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Embedded Systems
Embedded Systems
CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the seminar report titled EMBEDDED SYSTEMS submitted by RAJAT M !A" A#AR$A% and &A$A" 'AT!(R)A is a bonafide *or+ done by her under our super,ision is e-cellent.
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AC#NOWLEDGEMENT
)nterdependence is a hi/her ,alue than independence. The satisfaction that accompanies the successful completion of any tas+ *ould be incomplete *ithout the mention of people0 *ho made it possible0 *hose constant /uidance and encoura/ement cro*ned our efforts of success. 1irst and foremost0 *e than+ Almi/hty for all !is blessin/s !e sho*ered on us. ) e-press my deep sense of /ratitude and sincere than+s to Mr.M$%&' ()'*% *ithout *hose contribution ) *ould be not able to complete this report on 2EMBEDDED SYSTEMS3. ) *ould li+e to e-press my heartfelt /ratitude to all Teachers and Staffs of R.D. En/ineerin/ 4olle/e for their +ind co5operation . ) also e-tend my than+s to all my friends for their moral support and encoura/ement. %ast but not the least *e than+ our parents and benefactors *ho inspired us al*ays to do my best.
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ABSTRACT
Many embedded systems ha,e substantially different desi/n constraints than des+top computin/ applications. "o sin/le characteri6ation applies to the di,erse spectrum of embedded systems. !o*e,er0 some combination of cost pressure0 lon/ life5cycle0 real5time re7uirements0 reliability re7uirements0 and desi/n culture dysfunction can ma+e it difficult to be successful applyin/ traditional computer desi/n methodolo/ies and tools to embedded applications. Embedded systems in many cases must be optimi6ed for life5cycle and business5dri,en factors rather than for ma-imum computin/ throu/hput. There is currently little tool support for e-pandin/ embedded computer desi/n to the scope of holistic embedded system desi/n. !o*e,er0 +no*in/ the stren/ths and *ea+nesses of current approaches can set e-pectations appropriately0 identify ris+ areas to tool adopters0 and su//est *ays in *hich tool builders can meet industrial needs.
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CONTENTS
)ntroduction 9ariety of embedded systems 4lassification Autonomous systems Realtime embedded systems "et*or+ed embedded systems Mobile /ad/ets !ard*are (MS !ard*are $atchdo/ timers
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INTRODUCTION
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somethin/ beneath the sheath that ma+es them do *hat they do. These are tiny microprocessors0 *hich respond to ,arious +eystro+es or inputs. These tiny microprocessors0 *or+in/ on basic assembly lan/ua/es0 are the heart of the appliances. $e call them embedded systems. f all the semiconductor industries0 the embedded systems mar+et place
is the most conser,ati,e0 and en/ineerin/ decisions here usually lean to*ards established0 lo* ris+ solutions. $elcome to the *orld of embedded systems0 of computers that *ill not loo+ li+e computers and *ont function li+e any thin/ *e are familiar *ith. As the name si/nifies0 an embedded system is built into a noncomputin/ de,ice0 say a car0 T9 or toy. $e can define an embedded system as 2a computin/ de,ice0 built in to a de,ice that is not a computer0 and meant for doin/ specific computin/ tas+s3. )n /eneral en/ineerin/ terms0 embedded systems are used for the control of industrial or physical processes. )n computer science terms0 embedded systems are distributed reacti,e systems. Typically these systems ha,e to react to stimuli from their en,ironment in real time. This can be of hi/h importance in situations *here a lot of si/nal
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&4 En/inesH A%)I.;4 Mini5)TI embedded board *ith an -DA AMD #eode %I D<< to/ether *ith 4ompact 1lash0 mini&4) and &4) slots0 ??5pin )DE interface0 audio0 (SB and =@AMB RAM An embedded RouterBoard ;;= *ith (.1%5RSMA pi/tail and R@= mini&4) $i51i card *idely used by *ireless )nternet ser,ice pro,iders E$)S&sF in the 46ech Republic. Embedded systems span all aspects of modern life and there are many e-amples of their use. Telecommunications systems employ numerous embedded systems from telephone s*itches for the net*or+ to mobile phones at the end5user. 4omputer net*or+in/ uses dedicated routers and net*or+ brid/es to route data. 4onsumer electronics include personal di/ital assistants E&DAsF0 mp> players0 mobile phones0 ,ideo/ame consoles0 di/ital cameras0 D9D players0 #&S recei,ers0 and printers. Many household appliances0 such as micro*a,e o,ens0 *ashin/ machines and dish*ashers0 are includin/ embedded systems to pro,ide fle-ibility0 efficiency and features. Ad,anced !9A4 systems use net*or+ed thermostats to more accurately and efficiently control
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loc+ bra+in/ system EABSF0 Electronic Stability 4ontrol EES4CES&F0 traction control ET4SF and automatic four5*heel dri,e. Medical e7uipment is continuin/ to ad,ance *ith more embedded systems for ,ital si/ns monitorin/0 electronic stethoscopes for amplifyin/ sounds0 and ,arious medical ima/in/ E&ET0 S&E4T0 4T0 MR)F for non5in,asi,e internal inspections. Embedded systems are especially suited for use in transportation0 fire safety0 safety and security0 medical applications and life critical systems as these systems can be isolated from hac+in/ and thus be more reliable. 1or fire safety0 the systems can be desi/ned to be ha,e
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Embedded systems are di,ided into autonomous0 realtime0 net*or+ed B mobile cate/ories.
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N,-6$r7,2 ,01,22,2 (.(-,0(: They monitor plant parameters such as temperature0 pressure and humidity and send the data o,er the net*or+ to a centrali6ed system for on line monitorin/.
M$1)3, *&2*,-(: Mobile /ad/ets need to store databases locally in their memory. These /ad/ets imbibe po*erful computin/ B communication capabilities to perform realtime as *ell as nonrealtime tas+s and handle multimedia applications. The embedded system is a combination of computer hard*are0 soft*are0 firm*are and perhaps additional mechanical parts0 desi/ned to perform a specific function. A /ood e-ample is an automatic *ashin/ machine or a micro*a,e o,en. Such a system is in direct contrast to a personal computer0 *hich is not desi/ned to do only a specific tas+. But an
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#ood soft*are desi/n in embedded systems stems from a /ood understandin/ of the hard*are behind it. All embedded systems need a microprocessor0 and the +inds of microprocessors used in them are 7uite ,aried. A list of some of the common microprocessors families areK The Lilo/ LD family0 )ntel D<@;CIDA family0 Motorola AD' family and the po*er &4 family. 1or processin/ of information and e-ecution of pro/rams0 embedded system incorporates microprocessor or micro5 controller. )n an embedded system the microprocessor is a part of final product and is not a,ailable for repro/rammin/ to the end user. An embedded system also needs memory for t*o purposes0 to store its pro/ram and to
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A common obstacle for de,elopers has been the need to de,elop different sets of hard*are and soft*are for different de,ices. An intelli/ent *ashin/ machine uses a hard*are chip different from that used by an intelli/ent *rist *atch. )n addition0 the soft*are runnin/ on the hard*are chip is different. This often results in increased costs and time ta+en for de,elopment. The (ni,ersal Micro SystemE(MSF from cradle technolo/ies is a solution for this problem. (MS is a /eneral purpose chip built around a simple instruction set. )t can be used to de,elop applications for embedded de,ices because all the functionality re7uired for a specific de,ice can be modeled in the soft*are. Since the maMor functionality pro,ided in
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WATCHDOG TIMERS:
*atchdo/ timer that resets the computer unless the soft*are periodically notifies the *atchdo/ subsystems *ith redundant spares that can be s*itched o,er to soft*are Glimp modesG that pro,ide partial function Desi/nin/ *ith a Trusted 4omputin/ Base ET4BF architectureNAO ensures a hi/hly secure B reliable system en,ironment. An Embedded !yper,isor is able to pro,ide secure encapsulation for any subsystem component0 so that a compromised soft*are component cannot interfere *ith other subsystems0 or pri,ile/ed5le,el system soft*are. This encapsulation +eeps faults from
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PROGI/O P R O G I P R O G I P R O G I PROG I/O EMBEDDED SYSTEMS CLOCKS, DEB G NVMEM DRAM CONTROL S S S S M M M M
PROGI/O
PROGI/O P M M M M R O G S S S I P R O G
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PROG I/O
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Embedded soft*are has /ro*n comple- and per,asi,e enou/h to attract the attention of computer scientists. Embedded soft*ares main tas+ is to en/a/e the physical *orld interactin/ directly *ith sensors B actuators. The most pressin/ problem is ho* to adapt e-istin/ soft*are techni7ues to meet the challen/es of the physical *orld. Soft*are for embedded systems must handle problems beyond those found in application soft*are for des+tops or mainframe computers. Embedded soft*are often has se,eral thin/s to do at once 5 respond to e-ternal e,ents0 cope *ith unusual conditions *ithout human inter,ention *hile bein/ subMected to deadlines. So embedded soft*are is harder to desi/n. Embedded systems are increasin/ly net*or+ed *hich introduced si/nificant complications such as do*nloadable modules that dynamically reconfi/ure the system. Moreo,er0 consumers demand e,er more elaborate functionality *hich /reatly increases soft*are comple-ity. These systems can no lon/er be desi/ned by a sin/le en/ineer0 fine tunin/ tens of +ilobytes of assembly code. Embedded soft*are desi/n is art as much as it is science. $e must +no* ho* fast our system
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#ate*ay )nitiati,eE S#)F 0 a Ma,a based system that combines ser,ices *ith e,ent on security mechanisms0 is definin/ a set of open standard soft*are application interfaces for buildin/ pen Ser,ice #ate*ays includin/ Residential #ate*ays . Embedded #raphical (ser )nterfaces E#()F are /ro*in/ more elaborate day by day. De,elopers no* ha,e to contend *ith such arcana as a color pallet. )n some applications0 an embedded #() has to compete *ith mechanical controls. )n lu-ury cars0 for e./0 #raphical displays are startin/ to replace mechanical speedo meters and tacho meters.9isuali6ation tools are desi/ned to find bu/s that are hard to find *ith theusual 2 Brea+point and e-plore 2 debu//in/ paradi/m. They *or+ beautifully on 2 !eisenber/ bu/s 2 Q so called because they disappear *hen *e start loo+in/ for them.
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RTOS:
To run any soft*are *e need operatin/ system. Embedded systems do not re7uire a complete operatin/ system0 *hich may ma+e the system bul+y0 but only the basic functionalities of the operatin/ system in a real time en,ironment Q RT S. ff5the5shelf
operatin/ systems for these systems be/an to appear in the late ;:8<s0 and today se,eral do6en ,iable options are a,ailable.Embedded operatin/ systems are a,ailable in ,ariety of fla,oursK $indo*s "T0 %)"(I0 $indo*s 4E >.<0 &alm S0 R"I0 R MD S0 JBED0 RT +ernel0 Tiny B) S0 Turbo tas+0 "ucleus plusCTas+in/0 Diamond0ThreadI ESTUVF etc. ut of these 0 a fe* maMor players ha,e emer/ed 0 such as 9-*or+s0 &S S0 neculeus0 *indo*s 4E0
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Embedded Databases are in soft*are applications and in hard*are de,ices0 both mobile and fi-ed. The purpose of Embedded Database is data stora/e and retrie,al *ith minimum inter,ention and minimum system impact. The rapid increase in the number of Telecomputers0 the e-plosi,e /ro*th of E5commerce and /eneral mi/ration to *ireless technolo/ies ha,e put Embedded Database de,elopment on the )T short list. )n a *orld of mobile computers and smart de,ices 0 si6e matters because memory and stora/e are ,ery limited. A +ey factor is a small memory foot print. Embedded database ,endors and de,elopers tend to focus on smallness of their achie,ements. Sybases (ltra %ite0 a ,ersion of SR% *hich is any *here portable database has a foot print of @< +ilobytes.
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Many authors use soft*are and firm*are in the same sense. Actually firm*are consists of microcode pro/rams e-ecuted from ,ery hi/h speed control stora/e. 4ommonly used obMect pro/rams placed in R Ms and &R Ms are also some times referred to as firm*are. The problem *ith any approach to the field firm*are updates is that if the up/rade contains a fla*0 the tar/et system may become an e-pensi,e doorstop. Many of the pitfalls are ob,ious and strai/ht for*ard0 but some insidious defects dont appear until after a product has been deployed. Any *ell desi/ned firm*are up/rade system must be able to reco,er from user errors and other catastrophic e,ents to the fullest e-tent possible. The best *ay to accomplish this is to implement a fundamentally sound firm*are update strate/y that a,oids these problems entirely. A micropro/rammer is a system le,el description of ho* an embedded system behe,es before0 durin/ and after the firm*are update process. This is
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DE+EL"OMENT CYCLE
Re7uirement analysis
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Durin/ this part of the desi/n process0 the informal re7uirements of the analysis are transformed to formal specification usin/ SD%.
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1or performin/ an automatic !$CS$ partitionin/0 the system synthesis step translates the SD% specification to an internal system model s*itch contains problem /raphB architecture /raph. After system synthesis0 the resultin/ system model is translated bac+ to SD%.
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SD% specification is then translated into con,entional implementation lan/ua/es such as 9!D% for hard*are modules and 4 for soft*are parts of the system.
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Embedded systems are findin/ their *ay into robotic toys and electronic pets0 intelli/ent cars and remote controllable home appliances. All the maMor toy ma+ers across the *orld ha,e been comin/ out *ith ad,anced interacti,e toys that can become our friends for life. 1urby and A)B are /ood e-amples at this +ind. 1urbies ha,e a distinct life cycle Must li+e human bein/s0 startin/ from bein/ a baby and /ro*in/ to an adult one. )n A)B first t*o letters
stands for Artificial )ntelli/ence. "e-t t*o letters represents robot . The A)B is robotic do/. Embedded systems in cars also +no*n as Telematic Systems are used to pro,ide na,i/ational security communication B entertinment ser,ices usin/ #&S0 satellite. !ome appliances are
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CATEGORIES
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autobody electronics0 auto po*er train0 auto safety0 car information systems.
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Analo/ modems0 ATM s*itches0 cable modems0 IDS% modems0 Ethernet s*itches0 concentrators.
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4opiers0 di/ital still cameras0 1a- machines0 printers0 scanners.
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Dia/nostic de,ices0 real time medical ima/in/ systems0 sur/ical de,ices0 critical care systems.
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Embedded ser,ers0 enterprise &4 ser,ers0 &4) %A"C")4 controllers0 RA)D de,ices0 S4S) de,ices.
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ATM communication products0 base stations0 net*or+in/ s*itches0
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ne of the first reco/ni6ably modern embedded systems *as the Apollo #uidance 4omputer0 de,eloped by 4harles Star+ Draper at the M)T )nstrumentation %aboratory. At the proMectHs inception0 the Apollo /uidance computer *as considered the ris+iest item in the Apollo proMect as it employed the then ne*ly de,eloped monolithic inte/rated circuits to reduce the si6e and *ei/ht. An early mass5produced embedded system *as the Autonetics D5;8 /uidance computer for the Minuteman missile0 released in ;:A;. )t *as built from transistor lo/ic and had a hard dis+ for main memory. $hen the Minuteman )) *ent into production in ;:AA0 the D5;8 *as replaced *ith a ne* computer that *as the first hi/h5,olume use of inte/rated circuits. This pro/ram alone reduced prices on 7uad nand /ate )4s from T;<<<Ceach to T>Ceach0 permittin/ their use in commercial products. Since these early applications in the ;:A<s0 embedded systems ha,e come do*n in price and there has been a dramatic rise in processin/ po*er and functionality. The first microprocessor
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CHARACTERISTICS
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#umsti- ,ero 4 M0 a tiny0 MA&5based embedded computer5on5module *ith $ifi and Bluetooth.
;. Embedded systems are desi/ned to do some specific tas+0 rather than be a /eneral5purpose computer for multiple tas+s. Some also ha,e real5time performance constraints that must be met0 for reasons such as safety and usabilityW others may ha,e lo* or no performance re7uirements0 allo*in/ the system hard*are to be simplified to reduce costs. =. Embedded systems are not al*ays standalone de,ices. Many embedded systems consist of small0 computeri6ed parts *ithin a lar/er de,ice that ser,es a more /eneral purpose. 1or e-ample0 the #ibson Robot #uitar features an embedded system for tunin/ the strin/s0 but the o,erall purpose of the Robot #uitar is0 of course0 to play music.N@O Similarly0 an embedded system in an automobile pro,ides a specific function as a subsystem of the car itself.
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>. The pro/ram instructions *ritten for embedded systems are referred to as firm*are0 and are stored in read5only memory or 1lash memory chips. They run *ith limited computer hard*are resourcesK little memory0 small or non5e-istent +eyboard andCor screen.
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As *ith other soft*are0 embedded system desi/ners use compilers0 assemblers0 and debu//ers to de,elop embedded system soft*are. !o*e,er0 they may also use some more specific toolsK (tilities to add a chec+sum or 4R4 to a pro/ram0 so the embedded system can chec+ if the pro/ram is ,alid. 1or systems usin/ di/ital si/nal processin/0 de,elopers may use a math *or+bench such as Scilab C Scicos0 MAT%AB C Simulin+0 E)4AS%AB0 Math4ad0 Mathematica0or 1lo*Stone DS& to simulate the mathematics. They mi/ht also use libraries for both the host and tar/et *hich eliminates de,elopin/ DS& routines as done in DS&nano RT S and (nison peratin/ System.
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DEBUGGING
Embedded debu//in/ may be performed at different le,els0 dependin/ on the facilities a,ailable. 1rom simplest to most sophisticated they can be rou/hly /rouped into the follo*in/ areasK )nteracti,e resident debu//in/0 usin/ the simple shell pro,ided by the embedded operatin/ system Ee./. 1orth and BasicF
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RELIABILITY
Embedded systems often reside in machines that are e-pected to run continuously for years *ithout errors0 and in some cases reco,er by themsel,es if an error occurs. Therefore the soft*are is usually de,eloped and tested more carefully than that for personal computers0 and unreliable mechanical mo,in/ parts such as dis+ dri,es0 s*itches or buttons are a,oided. Specific reliability issues may includeK The system cannot safely be shut do*n for repair0 or it is too inaccessible to repair. E-amples include space systems0 undersea cables0 na,i/ational beacons0 bore5hole systems0 and automobiles. The system must be +ept runnin/ for safety reasons. G%imp modesG are less tolerable. ften
bac+ups are selected by an operator. E-amples include aircraft na,i/ation0 reactor control systems0 safety5critical chemical factory controls0 train si/nals0 en/ines on sin/le5en/ine aircraft.
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A nonpreempti,e multitas+in/ system is ,ery similar to the simple control loop scheme0 e-cept that the loop is hidden in an A&). The pro/rammer defines a series of tas+s0 and each tas+ /ets its o*n en,ironment to 2run3 in. $hen a tas+ is idle0 it calls an idle routine0 usually called 2pause30 2*ait30 2yield30 2nop3 Estands for no operationF0 etc. The ad,anta/es and disad,anta/es are ,ery similar to the control loop0 e-cept that addin/ ne* soft*are is easier0 by simply *ritin/ a ne* tas+0 or addin/ to the 7ueue5interpreter. &reempti,e multitas+in/ or multi5threadin/ )n this type of system0 a lo*5le,el piece of code s*itches bet*een tas+s or threads based on a timer Econnected to an interruptF. This is the le,el at *hich the system is /enerally considered to ha,e an Goperatin/ systemG +ernel. Dependin/ on ho* much functionality is re7uired0 it
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operatin/ system +ernel allocates memory and s*itches the 4&( to different threads of e-ecution. (ser mode processes implement maMor functions such as file systems0 net*or+ interfaces0 etc. )n /eneral0 micro+ernels succeed *hen the tas+ s*itchin/ and intertas+ communication is fast0 and fail *hen they are slo*. E-o+ernels communicate efficiently by normal subroutine calls. The hard*are0 and all the soft*are in the system are a,ailable to0 and e-tensible by application pro/rammers.
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)n this case0 a relati,ely lar/e +ernel *ith sophisticated capabilities is adapted to suit an embedded en,ironment. This /i,es pro/rammers an en,ironment similar to a des+top
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They permit re5use of publicly a,ailable code for De,ice Dri,ers0 $eb Ser,ers0 1ire*alls0 and other code.
De,elopment systems can start out *ith broad feature5sets0 and then the distribution can be confi/ured to e-clude unneeded functionality0 and sa,e the e-pense of the memory that it *ould consume.
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1eatures re7uirin/ faster response than can be /uaranteed can often be placed in hard*are. Many RT S systems ha,e a per5unit cost. $hen used on a product that is or *ill become a commodity0 that cost is si/nificant.
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lin+ed is it to mo,e to the tar/et or the system that is shipped to the customers. After *ritin/ source file compilin/0 lin+in/0 relocatin/ and portin/ the e-ecutable ima/e into the R M0 you need to test and debu/ the application. nce you ha,e an e-ecutable ima/e
stored as a file on the host computer0 you need a *ay to do*nload that ima/e into a memory de,ice on the tar/et board or de,elopment board and e-ecute it from there. And if you ha,e the ri/ht tools at your disposal0 it *ill be possible to set brea+points in the pro/ram or set brea+ points in the pro/ram or obser,e its e-ecution. These ,arious tools could be a remote debu//er0 simulator0 emulator or an in5circuit emulator. A remote debu//er can be used to do*nload0 e-ecute0 and debu/ embedded soft*are o,er the serial port or net*or+ connection bet*een the host and the tar/et. )n case of embedded systems0 the debu//er e-ecutes on t*o different computer systems Q a remote debu//er consists of t*o pieces of soft*are. The front5end runs on the host computer and pro,ides the human interface0 and the hidden bac+5end runs on the tar/et processor and communicates
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Many embedded systems do not operate in a controlled en,ironment. E-cessi,e heat is often a problem0 especially in applications in,ol,in/ combustion Ee./.0 many transportation applicationsF. Additional problems can be caused for embedded computin/ by a need for protection from ,ibration0 shoc+0 li/htnin/0 po*er supply fluctuations0 *ater0 corrosion0 fire0 and /eneral physical abuse. 1or e-ample0 in the Mission 4ritical e-ample application the computer must function for a /uaranteed0 but brief0 period of time e,en under non5sur,i,able fire conditions.
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E,en thou/h embedded computers ha,e strin/ent re7uirements0 cost is almost al*ays an issue Ee,en increasin/ly for military systemsF. Althou/h desi/ners of systems lar/e and small may tal+ about the importance of cost *ith e7ual ur/ency0 their sensiti,ity to cost chan/es can ,ary dramatically. A reason for this may be that the effect of computer costs on profitability is more a function of the proportion of cost chan/es compared to the total system cost0 rather than compared to the di/ital electronics cost alone
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Most )A products may be deri,ed0 *ith little or some modifications0 from these four types of products.
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The set5top bo- is dri,in/ the di/ital re,olution ri/ht into your li,in/ room. Your fin/ertips no* command a *ealth of hi/h 7uality di/ital information and di/ital entertainment0 ri/ht from your fa,orite armchair. The set5top bo- re,olutioni6es home entertainment by pro,idin/ ,ibrant tele,ision ima/es *ith crystal clear sound0 alon/ *ith e5mail0 $eb surfin/0 alon/ *ith customi6ed information such as stoc+ 7uotes0 *eather and traffic updates0 on5line shoppin/0 and ,ideo5on5demand0 ri/ht throu/h a traditional tele,ision.
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R,()2,'-)&3 G&-,6&.
The R# mainly pro,ides ,arious +inds of interfaces that lin+ all the electronic de,ices. The R# unli+e the &40 is a ,ery small0 slim and li/ht piece of hard*are and may soon be incorporated inside other popular electronic appliances. )t *ill play the role of an information hub responsible for the e-chan/e of information bet*een all +inds of electronic de,ices in an ordinary home.
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CONCLUSION:
$e are standin/ on the threshold of an e-citin/ ne* a/e of information technolo/y that *ill chan/e our li,es and the future fore,er. Soon *e shall see more and more di/iti6ation of appliances0 and these *ill be fuelled by human need. Embedded systems and )nformation Appliances ha,e ,irtually entered e,ery sphere of our life and they *ill truly chan/e the *ay *e li,e. Embedded systems ha,e ,irtually entered e,ery sphere of our life0 ri/ht from the time *e *or+ out on tread mills to the cars that *e dri,e today. The possibilities in this field are only limited by our ima/ination.Many of the embedded systems are mana/ed by human controllers by some sort of man machine interface5for e-ample a cash re/ister0a cell phone0 a T9 screen or a &4 interface.)t is this MM) that often represents the most costly in,estment in the systems de,elopment0interms of both time and money.
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REFERENCES
N;O Embedded Systems &ro/rammin/. Miller 1reeman0 San 1rancisco0 )SS" ;<?<5>=8=.
N=O Daniel D. #aMs+i. 1ran+ 9ahid0 SanMi, "arayan B Jie #on/0 Specification and Desi/n of Embedded Systems. &TR &rentice !all0 En/le*ood 4liffs "J0 ;::?.
N>J Jac+ #anssle0 Art of pro/rammin/ Embedded Systems0 Academic &ress0 San Die/o. ;::=.
N?J Shem5To, %e,i B Asho+ A/ra*ala0 1ault Tolerant System Desi/n0 Mc#ra*!ill0 "e* Yor+0 ;::?.
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NDO $$$.S4R)BD.4 M
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