloy Process Alodine 200F Aluminum Sulphate Ammonia Gas, Cold Hot Ammonia and Oil Ammonium Chloride Ammonium Hydroxide Ammonium Nitrate Ammonium Sulphate Amyl Alcohol Anhydrous Ammonia Aniline, Aniline Oil Aniline, Dyes Anodizing Solution 10% Chromic Acid 96F Sulphuric Acid 70F Sodium Hydroxide Alkaline Nigrosine Black Dye Nickel Acetate Barium Chloride Barium Hydroxide Barium Sulphide Bleaching Solution 1 1/2 lb. Oxalic Acid per Gallon of H20 at 212F Bonderizing Cadmium Plating Carbolic Acid, Phenol Carbon Dioxide, Dry Wet Carbon Tetrachloride Castor Oil Chloroacetic Acid Cholorine, Dry Wet Chromic Acid Chrome Plating Citric Acid Cobalt Acetate 130F Coconut Oil Copper Chloride Copper Cyanide Copper Plating Copper Sulphate Creosote Deoxidine
C X X F
Monel
C A X A C A C A A A A A C A
F A F F A
C C C C A
F F F F A
X F X X A
F A C C F
F F F F A
A-347 A-316 C F F A A A C C C A A C A F A A A A A A F C C A A A A A
F A C C C A A X X X X X F A X X A X F A F X F A X
Deoxylyle Diphenyle 300-350 Di Sodium Phosphate 25% 180F Diversey No. 99 Dowtherm Ethers Ethyl Chloride Ethylene Glycol 300F. Ferric Chloride Ferric Sulphate Formaldehyde Formic Acid Freon Fuel Oil Fuel Oil, Acid Gasoline, Sour Gasoline, Refined Glycerin, Glycerol Holdens 310A Tempering Bath Houghtons Mar Tempering Salts Hydrochloric Acid <150F >150F Hydrofluoric Acid, Cold <65% >65% Hot <65% >65% Hydrogen Peroxide Iridite 1-Part and 5-Parts Water @ 200F Isopropanol Kerosene Kolene Lacquer Solvents Lard Linseed Oil Magnesium Chloride Magnesium Hydroxide Magnesium Sulphate Mercuric Chloride Mercury Methyl Alcohol,Methanol Methyl Chloride Mineral Oils Naphthalene Nickel Chloride Nickel Plating, Bright Nickel Plating, Dull Nickel Sulphate Nitric Acid, Crude Concentrated Diluted Nitrobenzene
A A A A A A A X X F X C A C C A A C X X X F X C X C A C F A F A A C A A A A A A F A A C A X X F A C A A X X
Monel
Compound
Compound
A A X F-304 A-316 A F C A C A A A X X X X X X A
A F XF C F X A A A A C A A C A A A A F A X X C F X F X F A C A F X A X X A A A X A A X X X X F F X F C X X F A A
A A A F-304 X-316 A A A A C X X F F X A X X A A F
A A A F A A X A A A F A C F A A
C C A F C A X A X C X F A A X A
F C A C C A X C C
A A A A C A X A X A A X A A A A A A X F A A F F A A A A A A A A X A A A A A F X F C F C A X X X F A A A X F X X A X A A A A A C A X A C A X A A
X A A
C A A
C A
A A A
X X X A
RESISTANCE RATINGS:
A = Good
F = Fair
C = Conditional*
X = Unsuitable
15
Table 11
Inoconel/Incoloy
A C X A X C C C C C C X X A A C A A A A A
Monel
Oakite No. 20 Oakite No. 23 Oakite No. 24 Oakite No. 30 Oakite No. 32 Oakite No. 33 Oakite No. 36 Oakite No. 51 Oakite No. 90 @ 180F Oleic Acid Oxalic Acid Paraffin Parkerizing Perchlorethylene Permachlor Petroleum Oils, Crude <500F >500F >1000F Phenol 85%,120F Phosphoric Acid, Crude Pure <45% >45% Cold Hot Photo Fixing Bath Picric Acid Water Solution Potassium Chloride Potassium Cyanide Potassium Dichromate 208F Potassium Hydroxide Potassium Sulphate Prestone 350F R5 Bright Dip for Copper Polish @ 180F Soap Solutions Sodium Carbonate <20% Sodium Chloride Sodium Cyanide Sodium Hydroxide Sodium Hypochlorite Sodium Nitrate Sodium Peroxide Sodium Silicate Sodium Sulphate Sodium Sulphide Soybean Oil
A A A A A-347 A A C C A C A A X C C X X X C A A C A A A A A A A X A C A A A
Steam
<500F 500-1000F >1000F Stearic Acid Sulphur Sulphuric Acid <10% Cold Hot 10-75% Cold A A A X X A A C X A
A C X C A X X X X C F C A A A F A
C C F A A
Hot 75-95% Cold Hot Fuming Sulphurous Acid Tannic Acid Tar Tartaric Acid Tetrachlorethyene Thermail Granodine Therminall Fr. 18-1/2 W/in2 @ 640F Tin Plating Toluene Triad Solvent Trichloroethylene Turco No. 2623 Turpentine Urea Ammonia Liquor 48F Vegetable Oil Vinegar Water, Acid Mine Containing Oxidizing Salts No Oxidizing Salts Water, Fresh Distilled, Lab Grade Return Condensate Water, Sea Water Whiskey and Wines X-Ray Solution Zinc Chloride Zinc Plating Zinc Sulphate
C X X X F F C C C A A A A A A A F A C A A A A F A A A
C C A C X X A X X X X X X F F C X A X X A C A A X A X X C C X C X
A A A C A C F F F-316 X-304 X-304 F-316 X A X F C-304 F-316 C-316 X-304 F A C-304 A-316
Monel
Compound
Compound
A A A
X X X A C A X X X X A A A A
A C C A C A C X C C X A C X C A C
A C A C A A A C
C A F A X A
X X X X F X A C X X C F A A A A A C X X A A A C A X A X F
A A
RESISTANCE RATINGS:
A = Good
F = Fair
C = Conditional*
X = Unsuitable
*Conditional: Performance is dependent upon specific application conditions such as solution, concentration and temperature.
16
Table 12
To Obtain...
Foot-pound Horsepower-hours Kilowatt-hours Watts-hours British thermal units Horsepower-hours Kilowatt-hours Watt-hours British thermal units Foot-pound Kilowatt-hours Watt-hours British thermal units Foot-pounds Horsepower-hours Watt-hours British thermal units Foot-pounds Horsepower-hours Kilowatt-hours
FOOT-POUNDS HORSEPOWERHOURS
Metric system/capacity
Unit Metric Equivalent U.S. Equivalent
= 0.034 fluid ounce = 0.338 fluid ounce = 3.38 fluid ounces = 1.05 liquid quarts = 0.284 bushel = 2.837 bushels = 264.18 gallons milliliter (ml) centriliter (cl) deciliter (dl) LITER (l) dekaliter (dkl) hectoliter (hl) kiloliter (kl) = 0.001 liter = 0.01 liter = 0.1 liter = 1.0 liter = 10.0 liters = 100.0 liters = 1000.0 liters
KILOWATT-HOURS WATT-HOURS
U.S. EQUIVALENT
= 0.0154 grain = 0.1543 grain = 1.543 grains = 15.43 grains = 0.3527 ounce avoirdupois = 3.527 ounce avoirdupois = 2.2 pounds avoirdupois
3.929 x 10-4 2.930 x 10-4 .2930 1.285 x 10-3 5.05 x 10-7 3.766 x 10-7 3.766 x 10-4 2545 1.98 x 104 .7457 745.7 3413 2.655 x 106 1.341 1000 3.413 2655 1.341 x 10-3 .001
0.001 gram 0.01 gram 0.1 gram 1.0 gram 10.0 grams 100.0 grams 1000.0 grams
LENGTH
Conversion Factors
WEIGHT
1kg. = 2.205 lb. 1in3 = 16.39 cm3 1ft3 = .02832 m3 1ft3 = 62.43 lb. water 1ft3. = 7.5 gal water 1ft3 = 28.32 liters 1 U.S. gal = .1337 ft3 1 U.S. gal = 231 ft3 1 U.S. gal = 8.345 lb water 1 U.S. gal = 3.785 liters
Metric system/area
UNIT
squared millimeter (mm2) squared centimeter (cm2) square decimeter (dm2)
VOLUME
METRIC EQUIVALENT
= = = = = =
U.S. EQUIVALENT
= = = = = = = 0.00155 square inch 0.155 square inch 15.5 square inch 10.76 square feet 0.0247 acre 2.47 acre 0.386 square mile
AREA
1 in2 = 6.452 cm2 1 ft2 = .0929 m2
CENTARE also (ca) square meter (m2) are also (a) square dekameter (dkm2) hecatre also (ha) square hectometer (hm2) square kilometer (km2)
0.000001 centare 0.0001 centare 0.01 centare 1.0 centare 100.0 centares 10,000.0 centares
HORSEPOWER
1 hp. = .746 kW 1 boiler hp. = 9.8 kW
= 1,000,000.0 cantres
Metric system/volume
UNIT METRIC EQUIVALENT U.S. EQUIVALENT
cubic millimeter (mm3) = 0.001 cubic centimeter = 0.016 minim cubic centimeter (cc, cm3 ) = 0.001 cubic decimeter = 0.061 cubic inch 3 cubic decimeter (dm ) = 0.001 cubic meter = 61.023 cubic inches STERE also (s) = 1.0 cubic meter = 1.308 cubic yards cubic meter (m3) cubic dekameter (dkm3) = 1000.0 cubic meters = 1307.943 cubic yards cubic hectometer (hm3) = 1000,000.0 cubic meters = 1,307,942.8 cubic yards cubic kilometer (km3) = 1,000,000,000.0 cubic meters = 0.25 cubic mile
To obtain...
atmosphere pascal meters3 Joule BTU kilowatt-hour pounds/in2
Pressure
UNIT
1 Atmosphere 1kg./cm2 10lb./in2 1 bar 1 meter Hg(0C) 10 in. Hg(32F) 100ft. H2O(60F)
ATM
1* 0.967841 0.68046 0.986923 1.31579 0.33421 2.9469
KG /CM 2
LB /IN 2
BAR
MM
HG (0C)
HG (32F)
29.921 28.959 20.360 29.530 39.370 10* 88.175
H2O(60F)
17
Conversion Tables
AMPERAGE CONVERSION TABLE
Table 13
Volts Single Phase Watts
100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 600 700 750 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1250 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1750 1800 1900 2000 2200 2500 2750 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10000 Volts 3 Phase Balanced Load
Rockwell
(Approximate Value) Tensile Strength 1000 Shore lb./sq in. 91 84 81 79 77 75 73 71 70 68 66 65 63 61 59 58 56 54 52 51 50 48 47 46 45 43 42 41 40 39 38 37 36 35 34 33 32 31 30 29 28 27 26 25 23 22 21 20 19 18 15
120
.83 1.25 1.67 2.08 2.50 2.92 3.33 3.75 4.17 5.00 5.83 6.25 6.67 7.50 8.33 9.17 10.00 10.40 10.80 11.70 12.50 13.30 14.20 14.60 15.00 15.80 16.70 18.30 20.80 23.00 25.00 29.20 33.30 37.50 41.70 50.00 58.30 66.70 75.00 83.30
240
.42 .63 .83 1.04 1.25 1.46 1.67 1.88 2.08 2.50 2.92 3.13 3.33 3.75 4.17 4.58 5.00 5.21 5.42 5.83 6.25 6.67 7.08 7.29 7.50 7.92 8.33 9.17 10.40 11.50 12.50 14.60 16.70 18.80 20.80 25.00 29.20 33.30 37.50 41.70
480
.21 .31 .42 .52 .63 .73 .84 .93 1.04 1.25 1.46 1.56 1.67 1.87 2.10 2.30 2.51 2.61 2.71 2.91 3.12 3.34 3.54 3.65 3.75 3.96 4.17 4.59 5.21 5.73 6.25 7.30 8.33 9.38 10.42 12.50 14.59 16.67 18.75 20.85
240
.24 .36 .49 .61 .73 .85 .97 1.10 1.20 1.45 1.70 1.81 1.67 2.17 2.41 2.65 2.90 3.10 3.13 3.38 3.62 3.86 4.10 4.22 4.34 4.58 4.82 5.30 6.10 6.63 7.23 8.45 9.64 10.84 12.10 14.50 16.90 19.30 21.70 24.10
480
.13 .18 .25 .30 .37 .43 .49 .55 .60 .73 .85 .91 .97 1.09 1.21 1.33 1.45 1.55 1.57 1.69 1.82 1.93 2.05 2.10 2.17 2.29 2.41 2.65 3.05 3.32 3.62 4.23 4.82 5.42 6.10 7.25 8.50 9.65 10.85 12.10
C 65.3 61.7 60.0 58.7 57.3 56.0 54.7 53.5 52.1 51.0 49.6 48.5 47.1 45.7 44.5 43.1 41.8 40.4 39.1 37.9 36.6 35.5 34.3 33.1 32.1 30.9 29.9 28.8 27.6 26.6 25.4 24.2 22.8 21.7 20.5 (18.8) (17.5) (16.0) (15.2) (13.8) (12.7) (11.5) (10.0) (9.0) (8.0) (6.4) (5.4) (4.4) (3.3) (0.9)
A 84.1 82.2 81.2 80.5 79.8 79.1 78.4 77.8 76.9 76.3 75.0 74.9 74.2 73.4 72.8 72.0 71.4 70.6 70.0 69.3 68.7 68.1 67.5 66.9 66.3 65.7 65.3 64.6 64.1 63.6 63.0 62.5 61.8 61.4 60.8
15-N 92.3 91.0 90.2 89.6 89.0 88.4 87.8 87.2 86.5 85.9 85.3 84.7 84.0 83.4 82.8 82.0 81.4 80.6 80.0 79.3 78.6 78.0 77.3 76.7 76.1 75.5 75.0 74.4 73.7 73.1 72.5 71.7 70.9 70.3 69.7
Typical Examples 1 petayear = 101 years 1 terayear = 1012 years 1 gigahertz (radar frequency) = 109 Hz 1 megaton (equivalent TNT strength of nuclear weapon) = 106 tons 1 kilogram = 1000 g 1 decimeter = 0.1 m 1 centimeter = 0.01 m x10-3 1 milliampere = 0.001 A microvolt = 10-6 V 1 nanosecond = 10-9 second 1 picofarad = 10-12 F 1 femtometer (approximate size of a proton) = 10-15 m
peta tera giga mega kilo deci certi milli micro nano pico femto
P T G M k d c m n p f
x1015 x1012 x109 x106 x103 x10-1 x10-2 x10-6 x10-9 x10-12 x10-15
(110.0) (109.0) (108.5) (108.0) (107.5) (107.0) (106.0) (105.5) (104.5) (104.0) (103.0) (102.0) (101.0) 100.0 99.0 98.2 97.3 96.4 95.5 94.6 93.8 92.8 91.9 90.7 90.0 89.0 87.8 86.8 86.0 85.0 82.9 80.8 78.7 76.4 74.0 72.0 69.8 67.6 65.7
298 288 274 264 252 242 230 219 212 202 193 184 177 170 163 158 152 147 143 139 135 131 128 125 121 118 114 111 109 104 103 100 99 97 94 92 90 89 88 86 84 83 82 80
Hardness values are from SAE-ASM-ASTM Committees on Hardness conversions as printed in ASTM E 140, Table 14. Tensile strength values are from Federal Test Methods Standard No. 151-A - method 241.2 dated January 10, 1961.
18
Table 15
C -50 -45 -40 -35 -30 -25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 F -58 -49 -40 -31 -22 -13 -4 -5 14 23 32 41 50 59 68 77 86 95 104 113 112 131 140 149 C 75 80 85 90 95 100 105 110 115 120 125 130 135 140 145 150 155 160 165 170 175 180 185 190 F 167 176 185 194 203 212 221 230 239 248 257 266 275 284 293 302 311 320 329 338 347 356 365 374 C 200 205 210 215 220 225 230 235 240 245 250 255 260 265 270 275 280 285 290 295 300 305 310 315
TABLE
F 392 401 410 419 428 437 446 455 464 473 482 491 500 509 518 527 536 545 554 563 572 581 590 599
OF EQUIVALENT TEMPERATURES
C 325 330 335 340 345 350 355 360 365 370 375 380 385 390 395 400 405 410 415 420 425 430 435 440 F 617 626 635 644 653 662 671 680 689 698 707 716 725 734 743 752 761 770 779 788 797 806 815 824 C 450 455 460 465 470 475 480 485 490 495 500 505 510 515 520 525 530 535 540 545 550 555 560 565 F 842 851 860 869 878 887 896 905 914 923 932 941 950 959 968 977 986 995 1004 1013 1022 1031 1040 1049 C 575 580 585 590 595 600 605 610 615 620 625 630 635 640 645 650 655 660 665 670 675 680 685 690 F 1067 1076 1085 1094 1103 1112 1121 1130 1139 1148 1157 1166 1175 1184 1193 1202 1211 1220 1229 1238 1247 1256 1265 1274 C 700 705 710 715 720 725 730 735 740 745 750 755 760 765 770 775 780 785 790 795 800 805 810 815 F 1292 1301 1310 1319 1328 1337 1346 1355 1364 1373 1382 1391 1400 1409 1418 1427 1436 1445 1454 1463 1472 1481 1490 1499 C 825 830 835 840 845 850 855 860 865 870 875 880 885 890 895 900 905 910 915 920 925 930 935 940 F 1517 1526 1535 1544 1553 1562 1571 1580 1589 1598 1607 1616 1625 1634 1643 1652 1661 1670 1679 1688 1697 1706 1715 1724
PERCENT
115 120 208 91% 84% 28% 100% 92% 31% 109% 100% 33% 300% 100% 112% 122% 133%
230 240 23% 21% 25% 23% 27% 25% 82% 75% 91% 84% 100% 92% 109% 100% 133%
277 16% 17% 19% 56% 63% 69% 75% 100% 188%
380 8.4% 9.0% 10% 30% 34% 37% 40% 53% 100% 119%
415 7% 7.6% 8.4% 25% 28% 31% 33% 45% 84% 100% 112% 123%
440 6.2% 6.7% 7.4% 22% 25% 27% 30% 40% 74% 89% 100% 109% 119% 156%
460 5.7% 6.2% 6.8% 20% 23% 25% 27% 36% 68% 81% 91% 100% 109% 143%
480 550 5.2% 4% 5.7% 4.3% 6.3% 4.8% 19% 14% 21% 16% 23% 17% 25% 19% 33% 25% 63% 47% 75% 57% 84% 64% 92% 70% 100% 76% 131% 100%
For voltages not shown above, you can calculate the actual wattage with this formula:
Actual wattage = Rated wattage Applied voltage2 Rated voltage2
K = C + 273
19
1 32 1 16 3 32
1 64 3 64 5 64 7 64 9 64 11 64 13 64 15 64 17 64 19 64 21 64 23 64 25 64 27 64 29 64 31 64
0.015625 .03125 .046875 .0625 .078125 .09375 .109375 .1250 .140625 .15625 .171875 .1875 .203125 .21875 .234375 .2500 .265625 .28125 .296875 .3125 .328125 .34375 .359375 .3750 .390625 .40625 .421875 .4375 .453125 .46875 .484375 .500
0.397 0.794 1.191 1.588 1.984 2.381 2.778 3.175 3.572 3.969 4.366 4.763 5.159 5.556 5.953 6.350 6.747 7.144 7.541 7.938 8.334 8.731 9.128 9.525 9.922 10.319 10.716 11.113 11.509 11.906 12.303 12.700
31 32 15 16 27 32 13 16 23 32 11 16 21 32 19 32 9 16 17 32
33 64 35 64 37 64 39 64 41 64 43 64 45 64 47 64 49 64 51 64 53 64 55 64 57 64 59 64 61 64 63 64
0.515625 .53125 .546875 .5625 .578125 .59375 .609375 .6250 .640625 .65625 .671875 .6875 .703125 .71875 .734375 .7500 .765625 .78125 .796875 .8125 .828125 .84375 .859375 .8750 .890625 .90625 .921875 .9375 .953125 .96875 .984375 1.000
13.097 13.494 13.891 14.288 14.684 15.081 15.478 15.875 16.272 16.669 17.066 17.463 17.859 18.256 18.653 19.050 19.447 19.844 20.241 20.638 21.034 21.431 21.828 22.225 22.622 23.019 23.416 28.813 24.209 24.606 25.003 25.400
1 8
5 32 3 16 7 32
5 8
1 4
9 32 5 16 11 32
3 4
25 32
3 8
13 32 7 16 15 32
7 8
29 32
.1 .2 .3 .4 .5 .6 .7 .8 .9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45
.0039 .0079 .0118 .0158 .0197 .0236 .0276 .0315 .0354 .0394 .0787 .1181 .1575 .1969 .2362 .2756 .3150 .3543 .3937 .4331 .4724 .5118 .5512 .5906 .6299 .6693 .7087 .7480 .7874 .8268 .8661 .9055 .9449 .9843 1.0236 1.0630 1.1024 1.1417 1.1811 1.2205 1.2598 1.2992 1.3386 1.3780 1.4173 1.4567 1.4961 1.5354 1.5748 1.6142 1.6535 1.6929 1.7323 1.7717
46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 93 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100
1.8110 1.8504 1.8898 1.9291 1.9685 2.0079 2.0472 2.0866 2.1260 2.1654 2.2047 2.2441 2.2835 2.3228 2.3622 2.4016 2.4409 2.4803 2.5197 2.5591 2.5984 2.6378 2.6772 2.7165 2.7559 2.7953 2.8346 2.8740 2.9134 2.9528 2.9921 3.0315 3.0709 3.1102 3.1496 3.1890 3.2283 3.2677 3.3071 3.3465 3.3858 3.4252 3.4646 3.5039 3.5433 3.5827 3.6220 3.6614 3.7008 3.7402 3.7795 3.8189 3.8583 3.8976 3.9370
1 2
1mm = .03937
.001 = .0254mm
20
Table 17
WIRE GA.
150C TINNED COPPER 6.6 amps 9 13 17 22 34 43 55 76 96 120 143 160 186 215 251 288 332 365 414 461 495 563
3.3 amps 4.4 6 8 11 16 22 30 39 49 62 69 80 90 102 114 129 151 167 190 211 226 257
Table 18
To calculate temperature correction factors for ambient temperatures other than 40C (104F) multiply the current rating shown above by the factors shown in this table. Ambient Temp.C 41-50 51-60 61-70 71-80 81-90 91-100 101-120 121-140 141-160 161-180 200C 0.97 0.94 0.90 0.87 0.83 0.72 0.71 0.61 0.50 0.35 250C 0.98 0.95 0.93 0.90 0.87 0.85 0.79 0.71 0.65 0.58 450C .099 0.99 0.96 0.95 0.93 0.92 0.89 0.86 0.84 0.81 200C *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** 250C 0.49 0.35 *** *** *** *** *** *** *** 450C 0.78 0.74 0.69 0.65 0.60 0.55 0.49 0.42 0.34
21
Trigonometric Solutions
PYTHAGOREAN THEREOM a + b = c
TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
ANGLE A
c A a a sin A = c = cosec A 1 = cot A cos A = cos A tan A sin =
EXAMPLE: a = 3; b =4; c = 5 3 + 4 = 5 9 + 16 = 25
c a b
DEFINITIONS
opposite side hypotenuse b adjacent side = sin A cot A cos = hypotenuse c c
ANGLE B
B sin B = b c
c A b cos A =
b = c a tan A = b =
1 = sec A 1 cot A =
B a cos B =
a c
a A b
= sin A sec A
tan B =
b a
a A b c A b c A
b cot A = a =
1 tan A =
cos A sin A
cot B =
a b
c sec A = b =
1 = cos A
tan A sin A
B a
sec B =
c a
c cosec A = a =
1 = sin A
cot A cos A
c b
B cosec B =
c b
ANGLES c A
a c = sin A b c = cos A a b = tan A
AREA
B
a 2 b 2 c - a c - b ab 2 c sin A cos A 2 c sin B cos B 2 a cot A 2 a tan B 2 b tan A 2 b cot B 2
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
b b
c - b
a + b
c c
c sin A c cos B
a a
b b
90- B
90 - A
90 - A
b tan A b cot B
90- B
90 - A
90- B
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R1
ELEMENTS e E
R2
PARALLEL: One or more elements wired across two line wires. Element volts equal line volts. Total power is equal to sum of watts in each element. Line amps equal sum of current of each element.
SERIES: Two or more elements of equal resistance wired together and across line wires. Element volts equal line volts divided by number of elements. Total power is equal to sum of watts of elements. Line amps equal current thru each element.
DELTA (30): Three elements or groups of elements wired in a triangle(Delta). Total power is: W = 1.73 x I where E is volts between any two lines and I is current in any one line. Power in each side of delta is 1/3 of total. Volts across each element is full line volts. Current thru each elements i = E / R.
STAR or WYE (30): Three elements or groups of elements wired in a wye (Y). Total power is: W = 1.73 x I, where E is volts between any two lines and I is current in any one line. Volts across each element (volts to neutral) is e = E/1.73. Current thru each element is same as each line wire.
HEATER ELEMENT VALUES (formulas and symbols) VOLTS (e) AMPS (i) line volts (E) element Ohms (Rn) line Amps (I) line Amps (I) 1.73 line Amps (I) WATTS (W) RESISTANCE (R)
line volts (E) line volts (E) # of elements line volts (E) E /1.73
E/ i
e/i
E / i and E/1.73 x I e x i and E/1.73 x I
480 V
480 V
L2
480 V ELEMENTS
480 V
L2
480 V L1 L1
480 V
Example of re-connecting from 3-phase delta to 3-phase wye for lower wattage.
These wiring configurations are provided to assist in the wiring of the heating elements in parallel, series & 3-phase (Delta or Wye).
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FOR
ELECTRIC HEATERS
When selecting wiring for electric heater circuits, it should be recognized that wiring may be operating at temperatures above room ambient. These temperatures may be the result of conducted heat from heater terminals, radiation from heater surfaces, or due to high ambient temperatures. In high temperature areas, wiring must employ high-temperature insulation and/or nickel plated copper or high temperature nickel alloy conductors. Outside the heated zone, conventional wiring methods and materials are generally used. The recommendations which follow are only suggestions for minimum good wiring practice and are not to conflict with the National Electric Code or local codes.
The table below lists some of the more common code wire constructions according to their temperature capabilities. A more complete listing may be found in current issues of the National Electric Code on good wiring practice. Selection of type of wire will be dependent upon operating temperature and electric service voltage to be employed.
EXPLOSION-PROOF WIRING
Where hazardous conditions exist, approved explosion-proof terminal and junction boxes should be used. M1 cable or rigid conduit is mandatory and thread joints should be wrench tight but need not be sealed (refer to NEC).
CENTIGRADE FAHRENHEIT
Construction
Thermoplastic over copper Moisture resistant thermoplastic over copper Moisture and heat-resist rubber Moisture and heat-resist thermoplastic over copper Heat-resistant rubber over copper Heat-resistant thermoplastic over copper Teflon over copper Silicone rubber & glass braid over copper Teflon tape with teflon impregnated glass braid over nickel plated copper Teflon tape with silicone impregnated impregnated glass braid over nickel plated copper Mica tape with silicone impregnated glass braid over nickel plated copper Mica tape with teflon impregnated glass braid over nickel plated copper
Use 600 V wire Use 600 V wire HighTemperature Applications 250 482 Use 600 V wire
450
842
MGS MGT
594
1100
Bare manganese nickel wire or bus bar with ceramic tube or bead insulation.
FOR
ELECTRIC HEATERS
THERMOCOUPLES
Insulation Color Coded White Yellow Blue Purple Black Black Orange
(-)
Alloys Iron Constantan Chromel/Alumel Copper/Constantan Chromel/Constantan Platinum/Platinum (with 13% Rodium) Platinum/Platinum (with10% Rodium) Nicrosil/Nisil
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Controller
25
3-phase contactor
L1 L2 T1 L1 L2 L3
Vac power
Controller
Internal Power Source Limit T1 4-20mA -+ T2 T2 Inductors Delta
Heater load
L1 L2 T1 L1 L2 L3
Vac power
Controller
Internal Power Source 4-20mA -+ T2 T2 Inductors Limit T1 Wye
Heater load
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ELECTROMECHANICAL CONTACTOR
The electromechanical contactor, or mechanical relay is an electrical and mechanical device with moving parts. When power is applied to the relay solenoid, contact closure is created through movement of the relays common contact.
Contacts
Field Coil
Mercury Displacement Relays have completely encapsulated contacts that rely on mechanical movement to function. The contacts do not wear, due to the mercury within the capsule. Mercury does not pit and burn like metal. Mercury displacement relays emit a barely audible noise when switching.
In-put electrode
Plunger
The Mercury Displacement Relay utilizes the best features of both the electromechanical relay and the solid state relay. The primary advantages of the electromechanical relay is its ability to switch considerable amounts of power at a low cost, coupled with the long life characteristics of a solid state relay. While the electromechanical relay costs less, the MDR will provide the long life desired. The Mercury Displacement Relay is rated to operate at full load for up to fifteen million cycles, giving it extended life comparable to solid state relays.
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Most power controls can accept two types of input signals: time proportioned (or ON/OFF) and process signals(either 4-20 mA or 1-5VDC) from any temperature control. SCRs accepting time proportioned (or ON/OFF) signals are called power contactors.
SCRs accepting process signals ( 420mA or 1-5VDC ) are called power controls. They control the power by two methods of firing, phase angle and zero cross (burst) firing. The primary advantages of SCR power controls are lack of moving parts, long life, improved controllability, very large current handling capability, and input signal flexibility.
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Glossary
AC -- An electric current that reversed Celsius -- Formerly know as centigrade. DIN -- Deutsche Industrial Norm. A set
its direction of flow at regularly recurring A temperature scale with waters ice point intervals. at 0C and its boiling point at 100C at standard atmospheric pressure. The forAlumel -- An aluminum nickel alloy mula for conversion to the Fahrenheit used in the negative leg of a Type K scale is: F = (1.8 x C) + 32 thermocouple. This a trademark of the Hoskins Manufacture Company. Chromel -- A chromium-nickel alloy which makes up the positive leg of Type K Ambient Temperature -- The tem- and E thermocouples. This is a registered perature of air or other medium sur- trademark of the Hoskins Manufacturing rounding the components of thermal company. system. Pertaining to instruments, it is the temperature they are exposed to Conduction -- The mode of heat transinside the control panel. fer within a substance or by solids in direct contact with each other when a Ampere (amp, current) -- A unit that temperature difference exists. defines the rate of charge flow in a circuit. Amp units are equal to one Constantan -- A copper-nickel alloy coulomb per second. used as the negative lead in Type E, J, and T thermocouples. Annealing -- The process of heating a material just below its heat distortion Convection -- The mode of heat transpoint to relieve stresses. fer associated with conduction in which heat is transferred from a higher temperaANSI -- The American National ture region in a liquid to a lower temperature region as a result of movement of Standard Institute. masses of the fluid. ASME -- The American Society of Mechanical Engineers. C - UL -- Underwriters Laboratory testing certification covering CSA (Canadian ASTM -- The American Society for Standard Association). Testing and Materials. CSA -- Canadian Standard Association. Atmospheric pressure -- The pressure exerted by the atmosphere. DC (Direct Current) -- An electrical curStandard atmospheric pressure is 14.7 rent flowing in one direction. psia ( 1 atmosphere) at sea level and 60F. Delta -- An electrical network where loads are connected directly between the AWG -- American Wire Gauge stan- three phases. dards. Density -- Mass per unit volume of a BTU -- British Thermal Unit. A unit of substance usually expressed in lbs/ft3 or energy defined as the amount of heat grams/cm3. Also known as specific require to raise 1 lb of water form 32F weight. Density remains nearly constant at standard atmospheric pressure. for solids and most liquids under ordinary OneBTU is equal to 0.293 watt-hours. conditions of temperature and pressure. One kilowatt-hour is equal to 3412 Gas density changes with temperature and its reference is taken of standard conBTUs. dition of 60F/15C and standard atmosCalibration -- The act of adjusting an pheric pressure. instrument to a know value. This value may be a physical traceable to an inter- Dielectric -- A material with low electrinational standard. cal conductivity, commonly called an electrical insulator. of technical/scientific and dimensional standards developed by an organization in Germany. Many DIN standards have worldwide recognition.
Fahrenheit -- The temperature scale defined with an ice point for water at 32F and a boiling point of 212F at standard atmospheric pressure. The formula for conversion to Celsius is: C = 5/9 (F - 32) Ground -- An electrical line having the
same electrical potential as the surrounding earth. Grounding an electrical system is usually employed to protect people and equipment from shocks due to malfunctions. Also referred as safety ground.
Ground Junction -- A type of thermocouple probe construction where the hot, or measuring junction, is an integral part of the sheath material. No electrical isolation is provided on a grounded junction.
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Mega -- A prefix meaning million. The high voltage to a conductor to assure symbol is M. the integrity of the surrounding insulation. MgO -- The chemical symbol for magnesium oxide which is a good conductor of Hydroscopic -- Describes a materi- heat and a good electrical insulator. al that absorbs moisture. ID -- Abbreviation for inside diameter.
ampere.
Relay, Electromechanical -- A
power switching device that completes or interrupts a circuit by physically moving electrical contacts into contact with each other. Also called relay.
Relay, Mercury Displacement -- A Milliamp (mA) -- One thousandth of an power switching device using mercury,
when displaced by a plunger, to complete the electric circuit across contacts.
Infrared -- An area in the electromag- Microvolt (V) -- One millionth of a volt. netic spectrum range from 1 to 1000 Relay, Solid State -- A solid state microns. Heat is transferred in this Millivolt (mV) -- One thousandth of a switching device that completes or range. interrupts an electric circuit with no volt. moving parts (see SSR.) Kelvin (K) -- an absolute temperature NEMA -- The National Electrical scale. Zero Kelvin is absolute zero -- Manufacturers Association. Resistance -- Opposition to the flow the temperature where all molecular of electric current measured in ohms. activity stops. No degree symbol () is NPT -- The National Pipe Thread used with the Kelvin scale. (0C = standards. RTD -- Resistive Temperature 273.15 K, 100 = 373.15 K) Detector. A temperature sensor whose OD -- Abbreviation for outside diameter. resistance increases with increasing temperature in a known manner. Kilowatt (KW) -- Electrical unit of power equal to 1000 watts or 3412 PID -- Proportional, Integral, Derivative. A Platinum is the most commonly used in BTUs per hour when the power factor control mode with three functions. RTD material. equals 1.0. Proportional action dampens the system response, integral corrects for droop, SCFM -- Standard volumetric flow rate Kilowatt Hour (KWH) -- Electrical unit derivative seeks to prevent overshoot and in cubic feet per minute. Normally used for gases and vapors, this value is evalof energy, or work, expended by one undershoot. uated at standard condition of kilowatt in one hour. Also expressed as 1000 watt hours. Polarity -- The electrical quality of hav- 60F/15C and standard atmospheric ing two opposite poles, one positive and pressure. Laminar Flow -- A condition where one negative. Polarity determines the the plastic resin moves in continuos direction in which a current tends to flow. SCR -- Silicon Controlled Rectifier. A parallel paths. solid state device, or thyristor, having Positive Temperature Coefficient -- no moving parts, that when used in Linearity -- The deviation in response A resistance increase occurring with a pairs, controls AC voltages within one from an expected or theoretical straight temperature increase (see RTD or cycle. SCRs control voltage from a power source to the load by burst (zero line value for instruments and transduc- Thermistor). cross) or phase angle firing. ers. Pressure -- Force per unit area, usually Load -- The electrical demand expressed in pounds per square inch (psi) Sensor -- A device which detects the (expressed in power [watts], current temperature, pressure or other physical [amps] or resistance [ohms]) of a Pressure Drop -- The difference in property of a controlled media, and proprocess. pressure between any two points of a sys- vides an output signal to an automatic controller or switching mechanism. tem or component. Mass Flow Rate -- the amount of a substance flowing per unit of time past PSIA -- Pounds per square inch Set Point -- The desired value proa given cross-section area within a con- absolute. Pressure expressed in terms of grammed into a control. duit. its actual or absolute value with reference to a perfect vacuum. SI system of units -- A system of measurement adopted by the Eleventh Maximum Operating Temperature -- PSIA = PSIG + 14.7 psi (1 atmosphere) General Conference of Weights and The highest temperature at which a device can operate safely, or with PSIG -- Pounds per square inch gauge. Measures in 1960 and derived from the expected normal service life. Pressure expressed in therms of a value metric system. This system is called Le Systems International dUnites (abbreviread directly from installed gauges. ated SI) Maximum Power Rating -- The PSIG = PSIA - 14.7 psi ( 1 atmosphere) maximum operating power a device can handle without danger or a shortened Radiation -- The process of emitting operating life. radiant energy in the form of waves or particles (see Emissivity and Infrared).
30
Soft Start -- A method of using phase Thermocouple -- A temperature sensangle control to gradually increase the output power over a period of several seconds. Used for heaters with a low electrical resistance when cold or for limiting in-rush current to inductive loads. ing device constructed by joining tow dissimilar metals. This junction produces an electrical voltage in proportion to the difference in temperature between the hot junction and the lead wire connection to the sensing device (cold junction).
Volt/Voltage (V) -- The unit of electromotive force (EMF), the difference in electrical potential between two points in a circuit, Its the push or pressure behind current flow through a circuit. One volt is the difference in potential required to move one coulomb of charge between two points in a circuit consuming one joule of energy. Expressed another way, one volt (V) is equal to one ampere of current (I) flowing through one ohm of resistance (R), or V = IR.
Watt Density -- The power produced in watts per unit surface area of heater . It indicates the potential for a surface to transmit heat energy and is expressed in W/in2. Ratings for heating elements and surface heat loss factors are expressed using this value. Wye -- An electrical connection when
one end of three loads is connected together and the other end to one each of the three phases of a power supply.
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C E L E B R AT I N G 5 0
YEARS OF EXCELLENCE
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